8th Grade LIFE SCIENCE Book

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8th grade LIFE SCIENCE book
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Brainard
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Printed: June 1, 2012
Author
Jean Brainard
Contributors
Barbara Akre, Jennifer Blanchette, Niamh Gray-Wilson, Michelle Rogers-Estable, Douglas Wilkin
Editor
Douglas Wilkin
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Contents
1 What is Biology?
1.1
Science and the Natural World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Biology: The Study of Life
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 The Principles of Ecology
2
10
22
2.1
The Science of Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.2
Recycling Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
2.3
Biomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3 Communities and Populations
56
3.1
Community Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.2
Characteristics of Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
3.3
Human Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
3.4
The Biodiversity Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
3.5
Natural Resources and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
4 Introduction to Animals
101
4.1
Overview of Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.2
Overview of Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5 From Sponges to Invertebrate

Chordates
125
5.1
Sponges, Cnidarians, Flatworms, and Roundworms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.2
Mollusks and Annelids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.3
Arthropods and Insects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.4
Echinoderms and Invertebrate Chordates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6 From Fishes to Birds
169
6.1
Overview of Vertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.2
Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
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6.3
Amphibians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.4
Reptiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.5
Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7 Mammals and Animal Behavior
216
7.1
Mammalian Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.2
Reproduction in Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.3
Evolution and Classication of Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.4
Overview of Animal Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8 Introduction to the Human

Body: Bones, Muscles, and Skin
257
8.1
Organization of the Human Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
8.2
The Skeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
8.3
The Muscular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
8.4
The Integumentary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
9 The Nervous and Endocrine

Systems
287
9.1
The Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9.2
The Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
10 The Circulatory, Respiratory,

Digestive, and Excretory
Systems
318
10.1 The Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

10.2 The Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
10.3 The Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
10.4 The Excretory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
11 The Immune System and Disease
358
11.1 Nonspecic Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

11.2 The Immune Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
11.3 Immune System Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
11.4 Environmental Problems and Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
12 Reproduction and Human
Development
12.1 Male Reproductive System
389
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
12.2 Female Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
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12.3 From Fertilization to Old Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

12.4 Sexually Transmitted Infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
13 Cellular Structure and
Function
422
13.1 Introduction to Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

13.2 Cell Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
13.3 Cell Transport and Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
14 Plant Biology
451
14.1 Plant Tissues and Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452

14.2 Plant Organs: Roots, Stems, and Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
14.3 Variation in Plant Life Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
14.4 Plant Adaptations and Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
15 Photosynthesis and Cellular
Respiration
482
15.1 Energy for Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

15.2 Photosynthesis: Sugar as Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
15.3 Powering the Cell: Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
15.4 Anaerobic Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
16 Molecular Genetics: From DNA
to Proteins
511
16.1 DNA and RNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512

16.2 Protein Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
16.3 Mutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
16.4 Regulation of Gene Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
17 Gregor Mendel and Genetics
17.1 Mendels Investigations
539
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
17.2 Mendelian Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548

18 Human Genetics and
Biotechnology
559
18.1 Human Chromosomes and Genes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560

18.2 Human Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
18.3 Biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
19 The Theory of Evolution
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19.1 Darwin and the Theory of Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587

19.2 Evidence for Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
19.3 Microevolution and the Genetics of Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
19.4 Macroevolution and the Origin of Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
20 The Cell Cycle, Mitosis, and
Meiosis
20.1 Cell Division and the Cell Cycle
619
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
20.2 Chromosomes and Mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

20.3 Reproduction and Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
21 Biology Glossary
644
21.1 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
21.2 B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
21.3 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
21.4 D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
21.5 E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
21.6 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
21.7 G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
21.8 H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
21.9 I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
21.10J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
21.11K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
21.12L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
21.13M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
21.14N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
21.15O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
21.16P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
21.17Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
21.18R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
21.19S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
21.20T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
21.21U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
21.22V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
21.23W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
21.24X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
21.25Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
21.26Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
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Chapter 1
What is Biology?
Is this picture a colorful work of abstract art, or is it something else? Imagine shrinking down to a tiny
size, so small you could enter a blood vessel. The picture shows what you might see rushing toward you.
Do you know what the red objects are? If you guessed red blood cells, you are right. What about the
knobby green objects? Watch out for these! They are viruses that have invaded the blood. When you
read this book, you will take an exciting journey into the realm of blood cells, viruses, and just about
everything else that is related to life. You will learn how your own body works, what makes living things
unique, and what you and viruses have in common. This rst chapter explains how scientists learn about
the natural world and introduces you to biology, the science of life.
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1.1
Science and the Natural World
Lesson Objectives
Identify the goal of science.

Describe how scientists study the natural world.
Explain how and why scientists do experiments.
Describe types of scientic investigations.
Explain what a scientic theory is.
Vocabulary
dependent variable
evidence
experiment
hypothesis
independent variable
model
observation
prediction
science
scientic investigation
scientic law
scientic method
scientic theory
Introduction
Did you ever wonder why giraes have such long necks or how birds learn to sing their special songs? If you
ever asked questions such as these about the natural world, then you were thinking like a scientist. The
word science comes from a Latin word that means knowledge. Science is a distinctive way of gaining
knowledge about the natural world that starts with a question and then tries to answer the question with
evidence and logic. Science is an exciting exploration of all the whys and hows that any curious person
might have about the world. You can be part of that exploration. Besides your curiosity, all you need is a
basic understanding of how scientists think and how science is done, starting with the goal of science.
The Goal of Science

The goal of science is to understand the natural world. To achieve this goal, scientists make certain
assumptions. They assume that:
Nature can be understood through systematic study.

Scientic ideas are open to revision.
Sound scientic ideas withstand the test of time.
Science cannot provide answers to all questions.
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Nature Can Be Understood

Scientists think of nature as a single system controlled by natural laws. By discovering natural laws,
scientists strive to increase their understanding of the natural world. Laws of nature are expressed as
scientic laws. A scientic law is a statement that describes what always happens under certain conditions
in nature.
An example of a scientic law is the law of gravity, which was discovered by Sir Isaac Newton (see Figure
1.1). The law of gravity states that objects always fall towards Earth because of the pull of gravity. Based
on this law, Newton could explain many natural events. He could explain not only why objects such as
apples always fall to the ground, but he could also explain why the moon orbits Earth. Isaac Newton
discovered laws of motion as well as the law of gravity. His laws of motion allowed him to explain why
objects move as they do.
Figure 1.1: Did Newton discover the law of gravity when an apple fell from a tree and hit him on the head?
Probably not, but observations of nature are often the starting point for new ideas about the natural world.
Scientic Ideas Can Change

Science is more of a process than a set body of knowledge. Scientists are always testing and revising their
ideas, and as new observations are made, existing ideas may be challenged. Ideas may be replaced with
new ideas that better t the facts, but more often existing ideas are simply revised. For example, when
Albert Einstein developed his theory of relativity, he didnt throw out Newtons laws of motion. Instead,
he showed that Newtons laws are a part of a bigger picture. In this way, scientists gradually build an
increasingly accurate and detailed understanding of the natural world.
Scientic Knowledge Can Withstand the Test of Time

Many scientic ideas have withstood the test of time. For example, about 200 years ago, the scientist John
Dalton proposed atomic theorythe theory that all matter is made of tiny particles called atoms. This
theory is still valid today. There are many other examples of basic science ideas that have been tested
repeatedly and found to be true. You will learn about many of them as you study biology.
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Science Cannot Answer All Questions

Science rests on evidence and logic, so it deals only with things that can be observed. An observation
is anything that is detected either through