1

UNIT 1
Living Things and Their
Environment

Photo Credit: http://www.flyingfourchette.com/2013/05/25/around-ubud/

Suggested time allotment: 8 to 10 hours

Unit 1
MODULE

Respiratory and Circulatory Systems

Working with Other Organ Systems

Overview
Your body is a fascinating creation that can carry out incredible tasks and
activities. It is like a machine that is able to function with proper organization of parts
and systems. However, our bodies also require proper care and maintenance. It is just
fitting to keep going with a healthy lifestyle to ensure that each part is maintained
appropriately while getting the most out of it.
In the past, you were introduced to the different levels of organizations in the
human body and the mechanisms involved in it. You have learned that the human body
is composed of different systems, which are collections of cells, tissues, and organs,
each of which has a special job that keeps you alive. Whether you eat, play, dance,
sing, or sleep; each part of your organ systems performs particular functions. You also
discovered how the digestive system breaks down food to nourish your whole body.
Now, you will learn how the different structures of the circulatory and
respiratory systems work together to transport oxygen-rich blood and nutrients
to the different parts of the body. You will also understand the prevention,
detection, and treatment of diseases affecting the respiratory and circulatory
systems.
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. explain the mechanism on how the respiratory and circulatory systems work
together to transport nutrients, gases, and molecules to and from the different
parts of the body;
2. infer how ones lifestyle can affect the functioning of respiratory and
circulatory systems.
Respiratory system is made up of the organs in the body that help us to
breathe. Just remember that the word respiration is linked to breathing. Circulatory
system is responsible for distributing materials throughout the body. Take note that
circulation means transportation or movement in circles. Both systems are essentially
meant for each other. The common purpose could not be attained without the other
system.

In Module 1, you will be able to answer the following key questions:

How do the respiratory and circulatory systems work with each other?
How do the diseases in the circulatory and respiratory systems begin to develop?
How can a persons lifestyle affect the performance of the respiratory and
circulatory systems?

Pre-assessment
Direction: Fill in the K-W-H-L Chart below to assess your prior knowledge and
understanding of the topic, Respiratory and Circulatory Systems, Working with the
other Organ Systems.
K

What do I know?

What do I want to
find out?

How can I find out

what I want to learn?

What did I learn?

Skills I expect to use:

The Human Breathing System

Breathe in and out. Notice your chest and belly moving and feel the soft air passing from
the nose. Listen to the quiet sounds of breathing in and out. Imagine the air moving from the
nose into the throat, through the air tubes, and into the airsacs. The parts of the respiratory
system that are in charge of supplying oxygen are the nose, nasal passageways, windpipe,
lungs, and diaphragm. In the nose and nasal passages, the entering air is made warm, damp,
and clean of unknown particles. Next, the air moves down through the trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, and alveoli. Trachea is the empty tube that serves as passageway of air into the
lungs. Bronchi are the two branching tubes that connect the trachea to the lungs. Bronchioles
are the hairlike tubes that connect to the alveoli. Alveoli are the airsacs that allow gas
exchange in the lungs.
Perform the following simple activity to widen your understanding of the human
breathing system.

Activity 1
PART A

What a Bunch of Grapes!

Objective:
Identify the key parts of the breathing system

Materials:
Bunch of grapes
(or any other bunch of fruits or vegetables such as arosep or lato (seaweed), lanzones,
cauliflower, etc.)

Procedure:
1. Hold up the bunch of grapes. Let the bunch of grapes represent the breathing

system.

2. Within your group, locate the parts of the breathing system: the main stem as the

trachea, the large branching stems as the bronchi, and all the little stems as the
bronchioles. The individual grapes are the airsacs or alveoli.
3. One by one, gently take out some of the grapes to expose more of the branching
stems (bronchioles). Observe its structure.
4. Trace the pathway of oxygen using the Bunch of Grapes model. Note that air
moves from the nose (nasal cavity) and mouth (oral cavity) to the trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, and then into the alveoli (air sacs). The air we breathe
carries the gas oxygen. When we breathe, the oxygen goes to the lungs.

BRONCHI
TRACHEA

BRONCHIOLES
ALVEOLI

Figure 1. The bunch of grapes model of the breathing system

PART B

Objective:

Describe the function of each part of the breathing system

Procedure:
1. Refer to the diagram, and check your understanding of the breathing system by
labeling each part and giving its functions in the box corresponding to the part.

Figure 2. The human respiratory system

Guide Questions:
Q1. What does each part of the Bunch of Grapes model represent, in relation to the
breathing system?
______________________________________________________________________
Q2. How will you describe the pathway of oxygen in the breathing system?
______________________________________________________________________
Q3. What will happen if one part of the system fails to carry out its function properly?
______________________________________________________________________

KEY CONCEPTS
The air we breathe goes through the nose, nasal passages, and then
through the trachea or windpipe, which separates into two branches,
called bronchial tubes or bronchi, one entering each lung. The bronchi subdivide
many times inside the lungs, analogous to the branching pattern of grapes, finally
becoming hairlike tubes called bronchioles. In the last part of the terminal
bronchioles are tiny bubble-like bunch of structures called alveoli or airsacs.

Previously, you have already learned about the essential parts of the breathing
system and their functions. Now, you will understand the mechanism and activities of
the lungs and the diaphragm.
Have you experienced being in a jam-packed train? You almost certainly could
not wait to get out where there are fewer people so you could freely move. This is
analogous to the process that makes air move in and out of your lungs. The air
molecules are either crowded outside and tend to get into the lungs where there are
fewer air molecules (inhalation), or they tend to get outside because they are too
crowded inside the lungs (exhalation). When you breathe in, your diaphragm muscle
contracts downward and rib muscles pull upward causing air to fill up the lungs. Can
you explain why? Well, when your diaphragm goes lower and ribs shift up, they provide
more breathing space in your chest. This also reduces the force on your lungs so the air
will move in from the outside. Breathing out is a reverse process. Your diaphragm
loosens up and the ribs and lungs thrust in, causing the gas to be exhaled.

Activity 2

Bottled Balloons
Objectives:

Explain how the lungs work

Describe how the movement of the diaphragm helps the air go in and out
of the lungs

Materials:
1 two-liter empty plastic bottle
3 balloons (1 big, 2 small)

1 sturdy straw
5 rubber bands

1 pair of scissors

Procedure:
1. Using a pair of scissors, cut the bottom out of the 2-liter plastic bottle.

2. Create two holes that are apart from each other in the cap of the plastic bottle. Make
sure that each hole is just big enough for a straw to fit through.
3. Stick the two straws through the two holes of the bottle cap.
4. Place one balloon on the end of each straw, and secure them with rubber bands, as
shown in the figure below.

Figure 3. The two straws with the balloons are inserted into the plastic bottle cap.

5. Stick the balloon ends of the straws through the bottle opening and screw the lid on
tightly.
6. Stretch out the larger balloon and place it over the open bottom of the bottle. Secure
it with the rubber band as tightly as possible. Refer to the diagram of the finished lung
model below.

Figure 4. A constructed model of the human chest cavity

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5. Pull the larger balloon down; that is, away from the bottle, in order to blow up the two

small balloons.
6. Push the larger balloon towards the bottle in order to let the air out of the two small
balloons.
7. Write down your observations.

Guide Questions:
Q4. What does each part of the constructed lung model represent?
______________________________________________________________________
Q5. What happens as you pull down the balloon at the bottom of the model?
______________________________________________________________________
Q6. What happens as you push up the balloon?
______________________________________________________________________
Q7. How does the movement of the diaphragm cause the air to go in and out of the
lungs?
______________________________________________________________________
Q8. What might happen if you prick the balloon?
______________________________________________________________________

KEY CONCEPTS

When you breathe in, or inhale, the diaphragm muscle contracts. Inhaling moves
the diaphragm down and expands the chest cavity. Simultaneously, the ribs move up and
increase the size of the chest cavity. There is now more space and less air pressure inside
the lungs. Air pushes in from the outside where there is a higher air pressure. It pushes into
the lungs where there is a lower air pressure. When you breathe out, or exhale, the
diaphragm muscle relaxes. The diaphragm and ribs return to their original place. The chest
cavity returns to its original size. There is now less space and greater air pressure inside the
lungs. It pushes the air outside where there is lower air pressure.

Why do we believe that life is possible only on planets where oxygen is present?
Oxygen is necessary for life to exist. Without it, the cells in the body would not be able
to release the energy in food for power, and they would die within minutes. When you
inhale air, your respiratory system gets oxygen. When you exhale, carbon dioxide is
released. How do the respiratory and circulatory systems work together to carry out
their common purpose?

Perform the next activity to learn more about the gas exchange that takes place in
the respiratory and circulatory systems.

Activity 3

Just Go with the Flow!

Objectives:

Describe blood flow and gas exchange within the heart, circulatory system, and
lungs
Explain the mechanism of how the respiratory and circulatory systems work
together

Materials:
Paper strips
Marking pen

Rope or ribbon
Chalk

Source:
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill -

http://www.glencoe.com/sites/common_assets/health_fitness/gln_health_fitness_zone/pdf/heart
_rate_monitor_activities/the_heart/the_heart_activity_2.pdf

Procedure:
1. Perform the activity with your group mates (7-8 persons).
2. Assign and label different areas in the outdoor setting as: lungs, left atrium, left
ventricle, arteries, capillary, veins, right ventricle, and right atrium.
3. Using the marking pen, write down the word oxygen on as many paper strips as
you can and place them in the lung area. The capillary area should have papers
with carbon dioxide written on them.
4. Use the chalk to mark and define the different areas such as what is given in the
diagram below. Assign some members of your group to stand still on the different
marked areas.
Lung Area
Right Atrium

HEART Left Atrium

Right Ventricle
Veins

Left Ventricle

Capillary

Arteries

Figure 5. Illustration of the gas exchange activity

10

5. Choose two members from the group to take the trip around the different posts.
Let the partners start the tour in the lung area and together pick up a paper
labeled as oxygen from another member standing at his post. They should carry
the strip of paper to the heart, passing through the left atrium, and then to the left
ventricle. As the partners go to every station, they must leave a trail of rope or
ribbon held by another member in a designated area, until the path of the journey
is completely traced.
6. Partners must run along the chalk marks representing the arteries into the
capillary area.
7. Tell the partners to exchange the strip of paper representing oxygen for a piece
of paper representing carbon dioxide with a member in his designated area.
8. Make the partners run along the chalk marks representing the veins into the
heart area, first to the right ventricle, then to the right atrium.
9. The partners must then run back into the lung area where the process begins
again. When there are no more strips of paper, the activity is over. The leader
may want to keep placing new papers into designated areas to keep the game
going on longer.
10. After the activity, record your observations and answer the guide questions.

Guide Questions:
Q9. How do the heart and the lungs work together?
______________________________________________________________________
Q10. What takes place when you inhale and exhale?
______________________________________________________________________
Q11. What does blood deliver to every part of the body?
______________________________________________________________________
Q12. Why is oxygen important to your body?
______________________________________________________________________
Q13. How will you describe the sequence of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and blood flow in
your own words?
______________________________________________________________________

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ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
In the given framework of the human body below, illustrate the blood flow and
gas exchange in the respiratory and circulatory systems using diagrams and arrows.
Color your work to show the distinction of oxygen and carbon dioxide carried in the
blood.

KEY CONCEPTS
Air first enters your lungs and then into the left part of your heart. It is then driven by your
heart into the bloodstream, all the way through your body. The heart pumps blood, which
transports essential nutrients, oxygen, and other chemicals to every cell in your body. Once
it reaches the cells, oxygen processes the nutrients to release energy. Carbon dioxide is
given off during this process. The blood delivers carbon dioxide into the right portion of your
heart, from which it is pumped to the lungs. Carbon dioxide leaves your body through the
lungs when you exhale.

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The circulatory system is the life

support structure that nourishes your cells with
nutrients from the food you eat and oxygen
from the air you breathe.

It can be compared

to a complex arrangement of highways,

avenues and lanes connecting all the cells
together into a neighborhood. Sequentially, the
community of cells sustains the body to stay
alive. Another name for the circulatory system
is the cardiovascular system.
The circulatory system functions with
other

body

systems

to

deliver

different

materials in the body. It circulates vital

elements such as oxygen and nutrients. At the
same time, it also transports wastes away from
the body.

Figure 6. The human circulatory system

The following are the three major parts of the circulatory system, with their roles:
1. Heart pumps the blood throughout the body
2. Blood vessel carries the blood throughout the body
Arteries - carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the cells,
tissues and organs of the body
Veins - carry deoxygenated blood to the heart
Capillaries - the smallest blood vessels in the body, connecting the
smallest arteries to the smallest veins
- the actual site where gases and nutrients are exchanged
3. Blood carries the materials throughout the body

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CIRCULATION
TYPE OF CIRCULATION

1. Pulmonary Circulation

DESCRIPTION

DIAGRAM

Movement of blood from

the heart, to the lungs, and
back to the heart

sln.fi.edu/biosci/systems/ pulmonary.html

2. Coronary Circulation

Movement of blood
through the tissues of the
heart

sln.fi.edu/biosci/systems/ pulmonary.html

3. Systemic Circulation

Movement of blood from

the heart to the rest of the
body, excluding the lungs

sln.fi.edu/biosci/systems/ pulmonary.html

14

Activity 4

Lets Organize!
Objectives:

Identify the components of the circulatory system

Explain the different types of circulation

Procedure:
Using the given graphic organizer, fill in the missing parts, description, and
functions to complete the entire concept.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Parts

Blood
Vessel

Carries
the materials
throughout the body

Pumps the blood

throughout the
body

Types

CIRCULATION

Types
Systemic
Circulation

Movement of blood through

the tissues of the heart

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The Human Heart

Do you know how big your heart is? Take a
look at your fist. The heart is a hollow muscle, as
seen in Figure 7, which is just as big as your fist. It
has four chambers with specific tasks to do: two
ventricles and two atria. The atria are the receiving
chambers of the heart, accepting blood from the
body (right atrium) and from the lungs (left atrium).
The ventricles are the pumping chambers, moving
blood to the lungs (right ventricle) and into the
body (left ventricle).

Photo Credit:
Alexanderpiavas134
(Public Domain)

Figure 7. Photo of an actual human heart

The heart has two pumps. Each pump has two

chambers, the upper and lower chambers. The upper
chamber is the atrium that receives blood coming in
from the veins. The lower chamber is the ventricle
that forces the blood out into the arteries. There is a
valve between each atrium and ventricle to prevent
the blood from flowing backwards. The valves are
like one-way doors that keep the blood moving in
only one direction. Valves control movement of blood
into the heart chambers and out to the aorta and the
pulmonary artery. Refer to Figure 8.
Q14. Explain how the heart works.

Right Pulmonary
Artery

Left Pulmonary
Artery

Valve

Figure 8. The major divisions of the heart

Q15. Evaluate how the heart can be compared to a

mechanical pump.
All of the muscle tissues of the heart do not
contract at the same time. Different parts of the
heart contract at different times. When the top
portion contracts, the bottom part relaxes. When the
bottom contracts, the top relaxes. When a chamber
contracts, it becomes smaller and the blood inside
gets squeezed or pumped out.
To have a better understanding of how your
heart works, do the next simple activity.
Source: sln.fi.edu/biosci/systems/ pulmonary.html

Figure 9. The detailed parts of the heart

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Activity 5

Pump It!
Objectives:

Describe how the heart functions

Explain how blood is pumped by the heart

Materials:
1 beaker or wide mouthed jar
1 balloon
2 flexible drinking straws
1 pair of scissors

1 large pan or sink

adhesive tape
water

Source:
Home Science Tools http://www.hometrainingtools.com/make-a-heart-pump-science-project/a/1852/

Procedure:
1. Fill the jar half full of water.
2. Cut the neck of the balloon off at the part where it starts to widen into a balloon.
Set the neck part aside to be used later on.
3. Stretch the balloon over the opening of the jar, pulling it down as tightly as you
can. The flatter you can get the surface of the balloon, the better.
4. Carefully poke two holes in the surface of the balloon. Make them about an inch
apart from each other and near opposite edges of the jar.
5. Stick the long part of a straw into each hole. The straws should fit securely in the
holes so no air can get through around the straws.
6. Slide the uncut end of the balloon neck onto one of the straws and tape it around
the straw.
7. Set your pump in a large pan or the sink to catch the pumped water. Bend the
straws downward. Gently press in the center of the stretched balloon and watch
what happens to the water in the jar.
8. Refer to the photo below to know what your setup must look like.

Source: http://www.hometrainingtools.com/make-a-heart-pump-science-project/a/1852/

Figure 10. The heart pump model

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Guide Questions:
Q16. What does the water inside the jar represent?
______________________________________________________________________
Q17. How will you compare the heart pump model and the human heart?
______________________________________________________________________
Q18. How does the heart function as a pump?
______________________________________________________________________
Q19. Will the heart model be able to function properly if the straw is blocked? Explain
your answer.
______________________________________________________________________

KEY CONCEPTS
The heart is a hollow muscular organ, about the size of your fist, which is located in
the center of your chest between the lungs. It is a double pump that pumps on the left and
right sides. Every side is divided into two chambers, the atrium and the ventricle, each of
which has left and right portion, totaling to four chambers altogether. The top chamber is the
atrium (plural: atria). The bottom chamber is called the ventricle. The valve acts as a oneway door, allowing blood to flow either forward into the next chamber, or out of the heart.

Since you have already understood how the heart functions and how blood is
pumped all over the body, you are now ready to check your own heart rate. Your heart
beat is the sound that your heart makes as it pumps blood. Let us further investigate
about it in the next activity.

Activity 6

The Rhythm of My Heart

Objectives:

Measure and describe your pulse (heart rate) after several different activities
Explain how to use different time intervals to measure your heart rate

Materials:
Stopwatch / timer
Data Logbook

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Procedure:
1. Sit quietly for a few minutes before beginning the activity.
2. When you are ready, place your first two fingers either on your neck or on the
inside of your wrist and locate your pulse.
3. Once you find your pulse, start the watch, and for 60 seconds, count the number
of beats you feel. That is your pulse.
4. Try the experiment again, but this time count for only 30 seconds. When you are
done, multiply your count by two. Compare your pulses.
5. Repeat by counting for 15 seconds and multiplying your count by four, then
counting for 10 seconds and multiplying by six, and so on.
6. Once you have determined your resting pulse, go to a place where you can
exercise vigorously for at least one minute. Exercise of this sort might include a
fast jog, running stairs, skipping rope, or doing pushups. When you are done, you
should be breathing hard.
TAKE
CARE!

If you know that you have

a serious medical condition,
do not perform this activity.

7. Choose the length of the test you wish to perform and find your pulse again.
8. Compare your resting pulse with your pulse after exercise.
9. After the activity, record your observations and answer the guide questions.

Guide Questions:
Q20. What was your calculated resting pulse?
______________________________________________________________________
Q21. What was your pulse after exercising?
______________________________________________________________________
Q22. How would you differentiate your heart rates before and after exercising?
______________________________________________________________________
Q23. What is the advantage of timing for a full minute to find your pulse?
______________________________________________________________________

19
Q24. What is the advantage of timing over a shorter period of time, especially when you

have just finished exercising?

______________________________________________________________________

Q25. According to statistics, the maximum heart rate should be 220 minus a person's

age. How would you interpret your highest heart rate in relation to that given number?
______________________________________________________________________

KEY CONCEPTS
Each time your heart beats, it delivers oxygen-rich blood to your body, which allows
it to function properly. Your heart rate or pulse is the number of times your heart beats in
a minute (BPM or beats per minute). Shorter time intervals may be used in taking the
pulse as long as it comes to 60 seconds upon multiplying with a factor. When you are
resting, your heart rate slows down, as your body does not need as much blood as it does
when you exercise.

Now that you are aware that strenuous activities may lead to an increased heart
rate, you can now monitor your activities to avoid the dangers of cardio-respiratory
diseases. Another risk factor that drastically increases heart rate and decreases the
amount of oxygen in the blood is smoking cigarettes. Perform the next simple activity to
learn more about the negative effects of cigarettes on a persons circulatory and
respiratory systems.

Activity 7

Cigarette Smoking Is Dangerous to Your Health

Objective:

Explain the negative effects of cigarette smoking on the circulatory and

respiratory systems

Materials:
meta cards
marking pen
adhesive tape

20

Procedure:
1. Look at the picture of the smokers body below, and take note of the illnesses
that might develop due to cigarette smoking.

Photo Credit: http://www.clarkisit.com/smoking-kills/

Figure 11. The smokers body

2. Within your group, brainstorm ideas about the effects of cigarette smoking on
a persons respiratory and circulatory systems using the meta plan strategy.
3. Choose a group member who will act as moderator to solicit all the ideas of
the members about the negative effects of cigarette smoking on the
circulatory and respiratory systems.
4. Each participant must give at least three negative effects of cigarette smoking
on both circulatory and respiratory systems. Answers must be written on the
blank cards.
5. The moderator collects the meta cards and reads each one of them while
showing the cards to the whole group so that everyone can read them.

21

6. After discussing the ideas within the group, stick and organize all the
responses on the blackboard to categorize which answer falls under the
respiratory and circulatory systems. Refer to the example given below.
Cigarette Smoking

Circulatory System

Respiratory System

7. Group the cards with identical or similar statements together into clusters,
allowing multiple statements to emerge clearly.
8. Choose a representative to explain the work of the group.
KEY CONCEPTS
Cigarette smoking harms nearly every organ in the body, causing many illnesses
and affecting health in general. The negative effects of smoking on circulatory system
include increased heart rate and blood pressure, coronary heart disease, arteriosclerosis,
and vascular diseases. The respiratory diseases caused by smoking are chronic
bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, cough, colds, tuberculosis, lung cancer, and other
respiratory infections.

Enrichment Activity
Gather and write down information about the different diseases affecting the respiratory
and circulatory systems, and their common causes.
The leading causes of death around the world are diseases affecting the
respiratory and circulatory systems. However, they can be prevented simply by having a
lifestyle that promotes wellness. Circulatory and respiratory diseases begin to develop
with unhealthy living. Symptoms of these illnesses must not be neglected and
appropriate cure must be given immediately. Carry out the next task to further broaden
your learning.

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Activity 8

Prevention Is Better Than Cure

Objective:

Identify ways of detecting and preventing diseases in the respiratory and

circulatory systems
Appreciate the importance of a healthy lifestyle in avoiding such diseases

Procedure:
1. With your groupmates, create a story that illustrates various ways of preventing
diseases that affect the respiratory and circulatory systems. You must also show
the importance of keeping our bodies healthy and free from illnesses.
2. Present the story that you made in front of the class by means of role-playing.
3. Consider the following criteria to serve as your guide in completing the given
task.

STORY-MAKING AND ROLE PLAYING CRITERIA

CRITERIA
Preparation
Achievement of Objective
Imagination and Creativity
Presentation
TOTAL

Percentage
15%
35%
30%
20%
100%

KEY CONCEPTS
The best way to prevent diseases in the respiratory and circulatory systems is to
have a healthy lifestyle, which includes balanced diet, regular exercise, adequate rest,
proper hygiene, and avoiding vices such as cigarette smoking and alcohol drinking.
Circulatory and respiratory disease can easily be detected with regular health check-up
and physical screening.

23

The following activity that you will perform is a variation of a famous application
game, known as Four Pics One Word. Use your analytical thinking in answering
each set of puzzles.

Activity 9

Whats the Word?

Objective:

Infer how ones lifestyle can affect the functioning of the respiratory and
circulatory systems

Procedure:
All four pictures in each given set depict negative ways of living. They are
connected by one common word that indicates the effect of ones lifestyle on the
functioning of the respiratory and circulatory systems. The expected answers are
illnesses that are brought about by the negative lifestyles. Write your answers in the box
provided for each number.

1.

Whats the word?

A____A

24

2.

Whats the word?

H_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ N

3.

Whats the word?

A_ _ _ _ A

masslive.com

25

Guide Questions:
Q26. What idea is common in each set of pictures?
______________________________________________________________________
Q27. What are the negative lifestyles that are depicted in the pictures?
______________________________________________________________________
Q28. How can lifestyle affect the functioning of the respiratory and circulatory systems?
______________________________________________________________________
Q29. How can these negative lifestyles be changed?
______________________________________________________________________
Q30. What might happen if a person goes on with a negative lifestyle such as what was
seen in the activity?
______________________________________________________________________

ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
1. Compose a short poem about how ones lifestyle can affect the functioning of the
respiratory and circulatory systems, and recite it in front of the class.
2. Cut out different examples of unhealthy lifestyles from old magazines or
newspapers, and create a collage out of the cut-outs on your notebook or journal.

KEY CONCEPTS
Several lifestyle choices can affect a persons risk for developing respiratory and
circulatory diseases. Negative lifestyle weakens your system while healthy lifestyle leads
to complete wellness. Vices, stressful environments, and unhealthy eating habits can
cause various diseases, specifically of the respiratory and circulatory systems.

26

Performance Task: Information Dissemination Activity

Goal: Your objective is to present helpful information to the public about effective
ways of taking care of the respiratory and circulatory systems based on gathered
data. The challenge is how you will be able to lead the people to take action
rather than merely accepting the presented information. There are obstacles to
overcome such as the reluctance and preconceived notion of people against
changing their lifestyle to promote health.
Role: Suppose you work for an advertising company as a graphic artist and your
job is to create public informational materials. You are asked to disseminate
information to the public regarding a lifestyle that ensures healthy condition of the
respiratory and circulatory systems.
Audience: Your target individuals to receive the information that you will provide
are the people in your school community including all students, teachers, and
school officials. Parents and other persons who visit your school might also see
your work. Therefore, it is important that you convince them to consider the ways
of taking care of their bodies, specifically the circulatory and respiratory systems.
Situation: Upon gathering information from the school or local health workers,
you have found out that poor lifestyle affects the performance of the respiratory
and circulatory systems. Many people are unaware of this, so they simply
continue with their busy lifestyles, neglecting their health, and exploiting their
bodies. The challenge involves dealing with this by creating a poster that will stir
up the peoples consciousness in having a healthy lifestyle.
Product: Design a wall poster or placard that will make members of your
audience aware of how they can effectively take care of their respiratory and
circulatory systems. You may use any medium for your artwork.
Standards: You will be given three (3) days to conceptualize and execute your
ideas through poster-making. Once the product is finished, post it in a
conspicuous place such as the canteen where everyone can see it.
Your output will be assessed in accordance with the following rubric.

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Poster Making: Information Dissemination on How to Take Care of the

Respiratory and Circulatory Systems
RUBRIC
CATEGORY

Presentation

The poster
The poster
The poster
The poster does
clearly
communicates
indirectly
not sufficiently
communicates
some of the
communicates
communicate
the main idea important ideas the idea and
any idea that
and strongly
and slightly hardly promotes can promote
promotes
promotes
awareness
awareness
awareness
awareness

Creativity and
Originality

All of the
graphics used
on the poster
reflect an
exceptional
degree of
student
ingenuity in
their creation.

Most of the
graphics used
on the poster
reflect student
ingenuity in
their creation.

The graphics
were made by
the student but
were copied
from the
designs or
ideas of others.

Accuracy and
Relevance of
the Content

All graphics in
the poster are
accurate and
related to the
topic.

Most graphics
in the poster
are accurate
and related to
the topic.

Some graphics The graphics in

in the poster
the poster are
are accurate neither accurate
and related to
nor related to
the topic.
the topic.

Required
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The poster
includes all
required
elements as
well as
additional
information.

All required
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Few required
elements are
included.

The graphics
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by the student.

Required
elements are
missing.

28

Summary

Air enters the body through the nose, nasal passages, and then through
windpipe or trachea, which divides into two branches, called bronchial tubes or
bronchi. The bronchi subdivide many times inside the lungs, forming hairlike
tubes called bronchioles. At the end of the bronchioles are tiny bubble-like
structures called alveoli.

When you breathe in or inhale, the diaphragm muscle contracts. When you
breathe out, or exhale, the diaphragm muscle relaxes. The diaphragm helps
the air go in and out of the lungs.

Air first enters your lungs and then into the left part of your heart. It is then
pumped by your heart into the bloodstream, all the way through your body.
Once it reaches the cells, oxygen processes the nutrients to release energy.
Carbon dioxide is the waste material given off during this process. The blood
delivers carbon dioxide into the right portion of your heart, from which it is
pumped to the lungs. Carbon dioxide leaves your body through the lungs when
you exhale.

The heart is a hollow muscular organ, about the size of your fist, which is
located in the center of your chest between the lungs. It is a double pump that
pumps on the left and right sides. Each side is divided across into two
chambers. The top chamber is called the atrium. The bottom chamber is called
the ventricle. The valve acts as one-way door, allowing blood to flow either
forward into the next chamber, or out of the heart.

Heart rate or pulse is the number of times your heart beats in a minute (BPM or
beats per minute). When you are resting, your heart rate slows down, as your
body does not need as much oxygen as it does when you exercise.

Cigarette smoking harms nearly every organ in the body, causing many
illnesses and affecting health in general. The negative effects of smoking on the
circulatory system include increased heart rate and blood pressure, coronary
heart disease, arteriosclerosis, and vascular diseases. The respiratory diseases
caused by smoking are chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, cough, colds,
tuberculosis, lung cancer, and other respiratory infections.

The best way to prevent diseases in the respiratory and circulatory systems is
to have a healthy lifestyle, which includes balanced diet, regular exercise,
adequate rest, proper hygiene, and avoiding vices such as cigarette smoking
and alcohol drinking. Circulatory and respiratory disease can easily be detected
with regular health check-up and physical screening.

29

Summative Assessment
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. The nutrients obtained from the food during digestion are supplied by the
circulatory system to the body. What does the circulatory system distribute to the
body as it works with the respiratory system?
______________________________________________________________
2. If solid and liquid wastes are removed from the body through defecation and
urination, what is released by the body as waste during respiration?
______________________________________________________________
3. What happens to the diaphragm when a person breathes in or inhales?
______________________________________________________________
4. Why is the human heart called a double pump?
______________________________________________________________
5. What will happen if oxygen is not transported by the blood to the different parts of
the body?
______________________________________________________________
6. Since the valves act as the doors of the heart, what might happen if these doors
do not close?
______________________________________________________________
7. When we breathe in, we inhale many gases present in the air, including oxygen.
What do you think happens to the gases that are not needed by the body?
______________________________________________________________
8. You always hear and see the statement, Government Warning: Cigarette
smoking is dangerous to your health. How does cigarette smoking increase the
risk of developing cardiovascular diseases?
______________________________________________________________
9. How does singing from the diaphragm, instead of the throat, help improve the
voice quality of a singer?
______________________________________________________________
10. An old woman joined a kilometer-dash sprint and felt very exhausted afterwards.
How did the old womans activity affect her heart rate?
______________________________________________________________

30

Glossary of Terms

Arteriosclerosis a condition in which there is thickening and hardening of

the arteries

Atrium the upper chamber of the heart that receives blood coming in from
the veins

Chamber the empty space of the heart where blood is contained

Chest Cavity a hollow space in the body enclosed by the ribs between the
diaphragm and the neck and containing the lungs and heart

Chronic Disease any illness that is prolonged in duration, does not often
resolve suddenly, and is rarely treated completely

Coronary relating to, or affecting the heart

Diaphragm a large flat muscle that separates the lungs from the stomach
area and that is used in breathing

Emphysema a type of pulmonary disease involving damage to the airsacs

Pulmonary relating to, or affecting the lungs

Pulse the number of times the heart beats per minute

Vascular relating to the blood vessels, which includes the arteries,

capillaries, and veins

Ventricle the lower chamber of the heart that squeezes blood out into the
arteries

31

References
Printed Materials:
Rabago, L., et.al, (2010). Functional Biology - Modular Approach. 2nd ed. Philippines: Vibal
Publishing House, Inc
Strauss, E; Lisowski, M., (2003). Biology: The Web of Life. 2nd ed. Philippines: Pearson
Education Asia Pte Ltd..

Electronic Sources:
(DepEd Materials)
BEAM: Biology Organ System Circulatory System
EASE Biology M11 Energy Producing & Distributing Systems, Lessons 2 & 3
APEX Biology Unit IV, The Organ Systems, Lessons 11 & 12

(Online Resources)
DnaTube.com - Scientific Video and Animation Site. 2013. Blood circulation. [online] Available
at: http://www.dnatube.com/video/2864/Blood-circulation [Accessed: October 10].
Fi.edu.(2013). Body Systems: Pulmonary System - The Human Heart: An Online Exploration
from The Franklin Institute, made possible by Unisys. [online] Available at:
http://www.fi.edu/learn/heart/systems/pulmonary.html [Accessed: October 8, 2013].
Home Training Tools, Ltd. (2013). Heart Pump Project. [online] Available at:
http://www.hometrainingtools.com/make-a-heart-pump-science-project/a/1852/. [Last
Accessed October 2, 2013].
Smm.org. 2013. Habits of the Heart. [online] Available at:
http://www.smm.org/heart/lessons/movs/heartPump.htm [Accessed: October 4, 2013]
Sumanasinc.com. 2013. Animation. [online] Available at:
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/humanheart.html
[Accessed: October 7, 2013]
The

McGraw-Hill
Companies
Inc. The
Heart
Activity.
[online]
Available
at:
http://www.glencoe.com/sites/common_assets/health_fitness/gln_health_fitness_zone/p
df/heart_rate_monitor_activities/the_heart/the_heart_activity_2.pdf.
[Last Accessed October 4, 2013].

UNIT 1
Module
2

Suggested Time Allotment: 8 to 10 hrs

Heredity: Inheritance and Variation

Learning Module No._____________

Number of Sessions (Time Allotment)____________

Overview

Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance

In Grade 8, you learned that cells divide to produce new cells and meiosis is one of the
processes producing genetic variations in Mendelian patterns of inheritance. In Grade 9, you will
focus on describing the location of genes in chromosomes, explain the different patterns of nonMendelian inheritance and describe the molecular structure of the DNA.
Gregor Mendels principles form the base for the understanding of heredity and
variation. Although Mendels work failed to discuss thoroughly the factors or genes he
mentioned in his laws of inheritance, his findings prompted other scientists to probe further into
the mystery of heredity. Several researches were conducted after the rediscovery of Mendels
work.
Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri became popular because they found the best
evidence that an inherited trait is determined by chromosomes. Chromosome Theory of
Inheritance explained that genes are in the chromosomes.
Mendelian laws of inheritance have important exceptions to them. For example, not all
genes show simple patterns of dominant and recessive alleles.
In this module, you are expected to:
1. Explain the different patterns of non-Mendelian inheritance
a. Identify characters whose inheritance does not conform with predicted outcomes
based on Mendels laws of inheritance;
b. Solve genetic problems related to incomplete dominance, codominance
multiple alleles and sex-linked traits.
c. Identify the law that was not strictly followed in the non-Mendelian inheritance
2. Describe the location of genes in chromosomes.
a. Explain the chromosomal basis of inheritance.
1

b. Identify the components of a DNA molecule

As you work on different activities in this module, you should be able to answer the following key
questions:

How is non-Mendelian inheritance different from Mendels observations?

What is the role of DNA in the transmission of traits?

Before you start with the module, be sure to answer the pre-assessment questions.
Pre-Assessment :
Answer briefly the following questions:
1. Pink four oclock flowers are obtained from a cross between pure bred red flower plant
and white flower plant. What is the genotype of the pink flowers?
________________________________________________
2. The structure of the DNA is actually in a double helix arrangement. The nitrogen bases
in each of the chain can only pair with specific bases, like adenine pairs only with
thymine and cytosine pairs only with guanine. If the left chain of a DNA molecule has the
nucleotide sequence CCGTAGGCC, what is the sequence of the right chain of the DNA
molecule?___________________________________________
3. Read the given problem.
In some aliens, one center horn (A) is codominant with two horns (B). If an alien inherits
both alleles (AB), then the alien has three horns. A recessive allele (O) results in an alien which
has no horns. Can you match the genotype to each of the pictures below? Write the genotype
and phenotype of the four aliens in the box provided.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Source: (image) www.biologycorner.com

2

In the Mendelian patterns of inheritance, the effects of the recessive gene are not
observed when the dominant gene is present. In this lesson, you will find out that certain
traits do not always follow the Mendelian principles of heredity.

1. Incomplete Dominance
In incomplete dominance, a heterozygote shows a phenotype that is intermediate
between the two homozygous phenotypes. Neither allele is dominant over the other.
An example of incomplete dominance is flower color in four oclock plant, like those
shown in Figure 1. When a pure red-flowered four oclock plant is crossed with a pure whiteflowered four oclock plant, the offspring will produce neither red nor white flowers. Instead,
all flowers will be pink.

Do you think the alleles blended to make pink?

In incomplete dominance, it is only the phenotype that is intermediate. The red and white

alleles remain separate and distinct. Half the gametes of the pink four oclock carry the
allele for red and half carry the allele for white. Therefore, the genotypic ratio also becomes
the phenotypic ratio.

Source: buffonescience9.wikispaces
Figure 1. Punnett square showing a cross between red and white four oclock flowers
3

Now, work on this activity to help you understand better incomplete dominance.

Activity 1

Phenotypes and Genotypes in Incomplete

Dominance

Objectives:

Explain incomplete dominance pattern of inheritance

Illustrate by means of Punnett square a cross involving incomplete dominance pattern of

inheritance.

Materials:
Activity sheets
Manila paper
Marking pen

Procedure:

1. Read the given problem:

In four oclock plants, R is the allele for red color and W is allele for white
color. Two pink flowered four oclock plants were crossed.
Show the possible outcome of the cross between two pink flowered four oclock
plants by using the Punnett square.

2. Now, another cross was made involving a red flowered four oclock plant and a pink
flowered four oclock plant.
3. Using the Punnett square again, show the possible outcome.
4. Show your Punnett square for problems 1 and 2 using a Manila paper.
5. Present and discuss your answers.

Guide Questions:
Q1. How many types of gametes will each parent produce in problem no. 1?_________
In problem no. 2? ___________
Q2. What is the phenotype of a heterozygous four oclock flower?__________
Q3. What are the possible phenotypes of the offspring from the cross of the parental
plants in problem no. 1?_________________
In problem no. 2?_____________
Q4. What are the possible genotypes of the offspring from the cross of the parental
plants in problem no. 1?_________________
In problem no. 2?_____________

Key Concepts
Incomplete dominance is a form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a
specific trait is not completely dominant over the other allele. This results in a third
phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is a combination of the dominant
and recessive phenotypes.
Now, that you are familiar with incomplete dominance, let us find out what happens when
one allele is not dominant over the other.
2. Codominance (adapted from Grade 8 Learners module since non-Mendelian is not
included in the learning competency)
Another pattern of inheritance is codominance. This results when one allele is not
dominant over the other. The resulting heterozygotes exhibit the traits of both parents.
One example of codominance is the MN blood typing in humans. On the surface of our
red blood cells are proteins bound to sugar molecules, forming complexes called
antigens. One group of antigens are controlled by a pair of alleles, LM and LN. The
pairing of these alleles will determine the blood type of an individual, and there are three:
M, MN and N. Table 1 summarizes the genotypes and phenotypes of the MN blood
typing in humans.

Table 1 Human MN blood types and their genotypes.

Blood Types

Genotype

L M LM

MN

L M LN

L N LN

Note that in the heterozygote condition, both LM and LN alleles are expressed in that
the red blood cells will have the M and N antigens. Just like in incomplete dominance,
the genotypic ratio in codominance also becomes the phenotypic ratio.
Another good example of codominance is roan fur in cattle as shown in Figure 2.
Cattle can be red (RR = all red hairs), white (WW = all white hairs), or roan (RW = red &
white hairs together).

Source: www.biologycorner.com
Figure 2 Codominance in cattle (Please include the colored picture of a roan cow to show
the appearance of red and white hair together)
You will work on the activity that demonstrates codominance of traits.

Activity 2

Mystery Bull

Objectives:

List the genotypes of the bull and cow in the given problem
Diagram and complete a Punnett square
Give phenotypic percentages of the offspring

Materials: (by group)

Marking pen
Manila paper

Procedure:
1. Read the given problem:
Mang Marcelino owns purebred red cows. In his farm he noticed that after a
typhoon several months ago, all of the fences that separate his cattle from his
neighbors cattle were destroyed. During the time that the fences were down, three
bulls, one from each neighbor, mingled with his cows. For awhile, he thought that
none of the bulls found his cows, but over the months, he noticed that all of his cows
are pregnant. He suspected that one of the bulls is the father. Which bull is it? Help
Mang Marcelino look for the father by solving the given problem.

Determine the possible traits of the calves if :

a red (RR) bull is mated with a red (RR) cow 1

a red(RR) bull is mated with a white (WW) cow 2
a roan(RW) is mated with a red(RR)cow 3

2. Illustrate your answers using a Punnett square.

3. Write your answers on the Manila paper.

4. Present and discuss your answers.
Q5.

Will you be able to trace the father of the calves?______________

What are the possible phenotypes of the calves for each
cow?________________________________________________

Q6.

Do you think you will make Mang Marcelino happy about the result of
your investigation? _________________________________

Q7.

How are you going to explain it to him? ________________________

Q8.

How would you apply what you have learned to improve the breeds of livestock
in your area?
_____________________________________________________________

Q9.

What possible suggestions can you give to animal breeders in your area?
7

Key Concepts
In codominance, both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the
heterozygote. For example, red cows crossed with white cows will have
offspring that are roan cows. Roan refers to cows with red hair and white
blotches.
Many genes have multiple alleles. An example is ABO blood type in humans.
1. Multiple Alleles (adapted from Grade 8 Learners module since non-Mendelian is
not included in the learning competency)
Sometimes, even if only two alleles control a trait, there may actually be more than
two types of alleles available. This will also lead to more than two phenotypes
expressed. Another blood group system in humans, the ABO system, is an example of
a character governed by multiple alleles. Three alleles are responsible for this blood
system: IA , IB, and i. The ABO blood type is determined by the presence or absence of
two antigens, A and B. Allele i does not code for an antigen. There are four possible
blood types as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Human ABO blood types and their phenotypes.
Blood Types

Genotypes

IA IA , IA i

IB IB , IB i

AB

IA IB

ii

The IA and IB alleles are dominant over the i allele, which is always recessive.
However, when the IA and IB alleles are inherited together, both alleles are expressed
equally. This also makes IA and IB codominants of each other.

What is your blood type? Do you know your blood type? What are your
parents blood types?

Activity 3

Whats your blood type?

Objective:

Infer the unknown phenotypes of individuals on the basis of the known

phenotypes of their family members

Materials:

Paper

Pencil

Procedure:
A. Given the blood types of the mother and the child, identify the possible blood type of
the father.
Mothers Blood Type

Fathers Blood Type

Childs Blood Type

AB

AB

O
B. Show the possible alleles that can be found in each offspring and write the blood
type for each offspring.

Possible alleles from Father

B
O

A
Possible alleles from
B
Mother
O
Use the table to answer the following questions, and list all possible blood types.
Q10. What blood type (or types) can be found in an offspring if a mother has type A
blood and the father has type B blood?________________________________
Q11. What blood type (or types) can be found in an offspring if a mother has type AB
blood and the father has type B blood?________________________________
9

Q12. What blood type (or types) can be found in an offspring if a mother has type O
blood and the father has type B blood?_________________________________
Key Concepts:

In humans, there are four blood types (phenotypes): A, B, AB, O.

Blood type is controlled by three alleles: A, B, O.

O is recessive, two O alleles must be present for a person to have type O blood.

A and B are codominant. If a person receives an A allele and a B allele, their

blood type is type AB.
The inheritance of some characters does not strictly follow Mendels Law of Independent

Assortment. There are many traits that are inherited together more frequently. For example, the
expression of certain traits depends on whether one is male or female. Apparently, the
expression of the traits is determined by or related to ones sex.

Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determination

Humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell. Observation of the human body cells
shows 23 pairs of chromosomes for both males and females. Twenty- two pairs are somatic
chromosomes. The 23rd pair consists of sex chromosomes.

Human males and some other

male organisms, such as other mammals and fruit flies, have non-identical sex chromosomes
(XY). Females have identical (XX) sex chromosomes.

How is sex determined and inherited?

Let us study gamete formation based on the sex chromosomes. You will observe in
Figure 3 that all egg cells receive an X chromosome; while half of the sperm cells receive X
chromosomes and the other half receive Y chromosomes.

10

Male
XY

Female
XX

Sex
chromosomes

Meiosis

Gametes

Figure 3. Gamete formation involving only sex chromosomes

Male
XY

Female
XX

Parent

Gametes
X

Fertilization

Zygote

Female
XX

Figure 4.

Male
XY

Female
XX

Male
XY

Sex determination

If an egg is fertilized by a sperm with a Y chromosome, as shown in Figure 4, the

offspring is male. When an egg is fertilized by a sperm carrying an X chromosome, the offspring
is female. Note that there is a 50 percent chance of having a male or female offspring. The
greater the number of offspring, the greater is the chance of getting the expected 1:1 ratio of
male and female.

11

Activity 4

Boy or Girl ?

Objective:

Discuss how sex in humans is determined

Materials:
Activity sheets
Pen
paper

Procedure:
1. Draw a Punnett square which shows the inheritance of the sex chromosomes.
Represent the female sex chromosomes with XX and the male sex chromosomes with
XY.

Guide Questions:
Q 13. What will be the sex of a child produced when an egg is fertilized by a sperm that
has a Y chromosome?
_______________________________________________
Q 14. What type of sperm must fertilize an egg to result in a female
child?_________________________________________________
Q 15.

Based on this Punnett Square, what percent of children would you expect to be
male?____________________________________________________

Q 16.

Which sex chromosome is present in both male and

female?_____________________________________________________
12

Q 17.

Infer which sex chromosomes determines a persons sex.

_______________________________________________

18.

What are the other factors that may influence the expression of
human sexuality?.________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Key Concepts

Males have 44 body chromosomes and two sex chromosomes X and Y. The
males determine the sex of their children. Females have 44 body
chromosomes and two sex chromosomes, both X. The total number in each
cell of an individual is 46. These chromosomes contain the genes, which are
the factors of heredity.

This section discusses three kinds of sex-related inheritance, namely, sex-limited, sexinfluenced and sex-linked.

Sex-Linked Genes
Genes located on the X chromosomes are called X-linked genes. Genes on the Y
chromosomes are called Y-linked genes.

An example of an X-linked trait in humans is

hemophilia. A person suffering from hemophilia could die from loss of blood even from a small
wound because the blood either clots very slowly or does not clot at all. Another example of an
X-linked trait is color blindness. To illustrate the inheritance of an X-linked trait, we will use color
blindness in our discussion. Let us study Table 3. The X chromosome with the gene for color
blindness is represented as XC, while the one without is represented as X.
Table 3 Genotypes and phenotypes of color blindness in humans
Genotype

Phenotype

1. X X

Normal female

2. X XC

Normal female, carrier of the gene

3. XC XC

Color- blind female

4. XY

Normal male

5. XC Y

Color-blind male
13

Can you identify the genotype of the female who is color-blind? Notice that for a female
to become color-blind, she must be homozygous (XC XC) for the color-blind genes. The trait is,
therefore, recessive in females. If a female has only one X chromosome with the allele for color
blindness, she becomes normal but can pass on the trait to her offspring. She is therefore a
carrier of the trait. Since males have only one X chromosome, the gene for color blindness
when present in the male, will always be expressed because it does not have an allele to hide
or prevent its expression. Thus, the male will be color- blind. This is the reason why color
blindness is more common in males than in females.
Figure 5 is an example of a Y-linked trait, hypertrichosis pinnae auris, a genetic
disorder in humans that causes hairy ears. Since the trait is found in the Y chromosome, then
only males can have the trait. A father who has the condition will pass it on to all his sons, and
they, in turn, will pass it on to their own sons.

Figure 5. Sex-linked Genes

Activity 5

Source: www.mun.ca

When Gender Matters

Objective:

Solve problems related to sex-linked traits.

Materials:
Activity sheets

Procedure:
1. Read the given problem:
A. Color-blindness is a recessive, sex-linked disorder in humans. A color-blind man has
a child with a woman who is a carrier of the disorder.
KEY: X = normal vision Xc = color-blindness
14

2. Illustrate using a Punnett square the probability of having children who will have normal
vision and children who will be color-blind.

Guide Questions:
Q19. What is the genotype of the male?__________________________________
Q20. What is the genotype of the female?________________________________
Q21. What is the chance that the child will be color-blind?_____________________
Q22. What is the chance that a daughter will be color-blind? ___________________
Q23. What is the chance that a son will be color-blind?________________________

Key Concepts

Sex-linked traits are inherited through the X chromosomes.

Males have only one X chromosome. Thus, if they inherit the affected X,
they will have the disorder.

Females have two X chromosomes. Therefore, they can inherit/carry the

trait without being affected if it acts in a recessive manner.

Have you seen a bald man? What about a bald woman? It appears that gender matters
for the other kinds of traits as well.
Sex-Limited Traits
Sex-limited traits are generally autosomal, which means that they are not found on the
X or Y chromosomes. The genes for these traits behave exactly the same way that any
autosomal gene behaves. The difference here comes in the expression of the genes in the
phenotype of the individual. Sex-limited traits are expressed in only one gender. In cattle, for
instance, lactation is expressed in females but never in males. Both male and female cattle
however possess a gene pair for lactation. The gene for lactation (L) is dominant over the nonlactating gene(l). Table 4 shows the genotypes and phenotypes of the gene for lactation. These
genes are carried by both males and females, but it is only expressed in females. Have you
15

noticed that in female cattle, if at least one gene pair is for lactation (L), the female produces
milk? In male cattle, it does not matter if they possess one or two genes for lactation. They
never produce milk.
Table 4. Expression of Lactation in Cattle
Female Genotypes

Female Phenotypes

XXLL

Female lactating

XXLl

Female lactating

XXII

Female not lactating

Male Genotypes

Male Phenotypes

XYLL

Male not lactating

XYLI

Male not lactating

XYII

Male not lactating

Source: Functional Biology Modular Approach, Second edition

Guide Questions:
Q24.

Can you give other examples of sex-limited traits in animals?

____________________________________________________________

Sex-Influenced Traits
Sex-influenced traits are also autosomal, meaning that their genes are not carried on
the sex chromosomes. Again, what makes these traits unusual is the way they are expressed
phenotypically. In this case, the difference is in the ways the two genders express the genes.
One classic example of a sex-influenced trait is pattern baldness in humans, though
the condition is not restricted to males. This gene has two alleles, bald and non-bald. The
behaviors of the products of these genes are highly influenced by the hormones in the
individual, particularly by the hormone testosterone. All humans have testosterone, but males
have much higher levels of this hormone than females do. The result is that, in males, the
baldness allele behaves like a dominant allele, while in females it behaves like a recessive
allele. Study Table 5 which shows the pattern of expression for baldness.
.

16

Table 5. Expression of Pattern Baldness in Humans

Male Genotypes

Male Phenotypes

XYBB

Male bald

XYBb

Male bald

XYbb

Male nonbald

Female Genotypes

Female Phenotypes

XXBB

Female bald

XXBb

Female nonbald

XXbb

Female nonbald

Source: Functional Biology Modular Approach, Second edition

Guide questions:
Q25. Predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios in the offspring if the mother is bald and the
father is not bald. Perform a cross using a Punnett square.
___________________________________________________________________
Q26. In what way are sex-limited and sex-influenced characters similar?
___________________________________________________________________
Q27. What is the main difference between sex-limited and sex-influenced traits?
__________________________________________________________________
If you look at the heterozygous gene pair for baldness (Bb), males express baldness, while
females do not. Baldness may be expressed in females but it occurs more frequently in males.
Such trait is sex-influenced because of a substance that is not produced equally in males and
females.

Key Concepts

Sex-limited traits are those that are expressed exclusively in one sex.

Sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in

one than in the other sex.

17

Try this (optional)

Solve the following problems:
1. Hemophilia is a disease caused by a gene found on the X chromosome. Therefore, it is
referred to as a sex-linked disease. The recessive allele causes the disease. A man
with hemophilia marries a woman that is homozygous dominant for the trait.
Make a key for the trait. XH=____________Xh = _____________
A. Illustrate using a Punnett square the probability that their children will have the
disease.

Q28. Identify the genotype of the male?_________ female?_____________

Q29. Will any of their children have the disease?______________________
Q30. Predict the probabilities of their children having the disease._________________
2. Blood type is determined by the presence or absence of two antigens antigen A and
antigen B. The bodys ability to produce antigens is a trait that is inherited. Using the
information about inheritance of blood type, answer the given problem:

A father of four children has blood type A. The mother has blood type O.

Q31. Predict the possible blood types of their children.________________________

Q32. Explain why two of their children have blood type A while the other two have blood
type O.________________________________________________________
DNA is a macromolecule that forms a double helix structure in the cells (mostly in
the nuclei and mitochondria) of living organism. The DNA molecule is considered the
genetic material of all living cells. It is present in bacteria, protists, fungi, plants and
animals. DNA is responsible for determining the specific characteristics of an organism.

18

DNA: The Genetic Material

Weve talked a lot so far about chromosomes and the inherited trait that genes produce.
But what are genes? How do they work? After the discovery of the Chromosome Theory of
Inheritance, many questions remained unanswered.

Of what material are genes made?

How does the genetic material produce the characteristics of an organism?

How is the genetic code passed from parents to offspring?

Scientists now know that the genetic material is DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid). Modern

research techniques helped scientists to answer many questions about DNA and heredity.
The work of earlier scientists gave Watson and Crick a lot of information about DNA. By the
end of the 1940s, scientists had found that DNA consists of long strands of nucleotides.
Each nucleotide contains a pentose sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and one
of the four compounds called nitrogenous bases. Look at Figure 5. What are the
components of the nucleotide?
phosphate
base

deoxyribose sugar
Figure 6. Structure of a nucleotide
This activity will introduce you to DNA. DNA is a complex molecule that is found in
almost all living organisms. You will be able to manipulate the nucleotides (basic building
blocks) of DNA and get a feel of how the molecule is produced.

You will perform an activity that will help you understand some important concepts in
DNA structure.

19

Activity 6

DNA Modeling

Objectives:

Identify the components of a DNA molecule

Construct a model of a molecule of DNA

Materials:
Cutouts of basic subunits of DNA
Crayons
Scissors
Tape or glue

Procedure:
1. Cut out all of the units needed to make the nucleotides from the handout provided at
the end of the module.
2. Color code the nitrogenous bases, phosphorus, and sugars according to the teacher's
directions. Adenine = yellow, Guanine = green, Thymine = blue, Cytosine = red,
Phosphate = brown, and Deoxyribose = . black
3. Using the small squares and stars as guides, line up the bases, phosphates and
sugars.
4. Now glue the appropriate parts together forming nucleotides.
Construct DNA model using the following sequence to form a row from top to bottom:
Thymine
Adenine
Cytosine
Guanine
Adenine
Cytosine
5. Let this arrangement represent the left half of your DNA molecule.
6. Complete the right side of the ladder by adding the complementary bases. You will
have to turn them upside down in order to make them fit.
20

7. Your finished model should look like a ladder.

Guide Questions:
Q33.

What are the common parts of a nucleotide?________________________

Q34.

What is the one part of the nucleotide that differs among the other different
nucleotides?____________________________________________

Q35.

List the different kinds of nitrogen bases___________________________

Q36.

Is there always going to be an equal number of adenine and thymine nucleotides in

molecule? Why?_________________________________________

Q37.

Is there always going to be an equal number of guanine and cytosine nucleotides in

a molecule? Why?______________________________________

The structure of the DNA is actually in a double helix arrangement as shown in Figure 6..

Figure 7. Double helix structure of DNA

Source: www.nsdsoftl.com

Q38. The sides of the ladder are made up of alternating ___________and_______________

molecules. The steps (or rungs) of the ladder are made up of ____________ held together by
hydrogen bonds.

Key Concepts
DNA is composed of chains of nucleotides built on a sugar and phosphate backbone
and wrapped around each other in the form of a double helix. The backbone supports
four bases: guanine, cytosine, adenine, and thymine. Guanine and cytosine are
complementary, always appearing opposite each other on the helix, as are adenine and
thymine. This is critical in the reproduction of the genetic material, as it allows a strand to
divide and copy itself, since it only needs half of the material in the helix to duplicate
successfully.
21

Summary

Many characteristics have more complex inheritance patterns than those studied
by Mendel. They are complicated by factors such as codominance, incomplete
dominance, multiple alleles, and sex-linked traits.

Incomplete dominance occurs when the phenotype of the offspring is

somewhere in between the phenotypes of both parents; a completely dominant
allele does not occur.

Codominance occurs when both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype
of the heterozygote.

Many genes have multiple (more than two) alleles. An example is ABO blood
type in humans. There are three common alleles for the gene that controls this
characteristic. The alleles IA and IB are dominant over i.

In humans, XX chromosomes determine femaleness and XY determine

maleness.

A sex-linked trait is on the X chromosome. Females have two X chromosomes;

they can inherit or carry the trait without being affected if it acts in a recessive
manner.

Sex-limited traits are those that are expressed exclusively in one sex.

Sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in one
than in the other sex.

Genes are located in the chromosomes.

DNA contains the information needed to form and control the physical make-up
and chemical processes of an organism.

DNA is a double-stranded helix made up of repeating units of nucleotides.

A nucleotide is composed of the following: sugar and phosphate molecules, and

nitrogeneous bases. The base can either be adenine, guanine, thymine, and
cytosine.

22

Glossary

Allele a different form of a gene that controls a certain trait.

Codominance two dominant alleles of a contrasting pair fully expressed at the same
time in the heterozygous individual.

Incomplete dominance - occurs when the phenotype of the offspring is somewhere in

between the phenotypes of both parents; a completely dominant allele does not occur.

Multiple Alleles when more than two alleles control the inheritance of a character.

Sex-influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in one sex
than in the other.

Sex-limited traits that are expressed exclusively in one sex of the species.

Sex-linked traits traits that are controlled by genes located on the same sex
chromosome.

DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid

Punnett square the method by which one can determine the possible genotypes and
phenotypes when two parents are crossed

Antigen - A substance that when introduced into the body stimulates the production of an
antibody

Gamete - are reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to form a new cell called
a zygote.

23

Summative Assessment (for end of module assessment)

Answer the following questions.
1. Complete the Punnet square for a cross between a homozygous red-flowered
snapdragon (RR) and a homozygous white-flowered snapdragon (rr). Give the ratio for
the phenotype and the genotype.
Key
Genotypic Ratio: _________________
RR red

F1

rr white

Phenotypic Ratio ________________

Rr pink

2. What happens to the phenotype of the heterozygotes when traits are inherited in an
incomplete dominance pattern?
3. Complete the Punnet Square for a cross between two F1 plants (rr). Give the phenotypic
ratio for the F2 generation.

F2

Phenotypic ratio ___________________

4. What is the name of the inheritance pattern in which both alleles are expressed equally?
5.
Key

Complete the Punnet square for a cross between a black chicken (BB) and a white
chicken (WW). Give the phenotype of the offspring in the F1 generation.

BB black
WW white

F1

BW checkered

Phenotype ___________________________________________________
24

Summative test (for end of the unit)

1.

One chain of a DNA molecule has a nucleotide sequence C, C, G, C, T. What is the sequence of the
nucleotides on its partner chain?_____________________________

2.

Predict the phenotypic ratios of offspring when a homozygous white cow is crossed with a roan bull.
Illustrate using a Punnett square.

3.

In fruit flies, humans and other mammals, sex is determined by an X-Y system. However, many organisms
do not have the X-Y system of sex determination. For example, birds have a Z-W system. Male birds are
whereas

ZZ,

females

are

ZW.

In chickens, barred feathers (Z) are dominant over nonbarred feathers (Zb).
a.

Draw a Punnett square that shows the results of a cross between a barred female and a nonbarred male.

b.

What is the probability that the offspring will be:

4.

i.

Barred females? __________

ii.

Nonbarred females? __________

iii.

Barred males? __________

iv.

Nonbarred males? __________

Identify the components of the DNA nucleotide.

A. ________

B. ________

C. ________
5. Using the following information mentioned, complete the following table.
Blood type

Possible Gene Pairs

A
B
AB
O

25

References:
PRINTED
Campbell, N.et.al. (2009). Biology (8th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc.
Rabago, L. et.al. (2010).Functional Biology: Modular Approach. Vibal Publishing House, Inc.
Mader (2009). Essentials of Biology (2nd ed.). Mcgraw Hill Companies, Inc.
University of the Philippines National Institute for Science & Mathematics Education
Development 2000. Sourcebook on Practical Work for Teachers: High school biology (Vol. 2).
Q.C.
DepEd. (2009). Biology Science and Technology Textbook

for second year, Book Media

Press, Inc.

Electronic Sources
http://www.karenmayes.com/pages/dna.pdf
http://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Autosomal_recessive
LRMDS
Project EASE Module
APEX

26

DNA Model Template

Figure 7 Basic Subunits of DNA

Reference:
DNA Paper Model Activity

http://www.karenmayes.com/pages/dna.pdf
27

28

Learners Module

UNIT 1
Module
3

Suggested Time Allotment: 4 to 5 hrs

Biodiversity and Evolution

Learning Module No._______

Number of Sessions (Time Allotment)____________

Overview

Causes of Species Extinction

In Grade 8, you learned about the concept of species, classification of
organisms using the hierarchical taxonomic system and the advantage of high
biodiversity in maintaining the stability of an ecosystem. In Grade 9, you will explain
the importance of biodiversity, find out how changes in the environment may affect
species extinction and relate species extinction to the failure of populations of
organisms to adapt to abrupt changes in the environment.
In any ecosystem, organisms need a balanced environment. A balanced
ecosystem is one in which all living and nonliving things are interacting successfully.
If any part of the ecosystem is disturbed, other parts will also be disturbed.
What happens to a community when its species diversity is reduced? Does
loss of biodiversity affect an ecosystems ability to sustain the species that remain or
to perform certain functions that may contribute to the needs of that ecosystem? This
module will help you find answers to these questions.
In this module, you are expected to:
1. Relate species extinction to the failure of populations of organisms to adapt to
abrupt changes in the environment,

Explain the importance of biological diversity.

Find out how changes in the environment can affect species extinction.

Distinguish environmental changes that may result in the loss of the

species.

2. Make a multimedia presentation of a timeline of extinction of representative

microorganisms, plants, and animals

Learners Module

Key Questions:

What causes species extinction?

How can changes in the environment affect the continued survival of the
species?

Now read carefully the questions and give your best answer. These will help your
teacher determine the knowledge you have for this topic.
Pre-Assessment:
Taking Animals for Profit

Introduced species

Hunting and Trapping

Destruction of habitat

Overharvesting

Pollution

A. Photo Quiz: The words in the box are some of the causes of species
extinction. Look at the pictures below and identify which cause of
extinction matches each group of pictures.

1.

2.

Learners Module

3.

4.

5.

Learners Module

B. The map below shows the population distribution of fish, water bugs, frogs
and water lily plants in a pond.

Key:

= fish
= water bug

= frogs
= water lily

1. Which species has the largest

population in the community?
___________________________
____________________________
2. What factors might influence a
change in the population?_________________

Learners Module

Different parts of the ecosystem interact with one another. Changes to one part
affect other parts. When all the members of a species die, that species place in the
ecosystem is gone forever. In this module you will study the various threats that are
considered causes of the loss of biodiversity.

Figure 1 Tubbataha Reef

Figure 2 Coconut Plantation

Study Figures 1 and 2. Picture yourself swimming and diving in Tubbataha Reef
Marine Park, where very high densities of marine species are found. What
organisms are in Figure 1? How many different kinds of organisms do you think you
will see? Now, imagine yourself standing in a coconut plantation. Which species do
you think dominates this area? The Tubbataha Reef Marine Park has many
populations. You can see hundreds of different species of organisms, whereas in a
coconut plantation, only one species dominates. A population is a group of living
things within a certain area that are all of the same species.
Several different populations may be found in a community. A population of
one kind may affect a population of another kind within the community. A jungle has
a greater amount of biological diversity, or biodiversity, than a cornfield. Biodiversity
refers to the variety of life in the area. In a jungle community, some populations, such
as ants, fungi, and ferns, can be very large in number. Other populations such as
5

Learners Module

tigers and snakes have fewer members. Why do you think population sizes vary
among organisms?
Now work on the activity to find out the amount of biodiversity and species
distribution in a community.

Activity 1

Index of Diversity

Objective:

Measure species distribution using mathematical way of expressing the

amount of biodiversity and species distribution in a community.

Materials:
Pen
Paper
Procedure:
1. This is an outdoor activity. Go to the area designated by your teacher.
2. Record the number of different species of trees present in the area. (It is not
necessary to know their names, just make sure that they differ by species.)
Record this number in your data table.
DATA TABLE
Number of species
Number of runs
Number of trees
3. Go to the designated area again. This time, make a list of the trees by
assigning each a number as you walk by it.
4. Place an X under Tree 1 on your list. If tree 2 is the same species as Tree 1,
mark another X under Tree 1. Continue to mark an X under the trees as long
as the species is the same as the previous one.

Learners Module

5. When a different species is observed, mark an O under that tree on your list.
Continue to mark an O if the next tree is the same species as the previous. If
the next tree is different, mark an X.
6. Record in your data table:
a. The number of runs. Runs are represented by a group of similar symbols
in a row. Example XXXXOOXO would be 4 runs (XXXX 1 run, OO 1
run, X 1 run, O 1 run).
b. The total number of trees counted.
7. Calculate the Index of Diversity (I.D.) using the given formula:
Index of diversity = Number of species x number of runs
Number of trees

Guide Questions:
Q 1. Compare how your tree I.D. would be different in a vacant lot than that in
a grass lawn. Explain your answer. _____________________
______________________________________________________________
Q 2.

If humans were concerned about biological diversity, would it be best to have

a low or high I.D. for a particular environment? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________

Key Concepts

Population pertains to the number of organisms of the same species

living in a certain place.

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life in an area.

Communities with many different species (a high index of diversity)

will be able to withstand environmental changes better than
communities with only a few species (a low index of diversity).

Learners Module

In a balanced ecosystem, organisms need a balanced environment. A change in

population sizes may be due to factors affecting the environment. Why is it that
populations do not increase without end?

Figure 3

Park reserve in Calauit, Palawan

Look at Figure 3. This is an area in Calauit, Palawan, that is set aside as a

park preserve, and no hunting is allowed in the park. A number of animals like giraffe
and zebra are placed in the area. There are plenty of plants to serve as food for the
giraffe and zebra population. The herd of giraffe and zebra are assumed to be
healthy and begin to multiply faster than expected. Predict what will happen if the
giraffe and zebra population continues to increase in the park area.
You will work on the next activity to help you understand changes in
population, factors affecting population growth and size, and learn about the needs
and characteristics of a population.

Learners Module

Activity 2

Measuring Population Density

Objective:

Determine the pattern of population distribution using mathematical

formula

Compare the distribution patterns of the different populations.

Materials:
Ruler
Pencil & Paper

Figure 4.

Procedure:
1. Study the three patterns of
population distribution in Figure
4.
2. Using the given formula for
118cm
computing population density,
calculate the density of each
population.
Density = number of individuals
Size of area
3. Count the total number for
each population. Record the
number in the table.

20 cm

Figure 4.
Bermuda grass

Clover

Lilies

4. On a sheet of paper, prepare a table to record the data for population

density.
Table 1 Population Density
Population name

Number of organisms

Density

5. Calculate the density of each population. Record it in the table.

Guide Questions:
Q 3. Compare the distribution patterns of the three populations.
___________________________________________________________
9

Learners Module

Q 4. Which population has the greatest density?_______________________

Q 5. Infer from recorded data from the possible causes for the differences in the
population density.
Q 6. What conditions could change the density of any of the population.
_______________________________________________________________
Q 7. Describe how a populations density can be used to learn about the needs and
characteristics of that population.
_____________________________________
Populations can be of the same size, but they may have different densities. When
we consider the number of individuals per unit area, we are referring to the density of
the population. Differences in population density in any community may be attributed
to many factors. Population sizes change when new members move into the
ecosystem. They decrease when members move out of an ecosystem. The birth rate
and death rates can also affect a populations size. Anything that limits the size of a
population like certain environmental conditions are called limiting factors. Limiting
factors keep a population from increasing in size and help balance an ecosystem.
Examples of limiting factors are the availability of food, water, and living conditions.
Light, temperature and soil nutrients are also limiting factors because they help
determine the types of organisms that can live in an ecosystem. The maximum
population size an environment can support is called its carrying capacity. If the
population size rises above the carrying capacity, organisms die because they
cannot meet all their needs.
Q 8. How are limiting factors related to population density?
__________________________________________________________
Key Concepts:

Population sizes vary among organisms. They change with the

number of births and when they move into an ecosystem. They
also change when members die or move out of an ecosystem.

Limiting factors are environmental conditions that keep a

population from increasing in size and help balance ecosystems.

The carrying capacity is affected by changes in the environment.

10

Learners Module

Life depends on life. Animals can not exist without green plants. Living things
create niches for other living things. But what happens if the living conditions of
these organisms are not ideal for their survival? What do you think are the major
causes of species extinction?
Work on the next activity which demonstrates the probable causes of species
extinction.

Activity 3

Endangered but not Extinctyet

Objective:

Demonstrate, using a simulation activity, that habitat destruction can

contribute to species extinction.

Materials:
Box of toothpicks
Stopwatch/wristwatch
Pencil & paper
Flour for marking areas in the lawn
Procedure:
1. Create teams of seven members.
2. Designate two students as the Hunters, two students as the Timers, two
students as the Counters and one student as the Leader.
3. Get your copy of the Extinction Simulation Data Table handout from your
teacher.
4. Go to the area in the school grounds designated by your teacher. Using the
flour draw out a circle measuring about 20 feet wide.
5. In the circle, scatter 100 toothpicks as randomly as possible. These are the
toothpick grasshoppers.
6. The Leader gives instructions to the students assigned as the following:

Hunters: Catch by picking up as many toothpick grasshoppers as they can

Timers:

Set the time for two minutes for the Hunters to collect the

toothpick
grasshoppers.
11

Learners Module

Counters: Determine how many toothpick grasshoppers have been caught

and calculate the number of toothpick grasshoppers remaining in the circle.
Record this information in the Extinction Simulation Data Table handout.

7. Begin the activity. The Leader sees to it that the students perform their
assigned task for the activity.
8. After the first round, put an additional toothpick grasshopper into the circle for
every pair of toothpick grasshoppers remaining. This simulates reproduction.
9. Rotate roles and repeat the activity a second time and record the data in the
handout.
10. After the second round, rotate roles once again and repeat the activity for a
third time and record the data in the handout.
11. Draw a line or bar graph of the number of toothpick grasshoppers in the grass
at the end of the round.

Guide Questions:
Q 9. What happened to the toothpick grasshoppers over time?
__________________________________________________________
Q 10 What factors might account for differences in the graphs and /or total
number of toothpick grasshoppers in each group?
________________________________________________________
Q 11. In nature, what environmental factors might account for differences in the
total number of grasshoppers?
__________________________________________________________
Q 12. What effects do you think will habitat reduction have on the toothpick
grasshoppers population?______________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Q 13. Suggest a method for testing your hypothesis in Q 12.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

12

Learners Module

When a species, population becomes so low that only a few remain, the
species is considered endangered will possibly become extinct. In the Philippines,
some terrestrial species like the tamaraw in Mindoro, mouse deer in Palawan,
Philippine deer, Monkey-eating eagle, and aquatic species like the dugong found in
Negros, Batangas, and Leyte are in danger of extinction.
Sometimes, there is a particular species that declines so fast that it becomes
endangered and is said to be threatened. In a study conducted by field biologists on
population size and distribution of Philippine fauna, they reported that as of 1991, 89
species of birds, 44 species of mammals, and eight species of reptiles are
internationally recognized as threatened. These include also the Philippine Eagle or
Monkey-eating Eagle in the list of Philippine Endangered Species. (Source: cf.
Rabago, L. et.al. Functional Biology:Modular Approch. 2nd ed)
Extinction is the disappearance of a species when the last of its members die.
Changes to habitats can threaten organisms with extinction. As populations of
people increase, the impact of their growth and development is altering the face of
the Earth and pushing many other species to the brink of extinction.

Key Concepts:

Extinction occurs when the last member of that species dies.

When the population of a species begins declining rapidly, the species

is said to be a threatened species.

A species is endangered when its population has become so low that

it is possible of becoming extinct.

Human actions have resulted in habitat loss and degradation that

have accelerated the rate of extinction.

13

Learners Module

Many changes take place in the communities. You may have noticed that the
natural vegetation in the area has been cleared. Concrete structures and increasing
populations of people and other organisms gradually take over the area. Perhaps
some areas were destroyed by natural disasters or by human activities. Just as
vegetation changes, animal populations also change. These may have major effects
on the ecosystem causing replacement of communities or development of a new
environment.
The next part of the module is basically a discussion of local and global
environmental issues that contributed to species extinction.

Activity 5

Making Predictions

Objective:
o Determine differences between two hypothetical islands
Materials:
Paper & pencil
Procedure:
1. Imagine that you and your friends are being sent to explore two islands.
The islands are very similar in size, age, and location. But one has human
population and the other does not have.
2. Predict what you will see in each island.
3. Tabulate your predictions as shown below.
Island A

Island B

1.

1.

2.

2.

14

Learners Module

Guide Questions:
Q 14. What did you predict you will see in each island?________________________
______________________________________________________________
Q 15. How would you explain the differences that you will see in each island?
______________________________________________________________
Have you eaten? Did you turn on an electric light, ride a tricycle or jeepney, or use a
computer today? When you do any of these activities, you use one or more natural
resources. Natural resources are materials in the environment that people use to
carry on with their lives. But are you using these natural resources wisely? Will the
time come when these materials will no longer be available to you? You would
probably have the same question in mind.
Many of the changes that man has done to the environment were made by
accident. If you examine your predictions in the activity, you probably listed them in
the column meant for the island inhabited by human population. Land would be
cleared for housing and farming. These might decrease plant and animal
populations, and some pollution and other environmental problems would result.
You probably need to know more about some of the local and global
environmental issues/problems that are also affecting your community.

Deforestation

One of the countrys environmental problems is the rapid rate at which trees are
cut down. Did you encounter the same problem in your community? In the
Philippines, the major causes of deforestation are:

Kaingin farming

Illegal logging

Conversion of agricultural lands to housing projects

Forest fires

Typhoons

15

Learners Module

Figure 5 Kaingin farming

Figure 6

Forest hit by typhoon

As a consequence of cutting down trees, the following effects could take

place:

Soil erosion

Floods

Decrease in wildlife resources that will eventually lead to extinction

As human population gets bigger,

Wildlife Depletion

huge space is needed for shelter, for

growing

crops,

and

for

industries.

Deforestation is one of the major causes

of the disappearance of wildlife species.
What happens to animal populations
that are driven away from their natural
habitat? If they cannot find enough
space, many will die or become extinct.
Some

species

endangered,

or

may
in

the

16
become

verge

of

becoming extinct. In other cases, some

animals may be threatened, referring to

Learners Module

Figure 7 Monkey-eating Eagle

Figure 8 Tarsier

Figure 9 Dugong

Water Pollution

A major problem in lakes, rivers and ponds is eutrophication. It happens when

the concentration of organic nutrients that comes from domestic garbage and thrown
in bodies of water, increases rapidly.

one of the effects of water pollution. It is

17

Learners Module

supposed to be a slow process, but mans activities hasten it up. Figure 10 shows
the causes and stages of eutrophication in a lake.

Figure 10 Eutrophication

Another effect of water pollution is mass death of fish, or fish kill. Have you
read articles from the newspapers about fish kill in Manila Bay or some other
places? Have you seen such an event in your area?
A fish kill usually happens when there is an increase in concentration of
organic nutrients in bodies of water. This condition causes algal bloom and growth of
aquatic plants. When the algae die, they sink to the bottom and the process of
decomposition proceeds. This process uses up oxygen and as a result, aquatic
animals die due to lack of oxygen.
Bodies of water are also polluted with toxic wastes, untreated sewage, and
fertilizer run-offs from farm lands. One class of dangerous chemicals present in
water is PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl). PCBs are toxic wastes produced in the
making of paints, inks and electrical insulators. Figure 11 shows what happens in
the food chain when PCB is present.
18

Learners Module

At each level of the food chain, the amount of PCB in each organism
increases. They are unable to excrete PCB from their bodies.
Through the process of biological magnification, the PCB becomes
concentrated in the body tissues of water organisms. Biological magnification is
the buildup of pollutants in organisms at higher trophic levels in a food chain. Fish
living in contaminated ecosystems contain builtup high concentration of PCB as
shown in Figure 11. The fish were not killed by the chemicals, but they stored them
in their tissues. As the salmon feeds on the smaller fish, it took in the PCB in their
bodies. Like the smaller fish, the salmon was not killed by the PCB. It stored the PCB
in its tissues. The concentration of PCB in the salmon has rise to 5,000 times the
concentration of PCB in the water in which it fed.

has

feeds

Figure 11 PCB dumped in lakes (Please redraw)

Other pollutants found in water are heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and
cadium. These metals come from factories that dump their wastes into rivers or
lakes.

Air Pollution

Do you know that cars are one of the major contributors to air pollution?
Pollutants can enter the air as gases, liquids, or solids. Cars burn fuel and produce
harmful gasescarbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons. Figure 12 shows
the harmful pollutants present in the air.
19

Learners Module

Figure 12 Air Pollution

In Metro Manila where a great volume of cars travel each day, smog blankets
the area, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons from car exhausts react with water
vapour or dust particles and produce new irritating chemicals.
Carbon dioxide acts like a blanket over the Earth, holding in the heat that
would otherwise radiate back into space. The trapping of heat by gases in the earths
atmosphere is called greenhouse effect.
The greenhouse effect is a natural process. But as carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere increases, greenhouse effect also intensifiesthis will lead to global
warming. Global warming is an increase in the earths temperature from the rapid
buildup of carbon dioxide and other gases. This, in turn, could change the world
climate patterns.
Are there factories in your area? Factories and power plants that burn coal
are also major contributors to air pollution. Coal contains sulfur. When coal burns,
sulfur combines with oxygen in the air to form sulfur dioxide, with choking odor.
Power plants also burn coal to give off particulates into the air. Particulates are tiny
particles of soot, dust, and smoke. These particulates block sunlight and get into
your lungs when you breathe. Do you see smog and smell such foul odor and often
wonder where it comes from? Well, your place might be a victim of air pollution from
the factories nearby.

Destruction of Coastal Resources

20

Learners Module

Do you live near coastal areas? Do you remember the times when you and your
friends went to the seashore to gather seashells or played with some corals or,
perhaps, played hide and seek among mangrove trees?
Coral reefs and coastal mangrove forests in the Philippines serve as breeding
grounds and nurseries of marine fishes. But due to mans activities, coastal areas
are getting destroyed through the years. Some of these activities include the
following:

Deforestation, agricultural activities, and mining activities

Dynamite fishing and muro-ami

Coastal areas conversion to beach resorts, residential areas

Overharvesting

Figure 13 Destruction of coral reefs

Figure 14 Damaged mangrove areas

Figure 15 Dynamite Fishing

21

Learners Module

Acid Precipitation

Acid precipitation is commonly known as acid rain. Rainwater is normally acidic,

because carbon dioxide is normally present. Other pollutants, mostly sulfur and
nitrogen oxides, make rainwater even more acidic, with a pH of 5.6 or lower.
Emissions from factories and from exhaust of motor vehicles are some examples of
pollutants.
Acid rain can be harmful to living things. It causes yellowing of leaves of trees
and cause leaves to fall. Examine Figure 16. It summarizes the effect of acid rain.

Figure 16 Acid precipitation

Along with nutrients being lost through direct leaching from leaves and no
movement of nutrients in forest litter (leaves, stems, and fruits), nutrients can be lost
from the soil. Acid water flowing through the soil can exchange acidic hydrogen ions
for essential plant nutrient ions such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium. If these
nutrients migrate beneath the rooting zone, they become unavailable to tree roots.
Human activities and overpopulation have caused most of the environmental
problems nowadays. People are beginning to realize that the way they interact with
the environment must change to ensure the survival of all living things. This is one
big challenge to maintain the resources needed for survival while ensuring that they
22

Learners Module

will still be available in the future. This is a practice called sustainable

development. This means that a sustainable society should live under the carrying
capacity of the environment. This means that the rate at which society uses
renewable resources does not exceed the rate at which the resources are
generated.

Key Concepts :

The principal causes of deforestation are illegal logging, kaingin farming,

forest fires, and conversion of agricultural lands to housing projects and
typhoons.

The effects of deforestation include soil erosion, floods and depletion of

wildlife resources.

The major cause of wildlife extinction is the loss of habitat.

Coral reef destruction is caused by dynamite fishing and muro-ami, while

mangrove destruction is caused by overharvesting and conversion of the
area into other uses.

In eutrophication, nutrients are washed away from the land to enrich

bodies of water. It causes excessive growth of aquatic plants and algae
and results in algal bloom, which eventually die and decompose. The
process depletes the oxygen dissolved in water, causing fish and other
aquatic organisms to die.

Acid rain is a result of air pollution mostly from factories and motor
vehicles.

Sustainable development means that a society should live under the

carrying capacity of the environment.

Performance Task

23

Learners Module

Now that you have understood the causes of species extinction, you
will try to make a multimedia presentation of a timeline of extinction of representative
microorganisms, plants, and animals.
Your teacher will give you detailed instructions on this task.

Summary

Population is a group of organisms of the same species living in a certain

place.

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life in an area.

Communities with many different species (a high index of diversity) will be

able to withstand environmental changes better than communities with only a
few species (a low index of diversity).

Population sizes vary among organisms. They change with the number of
births and when they move into an ecosystem. They also change when
members die or move out of an ecosystem.

Limiting factors are environmental conditions that keep a population from

increasing in size and help balance ecosystems.

The carrying capacity is affected by changes in the environment.

Extinction occurs when the last member of a species dies.

When the population of a species begins declining rapidly, the species is

said to be a threatened species.

A species is in endangered whenits population is so low that it is nearly

extinct.

Human actions have resulted in habitat loss and degradation that has
accelerated the rate of extinction.

24

Learners Module

The principal causes of deforestation are illegal logging, kaingin farming,

forest fires, and conversion of agricultural lands to housing projects, and
typhoon.

The effects of deforestation include soil erosion, floods, and depletion of

wildlife resources.

The major cause of wildlife depletion is the loss of habitat.

Coral reef destruction is caused by dynamite fishing and muro-ami, while

mangrove destruction is caused by overharvesting and conversion of the
area into other uses.

In eutrophication, nutrients are washed away from the land to enrich bodies
of water. It causes excessive growth of aquatic plants and algae and results
in algal bloom, which eventually die and decompose. The process depletes
the oxygen dissolved in water, causing fish and other aquatic organisms to
die.

Acid rain is a result of air pollution mostly from factories and motor vehicles.

Sustainable development means that a society should live under the carrying
capacity of the environment.

GLOSSARY
Species

A group of organisms that have certain characteristics in

common and are able to interbreed.

Biodiversity

refers to the variety of life in an area.

Population

the total number of organisms of the same species

inhabiting a place at the same time.

Population density

the number of individuals in an area

Limiting factor

environmental conditions that keep a population from

over increasing in size and thus help balance
ecosystems

Carrying capacity

number of organisms of one species that an environment

can support.

Endangered species

a species in which the number of individuals falls so low

that extinction is possible

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Learners Module

Threatened species

species that have rapidly decreasing numbers of

individuals

Deforestation

removing or clearing of a forest to include the cutting of

all trees, mostly for agricultural or urban use

Eutrophication

the process by which a body of water becomes enriched

in dissolved nutrients (such as phosphates) that stimulate
the growth of aquatic plant, life usually resulting in the
depletion of dissolved oxygen
(polychlorinated biphenyl) toxic wastes produced in the

PCB

making of paints, inks and electrical insulators

broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry

Acid rain

deposition (deposited material) from the atmosphere

containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and
sulfuric acids.

Summative Test
I.

Answer briefly the following questions in your answer sheet:

1. If the population species of a given area is doubled, what effect would this
have on the resources of the community?
2. In a population, limiting factors and population density are often related.
Suppose that the population density of plant seedlings in an area is very high,
explain how limiting factors may affect population density.
3. In a farm, soy beans were the only crop that that was planted on several
hectares of land. A farmer noticed that a fungus was growing all over the soy
bean fields. Predict what might eventually happen to the soybeans and the
fungus.
4. How is forest ecosystem affected when trees are cut down?
5. What is the main cause of extinction in plant and animal species?
II.

Work on the following problems:

1. Suppose 60 ants live in a 4 sq m plot of grass. What would be the population

density of the ants? What would the population density be if 100 ants live in
an 8 sq m plot of grass?
2. If 40 carabaos live in a 1 sq m area, what is their population density per sq.
km. ?
26

Learners Module

3. How many monkeys would have to live in a sq. km. area to have the same
population density as the carabao?
III.

Choose the best answer that completes each sentence.

1. Pollutants dumped into the rivers and streams eventually find their way to (a.
the ocean b. the atmosphere c. groundwater supplies)
2. The average temperature of the earths atmosphere may rise as a result of (a.
the greenhouse effect b. water pollution c. garbage dumping)
3. Many (a. non-renewable b. alternative c. expensive) energy sources are being
developed to replace fossil fuels.
4. Some endangered species of plants in tropical rain forests may be sources of
(a. fossil fuel b. medicine c. hazardous waste)
5. Humans are using (a. fewer b. better c. more) natural resources than they did
100 years ago.

References

Printed
Rabago, L et.al (2010). Functional Biology, Vibal Publishing House, Inc. Quezon
City
Rabago, L.M., C.C. Joaquin, et.al. (c1990).Science & Technology(Biology). Vibal
Publishing House, Inc. Quezon City
Strauss E. & Lisowski, M. (2000).Biology:The Web of Life. Pearson Education Asia
Biggs. A. Gregg, K., et.al. (2000).Biology: the Dynamics of Life.the McdGraw hill
Companies. Inc.
Dispezio, M. , Luebe, M, et.al. (1996). Science Insights:Exploring Living Things.
Addison Wesley Publishing Company, Menlo Park, California
Philippine Biodiversity Conservation: A Trainers Manual

27

Learners Module

28

Learners Module
Suggested Time Allotment: 15 hrs.

Unit 1
Module

ECOSYSTEM: Life Energy

Overview
In module 3, you have learned how changes in the environment may affect
species extinction. It helps you understand how to prevent extinction of organisms in an
ecosystem.
In this module, you will learn that all organisms need energy to sustain life. Your
study will focus on how organisms obtain energy from food and how organisms produce
energy.
In order to sustain life, all organisms require energy, but not all of them can use
light energy directly for life activities. To provide the energy needed by all organisms,
plants and other chlorophyll-bearing organisms capture the energy of sunlight and
convert it into chemical energy stored in the food. When people and other heterotrophic
organisms eat food from producers and consumers, chemical energy stored from food
is transferred to their bodies. Do you know how these processes are being done by
our body and by other living organisms?
What are expected of you to learn?
1. Differentiate basic features and importance of photosynthesis and respiration.
a) Describe the parts of organelles involved in photosynthesis and cellular
respiration.
b) Describe the process of food making by plants.
c) Describe how stored energy from food is changed to chemical energy for cell
use.
d) Identify the factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
2. Design and conduct an investigation to provide evidence that plants can
manufacture their own food.

Learners Module

Key questions for this module

How do plants manufacture their own food?
What are the factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis?
How do cells convert stored energy in food into chemical energy?
How do materials and energy flow in the ecosystem?

Now you have to read and answer the questions that follow in the best way you can.
Your answers will give the teacher the necessary information on what you already know
and those topics that need to be given more emphasis.
Pre Assessment:
1. Plants make food by absorbing water and carbon dioxide. Which of the following
substances is the origin of oxygen released as gas by green plants during
photosynthesis?
a. water
c. carbon dioxide
d. ribulose-1,5-biphosphate
b. sugar
2. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are gases that cycle out in the ecosystem. Which of
the following gases is important to photosynthesis?
a. ozone gas b. water vapor
c. oxygen
d. carbon dioxide
3. Plants are considered as food makers. In which of the following cell organelles
does photosynthesis occur?
a. ribosome
b. chlorophyll
c. chloroplast
d. mitochondrion
4. The light-dependent reaction of photosynthesis must come first before the light
independent reaction because its products are important to the fixation of carbon
dioxide. Which of the following is/are the product/s of the lightdependent
reaction?
a. ADP only
b. NADPH only
c. ATP only d. NADPH and ATP
5. Plants are very unique among other organisms due to their capability to trap
sunlight and make their own food. Which of the following enables plants to trap
energy from the sun?
a. epidermis
b. chloroplast
c. cuticle
d. chlorophyll
6. All organisms get energy from food to perform different life processes. This is
done in the cells by breaking down sugar molecules into chemical energy. Which
of the following cell organelles is associated with the production of chemical
energy?
a. chloroplast b. mitochondrion
c. endoplasmic reticulum d. nucleus
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Learners Module

7. Pyruvate is the product of glycolysis. If there is no oxygen available to cells of the

human body, what becomes of pyruvate?
d. a and c
a. alcohol
b. lactic acid
c. CO2
8. If you did not eat for three days, where did your cell get the glucose for ATP
production?
a. blood sugar
c. glycogen present in the muscle
b. glycogen in the liver
d. protein in the blood
9. How many molecule/s of carbon dioxide is/are released from one pyruvic acid
molecule being oxidized?
a. 1
b. 3
c. 2
d. 4
10. During the synthesis of ATP, what is the direction of hydrogen flow?
a. from matrix to intermembrane space
b. from intermembrane space to matrix
c. from matrix of mitochondrion to cytoplasm
d. from cytoplasm to matrix of mitochondrion

Photosynthesis
Plants are great food providers. Why do you think they are called great food
providers? As you go through the activities in this module, you will understand how
plants provide food and help to make the flow of energy in the ecosystem possible.
You will understand how each plant structure helps in the process of food
making, as well as the factors that may affect the rate of food production done by plants.
Photosynthesis is a process of food making done by plants and other autotrophic
organisms. The presence of chlorophyll enables these organisms to make their own
food. Autotrophic organisms require light energy, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water
(H2O) to make food (sugar).
In plants, photosynthesis primarily takes place in the leaves and little or none in
stems depending on the presence of chlorophyll. The typical parts of the leaves
include the upper and lower epidermis, mesophyll spongy layer, vascular bundles,
and stomates. The upper and lower epidermis protects the leaves and has nothing
to do with photosynthetic processes. Mesophyll has the most number of chloroplasts
that contain chlorophyll. They are important in trapping light energy from the sun.
Vascular bundles - phloem and xylem serve as transporting vessels of manufactured
food and water. Carbon dioxide and oxygen were collected in the spongy layer and
enters and exits the leaf through the stomata.
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Learners Module

The parts of a chloroplast include the outer and inner membranes,

intermembrane space, stroma and thylakoids stacked in grana. The chlorophyll is
built into the membranes of the thylakoids. Chlorophyll absorbs white light but it
looks green because white light consists of three primary colors: red, blue, and
green. Only red and blue light is absorbed thus making these colors unavailable to
be seen by our eyes while the green light is reflected which makes the chlorophyll
looks green. However, it is the energy from red light and blue light that are absorbed
and will be used in photosynthesis. The green light that we can see is not absorbed
by the plant and thus, cannot be used in photosynthesis.
There are two stages of photosynthesis: (a) Light-dependent Reaction and (b)
Calvin Cycle (dark reaction). Light-dependent reaction happens in the presence of
light. It occurs in the thylakoid membrane and converts light energy to chemical
energy. Water-one of the raw materials of photosynthesis-is utilized during this stage
and facilitates the formation of free electrons and oxygen. The energy harvested
during this stage is stored in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) and
NADPH( Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Hydrogen). These products
will be needed in the next stage to complete photosynthetic process.
Calvin Cycle (dark reaction) is a light-independent phase that takes place in the
stroma and converts Carbon dioxide (CO2) into sugar. This stage does not directly
need light but needs the products of light reaction. This is why it occurs immediately
after the light-dependent phase.
The chemical reaction for photosynthesis is:
Carbon Dioxide + Water
(CO2)
(H2O)

Glucose +
(C6H12O6)

Oxygen
(O2)

What do you think are the plant structures that enable a plant to make food? Try
the activities below to find out.
Listen to your teacher for further instructions on how you can complete the task
in the activities that follow.

Learners Module

Activity

What are the structures involved in the food

making process in plants?

You will go to different learning stations by group and will visit some websites
found on the activity sheets provided by your teacher. These websites contain
information about the plant structures and processes involved in photosynthesis. As you
visit the websites in different learning stations you must answer the questions.
Learning station 1: Plant Structure for Photosynthesis
Label the parts of a chloroplast and the internal structure of a leaf. Write your answer
in the box.
A. Internal structure of a leaf

B. Chloroplast

Source: http://dendro.cnre.vt.edu/forestbiology/photosynthesis.swf
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Learners Module

Learning Station 2: Identify the raw materials and end products of photosynthesis.
Complete the table below: Write the raw materials and products of
photosynthesis.
Raw Materials
_____________________________
_____________________________
_____________________________
_____________________________

Products
_____________________________
_____________________________
_____________________________
_____________________________

Learning Station 3: Understanding the Process of Food making

After watching the video clip on photosynthesis, make a concept map of
the entire process by filling up the figures with the processes involved, raw
materials used, and end products of the entire process of food making.

Learners Module

KEY CONCEPTS:
Plants have green pigments called chlorophyll stored in the chloroplast. This pigment
aids in capturing light energy from the sun that enables plants to change it into
chemical energy stored in the food. This process is called photosynthesis.
Carbon Dioxide + Water
(CO2)
(H2O)

Sunlight
Chlorophyll

Glucose +
(C6H12O6)

Oxygen
(O2)

Now that you understand photosynthesis, try to look and examine the structure
that enables the entrance and exit of gases in the leaf.
Activity

Investigating the Leaf Stomata

Objectives:
Identify the stomata
Describe the function of the stomata
Materials:
Leaf of Rheo discolor (boat lily) Clear nail polish
Glass slide
Clear tape
Microscope
Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Paint a thick patch of clear nail polish on the lower surface of the leaf.
Allow the nail polish to dry completely.
Put a clear tape to the dried nail polished patch.
Gently peel the nail polished patch by pulling the corner of the clear tape.
This will serve as your leaf impression for
microscopic observation.
5. Tape your leaf impression on a clean glass slide.
6. Observe the leaf impression under low power
objective of the microscope. Have you seen similar
structures as shown in Figure1?
Q1. Draw and label the stomata as seen under the
microscope. Which do you think are the stomata?
Figure 1: Stomata

Source:
7

http://www.flickr.com/photos/ajc1/8642458098/

Learners Module

KEY CONCEPTS:
Stomata are found on the lower surface of the leaf that allows the entrance of carbon
dioxide needed for photosynthesis. They also serve as exit point for the oxygen
produced during photosynthesis.

Are you excited to know more about photosynthesis? This time you will conduct
investigations that will show evidences that plants are really capable of making food.
Activity

Evidence of Photosynthesis

3A. To show that oxygen is produced by photosynthesis (Santan leaf can be

used if Elodea or Hydrilla is not available)
Materials:
Test tube

water

available plant sample

Procedure:
1. Place a fresh Santan leaf or Elodea or Hydrilla inside a test
tube. Add water to the test tube to cover the leaf or plant.
2. Leave the setup for about 10 to 15 minutes at room
temperature (29C).
3. Observe the set-up.
Q2. What did you see on the leaf/plant?
Figure 2: Sample set-up
_________________________________________________________.
Q3. Did you see any bubbles in the set-up?
_________________________________________________________
Q4. What do these bubbles indicate?
___________________________________________________________

Learners Module

3B. To show that sugar is produced by photosynthesis

Materials:
Tincture of iodine
Denatured alcohol
Water bath
Alcohol lamp

Medicine dropper
Beaker
Petri dish
Tripod

Wire gauge
Box of matches
Fresh leaf of mayana

Procedure:
1. Get a coleus leaf (mayana).
2. Remove the leaf color by boiling it in alcohol. To do this, follow the
steps below:
A. Fill the beaker (3/4 of its capacity) with water.
Let it boil. See Figure 3 for the sample set-up.
B. While waiting for the water to boil. Get a leaf
sample and place it on a test tube. Pour
denatured alcohol into the test tube, until the
leaf has been submerged. See Figure 3 for
Figure 3
the sample setup.
C. When the water in the beaker boils, place the test tube with leaf
and alcohol in it. Let the water boil for another three
minutes or until all the color of the leaf has been
extracted. See Figure 4 for the sample setup.

Figure 4

3. Remove the test tube from the beaker. Then, get the leaf out of the test
tube.
4. Rinse the leaf with water, and then place it on a petri dish.
5. Put drops of iodine, until the leaf has been soaked.
6. Observe the leaf. If the color of the leaf turns to bluish black, it
indicates the presence of starch. No change in color indicates
absence of starch.
Q5. What can you infer from your observation?
_______________________________________________
3C. To show the effect of light on the rate of photosynthesis
Materials:
2 Beakers
2 Funnels
Glowing splinter

2 test tubes
2 Santan leaf or twigs of Hydrilla or Elodea

Learners Module

Procedure:
1.
Make two setups similar to Figure 5.
2.
Take 2-3 pcs. of small Santan leaves and
place them in a glass funnel
3.
Invert the funnel in a beaker of water.
4.
Invert a test tube over the stem of the funnel.
5.
Leave one of the setups in sunlight for three
minutes. At the same time, cover the other setup
Figure 5: Sample set-up
with a black garbage bag in a shaded area or room.
6.
Count the number of bubbles every 30 seconds and record it in the
observation table.
7.
Plot the data on a graphing paper.
Caution

Do not insert the glowing splinter

without the teachers supervision

Optional: Remove the test tube carefully and insert a glowing splinter deep into it.
The splinter burns brightly. It indicates that oxygen is the gas collected in the test
tube.
Observation Table:

Time (seconds)
30
60
90
120
150
180
210

No. of Bubbles Produced

Exposed leaf
Covered leaf

Q6. Which setup produced more bubbles?

_____________________________________________________________
Q7. What do the bubbles indicate?
_____________________________________________________________
Q8. What gas is collected by the downward displacement of water in the test
tube?
____________________________________________________________
Q9. What happens to the number of bubbles as time passed?
_____________________________________________________________
10

Learners Module

Q10. How did you know that photosynthesis has taken place?
_____________________________________________________________
Q11. How does the amount of light affect the rate of photosynthesis?
_____________________________________________________________

3D. To show that carbon dioxide is needed in photosynthesis

(adapted from DepEd NSTIC Science II, Exercise 9, pages 20-22)

1. Testing for the presence of carbon dioxide

Materials:
4 Test tubes
Drinking straw
lime water
4 Rubber stoppers
2 500 mL empty mineral water bottles with cap
1 Graduated cylinder
Procedure:
a) Label the test tubes A and B.
b) Measure 5 mL of lime water using a graduated cylinder and pour into
test tube A and test tube B.
c) Use a straw to blow air into test tube A, as shown in
Figure 6.
d) Cover it immediately with a rubber stopper. (Note that
exhaled air contains 3-4% carbon dioxide.)
e) Cover test tube B with rubber stopper
Figure 6. Student
f) Shake both test tubes very well.
Photo credit: taken from
blowing air into the
DepEd-NSTIC Manual

test tube

Q12. What happened to the contents of the two test tubes?

Write your observations in the table below.
Table1.
Setup
Test tube A (exhaled
with air)

Observation

Test tube B

11

Possible Explanation

Learners Module

2. Photosynthesis and carbon dioxide

Materials:
Small fresh leaves
Water
Limewater
Test tube rack
Procedures:

drinking straw
2 Test tubes
2 Rubber stoppers

a)
Prepare two test tubes; label
them test tube C and test tube D.

Photo Credit: Maricel Pea-SJDMNHS

Figure 7a. Test tubes C and D

b) With the use of a drinking straw, blow air into test tube C.
c) Insert two to three small leaves into the test tubes gently. Dont
compress the leaves because they wont be able to absorb adequate
carbon dioxide.
d) Cover both test tubes with a rubber stopper. See
Figure 7b.
e) Place the two test tubes on a test tube rack. And
put them under sunlight for 20 minutes.
f) After 20 minutes, get back the two test tubes and
bring them back to your working area.
g) Add 5 mL of lime water to each test tube and Figure 7b. Sample Set-up
cover with rubber stopper.
Photo Credit: Maricel Pea-SJDMNHS
h) Shake well. Observe what happens to the contents of the two test
tubes.
Write your observation on Table 2.
Table 2.
SetUp

Observation

Possible Explanation

Setup C
Setup D

Carbon dioxide is one of the important materials to enable plants to produce food.

12

Learners Module

After investigating the evidences that plants are photosynthetic organisms,

the next thing that you will do is to conduct another experiment that will show the
factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis. This will tell you how you can speed
up the process of food making and how it can affect the quantity and quality of
harvests.
3E. To show the effect of the varying amount of chlorophyll in the rate of
photosynthesis.
Materials:
1 fresh coleus leaf (mayana)
Denatured alcohol
Petri dish
Tripod
Medicine dropper

Alcohol lamp
Beaker
Wire gauze
Test tube
Tincture of iodine

Procedure:
a) Get a variegated fresh coleus leaf (mayana) as shown
in Figure 8.
b) Draw the leaf. Shade the green parts. Label it Leaf A.
c) Remove the chlorophyll from the leaf by boiling it in
alcohol. To do this, follow the steps below.
1. Fill the beaker with (3/4 of its capacity) with water. Let it
boil.
2. While waiting for the water to boil, get the leaf sample,
then place it in a test tube.
3. Pour alcohol in the test tube until the leaf has been
completely soaked as shown in Figure 9.
4. When the water in the beaker boils, place the test tube in it. Let the
water boil for another three minutes or until all the colors of the leaf
have been extracted as shown in Figure 10.
Caution

Keep the alcohol away

from the fire!

Q19. What changes did you observe?

____________________________________________________
Q20. What do you think caused the changes?
____________________________________________________
13

Learners Module

d) Using a test tube holder, remove the test tube from the beaker using. Then
get the leaf out of the test tube.
e) Rinse the leaf with water and place it on a petri dish.
Q21. What happened to the leaf after boiling?
__________________________________________________________
Q22. What can you infer from your observation?______________________
_____________________________________________________________
f) To test for the presence of starch, put drops of iodine until the leaf has been
soaked.
g) Observe the leaf. Draw the leaf and shade the bluish black area. Label it Leaf
B.
h) Compare your drawings of leaf A and leaf B.
Q23. Which part of the leaf is shaded?___________________
Q24. Which part of the leaf produced more starch?____________
Q25. How does the presence of green pigment affect the production of
starch? ____________________________________________________
KEY CONCEPTS:
The factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis are temperature, carbon
dioxide, water, and light. Providing the plant with the right amount of these
materials will ensure good quality and quantity of the harvest.

Cellular Respiration
All heterotrophic organisms including man, depend directly or indirectly on plants
and other photosynthetic organisms for food. Why do we need food? Organisms need
food as the main source of energy. All organisms need energy to perform essential life
processes.
The food must be digested to simple forms such as glucose, amino acids, and
triglycerides. These are then transported to the cells. The immediate energy source of
the cells is glucose. Glucose inside the cell is broken down to release the stored energy.
This stored energy is harvested in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is a
high-energy molecule needed by working cells.
Glycolysis
In glycolysis, the 6-carbon sugar, glucose, is broken down into two molecules of a 3carbon molecule called pyruvate. This change is accompanied by a net gain of 2 ATP
molecules and 2 NADH molecules.
14

Learners Module

Krebs Cycle
The Krebs Cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and generates a pool of
chemical energy (ATP, NADH, and FADH2) from the
oxidation of pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis.
Pyruvate is transported into the mitochondria and loses
carbon dioxide to form acetyl-CoA, a 2-carbon molecule.
When acetyl-CoA is oxidized to carbon dioxide in the
Krebs cycle, chemical energy is released and captured in
the form of NADH, FADH2, and ATP.
Source:

http://www.hartnell.edu/tutorial
s/biology/cellularrespiration.html

Electron Transport Chain

The electron transport chain allows the

release of the large amount of chemical
energy stored in reduced NAD+ (NADH)
and reduced FAD (FADH2). The energy
released is captured in the form of ATP (3
ATP per NADH and 2 ATP per FADH2).
Source:

http://www.hartnell.edu/tutorials/biology/cellularrespiration.html

The electron transport chain (ETC) consists of a series of molecules, mostly

proteins, embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. This phase of cellular
respiration produces the greatest number of chemical energy in the form of ATP.
In the following activities, you will learn how the chemical energy of "food"
molecules is released and partially captured in the form of ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate). You should learn first the part of the cell where ATP is produced.

15

Learners Module

Activity

The Power House!

Mitochondria are membrane-enclosed organelles distributed through the

cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells. Their main function is the conversion of the potential
energy of food molecules into ATP. This organelle has important parts. An outer
membrane encloses the entire structure that contains many complexes of integral
membrane proteins that form openings. A variety of molecules and ions move in and out
of the mitochondrion through the openings. An inner membrane encloses a fluid-filled
matrix. This membrane contains five complexes of integral proteins such as:

NADH dehydrogenase
succinate dehydrogenase
cytochrome c reductase (the cytochrome b-c1complex)
cytochrome c oxidase
ATP synthase
Task: Describe each part of the
mitochondrion.
Eg. Cristae are the inner folded
membrane of the mitochondrion.

1.

_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_____________________

4.

3.
2.

KEY CONCEPTS:

Mitochondrion is considered as the power house of the cell. It plays an important role
in the breakdown of food molecules to release the stored energy in the form of ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate).

16

Learners Module

Activity

Let Us ReCharge!

In this activity, you will learn the basic concept of how your cells release the
energy from the food you eat. Thus, you will understand how your eating habits and
daily activities affect the production and storage of energy of your body cells.
B. Understanding Glycolysis
Wait for further instructions to be given by your teacher.
Look at the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.

Guide Questions:
Q26. Which of the terms found in the diagram is considered a process?
_________________________________________________________
Q27. In which part of the cell does the process take place?
_________________________________________________________
Q28. What is the raw material?
_________________________________________________________
Q29. What are the products?
_________________________________________________________
Based on the diagram shown above, briefly describe the first step of
cellular respiration, emphasizing the location, raw materials needed and the end
products.

17

Learners Module

___________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.
Use the task checklist below as your guide in describing the first metabolic
process of cellular respiration.
Task Checklist
Category
Content:
States the raw materials and products of glycolysis
Tells specifically the location in the cell where it takes
place.
Organization of data:
The ideas are presented in the right order, beginning with where
the process takes place, the raw materials used, up to the
processes involved in the formation of end products.
Spelling:
All words are spelled correctly .

C. Let us go round and round..

You have understood and identified the raw material and end
products of Glycolysis. This time you will see the importance of the end
products of Glycolysis in the next stage, the KREBS CYCLE.
Your task is to arrange the following events in the Krebs Cycle in
proper sequence. Base your answer on the diagram. Assign numbers
1-7 in the space provided to indicate the correct sequence of events;
then rewrite them in a paragraph form.
cristae

Mitochondrial
matrix

18

Learners Module

_____ A. In a series of steps, the hydrogen and high energy electrons are
removed from the 2-carbon molecule.
_____ B. The 2-carbon molecule enters the cycle and joins a 4-carbon molecule.
_____ C. One ATP is formed.
_____ D. Two carbon dioxide are released.
_____ E. Three NAD+ are converted to 3 NADH and 3 H+.
_____ F. At the end of the cycle, nothing remains of the original glucose molecule.
_____ G. One FAD is converted into 1 FADH2.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

D. Pump it out!
You will watch a short video clip about oxidative phosphorylation or
electron transport chain, the final stage of cellular respiration. After
viewing the clip, answer the following questions. The animation of
electron transport chain can be viewed on the link below.
http://www.hartnell.edu/tutorials/biology/cellularrespiration.html
Q30. How will you describe the
flow of electrons?
________________________________________________________
Q31. What do you think is the importance of NADH and FADH2 in the
process?_______________________________________________
Q32. What is the final acceptor of the electron in the process?
________________________________________________________
Q33. What compound is formed when the electron combines with the
last acceptor? ___________________________________________
The electrons in NADH and FADH2 flow through a series of electron transport
acceptors. The flow of electrons and H+ results in ATP formation. The last electron
(hydrogen ions) combine with the last acceptor (oxygen) to form water.
Glucose + Oxygen
(C6H12O6) + (O2)

Carbon dioxide + Water + ATP

(CO2)
(H2O)
19

Learners Module

Activity

Comparing Photosynthesis and Respiration

There is recycling of materials through the chloroplast and mitochondrion.

Study the diagram below.

Table 2. Comparing Photosynthesis and Respiration

Basis of Comparison
1. Cell structure involved
2. Starting materials/raw
materials
3. End product
4. Energy requirement

Photosynthesis

Respiration

Materials are recycled through the processes of photosynthesis in the chloroplast and respiration
in the mitochondrion. However, the flow of energy is one-way.

20

Learners Module

Performance Task:
Now you have understood how energy from the sun is captured and converted to
life energy. This time, you will try to provide possible solutions to a community problem
or issue on food production. Most communities in urban areas depend mostly on the
supply of the crops from rural areas. What you need to do is to provide urban
communities with insights on how they can build small urban gardens in their homes.
You will apply what you have learned in photosynthesis.
Each group may develop a material such as brochure, multimedia presentation, a
facebook page, or a web page that contains tips and information on how to put up an
urban garden for crops suited for homes with limited space for planting.
Your teacher will give you detailed instructions on this task. Use the rubric as
your guide in planning, doing, and completing the task which will be provided to you by
your teacher. Your teacher will also give you a progress checklist form to help you keep
track of and monitor your progress.
Summary

Through the process of photosynthesis, plants and other chlorophyll-bearing

organisms produce food for themselves.
In photosynthesis, plants capture light energy and convert it into chemical energy
stored in food.
The summary equation for photosynthesis is as follows:
sunlight
Carbon dioxide

+ water

glucose
chlorophyll

+ oxygen

Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast found in the leaves of plants.

Essentially, the two major stages in photosynthesis are:
o Light reaction phase
o Calvin Cycle
Improved farming practices enhance photosynthesis that result in good harvest.
Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria of the cells.
Organisms release stored energy in food through the process of respiration.
Respiration breaks down glucose into carbon dioxide, water and energy (ATP) in
the presence of oxygen.
The summary equation of respiration is as follows:
carbon dioxide + water + ATP
Glucose + oxygen
The breakdown of glucose involves three major steps: glycolysis, Krebs cycle;
electron transport chain

21

Learners Module

SUMMATIVE TEST:
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answer on your answer sheet.
1. A farmer is experiencing a problem in growing his crops. Most of the leaves of the
crops are turning yellow. Which of the following will likely result from the yellowing of
the leaves of the crops?
a. It will increase the production of food.
b. It will decrease the production of food.
c. The production of food will remain the same.
d. None of the above.
2. Abby wants to know if leaves are capable of making food during nighttime. Which of
the following experimental design should Abby do to get an accurate answer to her
question?
a. Put one potted plant in a very dark place over night and test for the presence
of starch.
b. Cover the plant with paper bag overnight and test for the presence of starch.
c. Put one potted plant under the sun and the other in a shaded area for two
hours and test for the presence of starch.
d. Cover one leaf of a potted plant with carbon paper for two hours and test for
the presence of starch.
3. Which of the following materials are cycled out by the chloroplast and
mitochondrion?
a. Carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, and ATP
b. Carbon dioxide, water, sugar and oxygen
c. Sugar, water, oxygen, and ATP
d. Sugar, water, sunlight, and oxygen
4. When cells breakdown a sugar molecule completely to produce chemical energy
(ATP), the cells need the following materials_________
a. Sugar and oxygen
c. Sugar only
b. Sugar and water
d. Sugar and carbon dioxide
5. A vegetable farmer wants to increase his harvest. Which of the following conditions
should the farmer consider?
a. The kind of soil only
b. The amount of water only
c. The location of the plots only
d. All of the above
6. Oxygen is essential in cellular respiration. What is the role of oxygen in the electron
transport chain?
a. It provides a high energy proton.
c. It serves as the final acceptor.
b. It releases an electron.
d. It forms water.
22

Learners Module

7. What will happen if ATP and NADPH are already used up at night?
a. Less oxygen will be produced.
c. Glucose production will stop.
b. Less carbon dioxide will be used.
d. Water molecule will split to form
electrons.
8. Which of the following best explains why planting trees and putting up urban
gardens can help prevent global warming?
a. Plants produce oxygen during day time and perform transpiration.
b. Plants absorb carbon dioxide that contributes to the rising of earths
temperature.
c. Plants perform photosynthesis.
d. Plants use up carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, release oxygen to the
environment, and perform transpiration.
9. Sugarcane juice is used in making table sugar which is extracted from the stem of
the plant. Trace the path of sugar molecules found in the stem from where they are
produced.
a. Root ---- stem
c. flowers ---- leaf ----stem
d. roots --- leaf ---- stem
b. Leaf ----- stem
10. When cells break down food into chemical energy it undergoes three major
processes, glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron transport. Which of these processes
provides the most number of ATP molecules?
a.
Glycolysis
b. Krebs cycle
c. electron transport chain d. no idea

GLOSSARY
Adenosine Triphospate (ATP): compound that stores energy in the cell
Autotrophs: organisms that can make their own food.
Calvin Cycle:
name given to the cycle of dark reaction in photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration:
catabolic process pathways of aerobic and anaerobic
respiration, which break down organic molecules for the production
of ATP.
Chlorophyll: green pigment in the chloroplast of photosynthetic organisms that
captures light energy
Chloroplast: organelle found in photosynthetic organisms that absorb sunlight and use
it to synthesize carbon dioxide and water
Cristae:
inner folded membrane of the mitochondrion
Guard Cell: specialized epidermal cell that controls the opening and closing of the
stomata by responding to the changes in water pressure
Heterotrophs:
organisms that cannot make food

23

Learners Module

Krebs Cycle:
cyclical series of reaction in cellular respiration that produces
carbon dioxide, NADH, and FADH2
Light Reaction:
stage/phase of photosynthesis that require light
Mitochondrial Matrix:
the compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by the inner
membrane, containing enzymes and substrates for the citric
acid cycle.
Mitochondrion:
organelle that serves as site for cellular respiration
Photosynthesis: process done by autotrophs of converting light energy into chemical
energy that is stored in food (sugar).

REFERENCES:
Books:
Miller, K etal (2005). Biology New Edition, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Needham,
Massachusetts
Campbell, N etal (2008). Biology Eight Edition, Pearson Education, Inc. San Francisco
California
Bernardo, Ma. E. etal (2005). Hands & Minds On Activities for Biology, Innovative
Materials, Inc.
Rabago, L etal (2010). Functional Biology, Vibal Publishing House, Inc. Quezon City
DepEd (2009). Biology Science and Technology Textbook for Second Year, Book
Media press, Inc.
DepEd (2012). NSTIC Science II (Biology), Cebu City

Electronic Sources:
DepEd LRMDS portal http://lrmds.deped.gov.ph/
Beam Science Second Year
EASE Biology
Apex Biology

Internet Sources:
McGraw-hill Companies. (2010). Animation of Photosynthesis. Retrieved from
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/bio_animations/02_MH_Photosynthesis_Web
/index.html; viewed on October, 2013

24

Learners Module

Mike Tyree (2003). Animation. Retrieved from

http://dendro.cnre.vt.edu/forestbiology/photosynthesis.swf
viewed October 2013
Peter Weatherwall (18 March 2009).Photosynthesis Song. Retrieved on October 2013
from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C1_uez5WX1o
Interactive Concepts in Biochemistry. Retrieved on October 2013 from
http://www.wiley.com/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/electron_transport/electron
_transport.htm
Intel. (2008) Photosynthesis Experiments. Retrieved on October 2013 from
http://www.skoool.ie/skoool/homeworkzone.asp?id=233
Mcgraw-Hill Companies (2010). Cellular Respiration. Retrieved from on October 2013
from http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0073532223/student_view0/chapter7/3d_animation__cellular_respiration.html
J. Stein Carter . Copyright 1996. Photosynthesis. Retrieved on Novemebr 2013 from
http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/photosyn.htm
Dr. Katherine Harris (2008). Cellular Respiration Tutorials. Retrieved on November
2013 from http://www.hartnell.edu/tutorials/biology/cellularrespiration.html

25

Unit 2: Countless and Active Particles of Matter

www.ubqool.com

www.mychemset.com

Unit 2: Countless and Active Particles of Matter

Overview:
In Grade 8 Chemistry, you have learned about the particles of matter. How it
can be used in explaining properties, physical changes, structure of substances and
mixtures. You also learned that particles of matter like atoms are composed of
electrons, protons, and neutrons. An atom has its own structure distinct from the
other kind of atoms. Atoms are present in the elements and these elements are
arranged in the periodic table which can be used as a tool in determining the
properties of elements.
This school year your knowledge about matter will increase as you study this
unit. This unit will provide an opportunity to learn additional atomic models which
you can use in understanding how atoms chemically combine with one another to
form bonds producing compounds. Through this unit, you will also discover that this
phenomenon is responsible for the numerous organic compounds available for us.
Lastly, you will get to know the mole concept which will give you an idea on how
much particles are equal to one mole and how heavy it is.
Unit 2 is composed of the following modules:
Module 1: Electronic Structure of Matter
Module 2: Chemical Bonding
Module 3: The Carbon Compounds
Module 4: Whats in a Mole?
Each module is packed with interesting activities which will make you enjoy chemistry
class even more.
Are you ready for the continuation of chemistry learning? You may now start with
Module 1.

Unit 2
MODULE

Suggested Time allotment: 4 hours

Electronic Structure of Matter

Overview
In Grade 8, you have learned the Rutherfords atomic model which pictures the atom
as mostly empty space and its mass is concentrated in the nucleus, where you find the
protons and the neutrons. This model has worked well during his time, but it was only
able to explain a few simple properties of atoms. However, It could not explain why
metals or compounds of metals give off characteristic colors when heated in a flame, or
why objectswhen heated to much higher temperatures first glow to dull red, then to
yellow, and then to white. A model different from Rutherfords atomic model is
necessary to describe the behavior of atoms
Niels Bohr refined Rutherfords model of an atom. Based on his experiments, Bohr
described the electron to be moving in definite orbits around the nucleus. Much later,
scientists discovered that it is impossible to determine the exact location of electrons in
an atom. In Activity 1, you will learn about the evidence that Bohr used to explain his
model of the atom. In Activity 2, you will do a task that will help you understand that
there is a certain portion of space around the nucleus where the electron is most likely
to be found.
In addition, you will know more about the present model of the atom, which is called
the quantum mechanical model of the atom. It is important for you to understand that
the chemical properties of atoms, ions and molecules are related to how the electrons
are arranged in these particles of matter. You will find out the answers to the following
questions as you perform the activities in this module.

How does the Bohr atomic model differ from Rutherfords model? What
is the basis for the quantum mechanical model of the atom? How are
electrons arranged in the atom?

The questions above were anchored on the following learning competencies:

 Describe how the Bohr Model of the atom improved Rutherfords Atomic
Model.
Explain how the Quantum Mechanical Model of the atom describes the
energies and positions of the electrons.
Excited to discover the answers to the above sited questions? Before you start
studying this module, answer the following pre-assessment.
Pre-Assessment:
1. On the basis of Rutherfords model of an atom, which subatomic particle is present in
the nucleus of an atom?
a. proton and electron
b. neutron and electron

c. proton and neutron

d. proton only

2. If the first and second energy levels of an atom are full, then what would be the total
number of electrons in the atom?
a. 6

b. 8

c. 10

d.18

3. Which atomic model is proposed by Schrodinger?

a. nuclear model
b. planetary model
c. raisin bread model
d. quantum mechanical model
4. Which electron transition result in the emission of energy?
a. 3p to 3s

c. 2s to 2p

b. 3p to 4p

d. 1s to 2s

5. The symbol n in the Bohr theory of atomic structure refers to

a. the energy of electron
b. the total energy of the atom
c. the number of electron in an energy level
d. the orbit in which an electron is found.

6. Which of the following sublevels is correctly designated?

a. 1p5

b. 3f9

c. 2p6

d. 3d11

7. How many orbitals are in the third principal energy level?

a. 3

b. 6

c. 9

d. 12

8. Which configuration is possible in an excited state of electron?

a. 2He : 1s2
b. 1H: 1d1
c. 11Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3d1
d. 10Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s1
9. What are the orbitals present in the fifth principal energy level?
a. s orbital

b. s, p orbitals

c. s, p, d orbitals

d. s, p, d, and f orbitals

10. For a neutral atom with the electron configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s1 , which
statement is false?
a. The atomic number is ten.
b. The 1s and 2s orbitals are filled
c. The atom is in the ground state.
d. The atom is in the excited state
___________________________________________________________________
As early as the 17th century, knowledge about the structure of the atom grew
when scientists began to study the emission and absorption of light from different
elements. In Grades 7 and 8, you have learned about the characteristics and properties
of light. As you perform Activity 1, you will find out what happens when metal salts are
subjected to heat. `The colors you observe could be related to the structure of the atom.

Activity 1: The Flame Test

Objectives:

determine the characteristic colors that metal salts emit; and

relate the colors emitted by metal salts to the structure of the atom.

Materials:
0.50 grams of each of the following metal salts:
Calcium chloride
6 pcs watch glass
Sodium chloride
1 pc 10-ml graduated cylinder
Copper(II) sulfate
1 pc dropper
Potassium chloride
safety matches
Boric acid
100 mL 95% Ethanol (or ethyl alcohol)
100 mL 3 M hydrochloric acid
Precautions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Wear goggles, gloves and a safety apron while performing the activity.
Do this activity in a well-ventilated area.
Handle hydrochloric acid with care because it is corrosive.
Ethyl alcohol is flammable.
Be careful to extinguish all matches after use.

Procedure:
1. Place each metal salt on a watch glass and add 2 to 3 drops of 3 M
hydrochloric acid.
2. Pour about 3 - 5 mL or enough ethyl alcohol to cover the size of a 1 peso-coin
in the first watch glass. Light with a match and observe the color of the flame.
(This will serve as reference for comparison of the flame color). Wait for the
flame to be extinguished or put out on its own.
3. Repeat procedure No. 2 for each salt. Observe the color of the flame.

4. Write your observation in a table similar to the one below.

Table 1. Color of flame of metal salts
Metal salt tested
Boric acid
Calcium chloride
Sodium chloride
Potassium chloride
Copper(II) sulfate

Element
producing color
boron
calcium
sodium
potassium
copper

Color of the flame

Q1. Why do you think are there different colors emitted?

Q2. What particles in the heated compounds are responsible for the production
of the colored light?
Q3. How did the scientists explain the relationship between the colors observed
and the structure of the atom?
________________________________________________________________
You have observed that each of the substances you tested showed a specific
color of the flame. Why do certain elements give off light of specific color when heat is
applied? These colors given off by the vapors of elements can be analyzed with an
instrument called spectroscope. See Figure1.

Figure 1. An atomic spectroscope

A glass prism separates the light given off into its component wavelength. The
spectrum produced appears as a series of sharp bright lines with characteristic colors
and wavelength on a dark background instead of being continuous like the rainbow. We
call this series of lines the atomic spectrum of the element. The color, number and
position of lines produced is called the fingerprint of an element. These are all
constant for a given element. See Fig. 2.

Figure 2. Atomic spectra of H, Na, and Ne

How did Bohr explain what you observed in Activity 1 and the findings about the
elements in a spectroscope? Individual lines in the atomic spectra of elements indicate
definite energy transformations within the atom. Bohr considered the electrons as
particles moving around the nucleus in fixed circular orbits. These orbits are found at
definite distances from the nucleus. The orbits are known as the energy levels, n where
n is a whole number 1, 2, 3and so forth.
Electrons in each orbit have a definite energy, which increases as the distance of the
orbit from the nucleus increases. As long as the electron stays in its orbit, there is no
absorption or emission of energy. As shown in Figure 3, when an electron of an element
absorbed extra energy (from a flame or electric arc), this electron moves to a higher
energy level. At this point the electron is at its excited state. Once excited, the atom is
unstable. The same electron can return to any of the lower energy levels releasing
energy in the form of light with a particular color and a definite energy or wavelength.
Bohrs model explained the appearance of the bright line spectrum of the hydrogen
atom but could not explain for atoms that has more than one electron.

Figure 3. Excited state of an electron

8

Q4. Explain how your observation in Activity 1 relates to Bohrs model of the atom.
You can explain using an illustration.
Q5. Which illustration below represents the energy of the electron as described by
Bohr? Explain your answer.

a.

The energy levels of electrons are like the steps of a ladder. The lowest step of the
ladder corresponds to the lowest energy level. A person can climb up and down by
going from step to step. Similarly, the electrons can move from one energy level to
another by absorbing or releasing energy. Energy levels in an atom are not equally
spaced which means that the amount of energy are not the same. The higher energy
levels are closer together. If an electron occupies a higher energy level, it will take less
energy for it to move to the next higher energy level. As a result of the Bohr model,
electrons are described as occupying fixed energy levels at a certain distance from the
nucleus of an atom.
However, Bohrs model of the atom was not sufficient to describe atoms with more
than one electron.
The way around the problem with the Bohrs model is to know the arrangement of
electrons in atoms in terms of the probability of finding an electron in certain locations
within the atom. In the next activity, you will use an analogy to understand the
probability of finding an electron in an atom.
___________________________________________________________________

Activity 2: Predicting the Probable Location of an Electron

Objective:

Describe how it is likely to find the electron in an atom by probability.

Materials:
One sheet of short bond paper or half of a short folder
pencil or colored marker with small tip
compass
graphing paper
one-foot ruler
9

Procedure:
1. Working with your group mates, draw a dot on the center of the sheet of paper
or folder.
2. Draw 5 concentric circles around the dot so that the radius of each circle is 1.0
cm, 3 cm, 5 cm, 7 cm and 9 cm from the dot

3. Tape the paper on the floor so that it will not move.

4. Stand on the opposite side of the target from your partner.(Target is the center
which represent the nucleus of an atom). Hold a pencil or marker at chest level
above the center of the circles you have drawn.
5. Take turns dropping the pencil or marker so that it will leave 100 dots on the
circles drawn on paper or folder.
6. Count the number of dots in each circle and record that number on the data
table.
7. Calculate the number of dots per square centimeter (cm2).
8. Using a graphing paper, plot the average distance from the center on the x-axis
and number of dots per sq.cm on the y-axis.

10

Data Table:
Circle
Average
Number Distance
from Center
cm
1
2
3
4
5

(A)

(B)
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
9.0

Area of Difference
of Number of Number
Circle,
Areas of the Two Dots
in of Dots
cm2
Consecutive
Circle
per cm2
Circles, cm2
(E)/(D)
(C)
3.14
28.27
78.54
153.94
254.47

(D)
25.13
50.27
75.40
100.53
125.66

(E)
5

(F)
0.1920

Percent
Probability
of Finding
dots,
%
(G)
19.20

Q1. What happens to the number of dots per unit area as the distance of the dots
go farther from the center?
Q2. Determine the percent probability of finding a dot in each of the circle drawn on
the target by multiplying No. of dots /cm2 (column D) by the total number of dots
(100). For example: In circle 1(A)
Percent probability = No. of dots /cm2 X 100
= [0.1920 / 100 ] X 100 = 19.20%
Q3. Based on your graph, what is the distance with the highest probability of
finding a dot? Show this in your graph.
Q4. How many dots are found in the area where there is highest probability of
finding dots?
Q5.How are your results similar to the distribution of electrons in an atom?
Activity 1 is an analogy to show you that it is not possible to know the exact position
of the electron. So, Bohrs idea that electrons are found in definite orbits around the
nucleus was rejected. Three physicists led the development of a better model of the
atom. These were Louie de Broglie, Erwin Schrodinger, and Werner Karl Heisenberg.
De Broglie proposed that the electron (which is thought of as a particle) could also be
thought of as a wave. Schrodinger used this idea to develop a mathematical equation to
describe the hydrogen atom. Heisenberg discovered that for a very small particle like
the electron, its location cannot be exactly known and how it is moving. This is called
the uncertainty principle.

11

Instead, these scientists believed that there is only a probability that the electron
can be found in a certain volume in space around the nucleus. This volume or region of
space around the nucleus where the electron is most likely to be found is called an
atomic orbital. Thus, we could only guess the most probable location of the electron at
a certain time to be within a certain volume of space surrounding the nucleus.
The quantum mechanical model of the atom comes from the mathematical solution
to the Schrodinger equation.
The quantum mechanical model views an electron as a cloud of negative charge
having a certain geometrical shape. This model shows how likely an electron could be
found in various locations around the nucleus. However, the model does not give any
information about how the electron moves from one position to another.

Figure 4. Average distance of electrons having high and low energies

Figure 4 shows that the darker an area, the greater is the probability of finding the
electron in that area. The quantum mechanical model also gives information about the
energy of the electron. The model also describes the region of space around the
nucleus as consisting of shells. These shells are also called principal or main energy
levels. The principal energy levels or shells may have one or more sublevels. These
sublevels are assigned with letters: s, p, d, f, and g as shown in Table 2.

12

Table 2. Principal Energy Levels and Sublevels of Electrons

Principal
energy level,
n
1
2

Number of
Sublevels

Type of Sublevel and number of

orbitals

1
2

1s (1 orbital)
2s (1 orbital), 2p (3 orbitals)

3s (1 orbital), 3p (3 orbitals)
3d (5 orbitals)
4s (1 orbital), 4p (3 orbitals)
4d (5 orbitals), 4f (7 orbitals)
5s (1 orbital), 5p (3 orbitals)
5d (5 orbitals), 5f (7 orbitals)
5g (9 orbitals)

Maximum
number of
electrons
2
8
18
32
50

As shown in Table 2, the principal quantum number always equals the number of
sublevels within that principal energy level. The maximum number of electrons that can
occupy a principal energy level is given by the formula 2n2, where n is the principal
quantum number.
Q7.Based on Table 2, how many types of orbitals are in principal energy level three
(3)?
Q8.How many atomic orbitals are in the highest sublevel of principal energy level
three (3)?
__________________________________________________________________

Figure 5. Shapes of s Orbital and p Orbital

Orbitals have specific energy values. They have particular shapes and direction
in space. The s orbitals are spherical, and p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped, as shown in
Figure 5. Because of the spherical shape of an s orbital, the probability of finding an
electron at a given distance from the nucleus in an s orbital does not depend on
13

direction, unlike the three kinds of p orbitals which are oriented along the x, y, and z
axes. So they different orientations in space, px, py, and pz.
The shapes of other orbitals (d and f orbitals) were derived from complex calculation
and will not be discussed in this module.
In an atom, electrons and the nucleus interact to make the most stable
arrangement possible. The way in which electrons are distributed in the different orbitals
around the nucleus of an atom is called the electron configuration.
Table 3. Arrangement of electrons in the atoms of the first 10 elements
Chemical
Symbol
1H
2He
3Li
4Be
5B
6C
7N
8O
9F
10Ne

O
1s

R
2s

B I
2px

T
2py

A L
2pz

Electron
Configuration
1s1
1s2
1s22s1
1s22s2
1s22s22px1
1s22s22px12py1
1s22s22px12py12pz1
1s22s22px22py12pz1
1s22s22px22py22pz1
1s22s22px22py22pz2

1H

= element hydrogen with an atomic number of 1.

Atomic number is the number of proton = the number of electron for an atom

Use this table as guide for the next activity.

Activity 3: Electron Configurations

Objectives:

Write the electron configuration of the elements in the third period;

Determine the pattern of filling the orbitals based on the given distribution for the
first 10 elements; and

Devise rules in filling up the orbitals.

14

Materials:
Pen and paper
Periodic table

Procedure:
1. Work with your group mates to write the electron configurations for the elements
in the third period of the periodic table.
2. Compare the electron configurations of the second period (see Table 3) and the
third period elements.
Q1. Do you see patterns in the distribution of their electrons?
Q2. What are these patterns you observe?
Q3.

What do you think are some rules that apply in filling up

the orbitals for the elements from atomic number 1 to 18?

Based on Activity 3, you were able to write the electron configuration of an element
using the periodic table as a guide. Recall from Grade 8 that the elements are arranged
in the periodic table in the order of increasing atomic number. This also means that the
elements are arranged according to the number of electrons.
If you noticed from Table 3, both hydrogen and lithium have one electron in the
highest energy level. Beryllium has two, and boron has three. So, the number of
electrons in the highest energy level of the elements is the basis of their location on the
periodic table. Since the experimental basis of the periodic table is chemical properties
of the elements, knowing the arrangement of electrons in an element will help us
understand and predict their chemical properties.
Summary:

Rutherfords nuclear atomic model describes the atom as mostly empty space.
Its mass is concentrated in the nucleus that consist of protons and neutrons.
However it could not explain the chemical properties of elements.

15

Bohrs atomic model describes the atom like a solar system, where the electron
is found only in specific circular paths, or orbits, around the nucleus.

In the Bohr model, each electron carries a fixed amount of energy and does not
lose energy as long as it stays in its given orbit. The fixed energies that the
electrons have are called energy levels. An electron that has received enough
energy can jump to a higher energy level. When the electron returns to a lower
energy level, energy is emitted in the form of light.

The Bohr model was later replaced by a model of the atom that showed that
electrons are not limited to fixed orbits around the nucleus.

Through mathematical calculations, scientists explained that there is only a

probability that the electron can be found in a certain volume in space around the
nucleus. This volume or region of space around the nucleus where the electron is
most likely to be found is called an atomic orbital

Schrodinger formulated a mathematical equation that describes the behavior of

the electron. The solution to the equation is used to calculate the probability of
finding the electron at a particular region in space around the nucleus.

The quantum mechanical model of the atom describes the atom as having a
nucleus at the center around which the electrons move. This model describes a
region in space where the electron is most likely to be found.

An electron is imagined to be a cloud of negative charge having a certain

geometrical shape. The electrons are arranged in principal or main energy levels
that consist of one or more sublevels.

The way in which electrons are distributed in the different orbitals around the
nucleus of an atom is called the electron configuration. Filling of electrons start
from lower energy level to highest energy level

Glossary:
Atomic orbital the region of space in which there is a high probability of finding the
electron in an atom
Electron cloud an imaginary representation of an electrons rapidly changing position
around the nucleus over time
Electron configuration the distribution of electrons within the orbitals of the atoms of
an element

16

Excited state any electron configuration of an atom or molecule other than the lowest
energy(ground) state
Exclusion Principle a principle developed by Wolfgang Pauli stating that no two
electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers
Ground state the electron configuration of an atom or ion that is lowest in energy
Quantum number- a number that specifies a property of an orbital or an electron

Summative Assessment:
I.

Multiple Choice: Select the best/correct answer.

1. Who proposed the probability that electrons will be found in certain locations
around the nucleus of an atom?
A. Neils Bohr
B. Erwin Schrodinger

C. Ernest Rutherford
D. J.J. Thomson

2. Which of the following statements is NOT true of the atomic model of Bohr?
A. The hydrogen is made up of a positively charged nucleus
B. The electron revolves around the nucleus in a circular orbit.
C. The energy of the electron in a given orbit is not fixed.
D. An electron can absorb or emit a quantity of radiation.
3. Which orbital designation has the highest energy?
A. 2s

B. 2p

C. 3d

D. 4s

4. Which statement is incorrect?

A. Orbital is a region in an atom where an electron can be found.
B.
An electron can absorb energy when it jumps to a higher
energy level.
C.
An electron can emit energy when it jumps to a higher
energy level.
D. Filling of electrons in an atom start from lower energy level to highest
energy level.

17

5. What occur when an electron moves from high energy level to a low one?
A. another electron goes from a low energy level to a high one
B. the atom moves faster
C. colored light is given off
D. this process is not possible
6. Which combination describes the flame color of the compound when heated?
A. sodium chloride orange
C. potassium chloride blue
B. copper(II) sulfate violet
D. boric acid red
II. Shown here are orbital configurations for the elements named. Each configuration
is incorrect in some way. Identify the error in each and write the correct
configuration.
1. carbon : 1s2 2s2 2px2
2. calcium: 1s22s22px22py22pz23s23px23py23pz23d113d21
3. chlorine: 1s22s22px22py22pz23s23px23py24s1
4. aluminum: 1s22s22px22py22pz23s23d11
5. titanium: 1s22s22px22py22pz23s23px23py23pz2 3d12 3d22
References:
Brown, Theodore, LeMay, H.Eugene,Bursten, Bruce, Murphy, Catherine, Woodward,
Patrick (2009) Chemistry: The Central Science 11th Edition Pearson Education,
South Asia PTE. LTD. Singapore
Carmichaels, H. (1983). Laboratory chemistry,. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co.
Department of Education, Culture and Sports. (2004).Chemistry:Science and
Technology textbook for 3rd year. (Revised Ed.). Quezon City: Author.
Kotz, John C. , Treichel, Paul M. Townsend, John R. (2010) Chemistry and Chemical
Reactivity Enhanced Ed. Canada: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning.
LeMay, E, Beall, H., Roblee, K. & Browser, D..(1996). Chemistry Connection to Our
Changing world, Teacher Edition.New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Mendoza, E. & Religioso,T. (2001). Chemistry. . Quezon City:Phoenix-SIBS Publishing
House,Inc..

18

Silberberg, Martin S., (2009) Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change 5th
Edition, International Edition 2010 McGraw-Hill, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,
New York
Smoot, R.C. Smith, R.G & Price, J.(1995) Chemistry Wraparound Teachers Edition,
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, Merril Publishing Co., Ohio
The ekShiksha Team, Affordable Solutions Lab(ASL), Indian Institute of Technology,
Bombay, India (n.d). Matter in our surroundings. Retrieved: October 3, 2013.
http://www.it.iitb.ac.in/ekshiksha/eContent-Show.do?document!d=88
University of the Philippines National Institute for Science and Mathematics Education
Development. (2001). Practical work in high school chemistry: Sourcebook for
teachers. Quezon City: Author.
Wilbraham, A.C., Staley, D.D., & Matta, M.S.(1997). Chemistry expanded.(4th
Ed.)Teacher Edition. California: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.

19

Suggested Time allotment: 14-16 hours

Unit 2
MODULE

Chemical Bonding

Overview
It is interesting to look back at the lessons you have learned about matter when
you were in grades 7 and 8. Do you still remember them? Yes! In grade 7, you were
able to describe the properties of metals and non-metals and to recognize elements and
compounds. In Grade 8, you observed different common changes such as evaporation,
condensation, boiling, and melting that helped you learn about the particles that matter
is made of. You have also learned that the elements are systematically arranged and
grouped in the Periodic Table of Elements. Your knowledge about matter is continuously
growing. In fact, in the previous unit you were introduced to how electrons in different
atoms are distributed. You have learned a lot so far!
Studying this module will certainly increase your understanding about matter.
Get your periodic table. What do you notice about the electronic configuration of
the noble gases? Youre right! Except for helium, all of them have eight electrons at the
outermost energy level. The sharing or the complete transfer of electrons causes an
atom to have the same electronic configuration as that of the nearest noble or inert gas.
The sharing or the complete transfer indicates that the atom has attained stability. Either
the sharing or the complete transfer of electrons leads to the formation of compounds.
Going through this module will make you understand what is happening in the
atoms during the formation of compounds. Look at the periodic table. Did you notice
the vertical arrangement of the elements? This is called family or group. Notice the
number in each group? Do you know what information it gives you? It tells about the
number of valence electrons. Do you still remember the meaning of valence electrons?
Valence electrons give you the number of electrons at the outermost energy level of the
atom. This is the information you need to know in order for you to determine whether
atoms transfer, accept or share electrons to become stable. Why do we need to talk
about the transfer or the sharing of electrons? You will discover the answer to this
question as you study this module.
Further, you will find out the answer to the following questions.
How are ionic and covalent compounds formed?
Why is an ionic compound different from a covalent compound?

20

The following objectives will help you focus as you about studying this module.
Learning Competencies/Objectives
Explain the formation of ionic and covalent bonds.
Recognize different types of compounds (ionic or covalent) based on their
properties such as melting point, hardness, polarity and electrical and thermal
conductivity.
Explain properties of metals in terms of their structure.
Explain how ions are formed.
Before you study this module, please answer the pre-assessment below.
Pre-Assessment:
Direction: Encircle the letter of the best answer for each question.
1. Which of the properties of atoms is the most suitable reference for the kind of bond
that will take place between/among them?
a. atomic size
b. electronegativity
c. ionization energy
d. electron affinity
2. What kind of particle is produced after covalent bonding?
a. atom
b. molecule
c. ion
d. electron
3. How does ionic bonding take place?
a. Two non-metallic elements of different kinds form strong forces of attraction.
b. Two non-metallic element of the same kind form strong forces of attraction.
c. A non-metallic element like fluorine is attracted to a metallic element like sodium.
d. A metallic element like sodium transfers an electron to a non-metallic element
like fluorine.
4. What kind of chemical bond will form between two oxygen atoms?
a. ionic bond
b. metallic bond
c. polar covalent bond
d. nonpolar covalent bond
5. Which of the following type of bonds will have the highest electrical and thermal
conductivity?
a. ionic bond
b. metallic bond
c. polar covalent bond
d. nonpolar covalent bond

21

6. Why can metals be hammered without breaking?

a. They are ductile.
b. They are not brittle.
c. They are malleable.
d. Its particles are strong.
7. When does covalent bonding take place?
a. It takes place when atoms share electrons with one another.
b. It takes place when the attraction between atoms is strong.
c. It takes place when atoms collide with one another.
d. It takes place when atoms attain stability.
8. Nitrogen (N) belongs to family 5A and it is diatomic. How many nonpolar covalent
bonds will there be in N2 molecule?
a. 1

b. 2

c. 3

d. 4

9. Which of the following will have the highest melting temperature?

a. sodium chloride (salt)
b. paraffin wax (candle wax)
c. sucrose (table sugar)
d. lead wire
10. Which among the following shows that an atom is stable?
a. having 2 valence electrons
b. having 4 valence electrons
c. having 6 valence electrons
d. having 8 valence electrons
After doing this pre-assessment, you are now ready to do the succeeding
activities of this module.
There are concepts you need to know in order to fully understand why atoms
form compounds. Let us start with the basic information, the number of valence
electrons, octet rule and electronegativity.

Activity 1: Mapping the Periodic Table

Objectives:
Identify the number of valence electrons of atoms.
Compare the electronegativity values of metals and non-metals.
Materials:
Periodic Table
Crayons

22

Procedure:
1. Locate the metals, non-metals and noble gases in the Periodic Table of
Elements. Color the area with metallic elements blue; the non-metallic elements
yellow and the noble gases green.
Q1. Where can you find metals, non-metals and noble gases in the periodic table
of elements?
Q2. Which number tells you the number of valence electrons?
Q3. What do you notice in the number of valence electrons of metals, non-metals
and noble gases?
2. Observe the number that corresponds to the valence electrons, electronegativity
and ionization energy of metals and non-metals using a periodic table.
Q4. What kind of element has:
a. less than 4 valence electrons?
b. more than 4 valence electrons?
c. low electronegativity?
d. high electronegativity?
e. low ionization energy?
f. high ionization energy?
The valence electrons are the electrons directly involved in forming bonds to form
compounds. It is important that you know the number of valence electrons so that you
can illustrate how bonds are formed. It is good that you have found out that metals have
low electronegativity and non-metals have high electronegativity because this property
plays an important role in forming compounds. Do you know what electronegativity
means? Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electron,
the higher its value, the higher its tendency to attract electron. How about ionization
energy? Did you know that ionization energy is the energy needed to pull or remove
one or more electron/s from a neutral atom? The lower the ionization energy the easier
it is to remove its valence electrons.
You can also show the number of valence electrons through the Lewis Symbol.
This symbol is composed of the chemical symbol of the element and dots that represent
the number of valence electrons.
The next activity will make you familiar with the Lewis Symbol.
Activity 2: Lewis Symbol
Objectives:
Write the Lewis Symbol of the representative elements.
Show the relationship among the number of valence electrons, electronegativity
and ionization energy.
Materials:
Periodic Table of Elements
23

Procedure:
Use the given periodic table of elements to determine the number of valence electrons.
You may refer to the group number where it belongs in filling up the table below.
Table 1. Lewis Symbols of Some Elements
Element

Family or
Group
1

Lewis Symbol

Electronegativity
Value

Ionization
Energy
(kJ/mol)
520

lithium
Li .
1.0
fluorine
sulfur
calcium
nitrogen
aluminum
Q1. Arrange these elements in increasing:
a. valence electrons
b. electronegativity values.
c. Ionization energy.
Q2. What do you notice with the number of valence electrons, electronegativity values
and ionization energies of the elements?
Q3. What kind of element has the greatest tendency to attract electrons? Why?
Examine the periodic table below. Does it verify your answers in Q1 and Q2?

Source: http://curriculum.nismed.upd.edu.ph
24

Ionization Energy of the Main-Group Elements in kJ/mol

1

18

H
21311
13 14

13

14

15

16

17

He
2372

Li
520

Be
1312

B
800

C
1085

N
1402

O
1314

F
1681

Ne
2080

Na
496

Mg
738

Al
578

Si
786

P
1012

S
1000

Cl
1251

Ar
1520

K
419

Ca
1312

Ga
579

Ge
761

As
947

Se
941

Br
1140

Kr
1351

Rb
403

Sr
1312

In
558

Sn
709

Sb
834

Te
869

I
1008

Xe
1170

Cs
376

Ba
1312

Tl
589

Pb
716

Bi
703

Po
813

At
926

Rn
1037

You have just learned the relationship among the number of valence electrons,
electronegativity and ionization energy. You also realized that it is easy to write the
Lewis Symbol of the representative element. The information that you found out from
the previous activity will be helpful in understanding chemical bonding.
Do you know why atoms form compounds? Have you heard about Octet Rule?
Atoms always strive to attain the most stable arrangement of electrons. Atoms are
stable if their electrons have the same kind of arrangement as that of noble gases,
where the s and p orbitals are filled with electrons except for helium, where only the s
orbitals are filled up. All the noble gases except for helium have 8 valence electrons.
The Octet Rule tells you that elements gain or lose or share electrons to achieve the
electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, thus after chemical bonding, elements
become isoelectronic with the nearest noble gas in the periodic table.
Metals have low electronegativity and ionization energy, thus they tend to transfer
or loose electrons. Non-metals have high electronegativity and ionization energy. They
have a greater tendency to attract electrons towards themselves. Thus non-metals tend
to gain electrons.
You will gain information about chemical bonding that involves gaining and losing
electrons as you do the next activity.

25

Activity 3: Bonding by Transfer of Electrons

Objectives:
Illustrate how an ionic bond is formed.
Show how ions are formed.
Materials:
Periodic Table of Elements
Procedure:
1. Select a metallic and a non-metallic element. Write the Lewis Symbol and
electronegativity value of both elements. Subtract the electronegativity value of
the metallic element from the non-metallic element.
..
.
Na
EN = 0.90
:Cl: EN = 3.0
.
Thus:
2.0 0.90 = 2.1
*If the difference is greater than 1.9, complete transfer of electron/s is
possible.
2. With the use of an arrow, show the complete transfer of electrons.
..
.
Na
:Cl:
.
3. Indicate the formation of cation and anion.
Na+ClAfter ionic bonding, sodium (Na) became isoelectronic with neon (Ne) while chlorine
became isoelectronic with argon (Ar), thus both sodium and chlorine attained stability.
4. Choose 5 combinations that will result to ionic bonding.
Q1. What kind of element forms cation after ionic bonding?
Q2. What kind of element forms anion after ionic bonding?
Q3. Why do ions form after ionic bonding?
Q4. Did the atoms attain stability after ionic bonding? Explain you answer.
Q5. How can you tell that ionic bonding will take place between metals and nonmetals?
Q6. Will all combinations of metals and non-metals form ionic bond? Why?
Try aluminium and chlorine. Will they form ionic bond?
.
..
Al:
EN = 1.5
:Cl: EN = 3.0
.

Based on the difference in the EN values of Al and Cl, the difference is only 1.5,
26

these two elements cannot form an ionic bond. In this case, there is not enough energy
to facilitate the complete transfer of electrons. Instead, another bond is formed, the
covalent bond, in which sharing of electrons takes place. This sharing helps the Al and
Cl atoms attain stability.
There are two types of covalent bond, the polar covalent bond and the
nonpolar covalent bond. If the electronegativity difference is equal to 0.4 or less it
results to nonpolar covalent bond. If the electronegativity difference is less than 1.9 and
more than 0.4, polar covalent bond is formed.
Try to do the next activity to find out if covalent bonding takes place. Take note of
the Octet Rule in considering the number of bonds that will be formed between atoms.
These steps will help you figure out if sharing of electrons will take place.
a. Get the total number of available electrons in a compound.
For CO2
carbon atom has 4 valence electrons
oxygen atom has 6 valence electrons
Total number of available Electrons = (1 C atom x 4) + (2 O atoms x 6)
= 4 + 12
= 16
b. Compute for the Octet Rule requirement that each atom should have 8
valence electrons to become stable.
Number of Electrons based on Octet Rule = (1 C atom x 8) + (2 O atoms x 8)
= 8 + 16
= 24
c. Subtract a from b, then divide the difference by 2 because a pair of shared
electron is equal to 1 bond. The quotient will give you the number of bonds
around the central atom.
Number of bonds =

(24 16)

= 4

Thus, there will be 4 bonds surrounding carbon atom as shown in the Lewis
structure:
..
..
..
..
:O::C::O: or :O=C=O:
Can you do the same for the next activity? Lets see!\
27

Activity 4: Bonding by Sharing of Electrons

Objectives:
Explain how covalent bonding takes place.
Illustrate the sharing of electrons.
Materials:
Periodic Table of Elements
Procedure:
1. Show
compounds:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.

how the sharing of electrons form covalent bond in the following

ammonia (NH3)
water (H2O)
hydrogen chloride (HCl)
nitrogen gas (N2)
oxygen gas (O2)
methane (CH4)
hydrogen gas (H2)
phosphine (PH3)
sulfur dioxide (SO2)
chlorine gas (Cl2)

Supply Table 2 with the data obtained in number 1.

28

Table 2. Types of Covalent Bonds

Compound

Chemical
Formula

Type of Bond
Lewis Structure

(polar covalent/nonpolar
covalent)

ammonia
water
hydrogen
chloride
nitrogen gas
oxygen gas
methane
hydrogen gas
phosphine
sulfur dioxide
chlorine gas
Q1. How do covalent bonds form between atoms?
Q2. What kind of elements usually forms covalent bond? Is it possible for metals and
non-metals to form nonpolar covalent? Why? How about polar covalent bond?
Why?
Q3. Why is it that diatomic molecules always form nonpolar covalent bond?
Q4. Differentiate polar covalent bond from nonpolar covalent bond.
What have you learned about covalent bonds? Is it now clear to you that covalent
bonds result from the sharing of electrons? Unlike ionic bonds, there is no complete
transfer of electrons in covalent bonds, just sharing of electrons.
In covalent bonding a pair of shared electrons is equal to one (1) bond. Notice
that after the sharing of electrons, each of the atoms in the compound attains a stable
configuration and a covalent compound is formed. Such compound could exist as
independent units called molecules. As a whole, the molecule does not carry a charge.
Recall that an ionic bond is formed when a metal bonds with a non-metal while a
29

covalent bond exists between or among non-metals. However, there are cases when
polar covalent bond involves a metal and a non-metal, like in the case of aluminium
chloride (AlCl3).
Is it possible that metals form bonds with one another? Can you visualize how it
will be? The next activity will ask you to make a representation of how you think metallic
bonding takes place.

Activity 5: Bonding Among Metals

Objectives:
Make a model of a metallic bond.
Relate the properties of metals to the kind of bond they are made of.
Materials:
drawing pen
Procedure:
1. Recall from Activity 3 how metals behave to attain stability.
2. Visualize what will happen to a group of metallic atoms.
3. Prepare a model that will represent metallic bond. You may draw it.
Q1. What do you think will make bonding among metals possible?
Your teacher will explain to you how metallic bonding takes place. After she
explains, try to describe some metallic properties. Try to explain those properties in
terms of the way metallic atoms are bonded together.
In Table 3, list down the metallic properties that you know and try to explain why
metals possess those properties.
Table 3. Metallic Properties
Metallic
Property
Luster

Explanation
Metals are lustrous because when light strikes the surface of the
metal the loosely-bound electrons near the surface move and reflect
the light giving the metal a shiny appearance.

Based on the properties you have listed above, make a list of the uses of metals.

30

Table 4: Uses of Metals

Metal
1. copper

Uses
Electrical wiring, metal sculpture and component of jewelry

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Deeper understanding of the properties of metals can be explained through the
way its atoms are bonded together. It is amazing to realize that as your knowledge in
matter is continuously growing you acquire better understanding of the things around
you and the phenomena happening to them.
So far, you have learned about the three types of chemical bonding. Perform the
next activity to find out if you have fully understood the three types of chemical bonding.
Complete the table below.
Table 5: Types of Chemical Bonds
Material
BH3 (borane)
CaF2 (calcium fluoride)
KCl (potassium chloride)
Al (aluminium foil)
Cu (copper wire)
I2(iodine gas)
CO (carbon monoxide)

Type of Chemical Bonds

Its good that you were able to recall the different types of chemical bonding.
Knowledge about the type of bond helps you relate the basic properties of the
compound. Like what you have done with metallic bonding, ionic and covalent
compounds also have properties which show the type of chemical bond the compound
has. Do you want to find out these properties on your own? Go and perform the next
activity!

Activity 6: Differences between Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Objectives:
Recognize ionic and covalent compound based on their physical properties.

31

Materials:
improvised electrical conductivity apparatus
alcohol burner
spoon
sugar (sucrose)
paraffin wax (candle wax)
salt (sodium chloride)
vetsin (monosodium glutamate)
vials or very small bottles
dropper
Procedure:
1. Get a pinch of salt, place it in a spoon and heat it with the use of an alcohol
burner. Do the same with vetsin, sugar and grated candle wax. Record what you
observe in column 1 of Table 6.
2. Place a pinch of salt, vetsin, sugar and grated candle wax in separate vials. Dip
the electrode of the electrical conductivity apparatus in each vial. Be sure you
clean the electrode before transferring to the next vial. Record your observations
in column 2 of Table 6 and specify that the observation is for the solid sample.
3. Add approximately 3 mL of water in each vial. Test the conductivity of the
compound with water. Record your observations in column 2 of Table 6 and
specify that the observation is for the solid sample added with water.
4. Fill out the table below.
Table 6: Properties of Some Compounds
Compound

Reaction to
Heat
(melted
easily/
did not melt)
(1)

Electrical
Conductivity
(2)

Solubility in
Water
(soluble/not
soluble)
(3)

Type of
Compound
(ionic/polar
covalent/
nonpolar
covalent)
(4)

salt
vetsin
wax
sugar
Q1. What type of compound:
a. dissolves easily in water
b. conducts electricity in solution
c. melts easily
Q2. Explain why salt and vetsin can conduct electricity in solution?
Q3. Make a general statement about the properties of ionic and covalent compound.
What common properties did you observe in this activity? You have noticed that
32

ionic compounds conduct electricity when in solution but not in solid phase and they are
generally soluble in water. Covalent compounds are non-conductors of electricity in
solid phase and in solution. Unlike ionic compounds, they melt easily, so they have low
melting temperature.

Summary:
Let us have a synthesis of the concepts you have learned in this module:

The valence electrons are the outermost electrons which are directly involved in
chemical bonding.
Lewis symbol is composed of the symbol of the element and dots which
represent the number of valence electrons of an atom that can easily be
determined through the family/group number in the Periodic Table of Elements.
Atoms form bonds with one another to become stable and attain the electronic
configuration of the noble gas nearest it.
An ionic bond involves complete transfer of electrons, thus ions are formed. It
involves metals with low electronegativity and non-metals with high
electronegativity.
Ionic compounds conduct electricity when in solution but not in solid phase.
Ionic compounds are generally soluble in water and in polar solvents.
A covalent bond involves the sharing of electrons that results in the formation of
covalent compound whose representative particle is a molecule. As a whole, a
molecule does not carry a charge.
Covalent bonds may be polar or nonpolar.
Two identical non-metallic atoms always form nonpolar covalent compound such
as N2, O2, H2, F2 and other diatomic molecules.
Non-identical atoms with electronegativity difference higher than 0.4 and lower
that 1.9 produce polar covalent bond.
Covalent compounds are non-conductors of electricity in the solid phase and in
solution. They have lower melting temperature than compounds formed by ionic
bonds.
Metallic bonding exists in metals through the attraction between the freelymoving valence electrons and the positively charged metal atom. The valence
electrons of these metal atoms are usually called sea of electrons.
Thermal and electrical conductivity in metals are due to the free flow of electrons
in the solid phase. Aside from these properties, metals are lustrous, malleable
and ductile. These properties are related to the kind of bonding metals have.

33

Glossary:
anion a negatively charged particle
cation a positively charged particle
chemical bond the force or energy that holds atoms or ions together
covalent bond a bond formed when atoms share electrons to attain stability
electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electron
ionic bond a bond which involves complete transfer of electrons
ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from the outermost
energy level of an atom
ions charged particles
luster the property of metals to reflect light
malleable the property of metals to be hammered into thin sheet
metallic bond a bond formed by the attraction of cations and the electrons around
them
valence electrons the electrons at the outermost energy level

Summative Assessment
Write the letter of the best answer.
1. Element X belongs to Group 1. Which of the following best describes element
X?
a.
b.
c.
d.

high electronegativity
high ionization energy
low electronegativity
a non-metallic element

34

2. What will most likely happen to a non-metallic atom after ionic bonding?
I. It forms a cation
II. It forms an anion
III. It becomes stable
IV. It becomes unstable
a. I & II

b. II & III

c. III & IV

d. I & IV

3. What kind of bond will result when two identical non-metallic atoms combine?
a. ionic bond
c. polar covalent bond
b. metallic bond
d. nonpolar covalent bond
4. Choose 2 elements that would likely form an ionic bond among the following
elements: Li, Si, F, Ne
a. Li and Si
b. Si and F
c. Ne and Si
d. Li and F
5. How is the bond in Br2 different from the bond in MgF2?
a. The bond in Br2 is metallic while the bond in MgF2 is covalent.
b. The bond in Br2 is ionic while the bond in MgF2 is covalent.
c. The bond in Br2 is covalent while the bond in MgF2 is ionic.
d. There is no bond difference between the two.
6. Why do atoms react with one another to form chemical bonds?
a. to attain stability
b. to form compounds
c. to form molecules
d. to produce ions
7. What kind of force is present in ionic bond?
a. repulsive force
b. electrostatic force
c. neutral force
d. retentive force
8. Which of the following solute will make water a good conductor of electricity?
a. sugar
b. oil
c. wax
d. monosodium glutamate
9. What bond holds the atoms of the elements in Groups 1and 2 of the Periodic
Table?
a. nonpolar covalent bond
b. polar covalent bond
c. metallic bond
d. ionic bond
10. Which of the following sets of samples has metallic bond, covalent bond and
ionic bonding in this order?
a. bronze, paraffin wax and salt
b. alloy, vetsin and water
c. gold ring, baking soda and starch
d. coins, salt and carbon dioxide

35

References:
LeMay, E.H. Jr., Robblee, K.M., Brower, H., Douglas C. (1996). Chemistry Connections
to Our Changing World. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Magno, M., et. al. (2001).Practical Work in High School Chemistry, Sourcebook for
Teachers. Quezon City: UP National Institute for Science & Mathematics
Education Development.
Silberberg, M. (1996).Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change. St. Louis:
Mosby
Wilbraham, A.C., Staley, D. D., Matta, M. (1997).Chemistry, 4thed. New York: AddisonWesley Pub.
Wilbraham, A.C., Staley, D.D., Matta, M.S. & Waterman, E.L. (2007). Chemistry,
Teachers Ed. Boston, Massachusetts:Pearson, Prentice Hall, Inc.
Internet Links:
chemed.chem.purdue.edu
http://curriculum.nismed.upd.edu.ph
http://www.smallscalechemistry.colostate.edu/PowerfulPictures/ChemicalBonding.pdf
http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/electroneg.html
http://chemistry.about.com/od/electronicstructure/a/Octet-Rule.htm
http://www.edu-resource.com/chemistry/what-are-ionic-compounds.php
http://misterguch.brinkster.net/ionic.html

36

Suggested Time allotment: 4 hours

Module

The Carbon Compounds____

Overview
In the previous module, you have learned about how non-metals make chemical
bonds by sharing electrons from their outer shells to attain stable electronic
configurations. This is also the process by which every carbon compounds or organic
compound is formed. In this module, the lessons will be about the uses and properties
of common organic compounds like hydrocarbons, aldehydes and ketones, carboxylic
acids and alcohols.
In this module, you will be able to answer the following key questions:

What are organic compounds?

What are the important uses of organic compounds?
How are the carbon atoms able to form many organic
compounds?
In what ways are the properties of organic compounds
related to their uses?

In your quest to answer the above thought provoking questions you will be able to:

explain how the structure of carbon atom affects the types of bonds it forms
recognize the general classes and uses of organic compounds.

Before anything else, please answer the pre-assessment prepared for you.

37

Pre-Assessment:
Write the letter of the correct answer.
1.

2.

3.

4.

Which of the following statements best describe organic compounds?

A.

Organic compounds are compounds that contain carbon and oxygen only

B.

Organic compounds are compounds that are produced by living things

C.

Organic compounds are composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen

D.

Organic compounds are compounds that contain carbon atoms only

How do carbon atoms form many organic compounds?

A.

By attracting other elements toward themselves to form the bonds

B.

By forming many bonds with other carbon atoms and other elements

C.

By sharing their electrons with other metal and non-metal elements

D.

By transferring their electrons to the atoms of surrounding elements

What is the maximum number of bonds can a carbon atom form?

A.

C.

B.

D.

Mang Tibo, a fisher man, went home with some of his catch and told his son to
cook the fish. But his son said, father the stove ran out of fuel already. Then his
father told him to buy some so that they could start cooking the fish. Which
organic compound do you think the boy will buy?
A.

kerosene

C.

lubricating oil

B.

gasoline

D.

isopropyl alcohol

38

5.

6.

Which of the following pairs of organic compounds is highly flammable?

A.

gasoline, acetone

C.

lubricating oil, isopropyl alcohol

B.

water, ethyl alcohol

D.

liquefied petroleum gas, kerosene

Christian is applying something to the ball bearings of the wheels of his bicycle
so that friction will be minimized. Which of the following material do you think he
is using?

7.

A.

vinegar

C.

kerosene

B.

isopropyl alcohol

D.

lubricating oil

A gasoline boy was being scolded by his store manager for smoking in the
vicinity of the gasoline station. Why do you think the manager scolded his
employee?

8.

A.

because gasoline is volatile

C.

because gasoline is viscous

B.

because gasoline is flammable

D.

all of the above

Nimfa scratched herself when her arm bumped in the concrete post. What do you
think should she apply to make her bruises free from harmful germs?

9.

10.

A.

formalin

C.

water

B.

isopropyl alcohol

D.

acetone

Which organic compound is used as a cleaning agent?

A.

gasoline

C.

liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

B.

kerosene

D.

ethyl alcohol

Which hydrocarbon compound has a triple bond in the molecule?

A.

octane

C.

ethene

B.

methane

D.

ethyne

39

11.

12.

How many types of bonds are there in the following hydrocarbon compound?

A.

C.

B.

D.

To which group of hydrocarbon does the molecule with the structure

belong?

13.

A.

alkane

C.

alkene

B.

alkyne

D.

none of the above

Ethene is a natural gas produced in plants, which acts as a natural ripening

agent of fruits. Which of the following organic compounds has the same ability to
ripen fruits?

14.

15.

16.

A.

butane

C.

acetylene

B.

propene

D.

pentyne

Which alkane will most likely have a very low boiling point?
A.

propane

C.

butane

B.

pentane

d.

hexane

What is the common use of methane?

A.

disinfectant

C.

artificial ripening agent

B.

fertilizer

D.

fuel

Which are TRUE about the use of isopropyl alcohol?

I.

cleaner

III.

disinfectant

II.

fuel

IV.

fertilizer
40

17.

A.

I and II only

C.

III and IV only

B.

II and III only

D.

I and IV only

Abong has to remove the red paint in the paintbrush so that he could still use it
again next time. What organic compound should he use to remove the paint in
the paintbrush?

18.

19.

20.

A.

acetic acid

C.

kerosene

B.

lubricating oil

D.

formaldehyde

Which of the following compounds is a carbonyl compound?

A.

C.

B.

D.

all of the above

What organic compound is used by embalmers in treating human cadavers?

A.

acetic acid

C.

methyl alcohol

B.

formaldehyde

D.

acetone

Which compound is an alcohol?

A.

C.

B.

D.

You may now start exploring this module.

41

Activity 1: Organic Compounds: Are they Useful?

Organic compounds are group of compounds that contain the element carbon.
Organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen combined with other elements
namely oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur, and halogens (fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, and iodine) Ethyl alcohol, acetone, gasoline, napthalene, acetic acid, vanillin,
acetylene, and esters are just a few examples of many useful organic compounds.
These kinds of compounds are produced by plants and animals. However, these
carbon-containing compounds can also be produced artificially. There are also organic
compounds that are produced from petroleum: liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline,
lubricating oil and kerosene. These compounds have different uses in the community.
Many organic compounds are formed because of the special characteristics of
the element carbon. A carbon atom has four (4) valence electrons. This kind of atomic
structure makes the carbon atom able to form four covalent bonds with atoms of other
elements and other carbon atoms. Carbon atoms can also make many types of
arrangements: single bond, double bond, and triple bond. With these abilities of the
carbon atoms, chemical bonds between carbon atoms and other elements can form
different kinds of compounds with short and long straight and branched chained
structures such as the following compounds.

Methane

Isopropyl Alcohol

Acetylene

Objective:
In this activity, you will be able to recognize the uses of common organic
compounds.

42

Materials:
paper and pen

pentel pen

manila paper

Labels or Pictures of the following products:

gasoline

acetone

kerosene

acetic acid

LPG

ethanol

Procedure:
1) With your group mates, use the labels/pictures of the materials to answer the
following questions:
Complete the table about the uses of the compounds. Indicate using a check mark
the uses of the compounds.
Table 1: Organic compounds and their uses
Organic Compounds
Gasoline

Ethanol

Acetone

LPG

kerosene

Beverage

Acetic
acid

Food
Uses Antiseptic
Fuel
Cleaner
(* This activity is adapted, with minor modification, from Glencoe Physical Science Texas Edition .(1997).
Glencoe/McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., page 369)

Q1.

What do you think are the characteristics of the materials, which give their

uses?
You just learned the important uses of common organic compounds that are
commonly used. In the next activity, you will learn about the properties of these
common compounds that will help you appreciate their specific uses.
______________________________________________________________________
43

Activity No. 2: Properties of Common Organic Compounds

Every kind of organic compound has specific properties or characteristics.
Although these compounds may show similarities in some properties, each of these
compounds does not have exactly the same properties.
Gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil, lubricating oil, vanillin, acetic acid, and ethyl
alcohol are organic compounds with different properties. Gasoline, for example, has a
strong odor, is volatile, and highly flammable. In this activity, you will find out about the
properties namely odor, viscosity, volatility and flammability of some other common
organic compounds.
Odor is the smell of the compound. Every compound has its own specific odor.
Viscosity is a measure of a liquids resistance to flow. Volatility is the measure of the
tendency of a compound to evaporate or turn into gaseous state. Flammability is the
measure of how a material easily burns.
Objectives

Observe the properties of common organic compounds; and

Relate these properties to their uses.

Materials
kerosene

stop watch

4 pieces of half inch-plastic beads

lubricating oil

paper and pen

4 pieces of sheet of long bond papers

ethyl alcohol

calculator

25 mL graduated cylinder

diesel oil

matches

4 identical test tubes ( about 5inches)

4 medicine droppers

4 bottle crowns (tansan)

Warning:
Follow the procedure carefully, you are about to use
flammable substances.
Prepare sand or wet rags to be used in case of fire.

44

Procedure
1) a. With your group, use the table below to record your data from this activity.
Table 1. Properties of Common Organic Compounds

Materials

Odor

Viscosity
(average
time it takes
the marble
to reach the
bottom)

Volatility
(the time it
takes the
liquid to
evaporate)

Flammability
(average
time it takes
the material
to burn
completely)

Kerosene
Lubricating oil
Diesel oil
Ethyl alcohol
b. Place 15 mL of each liquid in the four (4) identical test tubes and label each
test tube according to the liquid it contains.
c. Observe the materials and write the phase and odor of the materials on the
table.
2) Testing the viscosity of the materials
a. Fill a test tube with the first liquid, drop one plastic bead, and then cover it
tightly with a cork or rubber stopper.
b. Invert the test tube so that the bead falls and touches the cork as shown in the
illustration.
c. Quickly turn the test tube in an upright position. Determine the time it takes the
bead to fall or reach the bottom of the test tube.
d. Procedures a, b, and c should look like the illustration below.

45

Drop the bead and

Invert the test tube

cover the test tube

Quickly turn the test

tube in upright position

3) Testing the Volatility of the Materials

a. Using a medicine dropper, put two drops of each liquid material on the
separate pieces of bond papers. You and your group mates should do this at
the same time and place it on the armrest.
b. Record the time it takes the papers to get dry. This is equivalent to the time it
takes the liquid to completely evaporate.
3) Testing for Flammability of the Materials

Warning:
Wear mask before performing the following procedure.
Have the sand or wet rags near you while doing the test
for flammability.

a. Prepare four bottle crowns (tansan) and then place a cotton bud in each
crown.
b. Wet the cotton buds with10 drops of the liquid materials.
46

c. Ignite each wet cotton bud using a lighted match stick.

d. Record the time it takes each cotton bud to burn completely.
e. Repeat steps a, b, c and d four (4) more times so that you will have five (5)
trials per liquid material.
e. Compute for the average time it takes each cotton bud to burn completely.
*This activity is adapted, with minor modification, from the Teaching Resource Package S & T IIIChemistry. (1992) of The Philippine-Australian Science and Mathematics Education Project
(PASMEP), University of the Philippines Institute of Science and Mathematics Education
Development, and The Department of Education Culture and Sports (DECS)

Q1. Which material is most viscous? What are the common uses of viscous
materials?
Q2. Which materials are flammable? In what ways are these materials
used?
Q3. Which liquid materials have strong odor and weak odor?
Q4. Why is it important to know the properties of these kinds of organic
compounds?
In this activity, you have learned about the properties of some common organic
compounds and the relationship of these properties to their uses. You were able to
observe in the experiments that kerosene, ethyl alcohol, and diesel oil are flammable
compounds. Ethyl alcohol is a volatile compound and lubricating oil is a thick or viscous
liquid.
In the next activity, you will learn about a specific group of organic compounds,
the hydrocarbons.

Activity 3: The Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen atoms
only. Hydrocarbons such as methane, ethane and butane are components of natural
gas. Hydrocarbons are grouped into families namely, alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
47

The compounds in each group have certain structures that make their properties
different from the other.
Objectives:

Recognize common kinds of alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes and their uses.

Identify the types of bonds formed in alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes.

Relate the structures of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes to their properties.
Materials
bond paper

pen

Procedure
1) With your group mates, use the data in Tables 1 to 3 to answer the questions in
this activity.
Table 1. Alkanes
Structural Formula

Condensed Structural Formula

Boiling
Point
(oC)

Name

Phase

Methane

Gas

CH4

-162

Ethane

Gas

CH3CH3

- 89

Propane

Gas

CH3CH2CH3

- 42

Butane

Gas

CH3CH2CH2CH3

-0.5

Pentane

Liquid

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3

36

Hexane

Liquid

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3

69

Heptane

Liquid

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3

98

48

Octane

CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3

Liquid

126

Table 2. Alkenes
Structural Formula

Condensed Structural
Formula

Boiling
Point
(oC)

Name

Phase

Ethene

Gas

CH2=CH2

-104

Propene

Gas

CH2=CHCH3

-47

1-Butene

Gas

CH2=CHCH2CH3

-6

1-Pentene

Liquid

CH2=CHCH2CH2CH3

30

1-Hexene

Liquid

CH2=CHCH2CH2CH3

63

49

Table 3. Alkynes
Name

Phase

Ethyne

Gas

Propyne

Gas

Structural Formula

Condensed Structural
Formula
C2H2

CH

2-Butyne

Gas

Pentyne

Liquid

CH3 C

HC

Boiling
Point
(oC)
-84

CH3

-47

C CH3

8.08

C CH2 CH2 CH3

40.2

Q1. What are the types of bonds present in the following: alkanes, alkenes, and
alkynes?
Q2. Using Tables 1 to 3, what pattern do you observe in terms of the phase, number of
carbon atoms, structure and boiling point of the alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes?
Explain the patterns you observe.
Q3. What do you think will be the boiling point of the next alkane, alkene, and alkyne?
Will the boiling point of each hydrocarbon be higher or lower? Explain your answer.
Q4. Why do you think some hydrocarbons are gases and others are liquids?
Q5. Why do you think there are many hydrocarbon compounds?
Q6. What hydrocarbon compounds are gases and liquids? What are the uses
of gaseous hydrocarbon compounds and liquid hydrocarbon compounds?
You have just learned how the structures of hydrocarbons affect their properties,
such as physical state and boiling point. Your teacher will discuss the uses of these
groups of hydrocarbons. In the next activity, you will learn a common application of
acetylene, an alkyne.
50

Activity 4: Which bananas will ripen faster?

Calcium carbide (CaC2) is a compound that is commonly known as kalburo. Fruit
vendors use this substance to speed up ripening of fruits like mangoes and bananas in
just a couple of days. When calcium carbide reacts with water such as moisture in the
air, ethyne gas is produced. Ethyne or commonly known as acetylene is a kind of
alkyne.
Objective:

Investigate how a common organic compound namely ethyne can ripen fruits
faster than the natural way.

Materials:
Calcium carbide (kalburo)

hand gloves

Newspapers

face masks

12 unripe, green bananas of same variety

small plastic cups

2 empty shoe or fruit juice boxes

packaging tape

Procedure:
1) Using a sheet of newspaper, wrap kilo (250g) of crushed calcium carbide
(kalburo). Make sure that the wrapped calcium carbide will just be enough to fit
the area of the bottom of one shoe box.
2) Put the wrapped calcium carbide at the bottom of the shoe box and cover it with
another piece of newspaper.
3) Place 3 unripe (nearing maturity) bananas of the same kind inside the first box
with calcium carbide. This will be Group A.
4) Do not put wrapped calcium carbide in the other shoe box.
5) Place another set of 3 green, unripe bananas of the same kind in the second
box. This will be Group B.
6) After putting all the bananas in each box A and box B, cover both boxes.
7) Leave the shoe boxes for 48 hours.
Q1. What are you going to find out or investigate in the experiment?
51

Q2. What is the independent variable?

Q3. What is the dependent variable in the experiment?
Q4. Write your hypothesis or prediction about what might happen in the
experiment.
8) After 2 or 3 days, put on your face masks and observe what happened to the
bananas. Write your observation in the data table below.
Observations

Group

Number of Ripe Bananas and their

Appearance
A
(with calcium carbide)
B
(without calcium carbide)

Q5. How many bananas ripened in Group A and in Group B?

Q6. Which group has fully ripened bananas?
Q7. What conclusion can you make from the results of your experiment?
Q8. Look for the properties of ethyne and explain how it can introduce ripening of fruits?
In this activity, you were able to observe how ethyne or acetylene, which is an
alkyne, can make banana ripen faster. This is just one of the many applications of
acetylene.
In the next activity, you will learn about the other common organic compounds,
alcohols and carbonyl group containing compounds such as aldehydes and ketones.
______________________________________________________________________

52

Activity 5: Alcohols and Their Uses

Alcohols are another group of organic compounds. These organic compounds
also have very important uses. Some alcohols are used as antiseptic or disinfectant,
some are used as cleaning agents, others are used as components of liquors and a few
alcohols are used as fuel for portable stoves or other types of burners.
Objectives:

recognize the uses of common alcohols;

identify similarities in the structures of different kinds of alcohols; and

relate these similarities to the common properties they have.

Materials:
Labels or pictures of commonly used alcohol products brought by your teacher.
pentel pen

paper and pen

manila paper

Procedure:
1) With your group, read the labels of the products that contain alcohols.
2) Write in the table below, the names of the products and the alcohol compounds
that are found in the labels of the product and their uses.

Name of
Products

Name of Alcohol/s
Present in the
Product

Percent (%) or
amount of
alcohol in the
Product

Uses

53

Q1. What are the common products that contain alcohol?

Q2. Why are these alcohols important?
3) With your group, use the following illustrations of the structures of common alcohols
to answer the following questions.

Ethyl alcohol

Isopropyl alcohol

Methyl alcohol

Q3. What types of bonds are present in ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol and in isopropyl
alcohol?
Q4. What accounts for the similar physical properties of alcohols?
You have learned the uses of common alcohols and the relationship between the
structures of alcohols and their physical properties.
In the next activity, you will learn about simple carbonyl compounds, their
properties and uses.
______________________________________________________________________

Activity 6: What is between acetone and formalin?

Acetone and formalin are examples of simple carbonyl containg compounds
which have common uses. Carbonyl containing compounds are organic compounds
that contain carbonyl functional group, which is composed of a carbon atom doublebonded to an oxygen atom: C=O.
54

Objectives

Give the common uses of acetone, and formalin.

Relate the structures of acetone, and formalin to the carbonyl compounds where
they belong.

Materials:
acetone

manila paper

formalin

paper and pen

pentel pen

Procedure:
1.

With your group, talk about the uses of the simple compounds shown to you by
your teacher.

Q1. What are the common uses of acetone and formalin?

2.

With your group, use the illustrations of the structures of acetone, and

formaldehyde (formalin) below to answer the questions.

formaldehyde

acetone

Q2. What types of bonds do the common compounds have in their structures?
Q3. Formalin and acetone are common carbonyl containing compounds. Why do you
think they both belong in the group of carbonyl containing compounds?

55

Summary:

Carbon atoms have special abilities: carbon atoms can form chemical bonds with
other carbon atoms and other nonmetal atoms in many ways. They can form
single, double, and triple bonds. These abilities of carbon atoms are the reasons
why there are som many kinds of organic compounds.

Organic compounds are compounds that are primarily composed of carbon

atoms, which are chemically bonded with hydrogen and other elements such as
oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen. Organic compounds are naturally produced by living
organisms, but can also be produced artificially.

Organic compounds such as gasolene, kerosene, ethyl alcohol, isopropyl

alcohol, formaldehyde, acetic acid, acetone, and lubricating oil have important
uses. These uses are based on their specific chemical properties.

Hydrocarbons are a specific group of organic compounds which contain carbon

and hydrogen only. Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes are the three (3) basic groups
of hydrocarbon compounds. Alkanes are hydrocarbons that have single bonds
between carbon atoms. Alkenes are hydrocarbons that have double bonds
between carbon atoms and Alkynes have triple bonds between carbon atoms.

Ethyne or commonly known as acetylene is an alkyne hydrocarbon with a

chemical formula C2H2. This organic compound is commonly used as fuel in an
oxy-acetylene welding torch. Ethyne (acetylene) is also produced when Calcium
carbide, CaC2, reacts with water in the air. It has the ability to hasten the ripening
of fruits. That is why fruit vendors use calcium carbide in ripening their fruits in
just a few days.

Ethene is a gaseous organic compound with a chemical formula CH2CH2. It is a

plants compound that is responsible for the ripening of fruits.

Alcohols are a group of organic compounds that contain a hydroxyl group, -OH,
that is chemically bonded to a carbon atom in the compound. They have special
uses such as a disinfectant, fuel, and as a main component (ethyl alcohol) of
liquor and other alcoholic drinks.

Carbonyl compounds like acetone, and formaldehyde have a carbonyl functional

group, C=O, which is chemically bonded to a carbon atom in the compound.
56

These common carbonyl compounds also have important uses: acetone is used
as a cleaning agent like a nail polish remover, and formaldehyde is used in
preserving organic materials like an animal specimen. This is also the compound
used in embalming human cadavers.

Glossary
Alkanes. Alkanes are hydrocarbon compounds where atoms only form single bonds
with other carbon atoms.
Alkenes. Alkenes are hydrocarbon compounds which have double bonds between
carbon atoms.
Alkynes. Alkynes are hydrocarbon compounds which have triple bonds between
carbon atoms.
Boiling point. It is the temperature in which a substance goes from the liquid phase to
the gas phase.
Carbonyl containing compounds. Carbonyl compounds are organic compounds
where a carbon atom is bonded to a carbonyl group (C=O). To illustrate: CC=O
Flammability. Flammability is the property of a substance that describes how easily it
burns.
Hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting primarily of carbon
and hydrogen atoms.
Organic compound. Organic compound is any chemical compound that mainly contain
carbon that is chemically bonded with hydrogen and other nonmetal elements like
oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen.
Viscosity. Viscosity is the property of a fluid that describes a substances resistance to
flow or deformation.
Volatility. Volatility is the property that describes how a substance easily evaporates

57

Summative Assessment:
Write the letter of the correct answer:
1.

2.

3.

4.

Which are TRUE about organic compounds?

I.

organic compounds contain calcium

II.

organic compounds contain carbon

III.

organic compounds can be produced by living organisms

IV.

organic compounds can be produced artificially

A.

I, II and III only

C.

II and III only

B.

I and III only

D.

II, III and IV only

Why are carbon atoms able to form many organic compounds?

A.

carbon atoms have strong attraction to other elements

B.

carbon atoms attract electrons from other atoms

C.

carbon atoms can form many types of bonds with other carbon

D.

none of the above

How many types of bonds can a carbon atom form?

A.

C.

B.

D.

Marcys car stopped at the middle of the road. She found out that her car has
ran out of fuel. Which compound must she buy?
A.

kerosene

C.

lubricating oil

B.

gasoline

D.

water

58

5.

Juan Victors grandmother was cooking their supper when she suddenly stopped
and said, Oh, the tank is already empty! Then her grandmother asked him to
buy another tank. What did Victors grandmother ask him to buy?

6.

A.

gasoline

C.

lubricating oil

B.

water

D.

liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

Juan Miguel wants to protect his bicycles parts from rusting fast. Which of the
following material do you think will Miguel use?

7.

A.

vinegar

C.

kerosene

B.

isopropyl alcohol

D.

lubricating oil

Marcela told her grandson, Miguel, never to play with gasoline. Why do you think
she does not allow him to do it?

8.

A.

because gasoline is volatile

C.

because gasoline is viscous

B.

because gasoline is flammable

D.

all of the above

Emmanuel Juan cut his finger accidentally when he was cutting his nails. He has
to apply something on his wound so that it will not get infected. Which
compounds should he use?

9.

formalin

C.

water

B.

isopropyl alcohol

D.

acetone

Why is it important to know the properties of common liquid materials?

A.

to know the uses of the liquids

B.

to know possible danger from these kind of material

C.

to know how these liquids affect people

D.

all of the above

59

10.

11.

12.

Which hydrocarbon compound has a double bond in the molecule?

A.

ethane

C.

propene

B.

methane

D.

propyne

How many types of bonds are there in the following hydrocarbon compound?

A.

C.

B.

D.

To which group of hydrocarbon does the molecule with the structure

belong?

13.

14.

A.

alkane

C.

alkene

B.

alkyne

D.

none of the above

Methane is a component of natural gas. What is the common use of methane?

A.

disinfectant

C.

fuel

B.

medicine

D.

cleaning agent

What happens to the boiling point of hydrocarbon compounds when the number
of carbon atoms increases?

15.

A.

remains the same

C.

increases

B.

decreases

D.

increases then decreases

What is the common use of ethyne?

A.

disinfectant

C.

artificial ripening agent

B.

fertilizer

D.

antibiotic

60

16.

17.

Which are TRUE about the use of ethyl alcohol?

I.

medicine

III.

disinfectant

II.

fuel

IV.

Fertilizer

A.

I and II only

C.

III and IV only

B.

II and III only

D.

I and IV only

Veronica wants to change her nail polish because it does not look good

with

her new dress. What must she use to remove her fingers old nail polish?

18.

19.

A.

acetic acid

C.

acetone

B.

lubricating oil

D.

formaldehyde

Which of the following compounds is a carbonyl compound?

A.

C.

B.

D.

all of the above

Maria Paula wants to preserve a fish for her project in Biology class. What kind of
compound should she use to preserve the animal?
A.

acetic acid

C.

methyl alcohol

B.

formaldehyde

D.

acetone

61

20.

Which alkene will most likely have the highest boiling point?
A.

ethene

C.

pentene

B.

propene

D.

hexene.

.References

Chang, Raymond. (1994). Chemistry Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill, Inc. United States of
America
Dickson, T. R. (1991). Study Guide, Introduction to Chemistry 6th Edition. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. United States of America
Glencoe Physical Science. (1997). McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Kotz, John c., Treichel, Paul M., and Townsend, John R. (2010). Chemistry & Chemical
Reactivity Enhanced Edition. Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
S. N. Naik .(2011). Ripening- an important process in fruit development. Head. Centre
for Rural Development & Technology, IIT Delhi .
Retrieved from :
http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/chemistry_application_2011/briefs/Fruit_ripening_
by_Prof_S.N._Nai_IIT_Delhi.pdf
Teaching Resource Package S & T III-Chemistry. (1992). The Philippine-Australian
Science and Mathematics Education Project (PASMEP), University of the
Philippines Institute of Science and Mathematics Education Development, and
The Department of Education Culture and Sports (DECS)

62

Unit 2
MODULE

Suggested Time allotment: 14-16 hours

4
Whats in a Mole?
Overview
In real life situations, pieces of matter are quantified by finding the mass or by counting.
Market vendors for example, would rather sell mongo seeds by getting the mass and
salted eggs by counting. The choice of quantifying goods is determined by convenience.
It is easier to get the mass of rice grains rather than count the grains. It is more
convenient to count the number of eggs rather than get their mass. To measure these
quantities, mass units such as kilogram or gram, or counting units such as dozen, or
case are being used.
In the laboratory, chemists measure out a chemical substance and react it with
another substance to form the desired quantity of a new product. In this case, chemists
want to know the number of atoms, ions or molecules because these are the ones that
react with each other. However, these things are too small and too many to count
individually so chemists use a unit called mole to count them by weighing. Like a dozen,
a ream, or a case, a mole also represents a certain number of particles. Can you guess
how many particles are equal to one mole?
As you go through this module you will be able to answer the following key
questions:
How is the mole used to express the mass of a substance?
How is the percentage composition of a given compound determined?

Learning Competencies/Objectives
use the mole concept to express mass of substances; and
determine the percentage composition of a compound given its
chemical formula and vice versa.
Before you work on this module, answer first the pre-assessment prepared for you.

63

Pre-Assessment:
Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. Suppose you were asked to prepare 250-g chocolate mousse which is 35%
chocolate, 30% cream and 20% milk, 10% sugar and 5% butter, how much cream do
are you going to use?
a. 75 g cream
b. 60 g cream
c. 73 g cream
d. 62 g cream
2. Cheska measured the mass of 10 pieces of each of the following materials: marble,
pebble, and ballpen cap. What will be her findings based on the data she obtained?
Table 1. Data on Mass
Materials
Mass
(10 pieces)
(g)
marble
50
pebble
35
ballpen cap
20
a. Different materials have different masses.
b. Materials of different kind differ in amount, color and texture.
c. The same number of materials has different colors and appearance.
d. The same number of materials of different kinds has different masses.
3. The following are representative particles of matter, which among them represents a
covalent compound?
a. atom
b. ion
c. molecule
d. particle unit
4. A bag of NPK fertilizer marked 16-4-8 contains 16% nitrogen, 4% phosphorous and
8% potassium, the other 72% is usually inert filler material, such as clay pellets or
granular limestone. What is the mass of nitrogen present in 500g pack of NPK fertilizer?
a. 80g
b. 40g
c. 20g
d. 10g
5. How many particles are equal to 1 mole?
a. 6.02 x 1022 particles
b. 6.02 x 1023 particles
c. 6.02 x 1024 particles
d. 6.02 x 1025 particles

64

6. How can the knowledge about mole be useful for the environmentalists?
a. Mole concept can be used in environmental monitoring.
b. It gives information on the most dangerous pollutant in the atmosphere.
c. It gives a feedback on the kinds of pollutants present in the atmosphere.
d. Mole concept can be used in quantifying the amount of pollutant-particles
released in the atmosphere.
7. How can you apply knowledge on percentage composition?
a. In maintaining the quality of food product.
b. In checking the amount of sugar present in the soft drink.
c. In identifying the correct amount of substance present in a sample.
d. all of the above
8. How many percent of hydrogen (H) is present in water (H2O)?
a. 12%
b. 11%
c. 13%
d. 10%
9. Which of the following units is used in expressing the amount of substance in terms of
the number of particles?
a. liter
b. gram
c. mole
d. Celcius
10. What do you expect to observe in a Mole Exhibit of Different Substances?
a. different kind of elements
b. different colors of substances
c. showcase of 1mole of different elements having different masses
d. showcase of 1mole of different substances having the same masses
Now that you are done with the pre-assessment/ diagnostic test, let us perform the
activities in this module to understand the mole concept.

Activity 1: Counting by Getting the Mass of an Object

Objectives:

Measure the mass of an object.

Record the mass with the correct number of significant figures.
Relate the mass of the object to the number of pieces per item.

65

Materials Needed:
25 pieces paper clips of the same size and kind
Platform balance (preferably with 0.01 precision)
Procedure:
1. Measure and record the mass of 25 pieces paper clip using the platform balance.
Divide the mass obtained by 25 to find the average mass of one paper clip.
Perform 3 trials.
Table 1: Data on the Average Mass of Paper Clips
Trial
Mass (25pieces in g)

Average Mass (g) of

one paper clip

1
2
3
2. Get a handful of paper clips and measure its mass. Compute for the number of
paper clips using your data from step #1. Be sure to do it through computation
and not by counting.
3. This time, count the number of paper clips in the handful of paper clips in step #2.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 by getting a different handful of paper clips.
Q1. Is the number of paper clips in step 2 the same as the number of paper clips in step
3? Why do you think so?
Q2. Having an experience in counting by getting the mass, give some ways in which
you can apply this procedure in daily life situations?
You have just experienced how chemists determine the number of particles by getting
the mass. It is impossible to count the number of atoms present in a gold bar or the
number of molecules present in a glass of water but by knowing their masses,
computations can be done which will eventually give the number of particles with the
use of a number called Avogadros number.
The Avogadro's number is the number of particles in one mole of a substance. It
is a very large number equal to 6.02 x 10 23 particles. So, a mole (mol) of a substance
is 6.02 x 10 23 representative particles of that substance. The representative particles
can be atoms, molecules, or formula units. So, one mole of carbon-12 contains 6.02 x
10 23 atoms, one mole of water contains 6.02 x 10 23 water molecules and one mole of
sodium chloride (table salt) contains 6.02 x 10 23 formula units of sodium chloride. For
you to figure out how large the Avogadros number is, try to imagine this, if you put
together 6.02 x 10 23 basketballs, it will be as big as Earth or if you have 6.02 x 10
23
rice grains, it would cover the land masses of the Earth to a depth of 75
meters. Now that you have realized how big Avogadros number is. Let us try to
visualize the number of particles in a given sample.
66

(*Source: Wilbraham, A.C., Staley, D.D., Matta, M.S. & Waterman, E.L. (2007).
Chemistry, Teachers Ed. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson, Prentice Hall, Inc.)
Example:
How many molecules are there in 4.0 moles of CO2?
To answer this question you have to consider this:
1 mole = 6.02 x 10 23 particles
Thus, using dimensional analysis approach you will be able to convert
number of moles to its equivalent amount in the number of particles.
6.02 x 1023 molecules CO2
4.0 moles CO2
x
= 2.41 x 1024 molecules CO2
1 mole CO2
For you to have a feel on how it is being done, you may answer the following questions.
a.
b.
c.
d.

How many mongo seeds are equal to 3.50 moles of mongo seeds?
How many bananas are equal to 7.50 moles of bananas?
How many moles of rice grains are equal to 1.807 x 10 24 grains of rice?
How many moles of tomatoes are in 3.01 x 10 23 tomatoes?

Were you able to get the correct answer? Now that you already know how to use
1 mole = 6.02 x 10 23 particles as conversion factor, let us move on to the next activity.
Do substances with the same mass have the same number of particles?
Lets now have an activity about measuring the mass of an object with the same
number of particles. Do different substances having the same number of particles have
the same masses? You will discover the answers to these questions as you perform
Activity 2.

Activity 2: Total Count Vs. Mass

Objectives:

Measure the mass of a given number of objects.

Record the mass with the correct number of significant figures.
Convert the number of items to its equivalent mass in grams or vice versa using
the equivalents taken from the result of the activity.

67

Materials Needed:
5 pieces plastic bottle cap (must be of the same brand)
5 pieces soft drink crown of the same brand
5 pieces 10-centavo coin
platform balance
Procedure:
1. Measure and record the mass in grams of the following in Table 2:
5 pieces plastic bottle cap (must be of the same brand)
5 pieces soft drink crown of the same brand
5 pieces 10-centavo coin
2. From the data you got from step #1, compute for the mass of 1piece and 15
pieces for each kind of material.
3. Measure approximately 25.00g of each material
Table 2. Mass of the Materials
Mass (g)
Materials
5 pieces
Plastic bottle cap
soft drink crown

Mass (g)
1 piece

Mass (g)
15 pieces

Number of pieces
in 25.00 g

10-centavo coin
Q1. Do the three different materials have the same masses? Explain
your
answer.
Q2. Was your expected number of pieces per material the same with the number
pieces equal to 25.00g?
Q3. What can you infer from this result?
You have observed from this activity that although you have the same number of
items, different objects will have different masses. In the same way, one mole of
different substances always contains 6.02 x 10 23 particles but each of these substances
has a different mass. Examine the sample substances in Table 3. You will observe that
each of the substances contains 6.02 x 10 23 particles.

68

Table 3. Mass of One Mole of Different Substances

Chemical
Molar Mass
Substance
Formula
(g/mol)
oxygen gas
O2
32.00
Sucrose
C12H22O11
342.34
(table sugar)
Hydrogen peroxide
H2O2
34.02
Elemental Calcium
Ca
40.08

Number of
Particle
6.02 x 10 23
6.02 x 10 23
6.02 x 10 23
6.02 x 10 23

Are you now convinced of the idea that one mole of different substances have different
masses? Remember that one mole of a substance contains 6.02x10 23 particles.
This time, consult the periodic table of elements. Look for the atomic mass of hydrogen,
oxygen, carbon, sulfur, potassium, and phosphorus. What do you observe about their
atomic masses? Each element has its own mass different from the others in the same
way that different compounds have different masses.
Let us perform Activity 3 to visualize how one mole of different substances differs in
mass.

Activity 3: The Mass of One Mole of a Substance

Objectives:
Compute for the molar mass of common substances.
Materials:
6 pcs 100 mL beaker or small jars of the same size
platform balance
Periodic table of elements
Procedure:
1. For table 4-A, consult the periodic table of elements for the atomic mass, it has
the same numerical value with its molar mass. For table 4-B, compute the molar
mass of the compound using this formula:
(Number of atom A x atomic mass of A) + (Number of atom B x atomic mass of B)
Example: MgCl2
(1 x 24.21g) + (2x 35.45g) = 95.11g

69

Table 4-A: Molar Mass of Some Common Elements

Element
Symbol
Mass
(g)
Sulfur (Asupre)
Lead (Tinga)
Copper (Tanso)
Table 4-B: Molar Mass of Some Common Compounds
Compound
Chemical
Mass
Formula
(g)
Water
H2O
Table Salt
NaCl
Table Sugar
C12H22O11

Molar Mass
(g/mol)

Molar Mass
(g/mol)

2. Get the mass of an amount equal to one mole of the substances in tables 4-A
and 4-B. Put the sample substances in containers of the same size. Observe
closely the amount equal to one mole.
Q1. Do you think that one mole of the different substances have the same amount?
Q2. What do you observe about the mass of the substances in Tables 4-A and 4-B?
Q3. Would 1.50 moles of H2O have the same number of particles as 1.50 moles of any
of the substances you weighed?
Q3. What can you infer about this activity?
Let us have more exercises on the molar mass of the different compounds common to
us.
Table 5. Molar Mass
Chemical Name
Iron (II) sulphate (ferrous sulfate)
Ethyl alcohol
Ammonia
Citric acid
Aluminum hydroxide

Chemical Formula
FeSO4
C2H5OH
NH3
C6H8O6
Al(OH)3

Molar Mass (g/mol)

Knowing the number of particles present in one mole of a substance and how to
compute for the molar mass, you are ready for the next activity.

70

Activity 4: The Relationships among Number of Moles, Mass,

and Number of Particles
Objective:

Describe the relationships among the number of moles, mass and number
of particles.

Materials:
sulfur
sugar
salt
aluminum foil

platform balance
watch glass
measuring spoon

Procedure:
1. Measure the mass of one tablespoon of each of the following substances:
sulfur; aluminum foil ; sugar; and salt

Safety Tips
Avoid skin contact with sulfur.
2. Using the molar mass of each of the substances, in Table 6, how many moles are
present in each sample. Record your answer.
3. Compute for the number of particles of each substance.
Table 6. Data on Molar Relationship
Substance
Sulfur
*Aluminum foil
Sugar
Salt
Mass (g)
No. of Moles
No. of Particles
*Cut into tiny pieces
Q1. List down the substances based on the following order:
a. Increasing mass (light to heaviest)

b. Increasing number of particles (small to highest amount)

c. Increasing number of moles (small to highest amount)

71

Q2. Is the number of particles in the sample directly related to the number of moles?
Why do you say so?
Q3. Is the mass of the sample related with the number of moles? Explain your answer.
Q3. Explain why one tablespoon of different substances does not have the same mass
in grams (g), the same number of moles and the number of particles.
Now that you have learned the connections and relationships among the mass, number
of moles and the molar mass of some substances, you can easily figure out its amount
in terms of its mass, the number of moles and the number of particles. Can you state
the relationship between the following properties?
a. Mass and number of moles
b. Number of moles and number of particles
The next activity will help you understand these relationships better.

Activity 5: The Chemists Mole

Objective:

Apply the mole concept in completing a given set of data.

Material:
Periodic Table of Elements
Procedure:
Complete the table with the needed information.
Table 7. Molar Relationships
Substance Molar Mass Representative
(g/mol)
Particle
Carbon
Dioxide
44.01
(CO2)
Gold (Au)
atom
Glucose
(C6H12O6)
Calcium
fluoride
Formula unit
(CaF2)
Nitrogen
28.02
gas (N2)

Mass
(g)

Number of
Moles

Number of
Particles

2.5
1
360.36

1.205 x 1024
3

140.10

72

Q1. When is a particle classified as an atom; a molecule or a formula unit?

Q2. Show how you will convert the mass of a given sample to number of moles and vice
versa.
Q3. Show how you will compute for the number of particles given the following:
a. Mass of the sample
b. Number of moles of the sample
Test your understanding about the mole concept by answering the following problems at
home.
1. A cancer patient needs to increase his ascorbic acid (C6H12O6) intake to fight cancer
cells. a) How many moles of ascorbic acid does he need to complete the doctors
prescription of 13.00g of intravenous ascorbic acid every day for one month? b) How
many molecules of ascorbic acid does he need everyday to fight the cancer cells?
2. Aspartame (C14H18N2O5) is synthetic table sugar substitute in food and drinks. If a
food product needs 0.25 g of C14H18N2O5 to sweeten the Chemitria cupcake, and you
ate this food product, how many molecules of aspartame have you eaten?
3. During exercise, lactic acid (C3H6O3) forms in the muscles causing muscle cramp. If
5.0 g of lactic acid (C3H6O3) concentrate in your leg muscles, how many moles of lactic
acid (C3H6O3) is causing you pain?
4. Paraffin (C22H46) is a wax used in candle making. During combustion, a 20.0 g
candle produces 1.42 moles of CO2. How many molecules of CO2 are released in the
atmosphere after using the candle?
Applying the mole concept can be a useful quantitative tool in daily life.
Understanding this concept gives you an idea of how many molecules of vitamins and
or medicines are introduced inside our body. Given the mass, you also have a clearer
idea of how many molecules of pollutants are produced and released in the environment
due to human activities though your unaided eyes cannot see them.
In the next activity, you are going to summarize what you have learned from the
previous activities. Recall all the key ideas and make a concept map about them.

73

Activity 6: Mole Map

Objective:

Prepare a concept map on the mole concept.

Material:
Activity sheet
Procedure:
Complete the following concept map with the appropriate terms using the
following words: ions, Avogadros number, mole, atoms, molecules, particles, mass,
compound, g/mole( molar mass), elements.
MATTER

is made up of

which may be

whose amount may be expressed in terms of

whose mass
is expressed in
equal to

Accomplishing the concept map means that you have understood the lessons
you have gone through. Lets have the next topic.
Percentage Composition of a Compound
Are you interested to know how much of an element is present in a compound?
You can answer this question by determining percentage composition.
The mass of each element in a compound compared to the entire mass of the
74

compound multiplied by 100 percent is called the percentage composition of the

compound. So, the percentage composition of a compound tells you the
percentage of the mass made up by each element in a compound. Let us compare
it in a classroom situation. You are 50 in your section with 21 boys and 29 girls. If you
will be asked how many percent of the class are boys and how many percent are girls,
how are you going to compute for the answer? If your answer is 42% boys and 58%
girls, you got it correctly! Let us have an example for the compound which is so
important to all of us, water (H2O). The computation below shows the molar mass of
water. If you will be asked to compute for the percentage of oxygen and hydrogen in
water, how are you going to do it?

H2O
1 H atom (16.00 g) = 16.00 g
2 O atoms (1.01g) = 2.02 g
_____________
18.02 g
Did you answer 89% oxygen and 11% hydrogen? Your answer is correct! To get the
percent oxygen, mass of oxygen is divided by the mass of water multiplied by 100%.
The same is true with hydrogen.

11% H
89% O

% Composition of Water
Can you present a general formula for the computation of percentage
composition?

75

We can have the formula as:

mass of element in the compound
% mass of element =

x 100%
mass of the compound

Let us apply this formula to problem solving.

1. Soil that is already depleted with nutrients needs fertilizer. One of the nutrients
needed to replenish the soil is nitrogen. If you are an agricultural technician helping a
farmer, which among these fertilizers are you going to use. Show your computations to
convince the farmer of your choice.
a. ammonia (NH3)
b. ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4
c. ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
2. Glucose (C6H12O6) is a six-carbon sugar (hexose) which is also known as the blood
sugar. It is an energy source that fuels our body. How many percent of carbon is present
in glucose?
3. The fuel value of the hydrogen-containing fuels depends on the mass percentage of
hydrogen (H). Rank the following compounds in terms of their fuel value with 1 as the
highest fuel value and 3 as the one with the lowest value:
a. ethane (C2H6)
b. propane (C3H8)
c. ethanol (C2H5OH)
In what other ways can we use percentage composition in our daily lives? Can
you give suggestions for its practical use?

Activity 7: Its Grocery Time!

Objectives:

apply the concept of percentage composition in choosing grocery items.

realize that the amount of substance intake can be monitored with the use
of percentage composition.

Materials:
Grocery items containers or package (food wrappers, can, bottles etc)
76

Procedure:
1. Get 3 samples of containers or package of grocery items such as canned goods,
snacks and beverages.
2. List the substances written as content/ingredients on the label. Choose 2 substances
from each type of grocery item.
3. Research from a chemistry book or from the internet the chemical formula of the
substances on your list.
4. Compute for the percentage composition of the substances you have listed.
Q1. Based on this activity, what food do you regularly consume which give your body
a lot of carbon (C) atoms and sodium (Na) ions?
Q2. Are these good for your body? Why? Research on how much of these types of
food are recommended for your age group.
Q3. In what other ways can you make use of the concept on percentage composition?
Knowledge about percentage composition is useful in choosing the best fertilizer
that gives higher amount of nitrogen and potassium in the soil. Aside from this, it will
help us to be a wise consumer because it is a good basis of choosing the food product
we need to eat based on its content. Whenever you buy t-shirt, it is good to check
whether it is 100% cotton or just 75% cotton. In terms of product development,
percentage composition will indicate the correct amount of substances needed in order
to produce the expected product. For example, if a manufacturing company wants to
produce resin it will not be formed if they do not know the correct percentage of every
component.

Summary:
It is important that you remember the following ideas from this module:

Different kinds of materials with the same number of particles have different
masses.
One mole contains the Avogadros number of particles equal to 6.02 x 10 23.
Different substances with the same number of moles have the same number of
particles but they have different masses.
Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance expressed in grams.
The molar mass of a monatomic element like Na, Li, Mg is numerically equal to
its atomic mass expressed in grams.
The mass of the substance divided by its molar mass gives the number of moles
of the substance.
The number of moles multiplied by the Avogadros number gives the number of
particles.
77

Percentage composition of a compound tells you the percentage of the mass

made up by each element in a compound

Glossary:
Avogadros Number the number equal to 6.02 x 10
atoms or ions or molecules equal to 1 mole

23

which refers to the number of

chemical formula a combination of the symbol of elements and subscript numbers

representing a compound
molar mass the mass of one mole of a substance
mole SI unit to express the amount of a substance
molecule the smallest unit of a substance that retains its physical and chemical
properties, it may be composed of one kind of atom or two or more kinds of atoms
bonded together.
percentage composition the percentage by mass of each element in a compound

Summative Assessment
Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. The label of the dark chocolate indicates that its mass is 150g and it is 70% cacao, if
you consume the whole chocolate bar, how much cacao did you eat?
a. 105 g cacao
b. 45 g cacao
c. 100 g cacao
d. 50 g cacao
2. What is the representative particle of ionic compounds?
a. atom
b. ion
c. molecule
d. formula unit
3. How many particles are there in one mole of any kind of substance?
a. 3.01 x 1023
b. 6.02 x 1023
c. 3.01 x 1024
d. 6.02 x 1024

78

4. Moth balls (paradichlorobenzene-C6H4Cl2) are used as cockroach repellent. It is often

placed inside the cabinet. If 1piece of moth ball weighs 5.0g and your mother put 3
pieces in your cabinet, how many molecules of paradichlorobenzene-C6H4Cl2 (Molar
Mass = 147.00 g/mol) will be circulating inside your cabinet considering all the moth
balls have sublimed?
a. 6.02 x 10 22 molecules of C6H4Cl2
b. 6.02 x 10 23 molecules of C6H4Cl2
c. 6.14 x 10 22 molecules of C6H4Cl2
d. 6.14 x 10 23 molecules of C6H4Cl2
5. Who among the following students describes the result of the activity on counting by
weighing correctly?
Ann Different sets of materials having the same mass have different number
of pieces.
Dan Different sets of materials have the same number of pieces and the
same mass.
Tom - The same sets of materials, have the same number of pieces but
different masses.
a. Ann
b. Dan
c. Tom
d. none of them
6. The roots of the plants absorb the nutrients from the soil. For the farmers, it is
important to strengthen the root system of their plants to ensure its growth. Potassium is
the mineral responsible for a healthy root system. If you were a farmer, which of the
following fertilizers are you going to use?
a. K2SO4
b. K2O
c. KCl
d. K2CO3
7. Methane (CH4Molar Mass = 16.04 g/mol) is one of the greenhouse gases. If 32.08 g
of CH4 is released in the atmosphere, how many molecules of CH4 are added in the
atmosphere?
a. 1.20 x 1024
b. 1.20 x 1023
c. 6.02 x 1024
d. 6.02 x 1023
8. The presence of SO2 in the atmosphere causes acid rain. How many percent of
sulfur is present in SO2 (Molar Mass = 64.07g/mole)?
a. 40.00%
b. 49.95%
c. 60.00%
d. 50.05%

79

9. Arrange the following substances from the lightest to the heaviest:

Cl2; CH4; H2O; NH3; N2
a. H2O< NH3< N2< CH4< Cl2
c. N2< Cl2< H2O< CH4<NH3

b. CH4< NH3< H2O< N2< Cl2

d. NH3< CH4< Cl2< H2O< N2

10. Why is mole concept important?

a. It is useful when converting between grams and atoms or molecules.
b. It gives us a convenient way to express large numbers
c. It can be applied to any type of particle representative
d. All of the above
11. Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3 Molar Mass = 80.06g/mole) is a substance use to
produce dinitrogen monoxide (N2O), a dental anesthetic. Determine the mass percent of
N in ammonium nitrate?
a. 35.00%
b. 40.65%
c. 39.50%
d. 43.68%
12. People usually use hydrogen peroxide (H2O2 Molar Mass = 34.02 g/mole) to clean
their wounds. If Cheska used 1.0 g of H2O2 to clean her wound, how many mole of H2O2
did she use?
a. 0.035 mole
b. 0.030 mole
c. 0.029 mole
d. 0.025 mole
13. In cold areas, many fish and insects, including the common housefly produce large
amounts of glycerol (C3H8O3 Molar Mass = 92.11 g/mole) to lower the freezing point of
their blood. How many percent of oxygen is present in glycerol?
a. 52.11%
b. 50.11%
c. 51.11%
d. 53.11%
14. Ethyl butanoate (C3H7COOC2H5) is the substance responsible for the aroma of
pineapple. What is the molar mass of ethyl butanoate?
a. 118.00 g/mole
b. 117.12 g/mole
c. 120.12 g/mole
d. 116.18 g/mole
15. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3 Molar Mass = 100.09 g/mole ) is an antacid used to
neutralize extra acid in the stomach. Lorie is prescribed by the doctor to take 250mgtablet of CaCO3 three times a day. How many moles of CaCO3 will Lorie consume for 3
days?
a. 0.0252 moles
b. 0.0225 moles
c. 0.0242 moles
d. 0.0235 moles
80

References:
LeMay, E.H. Jr., Robblee, K.M., Brower, H., Douglas C. (1996). Chemistry Connections
to Our Changing World. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Magno, M., et. al. (2001). Practical Work in High School Chemistry Sourcebook for
Teachers. Quezon City: UP National Institute for Science & Mathematics
Education Development
Department of Education,.Culture and Sports.1992 Teaching Resource Package: S&TChemistry. PASMEP, AIDAB,UP-ISMED, DECS. Pasig: Author.
Silberberg, M. (1996). Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change. St.
Louis: Mosby
Wilbraham, A.C., Staley, D. D., Matta, M. (1997). Chemistry ( 4thed) New York: AddisonWesley Pub.
Wilbraham, A.C., Staley, D.D., Matta, M.S. & Waterman, E.L. (2007). Chemistry,
Teachers Ed. Boston, Massachusetts:Pearson, Prentice Hall, Inc.

81

82

UNIT 3
Earth and Space

(Photo credit: Billy Frymire)

1

Unit 3: Earth and Space

Overview
What will students learn about Earth and Space in Grade 9? As in the
previous grade, there will be three modules in this quarter. Module 1 is about
Volcanoes, Module 2 is about Climate,e and Module 3 is about Constellations.
In Module 1, we continue to make use of our observations in the
environment. We emphasize our location along the Ring of Fire. As learned in Grade
8, the Philippines is prone to earthquakes. At grade 9, we will still give emphasis on
the location of the Philippines but as a home to volcanoes.
Just like any country along the Ring of Fire, we, too, have active and inactive
volcanoes that continuously shape the Earths surface. These volcanoes can be
described in different ways. Active volcanoes have different features based on their
activities and emissions.
Likewise, volcanoes have energy that can be tapped for human use. After all,
volcanism is not all bad. As part of the disaster risk reduction, we must also point out
how the negative effects of volcanic eruption can be minimized through disaster
awareness.
In Module 2, we find out the difference between weather and climate. We
look into the different factors affecting the climate of an area such as altitude,
latitude, distance from the ocean, and presence of landmass.
Since the Philippines is located just north of the equator, we have a tropical
climate. Unlike other countries with a wide range of temperature during the course of
the year, we experience a minimal difference. What are other variations that we
experience?
We also look into certain climatic phenomena that occur on a global level. We
talk further the about greenhouse effect discussed in Grade 7. InAt Grade 9, we will
relate it with global warming or climate change. We have to make our students aware
of risks of climate change and how its effects can be lessened.
In Module 3, we will take up constellations. In grade 5, the students were
introduced towith star patterns. InAt Grade 9, the word constellation will be used. The
relationship between the constellations in the sky and Earths position along its orbit
will be given emphasis. Likewise, we have to assist our students make
inferencesinfer about the characteristics of the stars based on the characteristics of
the Sun.
2

Suggested time allotment: 10 hours

Unit 3

MODULE

VOLCANOES

I. Introduction
The Philippines is located along the Ring of Fire. As a result, it is a home to
many volcanoes. The most famous among our volcanoes is the Mayon Volcano that
has erupted last May 7, 2013 while a group of hikers were exploring its beauty.
Who could forget the terrible eruption of Pinatubo Volcano in 1992 after 600
years of inactivity? Based on statistics, in the first five years following the eruption,
lahars destroyed the homes of more than 100,000 people. Lahars also covered
about 120,000 hectares with sediment to an average depth of about one meter, and
floods spread rock debris over a larger area.The eruption also affected other
countries as its emissions in the atmosphere lowered the air temperature.
According to the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
(PHIVOLCS), our country is an ideal site for any volcanic activity. It is therefore,
important for us to know how this natural phenomenon happens to reduce the risks
and effects it may cause.
II. Learning Competencies/Objectives
In this module, the Learner should be able to:
1. differentiate active and inactive volcanoes;
2. describe the different types of volcanoes;
3. explain what happens when volcanoes erupt; and
4. illustrate how energy from volcanoes may be tapped for human use.

III. Pre-/Diagnostic Assessment

A. Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. Which characteristic of magma mainly determines its explosiveness?
a. color
b. amount
c. temperature
d. silica content
2. Which of the following characteristics of a volcano depends on its magma
emission?
a. age
b. size
c. shape
d. location
3. Which of the following factors associated with huge volcanic eruptions may cause
the decrease in the Earths average temperature for a few years?
a. heat
b. light
c. acid rain
d. volcanic ash
4. A thick layer of volcanic ash can be heavy enough to collapse the roofs of
buildings because ash ________.
a. is solid.
b. cannot be blown by winds.
c. becomes heavier as it cools.
d. consists of tiny fragments of rocks that becomes heavy as they pile up.
5. Which of the following is an active volcano in the Philippines?
a. Apo in Davao
b.Bud Datu in Sulu
c.Isarog in Camarines Sur
d.Kanlaon in Negros Oriental
B. Answer the following questions briefly.
6. Aside from Mayon Volcano, name another Philippine volcano that has erupted
recently.
7. What causes a shield volcano to be shaped like a broad dome?
8. By what process can a volcanic eruption affect temperatures around the world?
9. Give one positive effect and one negative effect of volcanic eruptions.
10. How is energy from volcanoes tapped as source of electricity?

IV. Reading Resources and Instructional Activities

In Grade 8, you have learned about the relationship between the occurrence
of earthquakes and the location of the Philippines along the Ring of Fire. Due to its
location, the Philippines is a home to many volcanoes. This module will guide you
through the study of volcanism in the Philippines.
What is a volcano?
Since you were in elementary, you have heard about volcanoes. But do you
know what a volcano is? To find out, lets do the following activity.

Activity 1. Volcano concept map

Objective
characterize a volcano

Fig. 1. Mayon Volcano(pls re-draw)

Materials:
pictures of a volcano
paper and pen

Procedure:
Q1. Based on the picture, give five descriptions of a volcano. Present your answer in
a concept map as shown below.

VOLCANO

Fig. 2. Concept map ion volcano

In activity 1, you have described what a volcano is. The next thing to do is to
classify them. Do you have an idea how they are classified? Lets find out in the next
activity.
Classification of volcanoes
There are several ways by which volcanoes can be classified. PHIVOLCS
have adapted a systemwherethe Philippine volcanoes as active or inactive. Active
volcanoes are those that have a record of eruption within the last 600 years or those
that erupted 10, 000 years ago based on analyses of theirits materials.
Inactive volcanoes, on the other hand, are those that have not erupted for the
last 10, 000 years and their physical form is being changed by agents of weathering
and erosion through formation of deep and long gullies.
According to PHIVOLCS,our country has more than a hundredvolcanoes as
of 2013. Twenty-three are active while the rest are inactive. Some of these
volcanoes will be mentioned in the next activity.
Perform the next activity to classify the volcanoes according to their record of
eruption.

Activity 2. Volcanoes in the Philippines

Objective
classify volcanoes as active or inactive
Materials:
Philippine map
colored pens
triangle ruler
Procedure:
1. Using the Philippine map (fig. 3), plot the location of thefollowing volcanoes.
Assign colors for the volcanoes. Indicate this in the legend.
Table 1. List of some volcanoes in the Philippines

Volcano

Latitude

Longitude

Cabaluyan
Cocoro
Iraya
Kanlaon
Mayon
Pulung
Smith
Taal
Tamburok
Urot

15 42
10 53
20 29
10 24
13 15
7 55
19 32
14
11 33
5 59

120 19
121 12
124 01
123 7
123 41
124 38
121 55
120 59
124 26
121 15

Number of
historical
eruptions
0
0
1
26
49
0
6
33
0
0

Latest
eruption or
activity
1454
2006 June
2013 May
1924
1977
-

(Source: Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, accessed Sept. 30, 2013)

Fig. 3. Map of the Philippines (Source: Gr 8 LM, UPNISMED)

Legend:
= volcano that has no record of eruption
= volcano that has erupted 1 to 5 times
= volcano that has erupted 6 to 10 times
= volcano that has erupted more than 10 times

Q1. Are all the volcanoes found in the same location?

Q2. Which of the volcanoes had the most number of eruptions? least number of
eruptions? no record of eruption?
Q3. How will you classify the volcanoes that have records of eruptions?
Q4. How will you classify volcanoes with no record of eruption?
Q5. In your own words, differentiate an active volcano from an inactive one.
Now that you have differentiated an active volcano from an inactive one, the
next question could be: what causes the volcanoes to erupt? Lets find out in the next
activity.

Activity 3. Under pressure

Objective
describe the effect of high temperature to the formation of gas
Materials
two 300 mlL bottled softdrinks(must be sealed before using)
two 300 mlL bottled cooking oil
two identical small basins
hot water
Procedure
1. Hall-fill basin A with hot water and basin B with cold water.
2. Put one bottled soda in basin A and another one in basin B. Wait for three
minutes.
3. Slowly unscrew the caps from the bottlein each basin and observe.
Q1. What did you observe in each bottle?
Q2. Explain your observation.
Q3. What is the role of hot water in the setup?
What if we use another liquid such as oil instead of softdrinks? Will we have
the same observation? Lets find out in the next procedure.
4. Replace the hot water in basin A.
9

5. Put one of the bottled cooking oil in hot water and the other one in cold water. Wait
for three minutes.
6. Slowly unscrew the caps and observe.
Q4. Do you have the same observation as in the soda drinks?
Q5. Explain your answer.
In the activity, you have seen the effect of temperature on the amount of gas
that can be produced in a liquid. How does this affect the pressure inside the bottle?
What is the role of pressure in the setup?
Let us relate this concept to what is happening inside the volcano. Magma
inside the volcano has high temperature. As the magma is continuously heated, it
goes up. As it rises, gas bubbles are developed. The gas bubbles are trapped and
expand causing the molten material to swell also, resulting in a gradual increase in
pressure within the volcano. When the pressure exceeds the strength of the
overlying rock, fracturing occurs. The resulting breaks lead to a further drop in
confining pressure, which in turn causes even more gas bubbles to form.
Lava may appear to be the primary material ejected from a volcano, but this
is not always the case. Aside from lava, broken rocks, lava bombs, fine ash and dust
are also ejected. Does this have any effect on the volcanic shape? Lets find out
how.
Volcanic landforms and eruptive styles
Volcanoes come in different shapes and sizes, and each structure has a
unique history of eruption. However, volcanologists have been able to classify them
according to their landforms and eruptive patterns. We have considered the three
general volcanic types according to the shape of their cones: namely: shield
volcanoes, cinder cones, and composite cones.
Before we go further, let us discuss the external parts of a volcano.
summit
slope
base

Fig. 4. Parts of a volcano(Source: Project EASE Module 12)

10

A volcano usually has a summit, slope, and base. At the summit, there is an
opening which may either be a crater or a caldera. A crater is a funnel-shaped
opening at the top of a volcano while a caldera is formed when a part of the wall
collapses following an explosive eruption as shown in Figure 54. A volcano can have
one crater, like Mayon Volcano, or can be more than one, like Taal Volcano that has
47 craters.

Fig. 5. A crater and a caldera(pls. re-draw)

Volcanic activity can be very fascinating. After an explosive eruption, a scenic
cone-shaped structure may be produced or changes on its slope can be observed.
The emissions of a volcano provide us with clues on what materials are found inside
the Earth. Some eruptions are very explosive, while many others are not.
What determines the nature of eruption? There are primary factors affecting
the volcanoes eruptive style, namely: the magmas temperature, its chemical
composition, and the amount of dissolved gases it contains. These factors can affect
the magmas viscosity in different ways. Viscosity is the property of the materials
resistance to flow. It is also described as the liquids thickness and stickiness. The
more viscous and thicker the material is, the greater is its resistance to flow. For
instance, syrup is more viscous than water.
Let us discuss how each factor affects the viscosity of magma. First, lets look
into how temperature of magma affects its viscosity. The viscosity of magma
decreases with temperature. The higher the temperature of magma is, the lower is its
viscosity. Aslava flows, it cools and begins to harden, its ability to flow decreases and
eventually it stops.
Next, lets look at how the composition of magma affects its viscosity.
Magmas with high silica content are more viscous than those with low silica content
as shown in Figure 65.The magma that contains less silica is relatively fluid and
travels far before solidifying.
Lastly, the amount of gases contained in the magma affects its viscosity.
Other factors being equal, gas (mainly water vapor) dissolved in magma tends to
11

increase its ability to flow. Therefore, in near-surface environments, the loss of gases
makes magma more viscous, forming a dome or a columnar as shown in Figure 65.
Lava with less silica content has low viscosity that it
can travel a great distance, forming a thin sheet.

Lava with high silica content is too

viscous to travel far, and tends to
break up as it flows.

Lava with low amount of gas and high silica

content is very viscous and does not flow out at
all as it rises forming, a columnar plug in the
vent.
Lava with low amount of gas as it rises has
high viscosity that it piles up at a vent resulting
into a dome.

Fig. 6. Viscosity of magma inat different conditions(Source: Project EASE Module 12)
To understand more about viscosity, do the following activity.
Activity 4. Viscosityrace
Objectives:
determine the viscosity of some liquids; and
describe the flow of gas in different liquids
Materials:
four pieces of cone out of a cardboard
clear drinking glass
beaker
drinking straw
tray
timer
water
syrup
honey
cookingoil

12

Procedure:
1. Before doing the activity, predict which liquid (water, syrup, honey, and cooking
oil) takes the least amount of time to reach the tray. Which liquid will take the most
amount of time?
2. Place the cone marked A, B, C, and D on the tray.
3. Pour water on the top of cone A. Record the time it takes for the water to reach the
tray.
4. Do it three times for each material.
NOTE: Use the same amount of material each time.

Liquid

Table 2. Travel time of some liquids

Travel time (seconds)
st
1
2nd
3rd

Average

water
cooking oil
syrup
honey
Q1. Is your prediction correct?
Q2. Which liquid is the most viscous? How do you know?
Q3. Which liquid is the least viscous?
Q4. Explain viscosity in your own words.
Q5. Compare how these liquids flow withto how you think lava flows. Why does
some types of lava travel faster than others?
6. Put 100 mL syrup in a clear glass.
7. Using a drinking straw, blow some air from the bottom of the liquid. Observe.
8. Repeat procedure 7 by blowing harder on itthe liquid. Observe.
Q6. Compare the movement of the liquid as the bubbles move on the surface.
In activity 3, you have observed that different liquids have different
viscosities. If the liquid represents the magma, then its rate of flow depends on
several factors. In the same way, you have seen in this activity that the amount of
gas affects the viscosity of the liquid.
What type of magma do you think the Mayon Volcano ejects? Why do you
say so?

13

Types of volcanic eruptions

Volcanoes erupt differently.They are generally classified as wet or dry
depending on the magmas water content. Volcanoes are described according to the
style of eruption as follows:
a. Phreatic or hydrothermal is a stream-driven eruption
as the hot rocks come in contact with water. It is shortlived, characterized by ash columns but may be an onset
for of a larger eruption. Shown on the right is our Taal
Volcano in Batangas.

b. Phreatomagmatic is a violent eruption due to the

contact between water and magma. As a result, a large
column of very fine ash and high-speed and sideway
emission of pyroclastics called base surges are
observed.
Fig. 7. Taal Volcano (Photo credits: USGS)
c. Strombolian -- a periodic weak to violent
eruption characterized by fountain lava,
just like the Irazu Volcano in Costa Rica.

Fig. 8. Irazu Volcano (Photo credit: USGS)

d. Vulcanian characterized by tall
eruption columns that reach up to 20 km
high with pyroclastic flow and ashfall
tephra like that of Paricutin Volcano in
Mexico.

Fig. 9. Paricutin Volcano (Photo credits: USGS)

14

e. Plinian excessively explosive

type of eruption of gas and
pyroclastics, just like our Pinatubo
Volcano in Zambales.

Fig. 10. Pinatubo Volcano (Photo credits: USGS)

Now that you have learned about the factors that affect the viscosity of
magma, its time to find out how the type of material emissions affects the volcanos
slope.

Activity 5. In and out

Objective:
relate the volcanos slope to its material emissions
Materials:
two cups of cornstarch
two cups of water
1 cup gravel
3 cardboard pieces
three 250 mlL paper cups
stirrer (any wooden stick)
ruler
protractor
Procedure:
1. Make a data table like the one shown below:.

15

Table 3. Volcano model and slope

Cone

Drawing of cone

Slope (in degrees)

A - cornstarch

B - gravel

C - mixed

2. Mix about 3/4 cup of cornstarch with 1/4 cup of water in a paper cup. Stir the
mixture well until it thickens.
3. Pour the mixture on a piece of cardboard from a height of 2-3 cm. Write cone A
on the cardboard and set it aside.
4. Fill another cup with gravel. Pour the gravel slowly on the second piece of
cardboard from a height of about 10 cm. Label this model cone B and set it aside.
5. In a cup, mix the rest of the cornstarchwith the rest of the water. Fill the other
paper cup with gravel. Pour a small amount of the cornstarch mixture on the third
piece of cardboard, then pour some gravel on top. Repeat until all the cornstarch
mixture and gravel have been used. Label this model cone C and set it aside until
the mixtures in both cone A and cone C haves hardened (about 20 min).
6. Draw the cone of volcanoes A, B and C.
7. Use the protractor to measure the approximate slope of each cone. You can
measure the slope from the base as shown below. Enter the data in Table 2.

Fig. 11. Measuring the slope of the cone

16

Q1. Compare the appearances of the cones.

Q2. Which volcano has the greatest slope? Which has the least slope?
Q3. Explain how the type of material extruded from a volcano affects the shape of its
cone.
Q4. In what way does the formation of a volcanic cone model differ from a real
volcano?
How will you describe the slope of Pinatubo Volcano? Infer the type of materials from
which it was formed.

Fig. 12. Pinatubo Volcano

(Source: https://www.google.com.ph/url/mt-pinatubo-things-that-matter)
Although volcanologists have different basis for classifying volcanoes, one
way to classify volcanoes is by their cones.Now that you have learned about the
relationship between volcanic emission and the shape of its slope, lets discuss the
three volcanic cones, namely: shield, cinder, and composite cones.
Shield volcanoes are formed by the accumulation of lava that oozes out from
the volcano. Since non-viscous lava can flow freely, a broad, slightly domed structure
that resembles a warriors shield is formed as shown in Figure 13. An example of this
type is the Mauna Loa in Hawaii.
Cinder cones, on the other hand, are built from ejected lava fragments. They
have a steep slope, wide crater and are the most abundant of the three major
volcano types. One example of this type is the Paricutin in Mexico.
Composite cones or stratovolcanoes are large, nearly perfect sloped
structure formed from alternate solidification of both lava and pyroclastic deposits.
One perfect example of this type of cone is ourMayon Volcano.

17

Fig. 13. Types of volcanic cones(pls re-draw)

Energy from the volcano
Since our country is a home to more than a hundred of volcanoes, energy
has been tapped from them. Actually, the Philippines ranksed second in the worlds
production of geothermal energy. Of the countrys total electricity production, 27% is
generated in the power plants. The production of electricity from geothermal energy
is cheaper than the electricity production using natural gas, coal, and hydropower.
What is geothermal energy?
The Earth is believed to be extremely hot from within. This heat from the
Earths interior is a source of energy called geothermal energy. The heat of the Earth
warms up water which is trapped in rock formations beneath its surface.
How is the geothermal energy generated?
Geothermal energy is generated in two ways: geothermal power plants and
geothermal heat pumps.They differ ion the depth of heat source to produce energy.
In geothermal power plants, the heat from deep inside the Earth is used to
produce steam to generate electricity compared with geothermal heat pumps that
use the heat coming from close to the Earths surface to heat water orprovide heat
for buildings.
In the Philippines, geothermal power plants are used to generate electricity in
Tiwi (Albay), Kidapawan (North Cotabato), Calacan (Laguna), Tongonan (Leyte),
Bago City (Northern Negros Occidental), Valencia (Negros Oriental), and Bacon
(Sorsogon). The figure 148 below shows the Mak-Ban Geothermal Power Plant in
Laguna.

18

Fig. 14. Generating electricity from geothermal energy(pls. re-draw)

Power plants are built in an area where it is particularly hot just below the
surface such as near a group of geysers,hot springs, or volcanic activity.
The following steps are followed to generate electricity in a geothermal power
plant:
1. Wells are drilled deep into the Earth to pump steam or hot water to the
surface.
2. When the water reaches the surface, the drop in pressure causes the water
to turn into steam.
3. The steam spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator that produces
electricity.
4. Cooling tower cools the steam whichand it condenses back to water.
5. The cooled water is pumped back into the Earth to begin the process again.
Q1. Use a flowchart to describe how energy is transformed to generate electricity in
a geothermal power plant.
How do volcanic eruptions affect the society?
Volcanic eruption is often associated with negative effects. It can cause loss
of lives and properties. As the lava flows or pyroclastic materials are ejected in the
air, they can carry destroy anything ion their way. Actually, it has a good and a bad
side. For example, the eruption of Pinatubo in 1991, one ofthe longest volcanic
eruptions, has caused the decrease in the Earths surface temperature foralmost two
years. The strong winds during its eruption spread the aerosol particles from the
plume around the globe. The result was a measurable cooling of the Earths surface
for a period of almost two years.
19

Volcanoes also affect people positively. For example, the eruption of

Pinatubo Volcano has created spectacular scenery in its wakealong its trek.
Likewise, the eruption of Musuan Volcano in Bukidnon has produced very rich soils
for farmingyears after its eruption in 1867. People became creative also by making
earthenware out of the ashfall from the Pinatubo Volcano eruption.

Fig. 15. The Pinatubo caldera

Despite the advantages that people get from volcanic eruption, the major
concern now is how to reduce the negative effects of disasters to reduce loss and
save lives.

Fig. 16. The aftermath of Pinatubo Volcano eruption (Photo credits: USGS)
Are you prepared?
Signs of an impending volcanic eruption
According to the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
(PHIVOLCS)T, the government agency tasked with monitoring earthquakes and
volcanoes in the country, the following are commonly observed signs that a volcano
is about to erupt. These may vary from one volcano to another. (Adapted from
PHIVOLCS)
20

1. Increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes with rumbling sounds; occurrence of

volcanic tremors;
2. Increased steaming activity; change in color of steam emission from white to gray
due to entrained ash;
3. Crater glow due to presence of magma at or near the crater;
4. Ground swells (or inflation), ground tilt and ground fissuring due to magma
intrusion;
5. Localized landslides, rockfalls and landslides from the summit area which not
attributable to heavy rains;
6. Noticeable increase in the extent of drying up of vegetation around the volcano's
upper slopes;
7. Increase in the temperature of hot springs, wells (e.g., Bulusan and Canlaon) and
crater lake (e.g., Taal) near the volcano;
8. Noticeable variation in the chemical content of springs, crater lakes within the
vicinity of the volcano;
9. Drying up of springs/wells around the volcano; and,
10. Development of new thermal areas and/or reactivation of old ones; appearance
of solfataras.

Performance Task
You are a volcanologist from Bicol. On your way back to your hometown, you
saw the destruction brought about by the eruption of Mayon Volcano. You decided to
invite your colleaguesto come with you on your next visit with a mission, that is, to
create awarenessamong your townmates aboutvolcanic hazards before, during,
and after a volcanic eruption. Decide on how you will accomplish your mission.
Your presentation will be rated based on the following criteria:

Details and information

Method of presentation
21

Criteria

Details and
Information

Method of
presentation

Techniques /
Creativity

Accuracy

Techniques/cCreativity
Accuracy
Excellent
4
Has included
at least 5
things to
remember
before, during,
and after a
volcanic
eruption
Presentation is
easy to
understand,
unique, and
exemplary.
Well-prepared
with aand
variety of
props or
materials used
to create a
powerful image
about what to
do before,
during, and
after volcanic
eruption
Information
contains
essentially no
errors which
interfere with
clarity of
communication

Proficient
3
Has included 4
things to
remember
before, during,
and after a
volcanic
eruption

Adequate
2
Has included 3
things to
remember
before, during,
and after a
volcanic
eruption

Limited
1
Has included
only 2 things to
remember
before, during,
and after a
volcanic
eruption

Presentation is
uniquebut not
organized

Presentation is
not unique but
organized

Presentation is
not unique and
not organized

Well-prepared
but
limitedprops or
materials used
to create an
interesting
image
about what to
do before,
during, and
after a volcanic
eruption

Variety ofprops
or materials
used
to create an
adequate
image that is
moderately
suitable about
what to do
before, during
and after
volcanic
eruption
Information
contains errors
which may
somewhat
interferes with
clarity of
communication

Limited props
or materials
used to create
an image
which
minimally
appeals to or is
not suitable
about what to
do before,
during and
after volcanic
eruption
Information
contains many
errors which
limit
the clarity of
communication

Information
contains minor
errors, none of
which interfere
with clarity of
communication

22

V. Summative Assessment
Answer the following questions:.
For numbers 1 to 3, choose from the illustration below. (pls re-draw without the
labels)
Which among the following volcanoes is formed from:

1. cinders and ash?

2. mostly lava?

3. alternate solidification of lava and cinders?

4. Given the following volcanoes, which are activeWhich of the following are active
volcanoes?
I. Mayon in Albay
II.Taal in Batangas
III. Vulcan in Camiguin
IV. Kanlaon in Negros Oriental
a. I and II only
b. II and III only
c. I, II, and III only
d. I, II, and IV only
5. Which of the following characteristics of magma mainly affect the explosiveness of
a volcanic eruption?
a. color
b. amount
c. temperature
d. silica content
6. How does the eruption of a volcano lower the atmospheric temperature?
7. Give one positive effect and one negative effect of volcanic eruption.
8. Describe the shape of the volcanic cone formed from the following types of
volcanic emission:
23

a. high temperature magma

b. low amount of gas magma
c. high silica content magma
9. Give three things on whatthat a person should to do during volcanic eruptions in
order to avoid getting hurt.
10. Complete the chart below to showon how the heat from the Earth is tapped as a
source of electricity in a power plant.
heat from
inside the
Earth

VI. Summary/Synthesis/Feedback

A volcano is a natural opening in the surface of the Earth where molten rocks,
hot gases, smoke, and ash are ejected.

Volcanoes are classified according to

a. record of eruption as active or inactive
b. shape of volcanic cone as shield, cinder, or composite

The shape of a volcanic cone depends on three3 factors, namely:

a. composition of magma
b. temperature of magma
c. amount of gas

The heat flowing from inside the Earth is tapped as source of electricity in the
geothermal power plant.

Glossary of terms
active volcano a volcano that has erupted within the last 600 years and are
documented by man or those that erupted 10,000 years ago based on analyses of
datable materials.
ash fragments of rocks; fine-grained lava
caldera - a volcanic crater that is formed when a part of the wall of the crater
collapses following an explosive eruption
cinder loose fragments of solidified lava
cinder cone characterized by narrow base and steep slope
24

crater- a funnel-shaped depression at the top of a volcano formed as a result of

explosive eruptions
composite cone formed from alternate solidification of lava and cinders
characterized by large and symmetrical slope.
geothermal heat coming from inside the Earth
inactive volcano a volcano that has no record of eruption
lava magma that has been ejected out of a volcano
magma molten rock inside the Earth
shield cone - formed by accumulation of lava resulting into a broad, slightly domed
structure that resembles a warriors shield
silica a compound of silicon (SiO2)
slope degree of slant; inclination
summit peak or highest point
viscosity the resistance to flow
volcano an opening in the Earths surface where molten rocks, smoke, gases, and
ashes are erupted.

References and links

Department of Education, Bureau of Secondary Education. Project EASE Integrated
Science 1, Module 12: Inside the Earth.
Department of Education, Bureau of Secondary Education (2013). Science - Grade 8
Learners Module. Vibal Publishing House, Inc.
McDougal Littell (2005). Science: Integrated Course 3. Houghton Mifflin Company.
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) Department of
Science and Technology (DOST) (2008). School Teachers Seminar-Training on
Natural Hazards Awareness and Preparedness: Focus on Earthquakes and
Volcanoes (Training Module).
Tarbuck, E.J. et. al. (2009). Earth Science 12th ed. Pearson Education Suth Asia Pte
Ltd.
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/ accessed September 30, 2013
25

http://www.epa.gov/climatestudents/index.html accessed September 30, 2013

http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/ accessed October 01. 2013
https://www.google.com.ph/url/mt-pinatubo-things-that-matter accessed November
06, 2013
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/hazards/lahar/rain.php accessed November 08, 2013

26

Unit 3

Suggested Time Allotment: 8 to 9 hours

Module
CLIMATE
2
Overview
What are the things you usually consider whenever you plan to have a picnic? Most
probably, you will consider the time, place and most of all the weather. Weather affects your
day-to-day activities. In your previous year level, you had encountered different factors that
affect weather. These factors help to determine the weather for today and so on.
Some of you may mistake climate with weather. But in fact, they are not the same.
Climate is the general pattern of weather in a certain area over a long period of time. On the
other hand, weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a specific place and time.
In this module, you will learn to distinguish climate from weather. You will find out the
factors that affect climate. You will understand why the climate of one country differs from that
of others. This module will also help you understand the causes of global warming and other
phenomena such as El Nio and La Nia.
At the end of this module, you are expected to answer the following questions:
What are the factors that affect climate? How does each factor affect climate?
What is climate change? What are the negative effects of climate change? How
can we lessen the bad effects of global warming?

27

II. Learning Competencies/Objectives

At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. explain how different factors affect the climate of an area
2. describe certain climatic phenomena that occur on a global level
3. make a strategic plan to help mitigate and adapt the effects of climate change

Pre-/Diagnostic Assessment
1. How does the windward side differ from the leeward side of a high land?
a. The windward receives more precipitation than the leeward.
b. The leeward side has more vegetation than the windward side.
c. The windward side receives more heat than the leeward side.
d. The leeward side receives more precipitation than the windward side.
2. What happens to the temperature of air when altitude increases?

a. remains the same

b. increases

c. decreases
d. varies

3. Which of the following BEST describes climate?

a. The weather that occurs in the atmosphere within a day.
b. The pattern of weather that occurs in a region over a long period of time.
c. The pattern of weather that occurs in a region over a short period of time.
d. The disturbance in the atmosphere that happens in a long period of time.
4. Why are the coldest places on earth found at the poles?
a. great amount of gaseous particles trap heat from the surface
b. great amount of thermal radiation is received by these areas
c. less amount of thermal radiation is received by these areas
d. less amount of gaseous particles trap heat from the surface
5. What will happen when the rates of evaporation and condensation are equal?
a. Clouds form.
c. The humidity increases.
b. The dew point is reached.
d. Precipitation occurs.
6. Which of the following can cause global warming?
a. volcanic eruptions
b. the amount of rainfall
c. the rising of warm air into the atmosphere
d. increase of the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere
28

7. When does greenhouse effect happen?

a. Greenhouse gases on the surface absorb heat from the atmosphere.
b. Greenhouse gases on the surface absorb heat from the earths interior.
c. Greenhouse gases in the upper atmosphere absorb heat from the outer space.
d. Greenhouse gases in the lower atmosphere absorb heat from the earths surface.
8. Which activity does not contribute to global warming?
a. reforestation
c. mining activities
b. illegal fishing
d. incineration of garbage
9. City A is surrounded by bodies of water and has a moderate climate. It is located near the
equator. What will most likely affect the climate of the city?
a. latitude
c. topography
b. altitude
d. all of these
10. Which of following is an indication of global warming?
a. rising of sea level
c. coastal erosion
b. decrease of global temperature
d. strong waves in the ocean

II. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the factors that affect climate?
2. How can you lessen the harmful effects of climate change?
3. Explain how greenhouse effect happens.
4. How is a rain shadow formed?
5. What are some impacts of climate change to people and animals?

29

In Grade 7, you have learned that the earths axis is not perpendicular to the plane of its
orbit. The shape of the earth resulted in the uneven heating of the earths surface. The equator
receives much of the radiant energy released by the sun, so places near the equator have warm
climate. The areas closer to the poles receive less amount of heat because the angle of sunlight
becomes smaller.
In activity 1, you will find out the role of latitude in varying the climate of different
places.

Activity 1. When the Suns Rays Strike!

Objective

explain how latitude affects climate.

Study the illustration below.

Figure 1 The Suns rays and the Earth

Source: Grade 7 Science Module

Q1. How much is the tilt of the earths axis?

Q2. Which part of the earth receives most of the suns rays?
Q3. Why does the amount of heat receive by places far from the equator becomes less?
30

Q4. Why are the coldest places on earth found near the poles?
Q5. Why are places with high temperature found at the equator?
Q6. How does latitude affect climate?

You have noticed that most of the suns rays strike vertically in places near the equator.
This makes the temperature higher in these areas, resulting in warm climate. Places that are not
always vertically hit by the suns rays experience cold climate. As the latitude increases, the
smaller the angle of the suns rays strike the surface. Therefore, when the area is farther from the
equator, the air temperature is lower. When the place is closer to the equator, the air temperature
is higher.
Do you think the altitude of the place might affect the climate? How does altitude affect
climate? The next activity will guide you in answering these questions.

Activity 2. The higher, the colder

Objective

explain how altitude affects climate

Materials Needed
Pencil or ballpen
Ruler

31

Procedure
1. Study Table 2.1 below.
Table 2.1 Different Cities in the Philippines and Their Annual Average Temperature

Name of Place

Elevation above Sea level (m)

Bacolod

10

Baguio

1400

Laoag

20

Manila

10

Tacloban

20

Tagaytay

640

Zamboanga

30

Annual average temperature

(0 C)
27.5
16.0
27.3
27.7
29.4
22.7
27.6

Source: http://mapcarta.com (as of September 30)

Q1. Which place is the coldest?
Q2. Which place is the hottest?
2. Construct a scatter graph based on the data above.
Q3. Based on the data, what is the relationship between altitude and temperature of a place?

The altitude of a place will affect the air temperature.

Look at Figure 2. Mt. Kilimanjaro is located in Africa
and found near the equator. It stands 5895m above sea
level. The peak of this mountain is covered by ice. How
is this possible? Thats because of the air temperature
decreases as the altitude increases.

32

Figure 2.1 Mt.Kilimanjaro

Source:http://www.eightup.co.uk/

Refer to Figure 2.2. Why is it that

during summer many people visit
Baguio City? Obviously, the reason is
the cold climate there. It has an annual
average temperature of 16oC. It has an
elevation of 1435m above sea level.

Figure 2.2 Baguio City

Source: http://jauntsandjoints.blogspot.com/2012/04/love-affair-with-city-of-pines.html
Photo credit: Chelos Treat

See Figure 2.3. Why do mountain climbers wear jackets and thick clothes when they go
up the mountain? The air temperature decreases as the altitude increases. For every 1000 m,
there is a drop of 6.50C. At higher
elevations, there is less air. The air
molecules are farther apart, thus making
the air less dense. Lighter air cannot
absorb much heat, making air
temperature lower. Ultimately, the
decrease of air temperature is due to the
decrease of air pressure.
Figure 2.3. Mt. Apo Adventures
Photo credits: Gabo

In the next activity, you will be able to find out the role of surrounding bodies of water to
the climate of a certain region.

33

Activity 3

Which cools and heats faster?

Objectives

explain how distance from the ocean affects climate

compare the effect of heat on water and land

Materials Needed
Water

soil/sand

iron stand and iron clamp

2 laboratory thermometers

2 beakers

thick cloth or pot holder

Sunlight or 2 lamps or alcohol lamps

timer

Procedure
1. Fill one can with soil/sand. Put label on it.
2. Fill another can with water. Label the container.
3. Prepare the setup like in Fig 3.1.
4. Take the initial temperatures of the water and soil .
(Write your data in the table)

Fig. 3.1 Heat absorption

Photo credits: NSTIC

5. Place the setup under the sun. Take the temperature every two minutes, for a total of ten
minutes.
6. Record your data in Table 3.1
(Caution: Do not allow the tip of the thermometer to touch the bottom of the container.)

34

Table 3.1 Temperature readings in heating the soil and water

Time (min.)

Temperature
of soil (oC)

Temperature
of water (oC)

0
2
4
6
8
10

Q1. What are the initial temperatures of water and soil?

Q2.What is the difference between the temperature of soil and water after 6 minutes?
Q3. Which heats up faster, water or soil?
7. After ten minutes of heating, remove the containers from each tripod.
8. After removing the containers from the tripods, take the temperatures of soil and water.
Record your data in Table 3.2
9. Take the temperature of each container every two minutes. (You will do this for 10 minutes.)
(Caution: Do not allow the tip of the thermometer to touch the bottom of the container.)

35

Table 3.2 Temperature readings in cooling the soil and water.

Time (min.)

Temperature of soil

Temperature of water

(oC)

(oC)

0
2
4
6
8
10

Q4. What happens to the temperatures of water and soil after you remove the containers from
each tripod?
Q5. Which cools faster, water or soil?
10. On a graphing paper, make a line graph to show your data presented in Tables 3.1 and 3.2.
Then, interpret your graph.

The climate of the place is influenced by the surrounding bodies of water. Soil absorbs
heat faster than water. At the same time, soil releases heat faster compared to water. These slow
absorption and release of heat by the body of water greatly affect the climate. Places that are near
the oceans have moderate climate as the body of water regulates the temperature. Even as both
soil and water absorb the same amount of heat, the temperature of water rises more slowly than
that of soil. Because soil heats up faster than water, air temperature above the sea is lower than
above ground during day time. Warm air thus moves out from land to sea, slowing down the rise
of air temperature above land. Thus, places without a body of water nearby tend to have higher
air temperature during day time.
36

At night, soil cools down faster than water, so the air temperature above ground is lower
than that above the sea. Warm air then flows from sea to land, so the drop in air temperature
above ground is moderated. Places that are far from the bodies of water have extreme climates,
as there are no immediate bodies of water that will help to circulate the movement of cold air and
warm air. The reason why temperature of water rises or falls more slowly than soil is that water
has higher heat capacity. Because of this, water also absorbs more heat in warm days and slowly
releases it in cold days. That is why during summer, areas that are near a body of water will have
moderate temperature because water absorbs more heat. Similarly during winter, surrounding
water slowly releases heat causing the cooling effect lesser than normal to nearby landmass.

Figure 3.1 Map of British Isles and Moscow, Russia (Redraw)

Source: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E7DLLxrrBV8 (as of November 7, 2013)

Figure 3.1 shows the tip of British Isles and the part of Russia near Moscow. Being in the
temperate region, both places have four seasons. Even though both places are at the same
latitude, the northern tip of the British Isles has a more moderate climate due to the neighboring
bodies of water (refer on the picture above). The British Isles experiences average maximum
temperature of 17 oC and an average minimum temperature of 0oC.

37

Moscow on the other hand, has an average maximum temperature of 21 oC and very cold winter
with an average of -8 oC.
Q7. How does a body of water regulate the temperature of a certain region/country?
Q8. Why do some areas that are far from bodies of water have extreme climates?
Now, you have learned another factor that affects climate. It is time for you to explore
more factors that influence climate.

Activity 4 Which should I choose, Windward or Leeward?

Objectives

differentiate windward and leeward sides of a high land

explain how topography affects climate

Materials Needed
Pencil or ballpen
An illustration of the windward and leeward sides of a mountain

Procedure
1. Study the illustration below.
Leeward Side
Windward Side

Figure 4.1 The surface features

Source: http://www.proprofs.com/flashcards/cardshow.php?title=chapter-3-climate-vegetation&quesnum=1
Photo Credit: Proprofs.com (As of November 5, 2013)

38

Mountain is an example of topographical features of the land. As you noticed, the picture
shows the two sides of the mountain. One side is facing the wind and has low temperature.
Clouds are forming here due to the condensation of water vapor. This formation of clouds
develops to become rain. On the other side of the mountain, there is no cloud formation. The
temperature is high and precipitation does not happen. This results in the formation of a dry and
warm region.
Q1. What happens to water vapor as it rises over the mountain?
Q2. Which side of the mountain experiences low temperature?
Q3. Which side of the mountain experiences high temperature?
Q4.What happens when air becomes warmer and drier as it moves down the leeward side?
Q5. What dry region forms at the back of the mountain?
Q6. How does topography affect climate?

Topography is another factor that affects the climate of a certain place. One of the
topographic features of an area is mountain. Mountainous areas greatly affect the amount of
precipitation in a certain region. The area in which the wind blows is called the windward side.
Here, the wind is blocked by the mountain, forcing it to move upward. As it moves up, the water
vapor condenses and forms clouds. This will result in precipitation on the windward side. The air
moves down towards the opposite region called leeward side. The cold air mass starts to absorb
heat and becomes warm and dry. As a result, the area near the leeward side becomes dry and has
less precipitation. The dry region on the leeward side is called rain shadow. Vegetation in this
region includes desert plants and grassland.
You have now identified some factors that affect climate. The next activity will help you
deepen your understanding about climate.

39

In Grade 7, you learned how to locate the Philippines using the latitude and the longitude.
The next activity will let you use the skills in finding the location of some major cities in the
world. It will also help you understand what affects the climate of a certain city.

Activity 5

Temperature of Different Cities around the World

Objective

explain how latitude, altitude, and distance from the ocean affect climate.

Materials Needed
World Map

Table with data

Table 5.1 World City Temperatures

Here are the low and high temperatures of

Altitude

Temperature (oC)

(m)

(October 4, 2013)

City

High

some cities in the world dated October 4, 2013.

On a world map, locate the two warmest and coldest

Low

Paris

30 .0

23

18

Beijing

43. 7

24

11

Cairo

74.1

31

22

Berlin

36.0

15

Denver

1609.3

-3

Manila

13.1

30

26

Tokyo

20.1

21

18

Vienna

19 .1

-1

-6

Warsaw

110.0

11

-1

cities in the table. Determine what affects the

regional temperature for each city. Record your
findings. Then answer the following questions.

Q1. Which city had the highest temperature?

Q2. What factor do you think is the cause of high

temperature in that city?

Source: http://www.hko.gov.hk/wxinfo/worldwx/majorcities.htm

Q3. Which city had the lowest temperature?

Q4. What factor do you think is the cause of low temperature in that city?
Q5. What factor do you think greatly affects the climate of Tokyo? Support your answer.
40

Q6. How does the elevation of Paris affect its climate?

In this activity you learned about the effects of latitude, altitude and distance from the
ocean on the climate of a specific area. It is clear that the amount of heat received by the places
near the equator is greater compared to those that are far from the equator. Hence, countries that
are found near the equator have tropical climate. In contrast, countries that are somewhat farther
from the equator have temperate climate. Regions with high altitude have colder temperatures
than those in low-lying areas. Areas near bodies of water may have more moderate climate.
Places that are far from bodies of water usually experience extremely cold or extremely warm
climate.
Note: Try this video link: (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E7DLLxrrBV8 to learn more
about factors that affect climate. (as of October 11)
You have learned about latitude, altitude, distance from the ocean, and topography affect
climate. For the next activity, another factor that affects climate will be discussed.

Activity 6 Ocean Currents

Objective

explain how ocean currents affect climate.

Materials
Pen or pencil
Map that illustrates ocean currents
Ruler
Short bond paper
41

Procedure
1. Study the map below.

Figure 6.1 The Ocean currents

Source: http://www.plumanities.org.uk/geography-2/higher/atmosphere/atmospheric-circulation

Figure 6.1 shows different loops or gyres of surface currents around the world. In
northern hemisphere, the current flows in clockwise direction. On the other hand, in southern
hemisphere the current flows in counterclockwise direction. These clockwise and
counterclockwise of ocean currents are caused by Coriolis Effect. Ocean currents that flow away
from the equator carries warm water. The air above the warm water has higher temperature.
When ocean currents that bring cold water move towards a coastal region, the temperature of that
area decreases as warmer air from the land flows to the sea resulting to a cold climate. When
warm ocean currents that take along warm water go to a land mass, the temperature of that place
increases as warmer air above the water flows inland, resulting to a warm climate.
Q1. What are the different ocean currents that carry warm water? Give at least three examples.
Q2. What are the different ocean currents that carry cold water? Give at least three examples.
Q3. What kind of water does Greenland Current take along? Explain.
42

Q4. How do Kamchatka Current and Kuroshio Current affect the Northeastern part and Southern
part of Japan?
Q5. How do ocean currents affect climate?
In this activity you learned that ocean currents have also an important role in changing
the climate of a certain area. They affect the temperature of the nearby land mass. Warm currents
move from the equator towards poles carry warm water. On the other hand, cold currents travel
from the poles towards the equator carry cold water.
When ocean current carries cold water, the air above it becomes colder. When this ocean
current moves toward the coastal region, the temperature of that area becomes lower. For
example, (see Figure 6.1) the southwestern parts of Singapore and Indonesia have lower
temperature because of the cold air brought by West Australian Current. On the other hand, the
ocean current that carries warm water makes the air warmer. When this current goes toward a
land mass, the temperature of that place becomes higher. For example, (see Figure 6.1) the warm
Kuroshio Current that comes from the northeastern part of the Philippines brings warm water.
This raises the temperature of places in the southeastern part of Japan. Therefore, ocean currents
that bring along cold water to inland make the climate cold. On the other hand, ocean currents
that take along warm water to coastal areas make the climate warm.

Climate Change
Is climate change real? Is climate change man-made or is it just a natural occurrence?
These are just few questions that can be asked once we talk about climate change. Climate
change is one of the most current worldwide issues. Some experts say that it is true that Earth
43

does go through a period of cooling and a period of warming. The increase of temperature that
we are experiencing right now is caused by factors other than human activity. Another point of
view is that the increase of Earths temperature is brought about by human intervention.
Whether the cause is man-made or not, climate change is a change in the environment.
Global warming can bring about a rising of sea level due to the melting of ice caps and glaciers.
We may experience severe weather disturbances such as much stronger typhoons and heavier
rainfalls. Some parts of the world may experience El Nio or La Nia. And most of all, it can
cause extinction of some fauna and flora.
To learn more about climate change, do the following activities.

Activity 7 Getting Ready!

Objective

assess your prior knowledge and experiences about Climate Change.

Materials Needed
Bingo Card with questions
Ball pen or pencil

Procedure
1. Fill out the Bingo Card below (Table7.1) by seeking help from your classmates. Your
classmates will take turn in choosing which question he/she can answer. Then, he/she
will write his/her name below the chosen question/statement. All the questions/statements
must be filled up. (Wait for the signal of your teacher when to start.)
44

Table 7.1 Bingo Card

say the word
carbon dioxide in
a scary way

What is this sign?

CFCs stand for?

Say the word

renewable 10
times

Which do you ride

to go to school, bus
or a tricycle?

Can say Climate

Change 7 times
while covering the
nose

What type of gas is

released in landfills?
(methane or CO2)

Who invented
standard
incandescent bulb?

Where can you find

the 1st wind farm in
Southeast Asia

Do you eat
vegetables?

What type of
greenhouse gas is
released when coal
is burned?

Yes or No: Writing

on both sides of
paper is called
reusing.

A renewable energy
that uses water to
produce energy

Do you use a glass

when drinking
water?

Is Energy efficiency
being sulit?

What renewable
energy facility is
found in Lanao del
Norte?

A person who is
wearing something
white

Give 2 examples on
how to conserve
electricity.

A type of renewable
technology that uses
energy of the sun

Which do you prefer to

use; paper bag or plastic
bag?

Yes or No: weather

What does 3Rs
is the atmospheric
stand for?
condition that can
quickly change in a
day.
The general
Name 3 things that
condition of the
can be reused.
atmosphere within a
year (climate or
weather)
(Adapted from http://www.wwf.org.ph/)

This activity is an indication on how much you know about this worldwide issue- the
climate change. For those who have answered many questions, you are very much aware of the
events that are happening in the environment. But for those who answered few questions, this is
the beginning for you to learn more about climate change.
Each one of us interacts with our environment so we are affected by changes in our
environment. You should not disregard the things that are happening in your surroundings.

45

So, do you want to be a hero of humanity? Lets join together in this journey in learning
more about climate change. But first, you have to learn about one of the major causes of climate
change-greenhouse effect.

On a warm and dry day, Jen was left by her dad in the car. She noticed that the air
conditioner of the car was not working well. Then, she started to sweat a lot.
Let us help Jen understand her situation by performing the next activity.

Activity 8

Its gettin hot in here

Objectives

demonstrate how closed spaces trap heat

explain how greenhouse gases trap heat

Materials Needed
A small glass tank or an aquarium with thin walls or shoe box
2 laboratory thermometers with cover setup
Sunlight (if not available, you may use study lamp)

Procedure

Figure 8.1Greenhouse effect (Redraw)

1. Place the tank or aquarium on the surface with thermometer inside. Position the thermometer
so that you can read the markings. Refer to Fig. 8.1.
2. Place another thermometer just outside the tank or aquarium.
3. Expose the setup to sunlight.

46

4. Take the temperature every two minutes over a period of 20 minutes. Record your data in
Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Temperature Readings
Time (minutes)

Thermometer Inside

Thermometer Outside

(0C)

(0C)

2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20

5. Construct a line graph to present your data.

Q1. Which thermometer shows a faster rise in temperature?
Q2. What happened to the temperature inside the aquarium?
Q3. How does the wall of the aquarium relate to greenhouse gases?
Q4. What traps heat in the atmosphere?

47

The thermometer reading inside the tank went up faster than the thermometer reading
outside the tank. This was due to the temperature that is rising in the container. The rising of the
temperature resulted from keeping the heat from flowing. Thermal radiation coming from the sun
was absorbed by the air inside the tank. The wall of the tank keeps the warm air from flowing
out, causing its temperature to rise as it continues to absorb heat from sunlight. Outside the tank,
air warmed by sunlight can interact with the surrounding cooler air. This allows heat to flow
from warm air to cooler air through convection, and keep the temperature from rising as fast as
that of the air inside the tank.
Solar radiation warms the Earth as its energy is absorbed by the atmosphere. In
the atmosphere, there are greenhouse gases present. These include water vapor, carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide. Greenhouse gases prevent heat to escape from earth making earths
temperature higher.
Figure 8.2 shows that greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide, methane (CH4),
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and nitrous oxide
(N2O) trap heat preventing it to escape from the
earth. All gases absorb heat, some just absorb
more than others. So assuming solar radiation is
constant, the average atmospheric temperature
depends on the mix of gases. More greenhouse
Figure 8.2 The greenhouse effect

gases in the atmosphere means that the

Source: http://www.learner.org/courses

equilibrium temperature will be higher as these

absorb more heat. This will result to the increase of global temperature. Less greenhouse gases
will mean lower temperature. Mankind more or less evolved under conditions of a specific mix
of gases (of course with certain degree of variation) in the atmosphere, and we thrived under
these conditions. If the mix of gases in the atmosphere were altered considerably, earths
48

temperature would change significantly, and we will be faced with new conditions that we are
not used to, which we will have to somehow adapt to, or face extinction. Areas that are found in
temperate regions may have shorter winter. Countries that are found in tropical regions may have
longer and drier summer. Glaciers that cover land will melt which results in the increase of sea
level.
Note: Try this video link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5zLuqSYF68E(as of October 11, 2013)
In the next activity, you will find out what main component of air that causes the rising of
the global temperature.

Activity 9. CO2 is the reason

Objective

interpret the relationship of carbon dioxide and temperature.

Materials Needed
Graph of CO2 and global temperature
Ball pen or pencil

Procedure
1. Study the graph below (Fig. 9.1). Answer the guide questions.

Figure 9.1 Global temperature and carbon dioxide. (Redraw)

Source: http://www.worldviewofglobalwarming.org/pages/paleoclimate.php

49

Q1. How much is the increase in temperature from 1880 to 2010?

Q2. What happened to the amount of carbon dioxide from 1880 to 2010?
Q3. What is the relationship between the amount of carbon dioxide and global temperature?
Q4. When was temperature at its highest and at its lowest?

When Industrial Revolution comes in,

more emission of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases threatened all living things.
Developed countries and developing countries
became more dependent on fossil fuels. Burning
Figure 9.2 Industrial Revolution
Source: http://www.dadychery.org

of fossil fuels is one of the main sources of carbon

dioxide emission. What would be the outcome if

there is too much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?
There would be an increase of global temperature.
So, when will you take action to help stop global
warming? Remember that your time is ticking. Act
now before its too late.
Figure 9.3 Act now
Source: http://theglobalcause.blogspot.com
Photo credits: Russel Miller

Many experts say that human activity is the reason why climate change happens. Why is this so?
What crime did humanity commit? Are you part of this crime? Whom are we going to blame of

50

the outcome? So, let us now find out if you are part of this big conspiracy by doing the next
activity.

Activity 10 Am I a climate hero or a climate culprit!

Objectives

calculate your personal carbon emission

take an action to lessen the effects of climate change

Materials Needed
Carbon Footprint Calculator /Checklist
Manila paper
Short bond paper
Laptop/Computer with internet

Procedure
1. Each member of the group will compute his/her carbon footprint by using WWF-Philippines
Carbon Footprint Checklist (see table 10.1). Note: For schools that have access to the internet
use Carbon Footprint Calculator from this link:
http://wwf.org.ph/wwf3/search.php?search=carbon+footprint+calculator (as of October 9, 2013)
Table 10.1 Whats your carbon footprint? Evaluate your carbon emission.
Different Activities

Always Sometimes
(1 Pt) (3pts)

I use water wisely.

I eat a mixture of meat and vegetarian meals.
We use kerosene lamp or low energy light bulbs at home.

51

Never
(5pts)

I use basin in washing our dishes.

I eat locally grown food.
I turn off electric appliances or battery-operated gadgets
instead of leaving it on standby.
I use a glass of water when brushing my teeth.
I eat organic foods.
I use reusable bags when buying things from the market.
I avoid eating ready meals. (e.g. noodles, sardines etc)
I use recycled notebooks and papers.
I throw my biodegradable wastes to a compost pit.
I replace my toy or gadget when it stops working rather
than just to get the most up-to-date model.
I always know where my food or products are made.
I give my too small clothes to charity or to my younger
siblings and friends.
I throw my trash on the garbage bin or bag.
I just walk if the place I want to go to is near.
I ride a vehicle though the place I want to go is near.
I do recycling at home.
I do recycling in school.
I share a ride or walk or cycle on the way to school.
Total Score
Source: http://www.wwf.org.uk/oneplanetchallenge/downloads/energy_session_all.pdf

How do your score?

20-50 - Youre a Green Queen/King and a globally aware consumer! Keep up the good work.
50-80 - Youve made a start but have more you can do to reduce your ecological footprint.
52

80-110 You are a long way to go; it is best to start now.

2. Each group should present the data using a bar graph on Manila paper.
Q1. Which member gets the highest carbon footprint?
Q2. Which member gets the lowest carbon footprint?
Q3. What is the average carbon footprint of the group?
Q4. What is your highest source of carbon emission?
Q5. What is your lowest source of carbon emission?
3. Each member of the group should choose the top three highest sources of carbon emission or
ecological footprint. From that, each of them will make a strategic plan to reduce his/her
contribution to climate change.
4. After performing the activity, each group will make a portfolio to check the improvement
made by each member. All members will recalculate their carbon footprint. They will do this
every month. Each group will report the outcome at the end of the third quarter. They have to
show the data (carbon/ecological footprint) using a bar graph.
From this activity, you found out how much you contribute to carbon emission. This
activity helps you realize that you are either a climate hero or climate culprit. Anyone can be a
contributor in changing our climate. It is up to you if you want to make this world remain
hospitable to human beings.
Climate is always changing. It has shown how much it could affect our lives. You have
seen how strong the winds of Yolanda were, and how heavy the rainfall from Ondoy was. (Note:
Not all calamities e.g. Bohol earthquake, Zamboanga war, are related to climate change) We still
have to change our course. The future of humanity lies on our collective hands.
(Note: You may try this video link as of October 11, 2013:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W7a-Hs9UxYo)
53

Performance Task
Your school is celebrating Science Month with the theme: Disaster Risk Reduction and
Climate Change Adaptation. You are tasked to have an information drive to increase awareness
and educate your fellow students about the impacts and how to reduce the effects of climate
change.
To measure the output of the students you may refer to this prepared rubric.
4

Purpose

The presentation has a

purpose or theme. All the
parts of the presentation
say something meaningful
about the purpose or
theme.

The presentation has

a topic. All the parts
of the presentation
say something
important about the
topic.

The presentation has

a topic. Most parts of
the presentation say
something important
about the topic.

The presentations
topic is unclear. Many
parts of the
presentation need
improvement.

Creativity

The presentation includes

unusual and surprising
features and components
that excite the audience
about the topic and add to
the meaning.

The presentation
includes some
unusual and
surprising features
that interest the
audience and relate
to the meaning.

They include unusual

and surprising
features, but they do
not add to the
meaning of the
presentation.

The presentation
includes no unusual or
surprising features.

Organization

The presentation
introduces the theme in an
interesting way, builds
information in a logical
way, and ends with a slide
that leaves the audience
with an interesting idea
about the theme to think
about.

The presentation
introduces the
theme, builds
information, and
ends with a
concluding slide.

The presentation is
missing a clear
introduction or
conclusion, and
information may be
presented in an
illogical way.

The presentation has

inadequate
introduction, a
conclusion, and a
sense of order.

Oral Presentation

The reporter speaks clearly

and smoothly in an
engaging way.

The reporter speaks

clearly.

The reporter delivers

a presentation but
he/she sometimes
forget what he/she is
doing or lose the
audiences attention.

The reporter often

forgets what she is
doing and loses the
audiences attention.

54

Score

Impacts of Climate Change

You were just reading the first page of your favorite magazine when your eyes were
caught by the passage: Climate Change Is Here! And it says, climate change is really
happening. Its effects are felt by animals, plants and people. You got very interested in the topic
because it is a worldwide issue. As you continue reading, you found out that there are some
species of birds that lay eggs earlier than usual. There are some species of plants that bloom
earlier than it is expected. There are some animals that supposedly still hibernating, but are
already up. There is an earlier migration of birds and arriving to their nesting ground and others
appeared to be later. Sometimes some animals and birds tend to stay in their local territory
because the climate is already suitable for them.
You were surprised of the things you discovered about climate change. As you keep on
reading, you were disturbed that even the sea level is rising. The melting of glaciers that cover
the land causes the sea level to rise. If sea level increased by 50 cm, sea turtles may lose their
nesting areas. People and animals that live in near shorelines may be forced to move out.
Animals moving out of their natural habitat face challenges that could lead to the extinction of
their species.
At the back of your mind you were thinking that hopefully the effects of climate change
will not be felt by people here in the Philippines. But to your dismay, we felt them already.
Heavy rainfalls were brought by typhoon Ondoy and Hanging Habagat which result in
submerging most parts of Metro Manila and some provinces. Typhoon Yolanda brought the
strongest wind ever encountered by people in Visayas region leaving great destruction and loss

55

of lives. Hanging Amihan brought very cold wind affecting the climate of the country and
destroying some crops of farmers in Northern part of Luzon.

Aside from climate change that we are experiencing, we still have two cyclical events
that we encounter- El Nio and La Nia

El Nio and La Nia

El Nio is an abnormal and lengthy warming in the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean.
This natural phenomenon occurs at irregular intervals of two to seven years and last for nine
months or two years at most. Usually, it starts at the end of the year or during Christmas season
that is why; it is termed as El Nio which meansChrist child.
Refer on Fig. 10.1 Normally, as trade wind
moves from east to west, it collects warm air.
But when trade wind is weakened, it causes the
piling up of warm surface water and making the
part of the Pacific Ocean warmer leading to El
Nio phenomenon. This happens when the
upwelling of colder water is blocked by the large
quantities of warm surface water. (The cause of
the weakening of the trade winds is still
Figure 10.1 El Nio (please redraw)

unknown and it is still being investigated)

Since the Pacific Ocean is to the east of the Philippines, El Nio phenomenon will affect
the country. When there is an increase of the temperature in the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean,
it is expected that some areas in the Philippines will experience this climatic phenomenon. Some
56

areas in the country will experience near to above rainfall and some areas may experience drier
than normal rainfall.
El Nio will most likely bring severe drought. It is believed that it causes stronger
thunderstorm disturbance and massive storms. It also causes the decrease the population of some
species.
See Figure 10.2. La Nia is the
opposite climatic disturbance to El Nio.
This natural phenomenon may, but does
not always follow El Nio events. It may
last for nine to twelve months but in some
cases, it lasts for two years. This event is
triggered by the cooling of the eastern part

Figure 10.2 La Nia (please redraw)

of the Pacific Ocean. Thats why, it is sometimes called cold Pacific.

Trade winds that move from east to west are strengthened. Upwelling of colder water
intensifies. Moving air brings along too much water vapor. When it reaches the land mass such
as Philippines, precipitation is experienced. There would be an increase of rainfall in some areas
in the Philippines. For instance, areas that experienced severe drought which caused by El Nio
may encounter above normal rainfall. But in some cases, areas that experience dry season will be
drier than normal conditions. La Nias effects are the opposite of El Nio.

Posttest/ Summative Test

Encircle the letter that corresponds to the correct answer.
1. Why do mountain climbers bring thick jackets when they go up the mountain?
a. The temperature increases as the altitude increases.
b. The temperature decreases as the altitude increases.
c. The altitude increases as the temperature increases.
d. The altitude decreases as the temperature increases.
2. What will happen if there is too much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?
a. Greenhouse effect occurs.
c. Water vapor condenses.
b. Temperature increases.
d. Climate changes.
57

3. Why does cloud formation disappear as the air moves slowly towards the leeward side of a
mountain?
a. The air condenses as it moves to the leeward side.
b. The amount of water vapor is not enough.
c. The temperature becomes lower.
d. There is too much water vapor.
4. Which condition happens during La Nia phenomenon?
a. Air pressure in the western Pacific increases
b. Air pressure in the eastern Pacific decreases
c. Upwelling of cold water is blocked
d. Trade wind becomes stronger
5. It refers to the atmospheric condition of a place over a long period of time.
a. climate
c. weather
b. monsoon
d. topography
6. Which side of the mountain often receives the most precipitation?
a. leeward side
c. rain shadow
b. windward side
d. peak
7. Which is the best practice to reduce the effect of climate change?
a. livestock raising
c. organic farming
b. burning fossil fuel
d. car manufacturing
8. Which of the following shows the effect of climate change?
a. rising of sea level
b. deforestation of the forest
c. coastal erosion in some places
d. siltation of bodies of water
9. During summer, many people visit Baguio because of the cold weather. What do you think
makes Baguio cold?
a. The latitude
c. The altitude
b. The topography
d. The distance from the ocean
10. Why do places at the same latitude but different altitudes have different climate?
a. Amount of heat received varies.
b. Amount of precipitation differs.
c. Higher altitudes have lower temperature.
d. Higher altitudes have higher temperature.

58

Summary
Climate is the overall atmospheric condition of a place for a period of 30 years or more.
Climate is influenced by latitude, altitude, distance from bodies of water, ocean currents,
and topography.

The closer the place is to the equator, the warmer the climate; the farther the place is from
the equator the colder the climate.

Air temperature decreases when altitude increases.

Bodies of water help regulate the climate of a certain area.
Mountain ranges affect the formation of precipitation.
Ocean currents will either cool or warm the air above them.
Cold currents bring cold water while warm currents take along warm water.
Coriolis Effect deflects the ocean currents.
Climate change brings drastic effects to some people and animals.
Human activities may speed up the rising of the global temperature.
El Nio happens when the temperature in eastern Pacific rises above normal.
La Nia occurs when the temperature in eastern Pacific decreases below normal
Glossary
altitude- the height above sea level.
climate- the overall condition of an area over a long period of time.
climate change- a long term shifting of global weather pattern
El Nio- brought about by the current of the ocean bringing warm air to a landmass in the
Pacific region.
fauna composed of living animals.
flora- composed of different plant vegetation.
greenhouse effect- the increase of global temperature due to some atmospheric gases.
59

gyre- the circular patterns formed by surface currents.

latitude- an imaginary line that is parallel to the equator.
leeward- the side of the mountain that receives less amount of precipitation.
longitude- an imaginary line that extends from north pole to south pole.
mitigation a manner of modifying something to become useful.
precipitation- forms when water vapor condenses and falls to the ground as rain, snow, hail or
sleet.
topography- the surface features of an area.
temperature- refers to the hotness or coldness of an object.
windward- the side of the mountain that receives most of the precipitation.

References and Links

Dizpezio, Michael, et al.(1999). Science Insights Exploring Earth and Space. First Lok Yang
Road, Singapore: Pearson Education (Asia) Pte Ltd.
Tillery, Bill W.(2007). Physical Science (7th ed.). 1221 Ave. of the Americas, New York, NY
10020: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Cowan, A.G. (2013, November 4). Ocean Currents and Climate. Retrieved
fromhttp://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/media/ocean-currents-andclimate/?ar_a=1
http://dateandtime.info/citycoordinates.php?id=2988507 accessed October 2, 2013
http://mapcarta.com accessed as of October 1, 2013
http://wwf.panda.org/ accessed October 2, 2013
http://www.messagetoeagle.com/ accessed October 2, 2013
http://www.cruse.org.uk/children accessed as of October 4, 2013
http://www.powayusd.com/ accessed October 8, 2013
http://www.helpteaching.com/ accessed October 8, 2013
http://www.dailywhat.org.uk/ accessed October 9, 2013
http://www.science.org.au/reports/climatechange2010.pdf accessed October 9, 2013
http://www.elnino.noaa.gov/lanina_new_faq.html accessed as of November 5, 2013
http://www.dfg.ca.gov/ accessed November 5, 2013

60

Suggested time allotment: 10 hours

Unit 3
MODULE

CONSTELLATIONS

I. Introduction
In this module, you will learn about the characteristics of stars. You will also learn
about the patterns that form from groups of stars. These patterns in the night sky
appear to move in the course of the night because of Earths rotation. Different star
patterns are seen at different times of the year because of the Earths movement
around the Sun.
II. Learning Competencies/Objectives
In this module, you should be able to:
1. Infer some characteristics of stars based on the characteristics of the Sun
2. infer that the arrangement of stars in a group (constellation) does not change for
a very long period of time;
3. observe how the position of a constellation changes in the course of a night;
and,
4. use charts that show which constellations may be observed at different times of
the year

III. Pre/-Diagnostic Assessment

A. Choose the letter of the best answer.
For numbers 1 to 3, use the table below that presents information about stars A, B,
C, and D.
Star
Color
A
Red
B
Yellow
C
White
1

Blue

1. Which star is the hottest?

A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
2. Which star is very similar to our Sun?
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
3. How do stars appear to move in the night sky?
A. From East to West
B. From North to South
C. From West to East
D. From South to North
4. Stars appear to move in the sky because
A. The Earth is rotating on its axis.
B. The Universe is expanding.
C. The night sky is rotating.
D. New galaxies are formed.
5. If you are located at the North Pole, where will you see the Polaris?
A. Overhead
B. Just above the horizon
C. Around 45 from the horizon
D. Polaris will not be seen in the North Pole.
6. Which constellation is prominently seen in the sky during summer?
A. Orion
B. Pegasus
C. Hercules
D. Virgo

IV. Reading Resources and Instructional Activities

Characteristics of Stars

Rigel

Sirius

Figure 1.The Night Sky. Are the stars same in size? Are the stars same in color?
Are the stars equally bright?

When we look at the night sky, we see thousands of stars. In reality, there are
approximately 400 billion stars in our galaxy, and there are about 170 billion
galaxies. A person can see only about 3,000 stars on the average.
These stars differ in many ways. We see stars of different sizes, brightness, and
color.
3

Using Figure 1, which star is bigger-Sirius or Rigel? Can you really tell the size of the
star by just looking at it?
Figure 2 shows the size of the Sun, the closest star to Earth, as compared to some
other stars that we see at night. As we can see, the Sun is so small compared to
other nearby stars. Also, Sirius, which appear bigger than Rigel, is actually very
small compared to Rigel. It appears larger only because it is closer to us.

Photo Credit: Quantrek, Inc.

http://www.quantrek.org/size_comparison/size_comparison.htm

Figure 2. The size of the Sun compared to other stars.

What does the color of a star mean? Why do stars differ in brightness? Do the
following activities to find out.

Activity 1
Characteristics of Stars
Objectives:
4

Materials:
2 flashlights (small and big), incandescent light, light dimmer,

Procedure:
Part A. Color
1. Plug the incandescent lamp to a light dimmer switch.
2. Darken the room and turn on the lamp.
3. Adjust the dimmer switch slowly until the bulb becomes dim.
4. Observe and note the color of the glowing filament.
5. Adjust the dimmer switch slowly until the bulb becomes brighter and brighter.
6. Observe and note the color of the glowing filament.
Q1. What is the color of the filament as you dim the bulb?
Q2. What is the color of the filament as you turn the switch at full power?
Q3. What happens to the temperature of the filament as the bulb becomes
brighter and brighter?

(please redraw)
Star color ranges from red to blue. The color of the star indicates its surface
temperature. The table below shows the surface temperature and color of different
nearby stars, including the Sun.

Table 1. Color and Temperature of Selected Stars

Star

Color

Surface
Temperature in
Celsius

Sun

Yellow

5,700

Proxima
Centuari

Red

2,300

Epsilon Iridani

Orange

4,600

Vega

White

9,900

Sirius

White

10,000

Alnilam

Blue

27,000

Part B. Brightness
1. Place the two identical small flashlights on a table or chair near the front of
the room.
2. Darken the room and turn on the two flashlights. Compare the brightness of
the two flashlights.
3. Place one flashlight on a table or chair at the back of the room. Darken the
room and turn on the two flashlights.
4. Observe the two flashlights from the front of the room. Compare the
brightness of the two flashlights. Which flashlight appears to be brighter?

(please redraw)
5. Replace the small flashlight at the back of the room with a bigger flashlight.
Compare the apparent brightness of the two flashlights. Which flashlight
appears to be brighter?
6.
7.
8.

(please redraw)

9. Adjust the positions of the two flashlights until they appear to have the same
brightness.
Q1. Why do the two flashlights have different brightness?
The brightness of a star as seen from the Earth depends on two factors-distance and
the actual brightness (or absolute brightness) of the star. The stars brightness as
seen from Earth is its apparent brightness. Based on the activity, apparent
brightness depends on how far away a star is from the Earth.
Lets take Sirius and Rigel (refer to Figure 1) to illustrate the effect of distance to
apparent brightness. Compared to the Sun, Sirius is about 27 times as powerful as
the Sun, but Rigel has the power of many thousands of Suns. In terms of distance
from the Earth, Rigel is almost 100 times farther away than Sirius. In terms of
apparent brightness, Sirius is about twice as bright as Rigel. Sirius looks very bright
when viewed from Earth because it is closer to Earth.
Astronomers consider the stars absolute brightness when comparing stars. A
stars absolute brightness is the brightness the star would have if all stars were the
same standard distance from Earth.

What is a Constellation?
When you look at the sky, what do you see? Do you see images of animals or
objects?
Observers in ancient times also imagined group of stars that form pictures of
animals, objects and people. These imaginary groups of stars are called
constellations.

Activity 2
Patterns in the Sky
Objective:
After performing this activity, you should be able to:
8

 Group stars together in a recognizable pattern

Materials Needed:
markers

Procedure
Given a plain map of stars, draw any pattern, name it, and tell a story about your
figure. Write your bases for coming up with your figure.

Please redraw without the lines, labels and other markings.

9

Many of these constellations have names that can be traced back to early
Babylonians and Greek civilizations, but nearly all cultures have different names for
the constellations. For example, the Greeks called the large constellation Orion,
which means hunter and is prominent in the night sky all over the world during
winter. Early Filipinos visualized the same group of stars as Balatik, a trap used in
hunting wild pigs. Christian Filipinos named the three stars (Orions belt) Tatlong
Maria or Tres Marias.

Activity 3
Apparent Movement of the Stars through the Night
Objectives:
After performing this activity, you should be able to:

Describe the apparent motion of stars at night.

Procedure:
1. On a clear night sky, look at the stars from 7 pm to 11 pm.
2. Focus on one or two constellations like the Auriga and Orion which are best
seen in the month of December.
3. Look at the stars clearly every hour of the night, from 7 pm to 11 pm.
Q1. Compare the position of the stars in the sky. What do you notice?
Q2. Are the stars visible at 7 pm still visible at 11 pm in their original position? Why
is this so?
Q3. How do the stars move? Describe the movement of the stars in the night sky.
Q4. How is the motion of stars similar to the motion of the Sun?

10

By observing Suns movement and position in the sky, we can tell what time of the
day it is. When it seems to rise in the east, it is morning. When it is above us, it is
noon. When it seems to move towards the west, it is afternoon. At night, stars are
used to tell the time. Just like the Sun, stars also seem to move from East to West.

The Polaris
Polaris, commonly known as North Star, is the brightest star in
the constellation Ursa Minor (Little Dipper). It is very close to the north celestial pole,
making it the current northern pole star. Because it lies nearly in a direct line with the
axis of the Earth's rotation "above" the North Pole, Polaris stands almost motionless
in the sky, and all the stars of the Northern sky appear to rotate around it. In Figure
3, Polaris and the star trail are seen. Star trail is a type of photograph that utilizes longexposure times to capture the apparent motion of stars in the night sky due to the rotation of
the Earth.

11

Photo Credit: Norman P. Aquino

http://www.flickr.com/photos/landscapist
Figure 3. Polaris and the Star Trail over Mt. Pulag
In Metro Manila, when you face North, Polaris, which is 11.3o from the
horizon, is seen at around 15 due to atmospheric refraction. In some parts of the
country (i.e. Southern Philippines), it would be very difficult to locate Polaris since
starlights near the horizon are washed out by lights lit by men, and /or obstructed by
man-made or topographical structures and/or trees.
12

Photo Credit: Anthony Urbano

http://nightskyinfocus.com/2012/02/03/how-to-find-polaris-the-north-star/
Figure 4. Polaris as viewed from the Philippines (Quezon City). To locate the
Polaris, face North and locate the Big Dipper. Two stars (Merak and Dubhe) in the
Big Dipper are called pointer stars because they seem to point to Polaris.

Why are some constellations only visible at particular months? Do the next activity
to answer this question.

Activity 4
Different Star Patterns through the Year
Objectives:
After performing this activity, you should be able to:

Explain why some constellations are not seen at certain months

13

Materials Needed:
Photographs of the night sky at different months (Manila), Print-out (or
drawings) of Constellations, globe, small toy figure , lamp

Procedure:
1.

Look at the series of photographs below. This is how you see the night sky in
Manila (while facing North) at different months.

Q1. Compare the photographs. What do you notice?

Q2. Why are some stars visible in March but not visible in September?

Figure 5a. March Night Sky (9 p.m.)

14

Figure 5b. June Night Sky (9 p.m.)

Figure 5c. September Night Sky (9 p.m.)

15

Figure 5d. December Night Sky (9 p.m.)

While the rotation of the Earth on its axis causes the apparent nightly movement of
the stars across the sky, the revolution is responsible for the fact that we can see
different parts of the sky at different parts of the year.
2.
3.

Position the printed constellations as shown in Figure 6.

Look for the Philippines in the globe and use an adhesive tape to put a small
figure (e.g., toy soldier) within its vicinity. The small figure will represent an
observer on Earth (in the Philippines).

4. Turn on the lamp. Always focus the lamp on the globe. What do the (a)
lighted and (a) unlighted parts of the globe represent?
5. Move the globe around the lamp (counterclockwise, from A to D). Make sure
the globe maintains its tilt or orientation as you move it around (Figure 7).
Q3. What constellations are prominent during winter? fall? summer? spring?
Bootes, Cancer, Crates,
Hydra, Leo, Virgo

March

16

Saggitarius,
Aquila, Cygnus,
Hercules, Lyra
Ophiuchus,
Scorpius

Lamp
(sun)

globe

June

Orion, Cetus,
Eridanus, Gemini,
Perseus, Taurus,
Canis Major

December

September
Pegasus, Andromeda,
Aquarus, Capricornus,
Pisces
Figure 6. Top View of the Set up

D
Figure 7. Orientation of the globe as it moves around the lamp (Sun). The globe
moves counterclockwise (from A-D) around the lamp.

17

Figure 8. Constellation Seen on Different Months of the Year

An observer from Earth will be able to see the stars that are on the night side. The
stars on the same side as the sun cannot be seen because sunlight overpowers all
the starlights.
During summer in the Philippines, the constellations of Orion and Taurus are not
visible at night. They will be visible again as the cold season begins. During this time,
Scorpius will not be seen in the night sky.
As the Earth revolves around its orbit, the stars that were concealed by the bright
light of the Sun in the previous months will appear in the night sky.

How Early People Used the Constellations

While constellations were associated with religion, they also have practical uses.
Before the calendars, people had no way of determining when to sow or harvest
except by looking at these patterns in the sky. Ancient people developed a way to
remember the patterns by giving these patterns names and stories. For example, in
the northern hemisphere, the constellation Orion indicates the coming of cold
season.The constellations made it easier for them to recognize and interpret patterns
in the sky. For example, Gemini is seen in the Philippines during the months of April
and May. Farmers interpreted the appearance of Gemini as the end of planting
18

season and it signified rich harvest. The table below shows how the Matigsalug
Manobo of Bukidnon used the stars and constellations in relation to their agriculture.

Table 2: Stars and Constellations Used by Matigsalug Manobo of Bukidnon

Local Name

Month of Appearance

Baha
Pandarawa

December to February
January

Balatik

February

Malihe

March

Gibbang

April and May

Malara
Lepu

May
Late May

Buwaya

June

Related Agricultural
Activity
Clearing of forest
Start of planning what
kind of crops to be
planted and how wide
is the area to be
planted
Start of planting and
setting of traps to
protect the crops from
animals
Planting of rice, corn,
or vegetables
End of planting
season; signifies rich
harvest
Stop planting
time to clean or clear
the fields while waiting
for harvest time
start of the rainy
season

Western Equivalent
Taurus
Pleiades

Orionss Belt

Gemini

Canis Minor
Aquila

Other Uses
Another use of constellations was in navigation. The Polaris is widely used in
navigation because it does not change its position at any time of the night or year.
Also, one can figure out his/her latitude just by looking at how high Polaris appears in
the night sky. This allowed sailors to find their way as they sail across the seas.

19

V. Summative Assessment
Answer the following questions.
1. The star Algol is estimated to be as bright as the star Aldebaran and have
approximately the same temperature as the star Rigel. Which of the following
statement is correct?
A. Algol and Rigel have same color.
B. Algol and Rigel have the same brightness.
C. Algol and Aldebaran have the same in size.
D. Algol and Rigel have the same brightness and color.
2. The constellation below represents the constellation Cygnus.

Which statement best explains why Cygnus is visible to an observer in Manila

in September but not visible in March?
A.
B.
C.
D.

Earth spins on its axis.

Earth orbits the Sun.
Cygnus spins on its axis.
Cygnus orbits the Earth.

3. The constellation Pisces changes position during a night, as shown in the

diagram below.

20

Which motion is mainly responsible for this change in position?

A. Revolution of Earth around the Sun
B. Rotation of Earth on its axis
C. Revolution of Pisces around the Sun
D. Rotation of Pisces on its axis
4. At which location can an observer not see Polaris in the night sky at any time
during the year?

A.
B.
C.
D.

A and D
B and C
C and D
D and B

References and links

UP Science Education Center. Earth Science: The Philippines in Focus
21

Curious About Astronomy http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=340

What are Constellations?
http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/extra/
Ambrosio, D. 2009. Balatik and Moroporo Stars of Philippine Skies. Retrieved from
http://philippinehistory.ph/?p=32
http://4.bp.blogspot.com/sZSEoaDBrV0/UIjJGVmE9OI/AAAAAAAABvg/s0Sn_ObaHCc/s1600/DSC_0871.jpg

22

UNIT 4: FORCE, MOTION AND ENERGY

Overview
At this level, you are already equipped with some basic ideas in Physics from your
previous learning in Grades 7 and 8. You were able to describe motion and the forces that affect
it and explained why objects move the way they do.Heat and temperature is an exciting topic
that you also explored.As a student, you acquired basic concept on how heat is transferred.
You also gained greater appreciation of the natural phenomena of light and sound through the
concept of waves, and understanding of the laws of optics. From these concepts that you have
learned, you were able to understand your environment and the different changes happening
toit.
Now, you are going to do physics more mathematically. This will allow you to unlock
more ideas about your physical environment. At the same time, this will improve the
mathematical skills you gained in your previous grade levels, by finding new ways of applying
math.Four modules will be presented to you for deeper understanding on forces, motion,

and energy.
In module 1, you will learn how to describe uniform motion mathematically.With forces
and motion, you will be able to apply Newtons Laws of motion to practical problems in free-fall,
projectile motion, and understand the concepts of impulse, and momentum. With these, you will
find out how ideas in physics can help you play better in your favorite sports.
In module 2, you will tackle work, power, and energy and explain how they are related to
one another. You will learn how conservation of energy can be used to describe the motion of
man-made objects like rollercoasters, and the rush of water inwaterfalls.
In module 3, you will encounter topics in heat and work and how these two relate with
each other. With the basic concepts on heat and work, you will understand how energy is
transformed. You will understand how heat is converted to work, and work to heat.
In module 4, you will learn how electrical energy is generated and transmitted. You will
further develop your understanding of the transmission of electricity from power stations to your
homes. From these concepts, you will be able to gain further insights on the transformation of
energy that takes place in hydroelectric power plants.

Unit 4
Force, Motion,
Energy

Suggested time allotment: 15 hours

Unit 4

MODULE

FORCES AND MOTION

Overview
You learned in Grade 8 the effects of forces on motion and applied the
concepts in real-life situations. You did various experiments and activities on
Newtons Three Laws of Motion and gained insights on the relationship of mass,
force, and acceleration. From the Law of Inertia, you were able to gain an
understanding of the behavior of bodies at rest and bodies in motion. The Law of
Acceleration was thoroughly discussed where you related force and acceleration.
You also appreciated the Law of Interaction through simple activities in daily life.
From your previous grade levels, you were able to quantify non-uniform
motion. You will mathematically describe the horizontal and vertical dimensions of
Uniformly Accelerated Motion (UAM). You will use basic trigonometric functions in
solving problems dealing with two-dimensional motion as in Projectile Motion and
adapt techniques in playing your favorite sports.You will also discuss Impulse and
Momentum and understand how these concepts can be applied in real life
situations.
At the end of module 1, you will be able to answer the following questions:
1. How will you describe Uniformly Accelerated Motion (UAM)
qualitatively and quantitatively?
2. How will you describe the horizontal and vertical motions of a
projectile?
3. What are the factors that determine the projectiles flight?
4. What are other factors that may affect the motion of objects?
5. What is the total momentum before and after collision?
6. How will you relate the effects of collisions in real-life
situations?

Learning Competencies/ Objectives

1. Describe the Uniformly Accelerated Motion (UAM) qualitatively and
quantitatively.
2. Describe the horizontal and vertical motions of a projectile.
3. Investigate the relationship between the projection angle and the height
and range of the projectile.
4. Describe momentum and impulse and relate it to collisions.
5. Observe that the total momentum before and after collision is equal.
6. Relate the effects of collisions in real-life situations.
Diagnostic Assessment
Directions. Choose the letter of the best answer.
For questions 1-5, consider the given situation.
Maria throws a ball straight up with an initial velocity of 10 m/s.
1. What is its velocity at the highest point?
2. What is its velocitywhen it returned to the elevation from
where it was thrown?
3. What is its accelerationat the highest point?
4. What is its acceleration just before it hits the ground?
5. After 1 second what is the acceleration of the ball?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.

0 m/s
0 m/s2
9.8 m/s2
- 9.8 m/s2
10 m/s2
-10 m/s
cannot be determined
(pls.redraw the figure)

6. The initial velocity of Manuel playing luksong tinik has horizontal and vertical
components that are equal in magnitude. What angle does his velocity make
with the horizontal?
A. 30
B. 45
C. 60
D. 90
7. A sepaktakraw that is kicked from a height of two meters follows a path that
is____________.
A. circular
B. linear
C. hyperbolic
D. parabolic
3

8. A goalie made three soccer punts at 700, 500, and 300 with varying speeds
all reaching the same maximum heights. Which statement is correct?
A. All punts have the same hang time
B. The punt at 700 has the longest hang time
C. The punt at 500 has the longest hang time
D. The punt at 300 has the longest hang time
9. A volleyball is served at a speed of 8.0 m/s at an angle 35 above the
horizontal. What is the speed of the ball when received by the opponent at
the same height?
A. 4.0 m/s
B. 8.0 m/s
C. 9.8 m/s
D. 16.0 m/s
10. A BatangPinoy athlete from your school throws a javelin, always at the same
speed, at four different angles(30, 40, 60, and 80) above the horizontal.
Which two throws cause the javelin to land the same distance away?
A. 30 and 80
B. 40 and 80
C. 30 and 60
D. 40 and 60
For questions 11 and 12, refer to the table below:
vehicle
jeepney
motor cycle

mass (kg)
2000
300

velocity (m/s)
10
20

11. In the table above, what is the momentum of the jeepney?

A. 6,000 kg-m/s
c. 20,000 kg-m/s
B. 40,000 kg-m/s
d. 3,000 kg-m/s
12. Which has greater momentum, the jeepney or the motor cycle?
A. jeepney
c. both have the same momentum
B. motor cycle
d. cannot be determined
13. Two identical cars are travelling along EDSA. Which of the two cars would
have a greater momentum?
A. the slower car
B. the faster car
C. both have the same momentum
D. cannot be easily determined
14. A bus and a car are travelling along EDSA having the same velocity. Which
of the two vehicles would have a greater momentum?
A. the bus
B. the car
C. both have the same momentum
D. cannot be easily determined
15. A 25-kg girl is riding a 5-kg with a velocity of 5 m/s the East. What is the total
momentum of a girl and a bike together?
4

A.
B.
C.
D.

100 kg m/s
125 kg m/s
150 kg m/s
200 m/s

16. Which of the following is a necessary condition for the total momentum of a
system to be conserved?
A. Kinetic energy must not change.
B. No net external force acts on the system.
C. The system must be at rest.
D. Only the force of gravity acts on the system.
For numbers 17 and 18: Two 0.5 kg balls approach each other with the same
speed of 1.0 m/s.
17. What is the total momentum of the system before collision?
A. 0
B. 0.50 kg m/s
C. 1.0 kg m/s
D. -1.0 kg m/s
18. If there is no external force acting on the system, what the total momentum of
the system after collision?
A. 0
B. 0.50 kg m/s
C. 1.0 kg m/s
D. -1.0 kg m/s
19. Two billiard balls approach each other with the same speed. If they collide in
a perfectly elastic collision, what would be their velocities after collision?
A. Zero
B. Same in magnitude and direction
C. Same in magnitude but opposite in direction
D. Different in magnitude and opposite in direction
20. A 50-kg astronaut ejects 100 g of gas from his propulsion pistol at a velocity
of 50 m/s. What is his resulting velocity?
A. -0.10 m/s
B. -0.50 m/s
C. 0 m/s
D. -100 m/s

Uniformly Accelerated Motion: Horizontal Dimension

If a body maintains a constant change in its velocity in a given time interval
along a straight line, then the body is said to have a uniform acceleration.
5

Consider an airplane on a runway preparing for takeoff. Positions taken at

equal time intervals are indicated in the figure below.

(pls.redrawthefigure of an airplane preparing for takeoff

(pls.draw figure of a runway)

Figure 1: An airplane preparing for take off.

The change in an airplanes position for each time interval is increasing as

shown in Figure 1, thus, it is moving faster and faster.. This means that the plane is
accelerating.Try the next activity to further understand acceleration.

Activity 1
Roll, roll, and away!
Objectives:

Calculate the acceleration of the can rolling down an inclined plane, given a
distance vs. time and distance vs. time2 graph of its motion; and
Describe the motion of an object given a distance vs. time or a distance vs.
time2 graph.

Materials Needed:
board/plank (at least 200 cm long)
timing device (stopwatch)
tin can
stack of books
protractor

Procedure:
1.

Set up an inclined plane by putting one end of the plane on top of stack of
books. Mark the plane for every 40cm and label these as 40 cm, 80 cm,
120 cm, and so on, starting from the lowest end.
6

2.
3.
4.
5.

Measure the base and the height and calculate the angle of inclination.
Use the formula, = tan-1(height / base)
Roll the tin can from each labeled point starting with 40 cm mark.. Start
the timer as the tin can is released, and stop the timer when the tin can
reached the bottom of the inclined plane.
Ask your partner to record the time (t) taken by the tin can to travel each
distance (d) down the plane. Perform three trials from each mark. Use
the table below for your data.
Graph d vs. t and then d vs. t2.
TABLE 1. Data on the Motion of a Rolling Tin Can
Distance,
d (cm)

Time, t (s)
Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Ave

Time2,
t2 (s2)

40
80
120
160
200
Angle of inclination:___________
Q1.

How will you describe the graphs of:

a. distance vs. time?
b. distance vs. time2?

Q2.

What is the relationship between distance and time of travel of the rolling
can?

Q3.

What is the slope of d t2graph? What quantity does the slope of d t2

graph represent? (Refer to the unit of the slope)

Q4.

What do the graphs of distance vs. time and distance vs. time2suggest?

From the activity, you related distance and time. In computing the slope, you
divided distance by time which is actually the speed of the can. You will now relate
these quantities in the derivation of formula to solve problems relating to uniformly
accelerated motion.

You have learned about displacements, velocities and acceleration when you
were in Grades 7 and 8. Now you will use those basic equations to derive formulae
used in Uniformly Accelerated Motion(UAM). Using the following equations on
velocity, average velocity, and acceleration, you can derive other equations.
=

Equation A

Equation B

Equation C

+
2

where: v = velocity
vf = final velocity
vi = initial velocity
vave = average velocity
d = displacement
t = time
a = acceleration
To find out how displacement changes with time when an object is uniformly
accelerated, rearrange equation A to arrive at d = vt. Since the velocity of the object
changes when it is uniformly accelerating, we use the average velocity to determine
displacement, so substituting v by vave in equation B, you will get:
d = vt
Equation D

+
)
= (
2

Rearrange equation C to arrive at vf = vi +at and substituting the vf in equation

D, you will get
+
)
= (
2
=[

( + ) +
]
2

Combining vi, you will arrive at

=(

2 +
)
2
8

Distributing t will give you

2 + 2
2

Simplifying further will provide you

Equation E

= +

2
2

This shows that the displacement of the body is directly proportional to the
square of time. This confirms that for equal interval of time, displacemment
increases quadratically.
To find out how final velocity depends on the displacement, substitute v and t
from equations B and C to d = vt and you will find that
d = vt
=(

+
)(
)
2

Recall from your algebra class that (a+b) (a-b) = a2 b2.

2 2
=(
)
2
Simplifying, you will get
2 = 2 2
Rearranging, you will get
Equation F

vf2 = vi2 + 2ad

To apply these derive equations, study the following problems.

Sample Problem 1:

An airplane from rest accelerates on a runway at 5.50 m/s2 for 20.25 s until it
finally takes off the ground. What is the distance covered before takeoff?
Given:
a = 5.50 m/s
t = 20.25 s
vi = 0 m/s
Find:
d=?

d = vit + at2
d = (0 m/s)(20.25 s)+ (5.50 m/s2)(20.25 s)2
d = 1130 m
(Pls. retype all the solutions and equations for consistency
with the mathematical format)

Sample Problem 2:
A jeepney from rest accelerates uniformly over a time of 3.25 seconds and
covers a distance of 15 m. Determine the acceleration of the jeepney?
Given:
vi = 0 m/s
d = 15 m
t = 3.25 s
Find:
a= ?

d = vit + at2
15 m = (0 m/s)(3.25 s)+ a(3.25 s)2
15 m = (5.28s2)a
a = (15 m)/(5.28 s2)
a = 2.8 m/ s2

Try solving this

A train accelerates to a speed of 20 m/s over a distance of 150 m. Determine
the acceleration (assume uniform) of the train.

Uniformly Accelerated Motion: Vertical Dimension

10

You learned in Grade 8 that the pull of gravity acts on all

objects. So on Earth, when you throw something up, it will go
down. Things thrown upward always fall at a constant acceleration
which has a magnitude of 9.8 m/s2. This means that the velocity of
an object in free fall changes by 9.8 m/s every second of fall.

Consider a stone dropped from a cliff as shown in the Figure

2. For equal time interval, the distance travelled increases
quadratically.

(Pls. redraw the figure)

Show the letters in each
stone)

Figure 2.
Motion of
the stone dropped from a hill

Another example of free-fall is a body thrown

upward. Consider Figure 3 on the right where a ball is
thrown upward. As the ball goes up, it decelerates with a
magnitude of 9.8 m/s2 until it stops momentarily and
changes direction. That means, it reaches its maximum
height before it starts to fall.Using equation F, you will also
find that when the ball falls back to the point where it was
thrown, its speed will be equal to the speed at which it was
thrown. Note that the magnitudes of the two velocities are
equal, but they have opposite directions velocity is
upward when it was thrown, but downward when it returns.
Do the next activities to further see the behavior of
falling objects.

(Pls. insert a figure of

a girl throwing a stone
upward)
Show the letters in
each path of the
stone)

Figure 3. Motion of the stone

thrown vertically upward

Activity 2
Drop me!
Objectives:

Record the time for the ball to reach the ground; and
Calculate the height of a building;

Materials Needed:
11

stopwatch
ball(e.g. tennis ball, sepaktakraw, etc.)
long string

Procedure:
1.
2.
3.

Look for a tall building in your school. Drop the tennis ballfrom the tall
building.
Using the stopwatch, ask your classmate to record the time it takes the
ball to reach the ground. Record your data.
Calculate the height covered by the ball using the formula h= agt2(since
vi = 0)
TABLE 2. Data on the Time and Height of the Building
Trial
1
2
3
Average

4.

Q1.

Time, t (s)

Height, h (m)

Using the data from the table, calculate the final velocity of the ball using
the formula vf = at since vi = 0. Try also calculating final velocity using the
formula vf = 2ag h and compare your answers.
What is the velocity of the ball just before it hits the ground?

5.

Using a very long string, get the actual height of the building.

Q2. How will you compare the actual heightof the building from the result of the
experiment?
Q3. What is the percentage error?

Activity 3
You raise me up!
Objectives:

Determine the initial velocity of a ball thrown upward;

Record the time for the ball to reach the ground;
Record the time for ball to reach its maximum height; and
Calculate the maximum height reached by the ball thrown vertically upward.

Materials Needed:

12

stopwatch
ball(e.g. tennis ball, sepaktakraw, etc.)

Procedure:
1.
2.

Throw the ball vertically upward in the air as hard as you can in an open
space.
Using your stopwatch, ask your classmate to record the total time the ball
remains in the air. Get the time of the ball from point of release to its
maximum height by the dividing the total time into two. Record your data.

TABLE 3. Data on the Total Time and Time of the Ball in the Air
Trial
1
2
3
Average

Total Time, (s)

Time, t (s)

Q1. What do you think happens to the speed of the ball as it reaches its maximum
height?
3.

Calculate the initial velocity of the ball using the formula vi =vf -+agt.Use 9.8m/s2 for ag.

4.

Solve for the maximum height reached by the ball using h=vit + agt2.
Use -9.8m/s2for ag.

TABLE 4. Data on the Velocity of the Ball and Height of the Building
Trial
1
2
3
Average

Velocity, v(s)

Height, h (m)

Q2. What will happen to the balls velocity as it falls further below the point of
release?
Study the following sample problems.
Sample Problem 1:

13

Zed is playing with a ball on top of a building but the ball fell and hits the
ground after 2.6 seconds, what is the final velocity of the ball just before it hits the
ground and how high is the building?
Given:
ag = -9.8 m/s2
assume vi = 0 m/s
t = 2.6 s
Find:
vf = ?
h= ?

vf = vi + agt
vf = 0 + (-9.8 m/s2)(2.6 s)
vf = -26 m/s
d = vit + agt2
h = -d = -[ (0 m/s)(2.6 s)+ (-9.8 m/s2)(2.6 s)2]
h = 33 m

Sample Problem 2:
The Philippine tarsier is capable of jumping to a height of 1.5 m in hunting for
food. Determine the takeoff speed of the tarsier.
Given:
a = -9.8 m/s2
h = 1.5 m
Find:
vi = ?
At the highest point, velocity of the tarsier is zero.
vf2 = vi2 + 2ah
(0 m/s)2 = vi2 + 2(-9.8 m/s2)(1.5m)
0 m2/s2 = vi2 29.4 m2/s2
29.4 m2/s2 = vi2
vi = 5.4 m/s

14

Try solving this

The acceleration of gravity on the moon is 1.62 m/s2. If a ball is dropped on
the moon from a height of 1.50 m. Determine the time for the ball to fall to the
surface of the moon.
In solving problems on Uniformly Accelerated Motion refer to Table 5.
TABLE 5. Summary Of Uniformly Accelerated Motion (UAM) Formulae
Uniformly Accelerated Motion
Formulae
vf = at + vi
2
2
+
)
= (
2
vf2 = vi2 + 2ad
= +

Free-fall is an example of uniformly accelerated motion, with its acceleration

being -9.8 m/s^2, negative because it is downward.

Motion in Two Dimensions

Oh the places youll go! There is fun to be done! There are points to be
scored. There are games to be won. And the magical things you can do with that
ball will make you the winning-est winner of all.
- Dr. Seuss
Many neighborhood games you join and sporting events you play and
officiatein MAPEH classes involve flying objects or balls.
Have you noticed the curved paths they make inmid-air? This curve is what
naturally happens when an object, called a projectile, moves in two dimensions
having both horizontal and vertical motion components, acted by gravity only. In
physics this is called projectile motion.
Not only balls fly when in projectile motion. Have you noticed that in many
sports and games, players come flying too? Understanding motion in twodimensions will help you apply the physics of sports and enhance game events
experiences.

15

Activity 4
Curve me on an incline
Objective:

Capturea full trajectory of projectile motion on an inclined surface.

Materials Needed:
marbleorjackstone
fine powder (e.g. face powder, cassava starch)
illustration board
half-protractor template
4 sheets of dark construction papers (1-cm interval grid)
stack of books
set of weights
retractableballpenas launcher
2 popsicle sticks
masking tape
table top
stop watch
stickytape

Procedure:
Day One Activity
I. Linear horizontal motion
Use the pen to move the marble horizontally along the table top. (See that the
depressed end of the pen will hit the object about the center.) Observe the motion.
Sketch and label the velocity-time and the acceleration-time graphs on the axes
below.

Complete the sentence.

Graphrolling
1.velocity
time graphfor
A ball
horizontally
has a velocity
that
is __________,
and an
Graph
2.acceleration
time graphfor
objects
rolling
horizontally
acceleration that is ___________.
objects rolling down an incline
16

II. Linearmotion down an incline

Release a ball on an inclined board. Sketch and label the velocity-time and
the acceleration-time graphs on the axes below.

Graph 3.velocity time graphfor

objects rolling straight down an incline

Graph 4.acceleration time graphfor

objects rolling straight down an incline

Complete the sentence.

A ball rolling straight down an incline has a velocity that is __________,
and an acceleration that is ___________.

III. Two-dimensional motion along an incline

A. Tracing the Trajectory
1.

Attach the popsicle sticks to the retractable pen to make a marble launcher.
These will serve as the launching pad for the marble. Refer to Figure 4
below.

Pls.Redraw
2.

Figure 4. Retractable pen attached withpopsicle launching pad

On the board select and draw a fix origin, x-axis and y-axis. From the origin,
17

draw on the board selected angled lines (150, 300, 450, 600, 750) if the printed
protractor template is not available (see Figure 5). Position also 2 sheets of
1-cm interval grid similar to the set-up shown below. Elevate one end of the
board using books with an angle of inclination of about 400.

Figure 5. Set up for projectile motion on an inclined plane

Redraw set-up using the colored side of the board.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Set the powder-coated object on the launch pad at point A. Carefully launch
the marble using the retractable pen.
Trace the trajectory with pencil. Label this grid as horizontally-launched,
and set aside for later analysis.
Set the powder-coated object on the launch pad at point B. Position the
launching pad at the origin. Carefully launch the marble at 150 using the
retractable pen.
Trace the trajectory with pencil. Label this grid as launched at 150 angle.
Repeat steps 5 and 6 for the other selected angles (300, 450, 600, and 750).

Q1. Describe the trajectory for horizontally-fired projectiles along an incline. Sketch
the trajectory.
Q2. Describe the shape of the trajectory for projectiles fired at angles
along an incline. Sketch the trajectory.
Q3. Compare the locations of the trajectory peaks in terms of maximum
height reached.
Q4. Compare the horizontal distances (range) reached when they return to the
elevation from which they were projected.
Q5. Among the trajectories of projectiles fired at angles, for the same launching
velocity, which covered the greatest range (horizontal distance in the x-axis)?
Q6. Among the trajectories of projectiles fired at angles, for the same launching
speed, which recorded the highest peak?
Q7. Which pairs of trajectories have ranges that are almost equal?
Day Two Activity
18

B. Recording the Hang Time

8. Launch the marble at different angles on the inclined board. Record the hang
time of the marble from release until it hits the floor. Complete the table below.
Safety check
- Ensure that the trajectories are free from obstructions.
Table 6. Hang time of the marble launched at different angles
Angle of Launch,
0 (deg)
15
30
45
60
75

Trial 1

Hang Time, time (s)

Trial 2

Trial 3

Average
Time, tave (s)

Q8. At which angle is the hang time longest?shortest?

___________________________________________________________________
The concept check on horizontal uniform velocity motion and vertical uniform
acceleration motion in one dimension should serve as reminder that all projectiles
regardless of its path will always follow these principles:
1. Projectiles always maintain a constant horizontal velocity (neglecting air
resistance).
2. Projectiles always experience a constant vertical acceleration of 9.8 m/s 2,
downward (neglecting air resistance).
3. The horizontal and vertical motions are completely independent of each
other. Therefore, horizontal and vertical motion can be treated separately.
For the third principle, what can be done to show the independence of the
two components of projectile motion?
Other projectile motion principles will be explored in the analysis of real life
applications. To solve projectile exercises, you must consider horizontal and vertical
motions separately.
The activities for motion in two dimensions using the marble launched on an
inclined board were done to trace trajectories that can serve as models for real
projectile motion trajectories.
Instead of launching the projectile in a vertical plane, it is launched up an
incline where the powder-coated marble leaves a trail of white mark as it slides down
19

the inclined board.

Aside from gravity, other forces such as normal and frictional forces act on
the marble thus its acceleration is smaller than the 9.8 m/s2 rate due to gravity.In
spite of this, the trajectories are still a result of a constant horizontal velocity and a
vertical motion of constant acceleration.
And yes, there are other examples of motion in two dimensions. Projectile
motion is only one example of it. Do the next activity to explore the idea that
projectile trajectories can be matched.

Activity 5
Curve a like
Objective:

Set a ball in projectile motion to match pre-drawn parabolic trajectories.

Materials Needed:
chalk or marker
2 whole sheets of manila paper
small ball or round object safe to throw (e.g. tennis ball, sepaktakraw, etc.)

Procedure:
1. Match-a-curve.
a. Draw a rough parabola by sketching vertical and horizontal lines on a manila
paper and throw the ball similar to the Figure 6 below.

To the artist: Please redraw figure with the student in short sleeves.

Figure 6.Matching trajectory A to a half parabola

Q1. In what direction or orientation did you throw the ball?

20

Q2. How would you describe the balls path and motion?
Q3. How many tries did you make to match the curved paths?
b. Draw a box at the bottom end of the parabola. Throw again the ball with the
boxas the target.
Q4. How many tries did you make before you matched the curves this time?
Q5. What does this tell you regarding visuals or imaginary targets in sports?
2. What a curv-a-throw!
a. On another manila paper, draw a complete parabola and throw the ball similar to
the Figure 7 below.

To the artist: Please redraw figure with the student in short sleeves.

Figure 7. Matching trajectory B to a complete parabola

Q6. In what direction or orientation did you throw the ball?
Q7. How would you describe the balls path and motion?

Q8. Aside from doing more trials or practices, for this parabola where will you
place the imaginary target to aim at for better matching results?
Q9. Based on the activity, is it possible that the ball will end at a higher elevation
than its starting level?
Q10. What force got the ball projected?
Q11. What forcecontinued to act on the ball when in mid-air?
3. Of curves . . .
a. The drawn curved graphs on the paper are parabolic curves. Similarly,
trajectories A and B are also parabolic curves.
21

Q12. How will you compare or contrast the horizontal and vertical spacing?
Q13. What does the spacing in the set of vertical lines indicate about thevertical
displacement and vertical velocity of the projectile motion?
4. . . . and arrows.
The displacement,d, and velocity,v, are vector quantities.
Projectile motion can be understood by analyzing the horizontal and the vertical
components of the displacement and velocity which add as vectors.

Please redraw
Figure 8. Sketch of the velocity vector components
Recall that vectors are quantities with magnitude and direction. And any vector
can be represented by a vector arrow, the length of which corresponds to the
magnitude, while the arrow point in the direction of the vector quantity.
For a horizontally projected object, the displacement and velocity vector has both
magnitude and direction that you can separate into

horizontal components

Eq. 1 d H d x x vxt ,

and vertical components

Eq. 3 dV d y

1
ag t 2 ,
2

Eq. 2

vH v x

dH
t

Eq. 4 vV v y ag t

Recall the Uniformly Accelerated Motion formulae and use these in solving
problems in Projectile Motion.The x and ysymbols for displacement and height
respectively will be used instead of d and h.
Table 7. Kinematic Equations for Projectile Motion
22

__________________________________________________________________
Horizontal Motion
Vertical Motion
To the editor: Pls change all
ax = 0, vx = constant the formulae into
ay = -ag = constant
mathematical format. In the
v fx vix
v fy viy a g t
succeeding
1
x f xi vixt
formulae.Pls.change vx0
y f yi viyt a g t 2
withviy,vy0 with viy, x0 with xi,
2
2
2
y0 with yi, g with ag. Use the
v fy viy 2ag ( y f yi )
formulae in this table for your
__________________________________________________________________
reference

If y is taken positive downward, the minus (-) signs in front of ag becomes a

positive (+) sign.
Projectiles Launched Horizontally
A projectile launched horizontally has no
initial vertical velocity. Thus, its vertical motion is
identical to that of a dropped object. The
downward velocity increases uniformly due to
gravity as shown by the vector arrows of
increasing lengths. The horizontal velocity is
uniform as shown by the identical horizontal vector
arrows.
The dashed black line represents the path
of the object. The velocity vector v at each point is
in the direction of motion and thus is tangent to the
path. The velocity vectors are solid arrows, and
velocity components are dashed. (A vertically
falling object starting at the same point is shown at
the left for comparison; vy is the same for the
falling object and the projectile.)

Pls. redraw the figure and incorporate the

necessary symbols to make it consistent
with formulae in the tale 7.
Figure 9. Velocity component vector
diagram for horizontally-fired projectile.

For a projectile beginning and ending at the same height, the time it takes a
projectile to rise to its highest point equals the time it takes to fall from the highest
point back to its original position.

Sample Problem 1
23

A marble is thrown horizontally from a table top with a velocity of 1.50 m/s.
The marble falls 0.70 m away from the tables edge.
A) How high is the lab table?
B) What is the marbles velocity just before it hits the floor?
Before you can find the height of the lab table, you must determine first how
long the marble is in mid-air. For the horizontal distance traveled, this equation
x x0 vx0t will be used.
Given: x 0.70 m

vx 1.50 m / s
vy0 0

Find: t ? ; a) y ? ; b) v y ?
a) Solve t x / v 0.70m /1.50m / s 0.47 s total time of marble in air
Now that you know the time it took the marble to reach the ground, you can
find the vertical distance it travelled in the same time.

1
1
y gt 2
y y0 v y 0t gt 2
2
2
from the equation
where v y 0 0
Use
1
y 9.8m / s 2 (0.47 s ) 2 1.08 m 1.08 m below table top; table is 1.08 m high.
2

b) To determine the magnitude of the resultant velocity, find first the two velocity
components and then solve for the resultant using the Pythagorean Theorem
equation v 2 v 2 x v 2 y
The horizontal velocity is uniform at 1.50 m/s while the vertical velocity is
uniformly accelerated at v y v y 0 gt where v y 0 0 .
Solve

v y v y 0 gt 0 9.8m / s 2 (0.47 ) 4.606 m / s 4.61m / s

So the magnitude of the resultant velocity is

24

downward.

v 2 v 2 x v 2 y (1.50 m / s ) 2 ( 4.61m / s ) 2
v (1.50 m / s ) 2 (4.61m / s ) 2
v 2.25 21 .25 m 2 / s 2
v 23 .5m 2 / s 2
v 4.85 m / s
To solve for the direction of the velocity, use the tangent trigonometric function.

tan

vy
vx

4.61m / s
1.50 m / s
71 .976 deg rees

tan 1

72 .0 deg rees

clockwise from the floor

In some projectile problems, there is also a need to find the magnitudes of

the motion components. You can find their lengths by using trigonometry as shown
below
Equations for:
horizontal velocity component:

vx v cos

vertical velocity component:

v y v cos
magnitude of resultant vector:

v v2 x v2 y
Figure10. Finding the components of a vector
using trigonometric functions.

direction of resultant vector:

tan 1

vy
vx

Projectiles Launched At an Angle

When a projectile is launched upward at an angle, its velocity has two
25

components:
1. a constant horizontal velocity that moves in the same direction as the launch, the
acceleration of which is zero; and
2. an upward positive vertical velocity component that is decreasing in magnitude
until it becomes zero at the top of the trajectory (therefore it no longer goes up any
further). But because gravity makes it accelerates downward at a rate of 9.8 m/s per
second or 9.8 m/s2, (therefore it stays at rest only for an instant) it will start to
descend with an increasing negative vertical velocity until it is stopped by something.
So as the projectile moves forward horizontally with uniform velocity, its
vertical velocity is also accelerated creating a trajectory that is a parabola.

Pls. redraw the figure and incorporate the necessary symbols to make it
consistent with formulae in the tale 7.
Figure 11. Path of a projectile fired with initial velocity v0 at angle to the horizontal.
The trajectory is shown in black dash, the velocity vectors are in solid arrows, and
velocity components are dashed.
Sample Problem 2
450

A soccer ball is kicked at ground level with a speed of 20 m/s at an angle of

to the horizontal. How much later does it hit the ground?

Choose the kicking point as the origin. When the soccer ball reaches the
ground again, the change in vertical displacement y is 0. To break the problem into
workable parts, determine first the initial horizontal component vx0 = (20.0 cos 450)
m/s = 14.1 m/s; and the initial vertical component vy0 = (20.0 sin 450) m/s = -14.1 m/s.
And because the final vertical position y is at the same elevation as the initial
y, the final vertical component vyis -14.1 m/s but will be at 450below the x axis which
is perpendicular to the initial direction.
26

Using the concept of acceleration, you can solve for total time using the
equation

vy vy0
g

14 .1m / s 14 .1m / s
2 .9 s
9.8 m / s 2

Now, find other ways of solving the problem.

Impulse and Momentum

What makes things move? Why do some objects move continuously while
some moving objects stop suddenly? These might be some of the questions you had
in mind but were not really answered in last years science class.
In grade 8, you learned that unbalanced forces cause stationary objects to
move. In fact, according to Newtons Second Law of Motion, the greater the force
applied, the larger the acceleration of an object. It also stated that with the same
force, heavier objects have smaller acceleration, thus, Force = mass x acceleration
or F=ma.

What affects motion?

Consider a cargo truck with a mass of 10,000 kilograms traveling at a velocity
of 40 kilometers per hour and a small car with a mass of 2000 kilograms traveling at
the same velocity as shown below. If the two vehicles suddenly lose their breaks and
crash against the brick wall, which do you think would be more damaging? On what
factor would the impact of collision depend if their velocities are the same?

(To Artist : Please draw the graphics instead.)

Figure 12. A truck and a car hitting a wall

If you suggested that it would be the mass of the truck, then you are correct.
Although the two vehicles have the same velocities but different masses, the impact
of the trucks collision with the brick wall is far damaging compared with the impact of
the cars collision with the brick wall.
Let us investigate this further.

27

Activity 6
Investigating Momentum
Objective:

Identify the factors that affect momentum.

Materials Needed:
Board or plank (at least 1.0 m long)
Books
Block of wood
Masking tape
Protractor
Ruler / meterstick
toy cars/trucks, one at least twice as heavy as the other

Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Place several books on top of a table and position the plane board at an
angle of about 30o from the horizontal.
Using masking tape and marker, label distances of every 10 cm starting
from the lower portion of the inclined plane up to the other edge of the
inclined plane.
Place the block of wood about 10 cm from the foot of the inclined plane.
Label this as the blocks initial position.
Position the small toy car at the 20-cm mark and record the time it takes
for the toy car to move down the inclined plane and hit the block of wood.

1
0
0
c
m

8
0
c
m

6
0
c
m

4
0
c
m

20 cm

30
o

10 cm

Pls. redraw.
Note: The measurement should be written on the inclined plane and not placed in the text box.

Figure 13. A toy car on an inclined plane

5.

Measure how far the block moved. Record this as the stopping distance.

28

Table 8. Stopping Distance and Time of the Toy Cars

Initial Distance
(cm)

Stopping Distance (cm)

of Small toy car

Stopping Distance (cm)

of Big toy car

20
40
60
80
100
6.
7.

Repeat steps 4 and 5 while varying only the initial position / distance for
40 cm, 60 cm, 80 cm, 100 cm.
Do steps 4 to 6, this time using the bigger toy vehicle. Record your data in
the table.

Q1.

How will you compare their stopping distances?

Q2.

Did the two toy vehicles immediately stop as they hit the block of wood?
Describe the stopping distances of the two toy cars.

Q3.

Which has a greater stopping distance, the small toy car or the big toy truck?
How do the stopping distances of each one change according to the point of
release?

Q4.

If momentum is a measure of how difficult it is to stop a moving object, which

of the two vehicles had a greater momentum?

What affects momentum?

Which of the two toy vehicles was more difficult to stop the lighter one or
the heavier one? The heavier one is more difficult to stop. This is because it
possesses a greater inertia in motion which depends on an objects mass and
velocity. Do you still remember Newtons First Law of Motion? It is also known as the
Law of Inertia. An objects momentum is also known as inertia in motion. For objects
moving at the same velocity, a more massive object has a greater inertia in motion
therefore a greater momentum. Momentum depends on two factors, mass and
velocity. Two cars of the same mass but different velocities will also have different
momenta.

Car B

Car A

Consider the two identical cars on

the left. Car A is traveling at 80 km/h while
Car B is traveling at 30 km/h. Which of the
29

two cars would be more difficult to stop? Which of the two cars has more
momentum? Car A, being faster, is more difficult to stop. It has more momentum.

Pls. redraw the figure

Figure 14. Two identical cars of different velocities

On what two factors does momentum depend on? It depends on mass and
velocity. Operationally, momentum is defined as the product of mass and the velocity
of an object. In equation,
p = mv
where p = is the momentum
m = is the mass
v = is the velocity
Moving objects have velocities which can be measured directly or indirectly.
For stationary objects where the velocity is zero, the momentum is also zero.
Let us practice computing for momentum.
Exercises:
Given the following data, solve for momentum using the formula p = mv.
Object
Bird
Basketball player
Bullet
Baseball
Frog

Mass (kg)

Velocity (m/s)

0.03
100
.004
.14
.9

18
5
600
30
12

Momentum (kgm/s)

Remember this:
Equation to use

if you are looking for

momentum
Mass

If you know
mass and speed
momentum and velocity

velocity

momentum and mass

From the concepts that you have learned, answer the check up questions:
1. Which has more momentum, a huge truck that is not moving or a small toy
cart that is moving?
30

2. A moving car has momentum. If it moves twice as fast, its momentum would
be __________ as much.
3. Two cars, one twice as heavy as the other, moves down a hill at the same
time. The heavier car would have a _________ momentum.
Applying the equation learned, answer the following problems:
1. A bowling ball whose mass is 4.0 kg is rolling at a rate of 2.5 m/s. What is its
momentum?
2. A skateboard is rolling at a velocity of 3.0 m/s with a momentum of 6.0 kgm/s. What is its mass?
3. A pitcher throws a baseball with a mass of 0.5 kg and a momentum of 10 kgm/s. What is its velocity?

What causes changes in momentum?

Changes in momentum happen every time. A fast-moving car when suddenly
stopped might have damaging effects not only to the vehicle itself but also to the
person riding it. Various devices have been installed in vehicles in order to ensure
the safety of the passengers. The use of seatbelts is even prescribed by law in order
to lessen injuries from car crashes. Inflatable airbags are also installed in most cars
aimed to increase the time of impact between the driver or passenger and the
crashing vehicle in the event of an accident. Can you think of some other safety
devices installed on vehicles?

(Redraw pictures with seatbelts and airbags.)

Figure15. Seatbelts and airbags

What factors may contribute to the changes in momentum?Let us find it out in
the next activity.

Activity 7
Playing Egg Volleyball
31

Objective:

Identify the factors that affect the time of impact of moving objects.

Materials Needed:
1 raw egg
Clear plastic bag where an egg can be inserted
Piece of cloth / large handkerchief

To Editor: Please look for a similar photo of Filipino students depicting two teams
throwing and catching eggs using a piece of cloth.
Figure 16. Students playing egg volleyball

Procedure:
1. Look for an open space in your school where you can perform this activity.
2. Place the raw egg inside the clear plastic bag and tie the plastic bag
securely. This is needed to prevent the egg contents from splattering in case
the egg breaks.
3. Depending on the number of students, form two teams comprising of pairs of
students. Each pair should have one large handkerchief orbandana.
4. The two opposing teams must be at least 3 meters away from each other.
The objective of the game is to have the eggs travel back and forth from each
team to the other without breaking the egg. The players are only allowed to
throw the egg in a curved path.
5. The players are not allowed to use their hands in throwing and catching the
egg. Instead, they will use a cloth or handkerchief.
6. The players toss coin to determine who goes first.
32

7. The pair who fails to catch the egg, and/or breaks it, is considered out of the
game.
8. The teacher may want to increase the distance by 1 meter between the two
teams in order to make the game more interesting and challenging.
9. The pair who is able to catch and throw the most number of eggs without
breaking would be declared as the winner.
Q1.

Was the handkerchief able to protect the egg from breaking?

Q2.

Did the egg break immediately when it hit the ground?

Q3.

How was the impact force lessened by the use of the handkerchief?

How was the handkerchief able to protect the egg from breaking? If a
different material was used to catch the egg, say, a piece of wood, will the egg break
or will it not?
The egg is a naturally-fragile material. However the choice of material may
prevent the egg from breaking by increasing the time of impact, therefore lessening
the impact force. If one throws an egg directly to a wall it will definitely break. This is
because when the eggs motion is abruptly stopped, its momentum suddenly
changes. However, if it is thrown on a piece of cloth, the time of impact will be
increased due to the cushioning effect of the piece of cloth, therefore, it will lessen
the impact force.

(Draw an egg hitting a brick wall and

splattered on all directions.)

(Draw an egg hitting a curtain / cloth

and pushes the cloth backward.)

Figure 17a. Egg hitting a brick wall

Figure 17b. Egg hitting a curtain

In physics, an external force acting on an object over a specific time leads to

a change in momentum of the object. A special name is given to the product of the
force applied and the time interval during which it acts: impulse.
Impulse = force x time

33

Do you still remember Newtons Second Law of Motion? It states that the net
force is directly proportional to the mass of a body and its acceleration. In equation
form,
F = ma
Since =

, then
F = m(vf vi) / t

Rearranging the equation will give you

Since p = mv, then
or

Ft = mvf mvi
Ft = pf pi
Ft = p

It turns out that the same impulse invariably leads to the same change in
momentum. The above equation implies that for a fixed value of the change in
momentum, the impact force is smaller when the impact time is bigger while the
impact force is bigger when the impact time is smaller. A quick jab by a boxer makes
a hard hit. A net, a cushion and corrugated containers all decrease the impact force.
From the equation, we can see that the product of force and time, which is
impulse, equals the change in momentum. Can you think of some other applications
of impulse in our everyday lives?
Sports like karate, taekwondo, baseball, golf and tennis utilize the concept of
follow-through as an important strategy to obtain a greater momentum. When a
tennis player hits the ball, a follow-through keeps the tennis racket in contact with the
ball for a longer time, and so the ball experiences a greater change in momentum for
the same force applied.
Lets try this:
Tiger Woods hits a 0.02 kg golf ball, giving it a speed of 25 m/s. What impulse does
he impart to the ball?
Given:

m = 0.02 kg
v = 25 m/s 0 = 25 m/s

Find: I
Solution:
Since the golf ball is initially at rest, the initial velocity is equal to zero.
Thus, I = p = mv
= (0.02 kg)(25 m/s)
= 0.50 kg-m/s or 0.50 Ns
34

Conservation of Momentum
In Grade 8, you have learned that
an external force is required to make an
object accelerate. Similarly, if we want to
change the momentum of an object, an
external force is required. There will be no
change in momentum if there is no
external force.
Lets take this situation as an
example. Two children on skateboards are
initially at rest. They push each other so that
eventually the boy moves to the right while
the girl moves in the opposite direction away
from each other. Newtons Third Law tells us
that the force that the girl exerts on the boy
and the force that makes the girl move in the
other direction are of equal magnitude but
opposite direction. The boy and the girl
make up a system a collection of objects
that affect one another (Figure 18). No
net/unbalanced external force acts on the
boy-girl system, thus, the total momentum of
the system does not change (Figure 19).
Remember that momentum, like velocity and
force, is a vector quantity. The momentum
gained by the girl is of equal magnitude but
opposite direction to the momentum gained
by the boy. In this system, no momentum is
gained or lost. We say that momentum is
conserved.
Explain how momentum is
conserved in the following activity.

Activity 8
35

Figure 18. A system is a group of objects that interact an

affect each other. Examples are (a) Bowling ball and pin
and (b) two football players.

Figure 19. In this example, the totalmomentum of the

boy-girl system before pushing is zero. After pushing, the
total momentum of the boy-girl system is still zero
because the momentum of the girl is of equal
magnitudebut opposite direction to the momentum of the
boy.Note that the momentum of the boy alone is not the
same before and after pushing; and the momentum of the
girl alone is not the same before and after pushing.
(redraw figure as pushoff/provide own photograph)

Balloon Rocket
Objectives:

Describe how a balloon rocket works and how conservation of momentum

explains rocket motion.

Materials Needed:
balloon (long shape)
string (nylon, if available)
tape

Procedure:
1. Stretch the string over two posts. You can use chairs or iron stands as posts.
Make sure that the string is taut.
2. Inflate the balloon. Twist the open end and temporarily secure it with a paper
clip.
3. Tape the straw to the balloon such that it is aligned with the balloons opening
(see Figure 20).

Figure 20. Balloon rocket set up.

4. Draw a diagram showing the momentum vectors of your balloon rocket and
the air.
Q1. How do these momenta compare?
Q2. How does the velocity of the air that is pushed out of the rocket compare to the
velocity of the balloon rocket?

36

At the start, our system, which consists of the balloon and the air inside it are
stationary so the total momentum of the system is zero. When we let the air inside
the balloon out, we notice that the balloon moves. The force that causes the balloon
to move comes from the air that is pushed out of it. There is no external force
involved. Thus, the total momentum of the system is conserved and must remain
zero. If the balloon has momentum in one direction, the air must have an equal and
opposite momentum for the total momentum to remain zero.
Change in momentum =
Total Initial Momentum =
0=
-pballoon=
-(mv)balloon =

0
Total Final Momentum
pballoon+ pair
pair
-(mv)air

Since the mass of the balloon is greater than the mass of air, the velocity of
the air must be greater in magnitude than the velocity of the balloon, and must be
opposite in direction..
Concept Check:
Suppose the entire world population gathers in one spot and at the sounding of a
prearranged signal, everyone jumps up. While all the people are in the air, does
Earth gain momentum in the opposite direction?

Example 1a
Two iceskaters stand together. They push off and travel directly away from
each other, the boy with a velocity of 1.50 m/s. If the boy weighs 735 N and
the girl, 490 N, what is the girls velocity after they push off? (Consider the ice
to be frictionless.)

Figure 21. Pushoff

Solution:

Remember that W = mg, thus, m = W/g.

Boy
Girl

mass
75 kg
50 kg

velocity
1.50 m/s
?
37

The ice where they stand on is considered to be frictionless, thus, no external

force is present. The momentum of the boy-girl system is conserved. There is no
change in the momentum of the system before and after the push off.
Total Initial Momentum =
0=
-pboy=
-(mv)boy =
-37.5 kg m/s =
-0.75 m/s =

Total Final Momentum

pboy+ pgirl
pgirl
(mv)girl
50 kg (vgirl)
vgirl

The girl moves with a velocity of 0.75 m/s opposite to the direction of the boy.
Remember!
Momentum is a vector quantity. It must have both magnitude (numerical
value) and direction. The direction of the momentum vector is always in the same
direction as the velocity vector. Like all vector quantities, momentum vectors can be
added. For situations in which the two vectors are in opposite directions, one vector
is considered negative and the other positive.

Example 1b
Two iceskaters stand together. They push off and travel directly away
from each other, the boy with a speed of 0.50 m/s and the girl with a speed of
0.65 m/s. If the mass of the boy is 60 kg, what is the girls mass? (Consider
the ice to be frictionless.)
Solution
The momentum of the boy-girl system is conserved. There is no change in
the momentum of the system before and after the push off.
Total Initial Momentum =
0=
-pboy=
-(mv)boy =
30.0 kg m/s =
46kg =

Total Final Momentum

pboy+ pgirl
pgirl
(mv)girl
(mgirl) 0.65 m/s
mgirl

Elastic and Inelastic Collisions

A collision is an encounter between two objects resulting in exchange of impulse
and momentum. Because the time of impact is usually small, the impulse provided
by external forces like friction during this time is negligible. If we take the colliding
bodies as one system, the momentum of the system is therefore approximately
conserved.
38

The total momentum of the system before the collision is equal to the
total momentum of the system after the collision.
total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
Collisions are categorized according to whether the total kinetic energy
of the system changes. Kinetic energy may be lost during collisions when (1)
it is converted to heat or other forms like binding energy, sound, light (if there
is spark), etc. and (2) it is spent in producing deformation or damage, such as
when two cars collide. The two types of collision are:
1. Elastic collision one in which the total kinetic energy of the
system does not change and colliding objects bounce off after
collision.
2. Inelastic collision one in which the total kinetic energy of the
system changes (i.e., converted to some other form of energy).
Objects that stick together after collision is said to be perfectly
inelastic.
Can you identify which type of collision is shown in each situation?

(a)

(b)

Figure 22. Examples of collisions. (a) colliding pendulum (b)colliding cars

In Figure 22a, a moving steel ball pendulum collides head-on with

another steel ball.The collision is elastic, that is, the total kinetic energy of the
system (2 steel balls) is the same before and after the collision. The total
momentum of the system before the collision is equal to the product of the
first balls mass and velocity. The total momentum of the system after the
collision must be equal to the total momentum before the collision. The first
ball comes to rest while the second ball moves away with a velocity equal to
39

the velocity of the first ball. This is the case when the two balls have equal
masses. The momentum of the first ball is transferred to the second ball. The
first ball loses its momentum while the second ball gains momentum equal to
that of the first balls momentum (Figure 23a).
What do you think would happen if you pull two balls away and release
them at the same time? Why is it so?
Example 3
A 300 g cart moves on an air track at 1.2 m/s. It collides with and sticks
to another cart of mass 500 kg,which was stationary before collision. What is
the velocity of the combined cartafter collision?
Solution

mass
Cart 1
Cart 2

Velocity
(before collision)
1.2 m/s
0

0.30 kg
0.50 kg

The total momentum of the system is conserved before and after the
collision.
Total Momentum (before collision)=
(cart1+ cart2)before =
(mv)1, before+ 0=
0.36 kg m/s=
0.45m/s =

Total Momentum(after collision)

(cart1+ cart2)after
(m1 + m2) vafter
0.80 vafter
vafter

Since the two carts stuck together after collision, they have the same velocity
after collision. The combined carts move at 0.45 m/s after the collision.

Figure 23. Elastic Collisions. (a) moving object collides with a stationary
object (b) two moving objects collide head-on (c) two objects moving in the
same direction collide
40

Figure 24. Inelastic Collision. Two objects collide, stick together and move
as one.
In everyday life, however, perfectly elastic collisions are rare, and most
collisions are inelastic to some extent. In the next activity, we shall use
different types of balls to demonstrate different degrees of inelasticity.

Activity 9
Bouncy Balls
Objective:

Classify a collision as perfectly elastic, slightly inelastic, moderately

inelastic, highly inelastic, or perfectly inelastic

Materials Needed:

4-5 types of balls(e.g. clay ball, marble, etc), 3 different surfaces (e.g.,
tiled, wood, concrete, grass)
Procedure:

1. Drop each ball from a distance of 1 meter onto the surface and record
how high it bounces in meters (example: 0.46 meters).
2. Note whether the ball and surface showed perfectly elastic, or
perfectly inelastic collision. Classify the collision as follows:

If the ball bounces up by 1 meter, then the collision is perfectly elastic

If the ball does not bounce up, the collision is perfectly inelastic.

4. Repeat steps 1, 2 and 3 for the twoother surfaces.

41

Data:
Table 9. Data on the Height of the Bounced Ball

Surface
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C

Mass

Ball 1
______________

Bounce
(m)

Degree of
Elasticity

Ball 2
______________
Ball 3
______________
Ball 4
______________
Ball 5
______________

Q. Which ball is generally more elastic? Which surface is generally more elastic?
Was there an elastic collision? Was there a perfectly inelastic collision?

Development and Demonstration of a

Volleyball Team Drill
42

A Performance Task

Objective:

Develop and demonstrate a fun 5-minute team drill that will apply projectile
motion concepts and principles to the learning and development of three
motor skills in volleyball.

Materials Needed:
Volleyball (required)
stop watch (required)
meter stick / tape meter
other materials selected by proposing team
written proposal

Procedure:
1. Conduct the group meeting and plan out the role of each member in
thedevelopment of the volleyball drill proposal.
2. Select from the following volleyball skills (bump, set, underarm serve, blockingand
spike) three motor skills which will be enhanced in the proposed team drill.
3. Develop together the mechanics of a five-minute drill in terms of:
a) target motor skill,
b) materials to be used,
c) team or pair details,
d) sequence and duration of drill movements,
e) evaluation of skills test,
f) safety precautions; and
g) analysis and application of projectile motion concepts and principles,
(Show playing area diagrams and computations for ranges, heights and time)
4.

Get a space and try out your teams proposed drill sequence and
movements.Make adjustments according to equipment/materials and ability.
Make themodifications and practice the final drill for presentation of proposal and
demonstration of team drill the next session.

5. Write your group proposal.

Performance Task: Development and Demonstration of a Volleyball Team Drill

43

Goal:

Develop and demonstrate a 5-minute team drill that will apply projectile
motion concepts and principles to the learning and development of three motor skills
in volleyball.
Role:

You are a team of physical education teacher-coaches who conduct

volleyball clinics under a youth sports program of the school. The program targets to
entice students who are interested or are still learning volleyball to join the sports
clinics while the trained volleyball student players may assist or officiate drill and lead
up games geared towards the development of basic volleyball skills.
Situation:
The schools sports program suffered a mass promotion of ball game athletes
who recently graduated. To speed up the promotion of renewed interest in ball game
trainings and beef up the remaining number of ball players, the MAPEH teachers
came up with the idea to conduct fun sports clinics using modified volleyball games,
drills and lead up game plans. Starting next Friday, the drills will be used in the
weekly sports clinics. This try outs will give coaches, varsity players and interested
students an avenue to scout, mingle and develop volleyball skills with the others.
Product, Performance and Purpose:
You will develop, present and demonstrate a five-minute volleyball drill
proposal that will apply projectile motion concepts and principles to the learning and
development of three motor skill in volleyball.
Standards
The group proposes ways to enhance sports related to projectile motion.
Criteria for Success
The sports clinic participants will rate the proposed volleyball drill game based
on the following criteria:

Communication of Proposal
Physics of Sports Justification
Movement Composition
Performance

Task Rubric for Development and Demonstration of a Volleyball Team Drill

Criterion

7-8

5-6

3-4

44

1-2

*Communication
of Proposal

The group
communicated the
ideas and
explained concept
applications clearly
and effectively, and
raised interesting
questions on the
developed drills.

The group
communicated the
clearly the ideas
and explained
effectively selected
concept
applications only.

The group
communicated the
ideas and concept
applications clearly.

The group was

able to present
their ideas but not
the concept
applications.

Uses techniques
for 3 skills based
on physics
concepts and
principles.

Uses techniques
for 2 skills based
on physics
concepts and
principles.

Uses techniques
for 1 skill based on
physics concepts
and principles.

Unclear use of
technique for
skills based on
physics concepts
and principles.

appropriately
throughout the
presentation.

Uses terms
appropriately in
some parts of the
presentation.

* Use of Physics
Uses terms
Knowledge

Movement
Composition

Performance

Creates a wide
range of athletic
moves that are
appropriate to the
demonstration of
all three skills.

Uses a term or two

inconsistently
during the
presentation.

Uses terms
inappropriately
most of the
presentation
time.

Creates athletic
moves that are
appropriate to the
demonstration of
all two skills.

Selects some
athletic moves
appropriate to the
demonstration of 1
or two skills.

The drill sequence

shows a
competent use of
space, time, level,
force and flow.

The drill sequence

shows a simple
use of space, time,
level, force and
flow.

The group
performs with a
high degree of
precision, style,
and energy.

The group
performs with
appropriate degree
of precision, style,
and energy.

The group
performs with
some energy and
precision.

The group
performs with
little energy and
precision.

The group applies

movement
concepts and
tactics, in a critical
and effective
manner.

The group applies

movement
concepts and
tactics
appropriately.

The group applies

some movement
concepts and
tactics
appropriately.

The group shows

awareness of
movement
concepts and
tactics, but has
difficulty applying.

The drill sequence

shows a
sophisticated use
of space, time,
level, force and
flow.

* These criteria must be assessed against a written proposal

Summative Assessment
45

Has some
difficulty in
creating moves
appropriate to the
demonstration of
skills.
The drill
sequence is a
simple use of
space, time,
level, force and
flow.

1. If a freely falling ball is somehow equipped with a speedometer, by how much

would its speed reading increase for every second?
A. 0 m/s
B. 9.8 m/s
C. 10 m/s
D. 20 m/s
2. A sepaktakraw ball is hit vertically upward by a player. What is its
acceleration after 1 second?
a. 0
b. 1 m/s2
c. 9.8 m/s2
d. -9.8m/s2

3. A volleyball is tossed vertically upward, with an initial velocity of 5 m/s and

caught back at the same level as when it was thrown. What is the velocity of
the ball at that point?
a. 0 m/s
b. -5 m/s
c. -9.8 m/s
d. -9.8 m/s2
4. The motion of an object with constant acceleration is also known as
________.
a. Motion
b. Uniform Motion
c. Constant Motion
d. Uniformly Accelerated Motion
5. A ball is thrown vertically upward. What is its instantaneous speed at its
maximum height?
a. 0
b. 5 m/s
c. 9.8 m/s
d. 9.8 m/s2
6. A fielder throws a softball to a baseman. Which diagram below shows the
force(s) acting on the ball while it is on air if Fg represents the force of gravity,
and Fh refers to the throwing force?

A)

C)

Fh

Fg

Fg

46

B)

D)

Fh

No force

To the artist: Please redraw.

7. A ball is hit at an angle of 30o. At what point in its trajectory does this
projectile have the least speed?
a. Just after it was launched
b. At the highest point in its flight
c. Just before it hits the ground
d. halfway between the ground and the highest point
8. Suppose a ping pong ball is tossed. When the ball reaches the highest point,
which statement about the balls velocity and acceleration is true?
a. Both its velocity and its acceleration are zero
b. Its velocity is zero and its acceleration is not zero
c. Its velocity is not zero and its acceleration is zero.
d. Neither its velocity nor its acceleration is zero.
9. At what angle should a water hose be aimed in order for the water to land
with the greatest horizontal range?
a. 0
b. 30
c. 45
d. 60
10. A ball is hit at an angle of 30o and it reaches a distance of 50 m. Given the
same initial velocity, at what other angle should a ball be hit to reach the
same distance.
a. 15
b. 45
c. 60
d. 75o.
11. Which has more momentum, a heavy truck moving at 30 km/h or a light truck
moving at 30 km/h?
a. heavy truck
b. light truck
c. Both have the same momentum
d. Cannot be determined.
12. A moderate force will break an egg. However, an egg dropped on the road
usually breaks, while one dropped on the grass usually doesnt break. This is
because for the egg dropped on the grass:
a. The change in momentum is greater.
b. The change in momentum is less.
c. The time interval for stopping is greater.
d. The time interval for stopping is less.
13. The impulse experienced by a body is equal to the change in its:
A. Velocity
47

B. Kinetic energy
C. Momentum
D. Potential energy
14. In certain martial arts, people practice breaking a piece of wood with the side
of their bare hand. Use your understanding of impulse to explain how this can
be done without injury to the hand.
a. Given the same change in momentum, when the time interval is
smaller the impact force is bigger.
b. Given the same change in momentum, when the time interval is
bigger the impact force is bigger.
c. Given the same change in momentum, when the time interval is
smaller the impact force is smaller.
d. Given the same change in momentum, when the time interval is
bigger the impact force is smaller.
15. A lady tennis player hits an approaching ball with a force of 750 N If she hits
the ball in 0.002 s, how much impulse is imparted to the tennis ball?
a. 0 N s
b. 1.5 N s
c. 3.0 N s
d. 6.0 Ns
16. Which is a necessary condition for the total momentum of a system to be
conserved?
A. Kinetic energy must not change.
B. No external force is present.
C. An object must be at rest.
D. Only the force of gravity acts on the system.
For numbers 17 and 18: Two 0.5 kg balls approach each other with the same
speed of 1.0 m/s.
17. What is the total momentum of the system before collision?
A. 0
B. 0.50 kg m/s
C. 1.0 kg m/s
D. -1.0 kg m/s
18. If there is no external force acting on the system, what the total momentum of
the system after collision?
A. 0
B. 0.50 kg m/s
C. 1.0 kg m/s
D. -1.0 kg m/s
19. Two billiard balls approach each other at equal speed. If they collide in a
perfectly elastic collision, what would be their velocities after collision?
A. Zero
B. Same in magnitude and direction
C. Same in magnitude but opposite in direction
D. Different in magnitude and opposite in direction
48

20. A 50-kg astronaut ejects 100 g of gas from his propulsion pistol at a velocity
of 50 m/s. What is his resulting velocity?
a. -0.10 m/s
b. -0.50 m/s
c. 0 m/s
d. -100 m/s

References and Links

Beginning to Problem Solve with
I Notice/I Wonder. Retrieved
from:http://www.mathforum.org/workshops/universal/documents/notice_wo
nder_intro.pdf
Belen, J.G., Yap, A.I., Ogena, E.B., Tan, M. C. (2008), Addressing Misconceptions in
Mathematics and Science, Quezon City: NISMED UP Diliman and DOSTSEI.
Bouncing
Balls:
Hands
on
Activity.
Retrivedfrom:http://www.teachengineering.org/view_activity.php?url=collecti
on/cub_/activities/cub_energy/cub_energy_lesson03_activity3.xml
Christian, Wolfgang. "Tabletop Projectile Model." Version 1.0. Retrieved
from:http://www.compadre.org/Repository/document/ServeFile.cfm?ID=113
45&DocID=2332 (accessed 1 October 2013).
Cox, A, W. Christian, and M. Belloni. "Ejs Intro 2DMotionLab Model." Retrieved
from:http://www.compadre.org/Repository/document/ServeFile.cfm?ID=729
9&DocID=468 (accessed 1 October 2013).
Determining Momentum and Energy Loss of Balls Colliding Against Different
Surfaces. Retrieved from:http://mypages.iit.edu/~smile/ph8709.html
Free
Fall
and
the
Acceleration
of
Gravity.
Retrieved
from:http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/1dkin/u1l5a.cfm
Hewitt, P.G. (2002). Conceptual physics. USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Saddle River, New
Jersey.
Hwang,
Fu-Kwun.
"Free
fall
and
projectile
motion."
Retrieved
from:http://www.compadre.org/Repository/document/ServeFile.cfm?ID=101
15&DocID=1707 (accessed 1 October 2013).
Kinematic
Equations
and
Problem
Solving.
Retrieved
from:
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/1dkin/u1l6d.cfm#sol1
Padua, A.L. & Crisostomo, R. M. (2003) Practical and Explorational Physics Modular
Approach. Vibal Publishing House, Inc. Quezon City.
Physics A First Course: Skill and Practice Worksheets. Retrieved from:
http://www.cpo.com/pdf/Physics%20First/SKILL%20AND%20PRACTICE.p
df
Padua, A.L. (2003). Practical and ExplorationalPhysics.Vibal Publishing
House,Inc.Philippines: Quezon City
Projectile
Motion
on
an
Inclined
Misty
Surface.
Retrieved
from:www.scribd.com/doc/75437227/Projectile-Motion-on-an-Inclined-A
Robinson, P., (2002) Conceptual Physics Laboratory Manual, Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
49

Saltz,

Austen,
Basketball
Physics.Retrieved
from:http://www.sciencefriday.com/blogs/01/22/2010/basketballphysics.html?audience=1&series=8
Shipman, J.T., Wilson, J.D., & Higgins, C.A. (2013).An Introduction to Physical
Science.
Sport!
Science:
Thats
the
Way
the
Ball
Bounces.
Retrieved
from:http://www.exploratorium.edu/sports/ball_bounces/
Test
on
Momentum,
Impulse
and
Momentum
Change.
Retrieved
from:http://www.physicsclassroom.com/curriculum/momentum/momentum.
pdf
The Physics of Basketball.
Retrieved from:http://www.real-world-physicsproblems.com/physics-of-basketball.html
The Physics of Volleyball. Retrieved from: http://www.real-world-physicsproblems.com/physics-of-volleyball.html
Understanding
Car
Crashes:
Its
Basic
Physics.
Retrieved
from:
http://web.cvcaroyals.org/~rheckathorn/documents/physicsofcarcrashestea
chersguide.pdf
University of the Philippines National Institute for Science and Mathematics
Education Development. (2002). Practical work on high school physics:
Sourcebook for teachers. Quezon City: Author.
Wee, L, C. Chew, G. Goh, S. Tan, and T. Lee. "Using Tracker as a pedagogical tool
for understanding projectile motion." Phys. Educ. 47, no. 4, (July 1, 2012):
9, Retrieved from:http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9120/47/4/448 (accessed
1 October 2013).
Why
do
Balls
Bounce
Differently?
Retrieved
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Young, H. D., Freedman, R. A., Ford, A. L. (2012), Sears and Zemanskys University
Physics with Modern Physics 13th Ed., San Francisco: Addison-Wesley
Pearson Education, Inc.

50

Suggested time allotment: 6-7 hours

Unit 4
MODULE

WORK, POWER, AND

ENERGY

Overview
In Module 1, you studied about objects moving in two-dimensions. These
moving objects possess momentum and experience impulses during interactions
with other objects. Not only that, these objects also possess mechanical energy. On
their own or during interactions, there are energy transfers and/or transformations.
In this module, the transformations of mechanical energy and its conservation
will be studied conceptually and mathematically as applied in many natural events as
well as in the working principles of man-made structures such as rides and electric
power plants.
At the end of this module, you are expected to answer the following key
questions below and use the learning competences as study guide:

What are the changes in the forms of mechanical energy?

How is mechanical energy conserved during transfers and transformations?

Learning Competencies / Objectives

1. Trace and explain the energy transformations in various activities.
2. Perform activities to demonstrate conservation of mechanical energy.
3. Ascertain that the total mechanical energy remains the same during any
process.

Pre Assessment / Diagnostic Assessment

Directions. Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. What is the energy of a motorcycle moving slowly at the top of a hill?

A. entirely kinetic
B. entirely potential
C. entirely gravitational
D. both kinetic and potential

2. Which event is explained in the sequence of energy changes shown in the

diagram below?
Chemical Energy

Heat

Mechanical Energy (with wasted heat)

A. a headlight is on
B. a turbine spins
C. electric current powers a flat iron
D. gasoline burns to run a jeepney
3. In the Agus VI Hydroelectric Power (HEP) Plant, which energy transformation
takes place?
A. electrical energy
mechanical energy
electrical energy.
B. gravitational potential energy
kinetic energy
electrical energy
C. heat
mechanical energy
electrical energy.
D. nuclear energy
heat
electrical energy
4. Which event does NOT describe potential energy being changed into kinetic
energy?
A. A box sliding down a ramp.
B. A mango falling from a crate.
C. A pen spring being compressed.
D. A stretched rubber band got loosened.
5. Which event illustrates the direct transformation of potential to kinetic energy?
A. A basketball player catches a flying ball.
B. A Kalesa moves from rest.
C. Kathys arrow is released from its bow.
D. The spring mechanism of a toy is rotated until it locked.
6. Which sequence of energy transformation best describes what happens when
you switch on your battery-run radio?
A. Mechanical Energy Electrical Energy Sound Energy
B. Mechanical Energy Chemical Energy Sound Energy
C. Chemical Energy Electrical Energy Sound Energy
D. Chemical Energy Mechanical Energy Sound Energy

7. Which among the forms of energy is considered a potential energy?

A. chemical energy
B. radiant energy
C. sound energy
D. thermal energy
8. Which of the following happens to a coconut that falls freely?
A. Loses potential energy and gains kinetic energy.
B. Loses both potential energy and kinetic energy.
C. Gains potential energy and loses kinetic energy.
D. Gains both potential energy and kinetic energy.
9. A torchlight fell from a watch tower. The potential energy of the torchlight at the
highest point compared to its kinetic energy at the lowest point is _______
A. lesser.
B. equal.
C. greater.
D. not related.
10. The potential energy of a 1-kg object on top of a hill is 18 J. What is its velocity
in m/s just before it hits the bottom of the hill?
A. 36
B. 18
C. 6
D. 3
11. The total mechanical energy of a swinging bungee jumper
A. is equally divided between kinetic energy and potential energy.
B. at any one instant, is either all kinetic energy or all potential energy.
C. can never be negative.
D. is constant, if only conservative forces act.
12. A bag drops some distance and gains 90 J of kinetic energy. Considering air
resistance, how much gravitational potential energy did the bag lose?
A. more than 90 J
B. exactly 90 J
C. less than 90 J
D. cannot be determined from the information given
13. The wind-up toy that is fully wound and at rest possesses
A. kinetic but no potential energy
B. potential but no kinetic energy
C. both potential and kinetic energy in equal amounts
D. neither potential nor kinetic energy

14. In which case is there a decrease in gravitational potential energy?

A. Amada stretches horizontally a rubber band.
B. A car ascends a steep parking ramp.
C. Pamelas puppy jumps down the chair.
D. Water is forced upward through a pipe.
15. A picture frame falls off the wall. Considering the presence of air, how does the
kinetic energy (K) just before striking the floor compare to the potential energy (P) at
its hanging point?
A. K is equal to P.
B. K is greater than P.
C. K is less than P.
D. It is impossible to tell.

Mechanical Energy Rules! (Of forms and transformations...)

Pls. redesign

Energy is the name of the game. Everything exists or cease to

exist because of its presence or absence. It is stored in different
forms and can transfer and/or transform. It can be transferred
without being transformed. It can also be transformed without
being transferred. It can also be transformed during transfers.

In general, the energy acquired by objects upon which work is done is known
as mechanical energy. You have learned in Grade 8 Science that mechanical
energy fall under two categories:
Table 1. Different Forms of Mechanical Energy
Pls. redraw

A. Potential
Energy
-

B. Kinetic Energy

Energy in matter due to arrangements of its parts, its

composition, location and structure. It is commonly
considered as a stored energy having the potential to
do mechanical work.
The various forms of potential energy:

elastic
gravitational chemical
electrical
- Energy in moving matter and wave.
- Some forms of kinetic energy:

motion

radiant

nuclear

sound
thermal
wave
*Chemical, electrical and nuclear energies in general exhibit characteristics that are
electromagnetic in nature...though they also have potential energy. (Excerpt from the
Encyclopedia Britannica)
4

Recall in Grade 8 Science that mechanical work done when equated to

changes in the mechanical energies resulted to operational definitions of kinetic and
potential energy in the following equations:
Table 2. Mechanical Potential and Kinetic Energy Equations
where
Pls. redraw
PEgrav = gravitational potential energy
A. Potential Energy
=
m = mass of object
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = height or elevation difference
1 2
where
=
2
PEelas = elastic potential energy
k = spring constant
x = compression or extension
length

B. Kinetic Energy
=

Pls. redesign

1
2
2

where

KE = kinetic energy
m = mass of object
v = velocity of object

The evidence and varied uses of the different energy forms is

everywhere. Its flow causes change through heat and work.
Pls. redraw

Be it energy moving through

the food chain or an electric power
plant, energy can never be created
from nothing nor can it be destroyed
into nothing.
Energy is simply
transformed from one form to
another or transferred from one
system to another. It flows from a
source (serving as input system) into
an output system during transfers
and/or transformations.
Figure 1. Energy transformation in a lit electric lamp.

Figure 2. In a plugged television, electrical

energy is converted into radiant, heat and
sound energies.

Figure 3. During photosynthesis, the suns

radiant energy is converted into chemical
energy.

Study the examples of energy transformations that are shown in Figures 1-3.
Use your understanding of the labeled illustrations as guide for doing Activity 1.

Activity 1

LITTLE SHOP OF TOYS

Objectives:

At the end of the activity, you should be able to:

identify the energy forms present in the operation of simple toys, and
describe the energy transformations in the toys.

Materials Needed:

yoyo
friction toy car
deflated balloon
2 mystery objects
Activity Sheet / science notebook

Procedure:

1. Operate each toy to move and observe closely what causes it to start and stop
moving.
2. For each toy, identify all forms of energy involved in the process.
3. Trace the energy transformations by sketching and labeling the toy while in
motion.
4. From inside the room, choose two objects/toys of interest to you. Do steps 1 to 3.
5. For each toy or object, answer the following questions:
Q1.
Q2.
Q3.
Q4.
Q5.
Q6.

What does the toy or object do?

What energy changes take place as this toy or object operates?
What form does the stored energy start out in?
What form does the stored energy turn into?
What form is the energy output in when it stops?
What made each object to move a certain displacement and what made
each object to come to a stop?

Example: Sipa

(Pls. redraw)
Kinetic Energy + Sound Energy

Chemical Energy
Gravitational Potential Energy

Energy In

Energy Out

Work and Heat

Figure 4. Energy transformations in the Filipino traditional game sipa.

6

You just identified the different energy forms and its changes in simple toys.
Toys can be simple, but the physics behind it can be quite complicated. Indeed when
these energy got transferred or transformed, work and heat plus other energy forms
like sound and light were produced. Some of these energy can also be stored in
other forms. In general, when you made each toy or object to operate in the activity
and set it to move then the physics behind the toys caused transformations of
mechanical energies from potential to kinetic or from kinetic to potential.
Now ponder these questions. . . What are the similarities in the mechanical
energy forms present in a stretched bowstring and in an elevated volume of water?
What mechanical work can possibly be done by the transformations of these
mechanical energies?
Think about your answers as you do the next activity.

Pls. redraw
Figure 5. Comparison of mechanical energy in a stretched bow and a waterfalls.

Activity 2
HEP HEP HOORAY!
(Adapted from the Energy of Moving Water Student Guide from www.NEED.org)
Objectives:

At the end of the activity, you should be able to:

construct a simple turbine unit
demonstrate mechanical energy transformations, and
demonstrate Hydroelectric Power (HEP) using a water reservoir system.

Materials Needed:

plastic folder or acetate

permanent marker pen
ruler or tape measure
pair of scissors
cutter
juice drink straw
7

hot melt glue or super glue (cyanoacrylate adhesive)

masking tape
thread
5-10 pcs paper clips
2 1.5-Liter plastic bottle
1 push pin
3-inch nail
2 3-Liter ice cream container
2-Liter bottled tap water supply
hand towel or rag
funnel
activity sheet / science notebook

Safety Precautions:

Danger of injury from the pair of scissors and cutter.

Danger of eye or skin injury from glue
Use of water container for collecting water.
Use of towel or rag to dry off wet surfaces.
Follow all safety lab rules.

Procedure:
A. Construction of the Turbine Model
1. Prepare 8 blades for the turbine. Cut 2 inch by 1 inch strips of plastic folder
or acetate. Shape it any way you want.

Figure 6. a) shaped strips for turbine blades

2. Glue the blades to the middle of the straw similar to the sample in Fig. 6 b).
The straw will serve as the shaft of the turbine.

Figure 6. b) the turbine model blade assembly

3. Make a turbine holder using one of the plastic bottles. Use a push pin then a
3-in nail to make holes at a 10-cm height to hold the straw. Ensure that the
turbine can rotate freely. If needed, make some plastic stopper to hold the
turbine in place.

Figure 6. c) the turbine model on its mount

4. Tie a meter-long thread around the turbine shaft (straw). Secure the knot to
the shaft with a tape. Loop the hanging end of the string and hook the paper
clips on it.
5. Position the turbine model on a table with the hanging paper clips free to
move.
Q1. Using the turbine model, what are some ways you can do
to lift the hanging paper clips? Cite at least three methods.
Q2. For each method, what forms of energy will be involved in
the process? Trace the transformations of energy.
Q3. In lifting the paper clips, how will you quantify and relate
the work that you will do to the energy
transformations involved?
6. Without needing other additional materials, try the
methods you can right away do. This will also help you test
the functionality and durability of your turbine model.
7. Reinforce the turbine holder or strengthen the blades with
melted hot glue if needed. Adding the watery super glue may
just loosen the already set bond between the blades and the
straw.
8. Remove the string and the paper clips from the straw to
have the turbine model ready for the Hydropower activity.

Figure 6. d) Testing the turbine model

B. Water Reservoir Model Construction
1. From the bottom of the bottle, measure and mark with dots the
5-cm, 10-cm, 15-cm, and 20-cm spots. These dots should lie
along the same vertical line and would be the exit points.
Acrosss these, make horizontal lines as tail water levels, ht.
2. Use the push pin to make a hole on each dot. Then put
masking tape over each hole. Fold the top as flap for pulling.
3. Make another horizontal line 5 centimeters above the 20-cm
hole and mark as the head water level, hw of the stored water.
4. Determine the stored waters Head of Flow, H by taking the
difference between the head water level and the tail water
level as indicated in the equation = . Record these
values in Table 3.
Q4. If you are to investigate the relationship between the
stored waters head of flow (the height of the stored water
above the exit point) and the projected waters range (the
horizontal distance), what would your problem and hypothesis
be?
Figure 7 a) Water Reservoir Model

Suggested format of problem in question form:

How does the dependent variable depend on the independent variable?
Q5. What quantities will serve as the
a) independent variable - manipulated to affect the dependent variable;
b) dependent variable
- will be affected thus measured; and
c) parameter variable
- controlled and kept constant?
5. Write your problem and hypothesis on your activity sheet.
6. Fill the bottle with water up to the 25-cm mark. Elevate this bottle on an inverted
ice-cream container with its holed-side facing the other water container where the
turbine model is.

Figure 7 b) water reservoir and turbine assembly, and Figure 7 c) range measurement

10

7. Line with masking tape the back of a ruler for easier readings. Use the ruler to
measure the falling waters maximum range (horizontal distance between the
bases of the hole and the point the projected water hits the blade).
8. Examine the water reservoir with the turbine model assembly and be familiar with
its operation. Reposition the turbine when needed.
C. Mechanical Energy in Hydropower
1. Remove the masking tape from the 5-cm hole to release the water. Be ready to
reposition the water turbine model such that the nearest blade hit by the
projecting water is in the horizontal position. Cover the hole with your finger or
with a tape when needed.
2. Measure the maximum range of the water and record this result in Table 3.
3. Uncover again the 5-cm hole and observe the projecting water as well as the
movement of the turbine blades.
4. Cover again the 5-cm hole. Use the funnel and the bottled water supply to refill
the water reservoir up to the 25-cm mark.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 for a total of three trials. Compute and record the average range.
6. Dry the wet surfaces and check the tape hole covers.
7. Follow steps 1 to 6 for the 10-cm, 15-cm, and 20-cm holes.
8. Water conservation tip. Reuse the water collected on the pan. Use the funnel to
transfer water from the collecting container back into the water reservoir model or
the water supply bottle.
Table 3. Effect of the Waters Head of Flow on the Water Range
head water
level, hw
(cm)

tail water
level, ht
(cm)

Stored Water's
Height or Head
of Flow, H (cm)

Range, R (cm)
Trial Trial Trial
1
2
3

Average
Range,
Rave (cm)

Equation: H = hw ht

25.0
25.0
25.0
25.0

5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0

20.0

Q6. What mechanical energy transformations took place when water got
projected out of the holes?
Q7. What was the effect of the stored waters head of flow to its range?
Q8. How would you explain this effect in terms of energy transformation?
Q9. In Question 4, you formulated your hypothesis regarding the effect of the
stored waters height to the waters range. What was your hypothesis?
Q10. Was the hypothesis you made correct? Why or why not?
Q11. The data collected showed the effect of the head of flow on the flow range
and not on the waters force that powers the blades to rotate. How would
you relate the range to the waters force?
Q12. In the activity, the hydropower was to do mechanical work by rotating the
blades. What can be done to make good use of the waters power?
11

Q13. In a typical actual Hydroelectric Power (HEP) Plant, the turbines are fixed
and so the tail water level is constant (Refer to Figure 8). Only the head
water level from the reservoir varies depending on the stored water.
How would you modify this activity to model a real working HEP plant?
A typical Hydroelectric Power Plant has three main parts as shown below:
1) the water reservoir
2) the dam
3) the power plant
(turbines and generators)
Just
like
the
stretched
bowstring and the elevated waterfalls,
the stored water in the reservoir has
potential energy. When water is made
to flow down the penstock, the
potential energy changes into kinetic
energy.
Figure 8. Illustration on the main parts of a HEP Plant courtesy of www.NEED.org

The power of the rushing water spins the turbine, which in turn spins the coils
of wire inside a ring of magnets, thus generating electricity. You will look into these
in detail when you tackle electric power generation in Module 4.
But before that, your concern at this point is to master tracking mechanical
energy transfers or transformations. Take note that a greater head means a higher
drop. A higher drop leads to a faster flow. Why is this so?
On the other hand, a faster flow carries greater power, exerting a greater
force in rotating the turbine. Does this mean that a greater mechanical work was
done?
Move on to Lesson 2 to
complete your understanding about
work, power and energy. Hop on and
prepare to have fun with amusement
events and rides
Refer to Fig. 9, Ponder this
question: How would you compare the
total energy of the biker in locations T,
O, and P?

Figure 9. Bikers mechanical energy

Pls. redraw

Conservation of Mechanical Energy Reigns!

12

You learned in Module 1 that a body falling freely constantly increases its
velocity. Its height therefore decreases quadratically from the point of release since
it is falling faster and faster. You also learned in the previous discussion that
mechanical energy depends on an objects changing position and motion or the
conversion between the objects potential energy and kinetic energy.
Let us now examine what happens to the mechanical energy of a roller
coaster from Figure 10 below. If the cart moves from positions H to O, the potential
energy decreases since its height decreases. On the other hand, its speed increases
as it moves down, thus its kinetic energy increases. From point O to P, it gains back
its potential energy since it is moving up at higher elevation. In contrast, its kinetic
energy decreases as it moves up because it slows down. This exchange of potential
and kinetic energy is known as mechanical energy.

Figure 10. Conservation of Mechanical Energy in a Roller Coaster

Pls. redraw the figure

Well, at the top of the hill, the car is stationary, so as the car begins to move
down the hill, the potential energy begins to be converted to kinetic energy. The car
gathers speed until it reaches back on top of the other side of the hill and converts
the gained kinetic energy back to potential energy.
Ignoring frictional force, the total mechanical energy, which is the sum of its
kinetic and potential energies, remains constant at all points of the track. In equation
form,
ME1 = ME2 = ME3 =
PE1 + KE1 = PE2 +KE2 = PE3 +KE3 =
To confirm further the transformation between potential energy and kinetic
energy, try the next activity.

13

Activity 1
Bashing Ball!
Objectives:

At the end of the activity, you should be able to:

identify the positions where kinetic energy or potential energy is at
maximum or minimum; and
explain the result of the demonstration using conservation of energy.

Materials Needed:

bowling ball or basketball

rope
ceiling

Procedure:

1. Ask a custodian or a maintainance personnel to hang a bowling ball or a

basketball using a mesh or a net from the ceiling. Make sure that the ceiling is
stable and sturdy.
2. After the teacher demonstrates the activity, ask for a willing and brave volunteer
from the class.
3. Have the student grab the ball and walk
backwards carefully until the ball is level with
his/her nose.
4. Ask the student to remain still as possible while
holding the ball against the tip of his/her nose.
Make sure the string is taut so the ball will
swing smoothly and evenly when it is released.
5. Warn the student to keep his body still,
especially the head. S/he should not move
his/her head backward or forward.
6. Ask the student to release the ball without any
additional push.
Figure 10. Giant Pendulum
Pls. redraw
7. Ask the other students to predict what will happen when the bowling ball is
released and returns.

14

Q1. Did the bowling ball reach the tip of the nose of the student volunteer?
Did it rise higher or lower than its original height?
Q2. At what location(s) along the path of the bowling ball is the balls kinetic
energy highest?
Q3. At what location(s) along the path of the bowling ball is the balls
gravitational potential energy highest?
___________________________________________________________________
From the activity, you identified the point where potential energy and kinetic
energy is at its highest and lowest point. You are now ready to quantify or measure
the potential and kinetic energy from these points.
Consider a 1-kg stone dropped on top of a hill and
reached the ground after 3s. From your concept on free fall,
the height of the hill can be computed using the formula
h = agt2 and vf = agt since vi = 0.
Now let us determine what happens to the free falling
objects kinetic energy and potential energy.
At t = 0 s, the object is 44.1 m from the ground. Using
the equations for Potential Energy, we have
PE = mgh
Figure 11. A dropped stone
= (1 kg)(9.8 m/s2 )(44.1 m)
= 432.18 J
The Kinetic Energy at t = 0 s is,
KE = mv2
= (1kg)(0)2
=0
The Total Mechanical Energy of the free falling object at t = 0s is
TME = PE + KE
= 432.18 + 0
= 432.18 J
At t = 1 s, the Potential Energy is,
PE = mgh
PE = (1 kg)(9.8 m/s2)(44.1m 4.9 m)
15

PE = (9.8kg m/s2)(39.2 m)
PE = 384.16 J
The Kinetic Energy at t = 1 s is,
KE = mv2
KE = (1 kg)(9.8 m/s)2
KE = 48.02 J

The Total Mechanical Energy is,

TME = PE + KE
TME = 384.16 J + 48.02 J
TME = 432.18 J
Summarizing the answers in the table, you can see clearly the equivalence of
the Total Mechanical Energy in every second.
Following the steps in getting the Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy for
t = 0 s and t = 1 s, complete the table.
Table 4. Summary of the Mechanical Energy of a Free Falling Body
Time (s)

Height
(m)

Velocity
(m/s)

PE (J)

KE (J)

TME (PE + KE)

J

0
1
2
3

44.1
39.2

0
9.8

432.18
384.16

0
48.02

432.18
432.18

You have observed that an object freely falling gains kinetic energy since
its velocity increases constantly. On the other hand, its potential energy decreases
since its height decreases. The increase in its kinetic energy comes from the lost in
its potential energy. In the example of a 1- kg stone dropped from a hill, at t = 0, its
stored energy which is the potential energy is not yet converted into kinetic energy.
As the stone falls as in t = 1 s, the decrease in potential energy, 48.02, is equal to
the increase in its kinetic energy. After 2 s, the amount of energy lost and gained by
potential energy and kinetic energy respectively is still the same. At all points in its
path, the change in its potential energy is equal to the change in its kinetic energy.

Activity 2
Bouncy Balls, Revisited
16

Objectives:

At the end of the activity, you should be able to:

infer that the kinetic energy of a bouncing ball is not conserved

Materials:

three balls of different masses,

ruler or meter stick

Procedure:
1. Drop each ball from a height of your choice. Measure the height of the bounce of
each ball. Perform three trials for each ball. Note how each ball bounces upon
impact.
2. Record the heights in the table below.
3. Calculate the velocity of the ball just before it hits the ground and after it hits the
ground.
Q1. Which equation(s) can you use to calculate these velocities?
4. Calculate the kinetic energies of the ball just before it hits the ground and after it
hits the ground.
5. Get the difference in the kinetic energies of the ball.
Table 5. Summary of the Mechanical Energy of a Free Falling Body

Ball

Mass
of Ball,
m (kg)

Initial
Height,
hi
(m)

Final
Height,
hf
(m)

Initial
Velocity,
vi (m/s)

Rebound
Velocity,
vf (m/s)

Initial
Kinetic
Energy,
KEi (J)

Rebound
Kinetic
Energy,
KEf (J)

2
3

Where

vi = velocity of the ball just before it hits the ground

Vf = Rebound velocity of the ball right after it hits the ground
KEi = Kinetic Energy of the ball just after it hits the ground
17

Change
in
Kinetic
Energy,
KEf (J)

KEf = Kinetic Energy of the ball right after it hits the ground
Q2. What happens to the kinetic energy of the ball after its collision with the ground?
What does this mean?

Summative Assessment
Directions. A. Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. What is the energy of a motorcycle going fast midway down a hill?

A. entirely kinetic
B. entirely potential
C. entirely gravitational
D. both kinetic and potential

2. Which event is explained in the sequence of energy changes shown in the

diagram below?
Chemical Energy

Heat

Mechanical Energy (with wasted heat)

A. a blue spotlight is on
B. a runner doing stretches
C. an electric fan rotates
D. the battery-powered toy car runs forward
3. In the Agus VI Hydroelectric Power (HEP) Plant, which energy transformation
takes place?
A. electrical energy
mechanical energy
electrical energy.
B. gravitational potential energy
kinetic energy
electrical energy
C. heat
mechanical energy
electrical energy.
D. nuclear energy
heat
electrical energy
4. Which events does NOT describe potential energy being changed into kinetic
energy?
A. A cart rolling down a hill.
B. A rubber foam being compressed.
C. A student lets go a stretched slinky.
D. A twig falling from a branch.
5. Which event illustrates the direct transformation of potential to kinetic energy?
A. A volleyball player blocks an incoming ball.
B. A sleeping cow stirs awake.
C. The wide-open spring door closes slowly.
D. The spring of a broken toy shoots up.
18

6. Which sequence of energy transformation best describes what happens when

you prepare scrambled egg using an egg beater?
A. Mechanical Energy Electrical Energy Sound Energy
B. Mechanical Energy Chemical Energy + Sound Energy
C. Chemical Energy Mechanical Energy Sound Energy
D. Chemical Energy Mechanical Energy + Sound Energy

7. Which among the objects is considered as having potential energy?

A. ambulance siren
B. candle flame
C. hot plate
D. milk
8. Which of the following happens to raindrops?
A. Loses potential energy and gains kinetic energy.
B. Loses both potential energy and kinetic energy.
C. Gains potential energy and loses kinetic energy.
D. Gains both potential energy and kinetic energy.
9. A runner jumps over a hurdle. Neglecting friction, the potential energy of the
runner at the highest point compared to his kinetic energy at the lowest point is
_____
A. lesser.
B. equal.
C. greater.
D. not related.
10. The potential energy of a 4-kg object on top of a hill is 72 J. What is its velocity
in m/s just before it hits the ground?
A. 36
B. 18
C. 6
D. 3
11. The total mechanical energy of a yoyo
A. is equally divided between kinetic energy and potential energy.
B. at any one instant, is either all kinetic energy or all potential energy.
C. can never be negative.
D. is constant, if only conservative forces act.
12. A stone rolls down some distance and gains 45 J of kinetic energy. Considering
air resistance, how much gravitational potential energy did the bag lose?
A. more than 45 J
B. exactly 45 J
C. less than 45 J
D. cannot be determined from the information given

19

13. A fully spring-wound toy fan that is about to rotate possesses

A. kinetic but no potential energy
B. potential but no kinetic energy
C. both potential and kinetic energy in equal amounts
D. neither potential nor kinetic energy

14. In which case is there an increase in gravitational potential energy?

A. Alex stretches horizontally a rubber band.
B. A car ascends a car wash ramp.
C. The monkey-eating eagle swoops down from a tree.
D. Water flows out a horizontal pipe.
15. A decorative stone fell off the fence. Considering the presence of air, how does
the kinetic energy (K) of the stone just before striking the ground compare to its
potential energy (U) on the fence?
A. K is equal to U.
B. K is greater than U.
C. K is less than U.
D. It is impossible to tell.
B. Solve the following problems.
1. A 2-kg toy car moves along a frictionless surface with a uniform speed of 6 m/s.
What is its kinetic energy?
A. 3.6 J
B. 36 J
C. 366 J
D. 3660 J

2. Budoy, a junior high school student, lifts a 3-kg book from the floor into a cabinet

2.0 m high. With reference to the floor, how much potential energy does the book
acquire?
A. 5.88 J
B. 58.88 J
C. 588.88 J
D. 5888.88 J

Synthesis
The activities in this module show you that the working principles of natural
objects such as waterfalls and man-made devices from simple toys, to hydropowered electric plants and amusement park rides all involve the use, transfer and
transformation of different mechanical energies.

20

The concepts you learned from Module 1 on two-dimension motions and of

momentum changes and its conservation are integrated here as you demonstrated
the Law of Energy Conservation through the activities.
The constructed turbine device and water reservoir model your group
constructed can also be used in the remaining modules 3 and 4 for this quarter. It
would be best to keep these or modify for use later this quarter. With little
modification, these can be used to show how heat energy can be converted to work.
Moreover, it can also be used to show how mechanical energy from the turbine can
be converted into electrical energy using a dynamo working in reverse. All of these
are in store for you in the next two modules.
Glossary
Dam

barrier of a water storage structure that is used

to control the stored water level and the release
of the stored water

Head of water flow

difference of the head water level and the tail

water level

Head water level

surface height of the stored water in the

reservoir

Hydroelectric Power (HEP) Plant

A power plant that generates electrical energy

using the energy from flowing water

Mechanical energy

energy acquired by objects upon which work is

done

Penstock

close pipe or channel where the water flows

from the water reservoir up to the water
turbines location

Tail water level

exit height of the water in the dams penstock

or the height where the turbines are located

Turbine

a rotating device with appropriately shaped

blades used to convert the kinetic energy of
moving fluids into mechanical power for energy
generators

References and Links

Hewitt, Paul G., Conceptual Physics Ninth Edition. Addison Wesley Publishing Inc.
Integrated Science IV. Second Edition. Physics
Practical Work in High School Physics, UP- NISMED
SEDP Series Textbook, Physics. 159-161.
21

http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/phy03.sci.phys.matter.zmill/
http://www.need.org/needpdf/Science%20of%20Energy.pdf
http://www.education.com/science-fair/article/build-toy-throw-ball-target/
http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/2004/4/04.04.06.x.html
http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/demobook/chapter1.htm
http://msp.ehe.osu.edu/wiki/index.php/MSP:MiddleSchoolPortal/Energy_Transfers_a
nd_Transformations:_Sparking_Student_Interest

22

Suggested time allotment: 5 hours

Unit 4
MODULE

3
HEAT, WORK and ENERGY

Note: All revisions are in blue ink. The red ink as

answers to the tests and activities should not be
printed in LM, instead they should be printed in TG.
Thanks.
Overview:
Have you tried to heat a pot of tap water on a hot burner of a stove? It is
observed that the water temperature increases. In this situation, heat flows from hot
burner to the cold water. When two objects at different temperatures are put in contact,
heat spontaneously flows from an object of high temperature to the object of low
temperature. The natural flow of heat is always in the direction tending to equalize the
temperature. If the two objects are kept in contact long enough for their temperatures to
become equal, the two bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium, and there is no
further heat flow between them. Let us take for example, when you have a fever. You
will use fever thermometer in your armpit in able to monitor your temperature. Heat is
flowing from your armpit to the thermometer; when the temperature reading stops
increasing, the thermometer is then in equilibrium with your armpit, and they are at the
same temperature.
How can we describe the internal energy of your body and the thermometer as
their temperature becomes equal? How much heat a body has or a system has?
Actually, everything in our earth release heat and is governed by heat. Heat is present
in any system where work is applied. Heat is energy in transit. Whenever work is done
on a body, energy is transformed. For every energy transformation, it is associated by
heat: it could be heat gain or heat loss.
After completing this module, you will be able to:
1. demonstrate that heat can be turned to work;
2. infer that doing work releases heat;
1

3. explain why machines are never 100% efficient; and

curriculum guide)
4. explain how heat transfer energy
These are frequent questions when studying heat and work:

(objective is from

How is heat converted to work?

How is work related to energy?

Heat and Work

I. Introduction:
This module focuses on heat and work. It aims to explain how heat can be
turned into work and how doing work releases heat. It discusses on the spontaneous
processes where heat flows from an object of higher temperature to an object of lower
temperature. Furthermore, how heat engines functions, specifically, cars engine is
given emphasis. It tackles also how heat pump operates. Efficiency of heat engines is
discussed through some worded problems and its effects to the environment. Thermal
pollution is explained as a result of exhausted gases from the engine. Being aware of
the disadvantages of less efficient heat engines, we could design ways and means to
lessen its effects.
In your grade 7, it is learned that heat is related to temperature. Whenever
work is done in the system, heat flows. This process may change ones temperature or
ones phase. This change in temperature, either a decrease or an increase means that
there is an energy transfer in the form of heat. On the other hand, phase change means
that there is a change in bodys internal energy.
system.

We will be focusing only on the adiabatic or no heat enters or leaves the

II. Learning Competency

The learners should demonstrate that heat can be turned into work.
III. Pre/ Diagnostic Assessment:
Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. Francis stretched a rubber band five times. After that, he observed that the rubber
band felt warmth. Did the rubber band gain heat? B.
A. No, it is not evident.
B. Yes, the felt warmth means it gained heat
C. Yes, the felt warmth means it loss heat.
2

D. No, temperature is not related to a gain or loss of heat.

For nos.2-4
. ( to the artist, please provide 4 beakers with water, the 1st two with half-filled water; the
2nd two full with water)

Label them as beaker I, half-filled with water on hot plate for 2.5 minutes
Beaker II, half-filled with water on hot plate for 10minutes
Beaker III, full of water on hot plate for 5 minutes
Beaker IV, full of water on hot plate for 2.5 minutes
Four identical beakers, I,II,III,IV are placed on a large electrical hotplate. I and II are
half-full and III and IV are full of tap water at the same initial temperature. I and IV are
placed on the hot plate for 2.5 minutes, III is left on for 5 minutes, and II is left on 10
minutes. The water does not boil in any of the beakers.
2.Which one of the beakers of water will receive the most heat? B.
A. I
B. II
C.III
D.III
3.Which one of the beakers of water will have the lowest temperature right after being
heated? D
A. I
B.II
C.III
D.IV
4.Which two beakers of water will have almost the same final temperature after being
heated? B
A. I and II
B. I and III
C. I and IV
D. II and III
5.What is commonly used as refrigerant for most of the refrigerators?
A. Liquid that is easy to solidify.
B. Liquid that is hard to solidify.
C. Gas that is easy to liquefy.
D. Gas that is hard to liquefy.

Part B.
Modified True or False. Study each statement. Write True if it is correct and if not,
change the underline word/s to make it true.
6.Heat engine is any device that converts thermal energy into mechanical work. TRUE
7.In every heat engine, all of the heat can be converted into work. ONLY SOME

8.Mechanical work takes place in the piston of a gasoline engine. TRUE

9.There is no ideal heat engine, making some heat exhaust in the environment. TRUE
10.Thermal pollution is brought about by the accumulated exhaustion of heat from
diesel, gasoline and industrial engines. TRUE
III. Reading Resources Heat has been discussed in grade 7
The concept of the conservation of energy states that: Energy cannot be created
or destroyed. The first law of thermodynamics is actually based on this concept. It states
that: The change in internal energy of a system equals the difference between the heat
taken in by the system and the work done by the system. Internal energy of a
substance is the sum of molecular kinetic energy (due to the random motion of the
molecules), the molecular potential energy (due to forces that act between the atoms of
a molecule and between the molecules), and other kinds of molecular energy.
When heat flows in instances where the work done is negligible, the internal
energy of the hot substance decreases and the internal energy of the cold substance
increases. While heat may originate in the internal energy supply of a substance, it is
not correct to say that a substance contains heat. The substance has internal energy,
not heat. The word heat is used only when referring to the energy actually in transit
from hot to cold.
The law is expressed as
U = Q-W
Where Q = the amount of heat flowing into a system during a given process
W = the net work done by the system
U = the change in the systems internal energy
This is derived from the conservation of energy given as
out how heat is related to work? Or how heat is related to work?
Q= W + U
We will use Joule (J) as our SI unit for energy.
The first law tells us that a systems internal energy can be changed by
transferring energy by either work, heat or a combination of the two.
Let us find out how heat is converted into work or work is converted into heat.
4

Activity 1
Heat and Internal Energy
I.Objective:
The learners will demonstrate how heat causes the internal energy of the
water increase.
.
I. Materials:
Pot
Thermometer
500ml of water
stove

II. Procedures:
1. Put 500ml of water into a pot.
2. Place a pot of water into a stove. Measure the temperature of water.
3. Let it boil. Measure its temperature while boiling and after boiling.
Note: Be extra cautious in handling hot substances, thermometer and hot stove.
Temperature before boiling Temperature while boiling
Temperature while after
(C)
(C)
boiling (C)

III. Guide Questions:

Q1.Compare the temperature of water before it is boiled, while it is boiling, and after it
has boiled.
A1. The temperature is lower than 100 C before it is boiled, 100 C when it was
boiling and after it has boiled.
.
Q2.What does the increase in temperature indicate?
A2.It means an increase in internal energy of the water.
Now that you have seen that heat can cause the internal energy of the water increase,
let us study a sample problem below:

Sample problem:
If 150J of energy is added to a system that does not applied external work, by how
much the thermal energy of the system raised?
Given: Q= 150J
W= 0
Find: U
Solution:
U= Q- W
= 150J- 0
= 150 J
Try this:
A 120J of energy is added to a system that does 40J of external work, by how much
thermal energy of the system is raised?
Answer: 80J

Summary:
1. The increase in the internal energy of a system is equal to the amount of heat
added to a system minus the work done by the system.
2. Adiabatic process is a process without gain or loss of heat.
3. Internal/ thermal energy is the sum of all kinetic and potential energies of the
atoms/ molecules in the system.
Heat Pump
Lesson/ Module: 3

Number of Sessions (Time Allotment): 60min.

I.Introduction:
An object with a high temperature is said to be hot, and the word hot brings to
mind the word heat. Heat flows from a hotter object to a cooler object when the two
objects are placed in contact. It is for this reason that a pot of chocolate drink feels hot
to the touch, while the scoop of an ice cream feels cold. The temperature of hot
chocolate is higher than the normal body temperature of 37C, while the temperature of
an ice cream is lower than 37C. When you touch a cup of hot chocolate drink, heat
flows the hotter cup into a cooler hand. When you touch a cone of ice cream, heat
again flows from hot to cold, in this case from the warmer hand into a colder cone. The
response of the nerves in the hand to the arrival or departure of heat prompts the brain
to identify the cup of chocolate drink as being hot and the cone of an ice cream as
being cold.
6

How can we do the reverse? A heat pump is used to reverse the process. It
is a device that allows heat to transfer from a cold reservoir to a warmer one, which is
considered unnatural process. Work is required for the heat to flow from a lower to a
higher temperature. This work is provided by the motor of a heat pump. Let us find out
how this process takes place. You have learned from activity 1 that non-spontaneous
process needs a heat pump in order to reverse the process. Mechanical work should
be applied so that heat could be transformed.
.
II.Learning Competencies/ Objectives:
The learners infer that heat transfer can be used to do work and that work involves
the release of heat.
III.Reading Resources and Instructional Activities
Heat flows normally from higher temperature to lower temperature. It is a natural
or spontaneous process. It does not require any external energy to occur. When heat
flows from lower temperature to higher temperature, it needs mechanical energy to
happen. It is called non-spontaneous process. In so doing, work should be done.
Mechanical energy is required for this to happen. The Second Law of Thermodynamics
is applied here. It states that Heat will never of itself flow from a cold temperature to
a hot temperature object. The work is provided by the motor of the heat pump.
Let us perform the following activity to find out how.

Activity 2
Where do I belong?
Objective:
The learners should be able to distinguish the process as spontaneous or nonspontaneous process.
Materials needed:
Illustrations/ pictures of
a. Drying of leaves
b. Breakage of an egg
c. Spoilage of food
d. Cooling of water
e. Waterfall
f. Rice cooking
Figure 1(to the artist, pls. provide pictures/ illustrations of the six examples above)

Procedures:
1. Study the illustrations given.
2. From the illustrations above, fill in the table like this
Spontaneous
Non-spontaneous
Needs work to reverse the
Process
Process
process
Drying of leaves
Breakage of egg
Drying of leaves
Spoilage of food
Making ice
Spoilage of food
Water falls
Rice cooking
Water falls
Guide Questions:
Q4.Which of them are spontaneous processes?
A4.Drying of leaves, spoilage of food and water falls are just some of the examples of
spontaneous process.
Q5.How can we reverse the process for each of the following:
a. Drying of leaves to making them fresh again
By using plant press
b. Fixing an egg to make it whole
By putting them together using scotch tape
c. Keeping the food fresh from spoilage
By using refrigerator.
d. Heating of water
By using stove
e. Flowing the water back to the top
By using water pump or motor
f. Uncook the rice after it is cooked
By using specialized oven to uncook the rice
Q6.What is needed to reverse the process?
A6.An application of work or using motor or a heat pump
Now that we have known that every non-spontaneous process needs work
or mechanical energy in able to reverse the process, it is about time for us to find
out how heat pump functions.

Activity 3
The Reverse of It
Objectives:

The learners should be able to discuss how heat pumps (refrigerator and air
conditioner) work.

Materials:
Illustrations of refrigeration and air conditioning cycle
Refrigeration cooling cycle

Figure 2. Refrigeration cooling cycle

Illustration of a refrigeration cooling cycle ( to the artist, please redraw the ff. figure)

Figure 3. Refrigeration Cycle

Procedure:
1. Study the illustrations and their parts.
Guide Questions:
Q8.Make a flowchart to explain how
A8. A)the refrigerator works
compressor------_________________ -------
compressor
condenser
------

Expansion valve

evaporator

Q9.Describe a compressor. How does it work? What gas is inside the compressor
which has low boiling point?
A9.A compressor is a motor which compresses a gas known as freon to a pressure of
several atmospheres.
Note: Freon is a refrigerant with relatively low boiling point.
Q10.What happened to the hot gas produced by compression?
A10.The hot gas produced by the compressor runs through a condenser.
Q11.How condenser functions?
A11.The condenser turned the cooled gas to near room temperature which then
condenses into liquid. This cool liquid which has high pressure flows through a narrow
tube connected to the evaporator.
Q12.What happens to the pressure and heat in the evaporator?

10

A12.The liquid evaporates due to its low pressure. At the same time, it absorbs heat
from the contents of the refrigerator.
Q13.When does the cycle repeat?
A13.The gas produced that has already absorbed heat goes back to the compressor
and then the cycle repeats.
Q14.Discuss the complete cycle of how refrigerator works.
A14.The refrigerator cooling cycle follows the following mechanisms:
a. The compressor compresses the freon into a pressure of several
atmospheres.
b. The gas is cooled to near room temperature which then
condenses into liquid of high pressure.
c. The liquid evaporates due to its low pressure and heat is absorbed
from the contents of the refrigerator.
d. The gas produced that has already absorbed heat goes back to
the compressor and then the cycle repeats.
A. How the air conditioner works?

11

Figure 4. An air conditioning cooling cycle

Q15.What is the function of an air conditioning unit?
A15.An air conditioning unit is a heat pump used for home heating and cooling.
Q16.How air conditioning unit works during summer?
A17.It cools the inside of the house and heats the outside.
Q17.What is the function of the air conditioner during cold days?
A17.It takes heat from the air outside to warm the inside.
Q18.What is needed to transfer heat in this device?
A18.Mechanical energy is needed to transfer heat from a cold object to a warmer one.
VI. Summary/Synthesis/Feedback
1. Heat flows normally from higher temperature to lower temperature which is
spontaneous process. It does not require any external energy to occur.
2. Non-spontaneous process happens when heat flows from lower temperature to
higher temperature. It needs mechanical energy to occur.
3. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that Heat will never of itself flow from
a cold temperature to a hot temperature object. Hence, heat pump is used.
4. A heat pump is a device that reverses the direction of the heat flow: from a cold
reservoir to a warmer one. Refrigerator and air conditioning unit are examples of
heat pump.

Heat Engines
Lesson/ Module: 3

Number of Sessions (Time Allotment): 1 session (60min)

I.Introduction:
Work can be easily transformed into heat. It is very evident when doing work. All
the work we do in overcoming friction is completely changed to heat. Example, eating
(which is a method of work due to tearing and chewing food particles) can be
completely converted into heat (which is the product of mechanical and chemical
combustion and absorption of nutrients occurred in the digestive system). Reversing the
process is impossible such as changing heat completely into works. To make it
possible, we have to convert some heat to mechanical work. This would happen only
using heat engines. Heat engine is a device that changes thermal energy into
mechanical work. How does it happen? What implication this will bring to the
environment?

12

II.Learning Competencies/ Objectives:

The learners explain why machines are never 100% efficient.

III.Reading Resources and Instructional Activities

A device that changes thermal energy into mechanical work is a heat engine.
There are two kinds of heat engines; internal and external combustion engine. They are
classified according to where the combustion takes place. If the fuel is combusted inside
the engine chamber, it is an internal combustion engine. When the fuel combustion
takes place outside the engine, it is an external combustion engine. Gasoline, diesel
engine and our human body are examples of internal combustion engine while steam,
piston engine and the atmosphere are examples of external combustion engine.
Let us find out the four cycle- stroke of a gasoline engine in the activity below.

Activity 4
Start the Engine!
Objective:
After the activity, the learners should be able to discuss the four-cycle stroke of a
gasoline engine.
Material:
Illustration of four-cycle stroke
Procedures:
1. Study the illustration.

Figure 5. The four cycle-stroke of gasoline engine ( to the artist, please redraw)
13

2. Fill in the table like this.

Cycle stroke
Movement of the
piston
Intake
Moves down
Compression
Moves upward
Power
Exhaust

Moves down
Moves up

What happened to
mixture of gases?
Filled in the cylinder
Compressed into
fractional amount
Ignited by the spark plug
Expelled out by the
exhaust pipe

Guide Questions:
Q19.How the piston behaves during intake stroke? What happens to the gas mixture?
A19.The piston moves down, the inlet valve opens and the mixture of gas and fuel
enters into it.
Q20.What happens to the piston and the gases during compression stroke?
A20.The piston moves up. The mixture of gases is compressed into fractional amount.
Q21.What is the function of the spark plug? What is its effect to the mixtures
temperature?
A21.The spark plug ignites the mixture. This will increase the temperature of the mixture
.
Q22.Describe the piston and the gases during power stroke.
A22.The piston moves down. No heat enters or leaves the system.
Q23.In exhaust stroke, what happens to the piston and the mixture of gases?
A23.The piston moves down, the exhaust valve opens and the burned gas
expelled out through the exhaust valve.
Q24.What do you think is the effect of this exhaust gas into the environment?
A24.This gas will constitute to the air pollution. Eventually, it causes thermal
pollution.
Q25.Can we consider heat engine 100% efficient? Why?
A25.No, a heat engine could not be 100% efficient because some of the gases
are exhausted into the environment.
Q26.As a student, how can you help to minimize the effects of thermal pollution?
A26.I will inform the vehicles operators to always clean their muffler. I will inform
the general public the bad effects of this exhaust gases to ones health and to the
environment. I will encourage them to use unleaded gasoline. I will advocate to
plant trees so that carbon monoxide and halogens will be absorbed by them.

14

In our activity, it is shown that there are four cycle-stroke in a gasoline

engine. In the intake stroke, the inlet valve opens, the piston moves down as the
fuel-air mixture fills in the cylinder. In compression stroke, the piston moves up
and compresses the mixture---adiabatically, since no heat transfer happens. The
spark plug ignites the mixture making its temperature high. Adiabatic process
tends to push the piston down, thus it is called power stroke. In exhaust stroke,
the burned gases are pushed out of the exhaust valve. The intake valve once
again opens and the cycle repeats.

Summative Assessment:
Multiple Choice:Write the letter of the correct answer.
1.Why a can of soft drink remains at a constant cool temperature inside a refrigerator?
A. Because the amount of heat flowing into the can is exactly equal to the heat flowing
out.
B. Because the amount of heat flowing into the can is greater than the heat flowing out.
C. Because the amount of heat flowing into the can is less than to the heat flowing out.
D. Because the amount of heat flowing into the can could not be determined since there
is no temperature installed in the refrigerator.
2.The internal energy of a system is initially 35J. The system does 34J of work. What is
the systems final internal energy when a total of 46J of energy is added to the system
by heat?
A. 47J
B.26J
C.37J
D.36J
3.A block of wood and a block of metal is on a table for a long time. The block of metals
feels colder to the touch than the block of wood. Does this mean that the metal is
actually at a lower temperature than the wood?
A. Yes, because the heat flow more readily in denser material.
B. Yes, because the heat flow whenever it wants to flow.
C. No, because the heat flow more readily from your hand than for wood.
D. No, because the heat flow less readily from your hand than for wood.
4.While a gas does 400J of work on its surroundings, 900J of heat is added to the gas.
What is the change in the internal energy of the gas?
A. 500J
B.400J
C. 900J
D.300J
5.If 500calories of heat are added to a gas, and the gas expands doing 500J of work on
its surroundings, what is the change in the internal energy of the gas?
15

A. 1555J

B. 5915J

C. 5159J

D.1595J

For numbers 6-8, consider this situation:

A beaker containing 400g of water has 1200J of work done on it by stirring and 200cal
of heat added to it from a hot plate.
6.What is the change in the internal energy of the water in joules?
A.2038J
B.3028J
C.2308J
D.3820J
7.Determine the change in the internal energy of the water in calories?
A. 684calories
B.486calories
C.648calories
D.846calories
8.What is the temperature change of the water?
A.1.2C
B.2.1C
C.1.4C

D.4.1C

9.An ideal gas is compressed without allowing any heat to flow into or out of the
gas.What will happen to the temperature of the gas in this process?
A.The temperature increases since no heat flows during the process.
B. The temperature decreases since heat flows during the process.
C. The temperature remains the same since heat flows in and out on the process.
D. The temperature could not be determined since heat is absorbed during the process.
10. Is it possible to change the temperature of a glass of water by stirring the water,
even though the glass is insulated from its surroundings?
A.No, stirring will not affect the temperature of the water.
B.No, insulation prevents the change of temperature of the water.
C. Yes, stirring the water increases its internal energy causing the increase of its
temperature.
D. Yes, stirring the water decreases its internal energy causing the decrease of its
temperature.
11. .Mang Fermin, a carpenter, is planning a piece of wood with his planar . After how
many minutes, he observed that it is hot. Do the wood gained heat?
A. No, it is not evident.
B. Yes, hotness means there is an increase in the temperature.
C. Yes, hotness means there is a decrease in the temperature
D. No, hotness is not related to a change in temperature
12.Renzo observes the waterfalls used in hydroelectric power plant. He found out that it
flows naturally that makes the turbine rotates. What makes this so?
A. Spontaneous process occurs naturally.
B.Spontaneous process needs heat pump to exist.
B. Spontaneous process requires work to make it possible.
16

C. Spontaneous process tends the heat to flow from lower temperature to

cooler temperature.
13.How does water from the deep well move upward?
A. It occurs naturally.
B.It uses heat pump.
C. It is a spontaneous process.
D. It flows from higher temperature to cooler temperature.
14.Chef Mariel left a plate of chopped apple, a plate of lettuce and a cup of pineapple in
the table to answer a phone call. When she comes back, she found out that the fruit and
vegetable discoloured into brown. What phenomena explain this?
A. The browning of the fruit and the vegetable is a spontaneous process.
B. The browning of the fruit and the vegetable is due to the food color added into
it?
C. The browning of fruit and vegetable is unexplainable.
D. The browning of fruit and vegetable is due to the tarnishing of the knife used
in chopping.
16.Given the following mechanisms, which best describes correct sequence of the
refrigeration cycle?
1. compression
3.expansion
2. condensation
4. Evaporation
A. 1,2,3,4
B. 2,3,4,1
C. 3,4,1,2
D.4, 3,1,2
17. How air conditioning unit functions as heater during cold days and cooler during hot
days?
1. It cools the inside of the house and heats the outside.
2. It takes heat from the air outside to warm the inside.
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. 1 and 2 only
D. None of them
18. What is the function of a heat engine?
A. It converts chemical energy to mechanical energy.
B. It converts thermal energy to mechanical energy.
C. It converts mechanical energy to chemical energy.
D. It converts thermal energy into chemical energy.
19.What is the process of compression and expansion of gas so that no heat enters
or leaves a system?
A. Adiabatic
B. Isothermic
C. Isobaric
D. Thermal expansion
20.What is the correct sequence of four cycle-stroke of gasoline engine?
1. Intake
3. Exhaust
2. Power
4. Compression
A. 1,2,3,4
B. 1,4,2,3
C.2,3,4,1
D.1, 3,4,2
17

21.Of the methods by which heat may be converted into work,

which is the least practical?
A.the bicycle

C. burning gases

B.the steam engine

D. Atomic reactor

22.Why is heat engine not 100% efficient?

A.All mixture of gases is converted into work.
B.Some of the gases is exhausted in the surroundings.
C.All of the gases are used up by the engine.
D. Some of the gases is taken up in the piston.
23.Why is colder in the countryside than in the cities?
A.There is less smog in the countryside than in the cities.
B. There is more smog in the countryside than in the cities.
C. Both of them have the same amount of smog.
D. Smog is cannot be measured in both of them.
24.Study the statements below.
1.Heat engines which are less efficient constitutes in thermal pollution.
2. Heat engines which are less efficient exhaust much heat in the environment.
3.Heat engines which are efficient are environment-friendly.
4. Heat engines which are efficient can convert more of thermal energy into work.
A. 1, 2, 3 and 4
C. 3,4,1 and 2
B. 2, 1, 4 and 3
D 1,3,4, and 1
25..What causes thermal pollution?
A. Exhaust of different vehicles.
B. Exhaust from different industrial engines.
C.People cutting off trees.
D. All of them
Thermal Efficiency
It was thought before the full understanding of the second law of
thermodynamics that at very low friction heat engine could convert nearly all the
input energy into useful work. It was then that Sadi Carnot carefully studied the
compression and expansion cycles. It is found out that the upper fraction of heat
that can be converted to useful work, even under the ideal conditions.
How well a machine operates is the ratio of the useful work done to the
heat provided is the thermal efficiency. In equation, it is expressed in
.

Efficiency = Wnet x 100%

18

QH
= QH QC x 100%
QH
Efficiency = 1- QC

x 100%

QH
Or Efficiency= 1- energy removed by heat x 100%
energy added by heat

If we have ideal engine, it would be

Maximum Efficiency = 1= TC
TH
Where
QC = energy removed by heat/energy in cold reservoir
QH = energy added by heat/energy in hot reservoir
TC = absolute temperature in cold reservoir
TH = absolute temperature in hot reservoir

Note: The temperatures are the absolute temperatures on the Kelvin scale.
Studying our equation, we can only have a 100% efficiency if there is no
energy transferred away from the engine by heat. But in reality, there is no 100%
efficient engine. In addition, the equation tells us that by increasing the amount of
energy added to the system by heat or by reducing the amount of energy given up
by the system.

Sample Problem 1

19

What is the efficiency of a gasoline engines that receives 192.75J of energy from
combustion and lose 125.25 J by heat to exhaust during one cycle?
Given: QC= 125.25 J
QH = 192.75 J
Find: Efficiency
Solution:
Efficiency = 1- QC x 100%
QH
= 1- 125.25 J
195.75 J
Efficiency

x 100%

= 0.36 or 36%

Sample problem 2
Suppose a steam engine receives steam at 600K. The engine uses part of this
thermal energy for work. It exhausts the rest to a condenser at a temperature of 350K.
What is the maximum efficiency of this steam engine?
Given: TC = 350K
TH = 600K
Find: Efficiency
Solution: Efficiency = 1- TC x 100%
TH
= 1- 350K x 100%
600K
Efficiency= 41.67%

Activity 5
Fill me in
Material:
calculator

20

Procedures:
1. Study the table below.
2. Using the equation learned and with the aid of the calculator, solve for the
unknown quantity.
3. Supply the table with the final answer obtained from the computation to show the
relationship existing among thermal efficiency, temperature/energy in hot
reservoir and temperature/ energy in cold reservoir.
Temperature/ energy Temperature/ energy Thermal efficiency
in cold reservoir
in hot reservoir
250K
500K
50%
230K
700K
33%
287.5K
575K
50%
650J
1054J
38%
259J
677J
62%
30C
88C
16%
56C
92C
10%
47C
56C
3%
77C
93C
4%
65C
85C
6%
Guide Questions:
1. How work input/ temperature in the cold reservoir is related to thermal efficiency?
The lesser the work input/ temperature in the cold reservoir, the greater the efficiency of
the heat engine.
2.How work output/ temperature in the hot reservoir is related to thermal efficiency?
The greater the work output in the hot reservoir the lesser the efficiency of the heat
engine.
3.How work input/ temperature in cold reservoir affects work output/ temperature in hot
reservoir?
The ratio of the work input with the work output determines how efficient is the engine.

Summary/ Synthesis/ Feedback

1. The total kinetic and potential energy of all its particles is the internal energy
of a body.
2. The internal energy of a body increases when a) its temperature increases and
b) it changes from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas.
21

3. Heat is the energy transferred from one body to another as a result of a

temperature difference.
4. Heating is the process in which heat is transferred from one body to another as a
result of a temperature difference.
5. By doing work or by heating, internal energy can be increased.
6. Joule (J) is the unit to express internal energy.
7. Heat engine is a device that changes thermal energy into mechanical work.
8 Internal combustion engines are engines that combustion takes place inside
the engine chamber. Examples are gasoline, diesel engine and our human body.
External combustion engines are engines where the fuel combustion takes
place outside the engine. Steam, piston engine and the atmosphere are
examples of external combustion engine.
9.Thermal Pollution refers to the harmful effects on the environment of the heat
exhausted by heat engines and refrigerators into the environment (through the air or
in rivers and lakes). The heat exhausted by engines and refrigerators is a
consequence of low thermal efficiencies of these machines.
In the next module, heat engines will be used to run a power plant like in
geothermal power plant.

REFERENCES
Australian Item Bank Program-Science Item Bank (Physics and Astronomy)1978.
Australian Council for Educational Research
Conceptual Physical Science by Hewitt, Paul G., et al 1994 Harper Collins College
Publishers New York
Conceptual Physics, 3rd ed. By Paul Hewitt. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.1997.
California
Cordero-Navaza, Delia. Physics . 230 239

http://oberon.ark.com/~airekool/rb2.htm
22

hyperphysics.phy-astr.edu/h.base/enecon.html
Physics at work 1, 2nd ed. P.K. Tao 1999.Oxford University

Press.Hong Kong

Physics, 4th ed. By John d. Cutnell and Kenneth W. Johnson 1998. John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. USA
Physics, 5th ed. By Douglas C. Giancoli 2000. Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. 317
Alexandra Road # 04-01 IKEA Building Singapore 159965
Practical and Explorational Physics ( Modular Approach)by Alicia L. Padua and Ricardo
M. Crisostomo. Vibal Publishing House, Inc. Quezon City, Cebu City and Davao City
2003
Science and Technology IV Textbook and Teachers Manual.
Science and Technology IV by Julieta D. Dela Pena and Arsenia V. Ferrer. Phoenix
Publishing House, Inc. Quezon City. 1999
The Physics of Everyday Phenomena- A conceptual Introduction to Physics, 6th ed. By
Griffith,W.Thomas and Brosing, Juliet W.2007. Mc Graw Hill
UPNISMED Teachers Guide

23

Suggested time allotment: 9 hours

Unit 4
MODULE

ELECTRICITY
AND MAGNETISM

Overview

In Grade 8, you learned about the relationship among the three basic
electrical quantities electric current, voltage and resistance. You were tasked to
construct simple electric circuits that led to your understanding of Ohms Law and
you were able to apply it to everyday situations. Your teacher also led the class in
discussing safety precautions in order to avoid electrical hazards such as short
circuits through proper electrical connections and proper grounding.
In this module, you will discover sources of energy and how electricity is
generated from power plants. You will be able to trace the path of electrical energy
transmission and distribution from the source, to your homes, and calculate the
cost of your energy consumption. This relevant information would help you in
understanding your own electrical energy usage and lead you to think of ways on
how to conserve electrical energy at home and in school.
At the end of module 4, you will be able to answer the following questions:
1. How is electricity generated in power plants?
2. How is electricity transmitted in cables / wires?
3. How is electricity distributed in houses in order to supply
power to appliances?
4. How is the cost of electrical energy consumption
computed?

Learning Competencies/ Objectives

1. Describe energy transformation in electrical power plants.
2. Describe the energy transmission and distribution from a power station to
the community.
3. Describe how electric power is measured.
4. Calculate the electrical energy usage.
Pre-Assessment
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. In which of the following units is electrical consumption measured by
electric companies four our household consumption in our homes?
a. kilowatt
b. volt
c. megawatt
d. kilowatt hour
2. In power stations generating electricity, power is measured in _________.
a. joule
b. kilojoule
c. kilowatt
d. megawatt
3. Why do power stations generate AC, and not DC?
a. It is easier to generate, safer and more economical to transmit AC
than DC.
b. Transformers work with AC.
c. AC is used in mobile devices and gadgets.
d. AC is more efficient and economical.
4. Transformers are used to raise the voltage along substations and lower it
for residential consumption. What kind of transformers is used to raise the
voltage?
a. Step-up
b. Step-down
c. Neither of the two.
d. Both.
5. Shayne turned on a lamp switch in her room. Which of the following is the
correct path of electrical power that can be traced back to the source?
a. power plant transmission substations distribution substations
residences
b. transmission substations power plants residences
distribution substations
c. residences distribution substations power plants
transmission substations
d. distribution substations transmission substations power
plants residences

6. Who among the following scientists discovered the relationship between electricity
and magnetism?
a. Andrei Marie Ampere
c. Hans Christian Oersted
b. Michael Faraday
d. Alessandro Volta
7. You made an electric motor in school. When you tested it in using 4 dry cells, the
armature turned very fast. What should you do to make it turn slower?
a. use a bigger magnet
b. remove one of the dry cells
c. increase the number of turns in the coil of wire
d. decrease the distance between the magnetic poles
8. What energy transformation takes place in a generator?
a. electrical to mechanical
c. mechanical to electrical
b. heat to mechanical
d. chemical to mechanical
9. In which case will electric current be induced in a coil of wire?
a. when it is connected to a galvanometer
b. when a magnet is held stationary inside the coil
c. when a magnet is rapidly inserted into and out of the coil
d. when a magnetic compass is held beside it
10.
If a 100 W light bulb is lit for 8 hours each day for 20 days in a month. How many
kilowatt-hours will the bulb consume?
a.
16
b. 160
c. 1600
d.16000

How is electricity produced?

Electricity powers all our gadgets and appliances at home. Have you ever wondered
how electricity reaches us from the electric power plant? What processes does
electricity have to go through in order to reach us at home?

Please
redraw
and
label
the
parts.

Figure 1. Parts of a Hydropower Plant

3

Various sources of energy are utilized to provide electricity to power our households.
For example, the tremendous energy produced by falling water is used by water
turbines to rotate large generators at a hydroelectric power plant.
As the water falls from the reservoir, its kinetic energy increases and it flows very
fast. The falling stream of water turns a fan-like device called a turbine, which is
connected to the generators shaft.
The rotation of the shaft turns powerful electromagnets that are surrounded by the
coil of copper wires. The coil is connected to a step-up transformer that sends highvoltage current to power lines.
Other sources of energy at power plants include steam from burning fossil fuels,
nuclear reactions, wind and ocean tides. Each source provides the energy of motion
to turbines then to the generators, producing electrical energy. Power plants, in
general, use generators to convert kinetic energy into electrical energy. One specific
source, however, uses solar panels made of photovoltaic cells to convert sunlight
into electrical energy instead of turbines. Can you explain how other power plants
work?

Please redraw
and label the
parts

Figure 2. Parts of a Coal-Fired Power Plant

Activity 1
Its more Power in the Philippines
Objectives:
After performing this activity, you should be able to:

identify the location of some power plants in the Philippine map;

determine the Region in which the power plant belongs;
4

Materials Needed:
Pictures of power plants in the Philippines
Philippine map
Magnets or pins

Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Using the Philippine map, identify the location of power plants based on
the tabulation below.
Write the region of the power plants location on the space provided in the
table.
Pin the pictures of the power plants on the map.
Fill in additional sources and types of power plants available in your
communities and supply the needed information. Also, cut-out pictures of
these power plants and pin them on the Philippine map.

Name
Agus 1

Type
Hydroelectric

Source
Water

Calaca
Thermal Plant
Tiwi Plant
Bohol Diesel
Plant
Bataan Plant

Thermal

Coal

Geothermal
Diesel-Power

Earths Interior
Fossil Fuel

Nuclear

Nuclear Fuel

Location
Maria Cristina
Falls, Iligan City
Calaca, Batangas

Operational?
Yes

Tiwi, Albay
Dampas,
Tagbilaran City
Bataan

Yes
Yes

Photos: http://www.napocor.gov.ph/

Agus 1 Hydroelectric Plant

5

Yes

No

Region

Calaca Coal-Fired Plant

Tiwi Geothermal Plant

Bohol Diesel Powered Plant

Bataan Nuclear Power Plant

Figure 3. Different Power Plants

Please redraw

Guide Questions:
Q1. Where is your place of residence?
Q2. What source of energy is nearest your place?
Q3. What electric power plants are present in your area?
Q4. Identify the location of these plants on the Philippine map.

How is electricity transmitted and distributed?

From the power plants, electricity is then made to travel along cables
and
wires called transmission lines. Transmission lines are commonly put
up between transmission substations which are regulated by the National
Power Corporation. Transmission lines may either be constructed overhead
on towers or they may be underground. They are operated at high voltages,
send out large amounts of electrical power and extend over considerable
distances.
From the generating station, the transmission substations step up the
voltage to a range of 138,000 765,000 volts. Within the operating area,
transmission substations reduce (step down) the transmitted voltage to
34,500 138,000 volts. This power is then carried through lines to the
distribution systems located in the local service area.
The distribution system connects the transmission system to the
customers household. MERALCO is in charge of electrical energy distribution
in Metro Manila. The distribution substations further step down the voltage to
2,400 19, 920 volts. A step-down transformer further reduces the voltage to
220 V the standard AC voltage in the Philippines. This voltage powers most
of the electrical appliances we have at home.
Can you identify the different stages
transmission and distribution?
.

Lets try this simple activity:

Activity 2
Tracing Power
8

of

power generation,

Objectives:
After performing this activity, you should be able to:

Trace the path of electricity from the generating station, transmission

station and residential areas.
Differentiate between a step-up transformer and a step-down
transformer.
Identify specific areas where step-up transformers and step-down
transformers are utilized.

Materials Needed:
Enlarged pictures of power transmission components
Concept strips

Procedure:
1. Obtain from your science teacher an enlarged copy of the pictures in
this Learners Manual found on page _____.
2. Carefully analyze the pictures and assign one picture to each member
of the group.
3. Match the descriptions to the pictures by laying them on top of the
table. The first group to finish wins.

To the artist: Please draw similar graphics.

Figure 5. Power Transmission Stations

10

Match the descriptions to the correct illustrations:

The electric current then

runs through the power lines
to the substation transformer
where voltage is lowered to
between 2000 and 13000
volts.

The steam powers a turbine

which spins a huge magnet
inside a copper wire. Heat
energy converts to mechanical
energy which then converts to
electrical energy in the
generator.
Steam is generated at the
electricity plant by the burning
of fossil fuels or at a nuclear
or hydroelectric plant.

11

Electricity flows from the power

plant through wires to the step
up transformer. The transformer
raises the voltage so it can
travel long distances its
raised as high as 756,000 volts.

Electricity is then taken through

the lines to a pole transformer
or a transformer box if
underground and voltage is
lowered again to between 120
and 240 volts.

From here electricity comes

into your home through a
service box, where your meter
is located to measure how
much you use. Wires take
electricity around your home
powering your lights and all
your other appliances

Guide Questions:
abQ1. What are the different stations in the transmission of energy?
Q2.
What do you notice about the size of the transmission lines as it reaches the
consumers?
Q3.

Does the size of wires and cables used matter in energy transmission?.

Q4.

What happens to the voltage that travels from the source to the consumers?

Q5.

What are step-up transformers? Step-down transformers?

Performance Task: Diorama Making

A diorama is a three-dimensional miniature or life-size scene in which figures, stuffed
wildlife, or other objects are arranged in a naturalistic setting against a painted
background
As a group, design and build a diorama that would show the path of electric power
from generation, transmission and distribution. Apply what you have learned in the
previous activity and stay as factual as possible. Use materials that can be easily
obtained from your home and in your communtity. Recycled materials are always
welcome. Pay attention to details and make your representations drawn to scale.
Your teacher will give you the exact dimensions you will need for your project. Happy
project making!

To the Artist : Please look for a similar photo showing

diorama with transmission lines, houses, generating
stations, etc.

12

Criteria for rating Diorama

Diorama Rubric
Category

Appearance of
the Project
(15%)

The projects
appearance is
professional and
polished without
distractive elements.

Content Facts
(20%)

The project content is

exemplary and suggests
the student has
discovered the
important ideas of his /
her topic.

Images &
Models
(15%)

All images or models

are effective.

Style &
Organization
(10%)

Display is interesting
and attractive.
Materials are complete
and organized to
present the ideas well.

Creativity &
Appearance
(10%)

Project is excellently
presented reflecting
creativity and a lot of
thought.

The projects
appearance is
quite
professional and
polished few
distractive
elements.
The project
content is good
and suggests the
student has
discovered
most of the
important
facts of his/her
topic.
All images or
models are
effective, but
there appear to
be too few or
too many.
Display is
interesting and
attractive.
Materials are
complete and
well organized.
Presentation has
sequence and
plan evident.

Good creative
effort. Project is
neat and shows
evidence of time
spent on it.

13

The projects
appearance is
somewhat
poor. Some
distractive
elements.

The projects
appearance is
quite poor. Many
distractive
elements.

The project
content is
fair/poor and
suggests the
student has not
discovered
most of the
important facts.

The project
content is poor
and suggests the
student has not
done sufficient
research.

Some images or
models are
effective.

Too few images

or models are
used to be an
effective
presentation.

Some parts of
the display are
interesting, not
tidy. Some
materials are
complete and
organized.
Presentation
has some
sequence and
plan evident.
Some attempt
made to add
color and
originality.
Project is neat.

Display is
uninteresting,
not tidy.
Materials are
incomplete and
not organized.
Presentation has
no sequence or
plan evident.

Little attempt to
add color or
originality.
Project has
sloppy
appearance.

Knowledge
(30%)

The diorama
demonstrates a
thorough knowledge of
the subject
investigated.

The diorama
demonstrates
good knowledge
of the subject
investigated.

The diorama
demonstrates
some
knowledge of
the subject
investigated.

The diorama
demonstrates
very little
knowledge of the
subject
investigated.

Adapted from:
http://www.lausd.k12.ca.us/Allesandro_EL/docs%20and%20temps/Diorama%20rubric.pdf

How is the cost of electrical energy consumption computed?

Calculating Energy Use
Do you know that you can calculate your electric bill? But before that, let us
know the basis for calculating your electric bill. One of the factors to be consider is
the power rating of your appliance. By the way, what is power?
You learned in Grade 8 the three electrical basic quantities which are current,
voltage, and resistance. Multiplying the voltage and current is equal to power. For
instance, the power rating of an appliance depends on both the voltage and current.
The formula in finding power (in watts) is written below.
P = VI
where: P = Power (Watts)
V = Voltage (Volts)
I = Current (Amperes)
For example, an electric fan draws 5-A current from a 220-V outlet, its power
input is 1,100 W. For one appliance, the power rating is large in number, so the unit
used for combined power rating in a household is in kilowatt (kW) which is equal to
1000 watts. All of the appliances in a household may have a combined power rating,
that is why, energy is usually computed based on the time of usage of the
appliances.
To get the total energy used by an appliance in an hour, multiply the power
consumption by the one hour as in the formula below:
E = Pt
where: E = Energy used (kWh)
P = Power, (W)
T = Time (s)

14

Figure 6: An analog electric meter

Photo credit: Ms. Maria Amparo R. Ventura

The unit of measurement for energy usage is kilowatt-hour (kWh) which is one
kilowatt of power for a period of one hour. For example, the reading in the analog
meter in Figure 1 shows that the customer has used almost 8000kWh, 7796 kWh to
be exact, while the reading in the digital meter of another customer is exactly 40.608
kWh. To find how much energy you used in one month, your last months reading is
subtracted from the total.
Try to solve the following sample problems in calculating energy cost.

Figure 7: A digital electric meter

Photo credit: Dave Angeles

15

Sample Problem:
1. All of the computers in the ICT room are in use for 5 hours every day and
together use 8.3 kW. How much energy is used in a day?
Given: P = 8.3 kW
T=5h
Find: Energy used
E = Pt
= (8.3 kW)( 5h)
E = 41.5 kWh
2. How much does it cost to operate a 400 W television for 8 hours if electrical
energy costs 6.88 pesos per kWh (includes both generation and distribution
charges - Meralco rate as of January, 2014) ?
Find: cost to operate
E = Pt
= (0.400 kW)(8 h)
E = 3.2 kWh
Cost = (3.2 kWh) (6.88 pesos/kWh)
= 22.02 pesos
Try to examine the sample billing statement in Figure 8, the total energy
consumed for a month is 419 kWh. This means that the company charges 4.36
pesos/kWh as seen in the Generation charge which is 1,827.01. But why did the
company charged a total of 4321.31 to the consumer. As seen in the billing
summary, the company enumerates other fees to be paid.

Source: http://www.meralco.com.ph

Figure 8: Sample electric billing information and summary

16

Take Home Task:

Can you think of some ways on how we can save on electrical energy consumption?
List down at least 3 energy-saving tips for each appliance:
a. Washing machine
b. Refrigerator
c. Clothes Iron
d. Lights and lamps
e. Electric Fans
f. Television

How does magnetism produce electricity?

Electricity from magnetism
How do electrical power plants produce electricity? In the previous
discussions, we learned that most energy sources such as coal, oil, diesel, heat from
the earths interior are used to make turbines work, which are then connected to a
device called a generator which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.
In the next activity, we will learn how generators in these power plants are
able to produce electricity.

Activity 3
Light me up!
Objectives:

Build a model of a simple electric generator

Discuss how electricity is generated from the interaction between coils
and magnets
Relate the motion of a simple electric generator to the motion of an
actual generator being used in a real-life electric power plant

Materials Needed:
2 old discarded compact discs
Round disc magnets
Copper wire
LEDs
Glue
Toothpaste cap
Wooden stand
2-3 inch wood Screw
17

Procedure:
1. Fasten a 2-3 inches wood screw in the middle of a wooden board. Using
glue, attach the disc magnets to the cd and arrange them as seen in the
figure.

2. Make 500 turns of copper wire by winding it around a small circular barrel.
Scrape the ends of the insulation and connect a light emitting diode (LED).
Attach the copper coils to the base cd. Attach disc magnets on the other cd
as shown below.

3. Place a sewing machine bobbin / washer in the center of the cd.

18

4. Attach a toothpaste cap on top of the magnet cd and secure it on top of the
copper coil cd as shown. Let the cd turn around on its axis to produce light in
the LED.

Figure 9. Activity Set-up

19

Guide Questions:
Q1. Why did the LED light up when the magnet cd was made to turn around
the axis?
Q2. Why was it possible to produce electricity without an energy source?
Q3. In electric power plants, turbines are actually connected to generators
which are composed of magnets and coils. How do turbines produce
electricity?
Electric generators are devices which convert mechanical energy to electrical
energy. This is possible due to the interaction between a changing magnetic
field and a conductor inside the generator assembly. A steady magnet and a
conductor at rest cannot produce electric current. Either the magnet or the
conductor should be in motion in order to induce current. Michael Faraday is
known for his work on electricity and magnetism in 1821 using an iron ring
coil apparatus. His work paved the way for more advanced discoveries on
electromagnetism. For now, we will limit our discussion on the relationship
between magnetism and electricity. This concept will be further explained in
Grade 10

Summative Assessment:
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. Last month, Ms. Alcantaras electric meter reads 8765 kWh. How much will
she pay for power generation if the charge of electric company per kWh is
6.88 pesos and her electric meter reads 9975 this month?
A. 8765.00
B. 8324.80
C. 1210.00
D. 3457.42
2. Jaypeth paid 1250.00 for electric bill. How much energy (in kWh) is
consumed if the electric company charges 6.88/kWh?
A.
B.
C.
D.

186.81
181.69
188.61
181.86

20

3.

In buying an appliance, which of the following efficiency guide would you

consider? Why

198

346

292

589

4. How is the energy efficiency ratio (EEF) related to the operating cost?
a. the higher the EEF, the higher the operating cost
b. the higher the EEF, the lower the operating cost
c. the lower the EEF, the higher the operating cost
d. the lower the EEF, the lower the operating cost
5. Gemma wanted to improve the lighting condition of her room by buying a
lamp. What suggestions can you give her and why?
a. Buy an incandescent bulb because it gives off more light.
b. Buy a compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) or LED lamp because it is more
energy efficient.
c. Buy a fluorescent lamp because it is brighter than an incandescent bulb.
d. Buy an incandescent bulb because it is cheaper.
6. A 60 watt bulb is connected to 120V plug. What is the current in the lighted bulb?
a. 0.25 A
b. 0.5 A
c. 2 A
d. 4 A
7. To reduce your electric bill
a. make use of limited appliances
b. put off appliances when not in use
c. put off main switch during the day
d. connect appliances in series
8. What is produced if the magnet and the conductor move relative to each
other?
a. voltage
b. magnetic field
c. resistance
d. current
9. When there is a change in the magnetic field in a closed loop of wire,
a. a voltage is induced in the wire.
b. current is made to flow in the loop of wire.
c. electromagnetic induction occurs.
d. all of these
21

10. All of the following power plants use steam to drive the turbines to produce
electricity except
a. hydropower
b. geothermal
c. coal-fired
d. nuclear

Take Home Task:

Can you think of some ways on how we can save on electrical energy consumption?
List down at least 3 energy-saving tips for each appliance:
g. Washing machine
h. Refrigerator
i. Clothes Iron
j. Lights and lamps
k. Electric Fans
l. Television

References and Links

Pople, Stephen (1996) Coordinated Science Physics. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 2nd ed.
Renuga (2011). Lower Secondary Physics Secondary 1 & 2 Science. Fairfield Book Publishers,
Singapore.
http://www.ilo.org/oshenc/part-xi/power-generation-and-distribution/item/616-electricpower-generation-transmission-and-distribution-safety-a-us-example
http://www.lausd.k12.ca.us/Allesandro_EL/docs%20and%20temps/Diorama%20rubric.pdf

http://www.meralco.com.ph/brightideas/index.html#top3

22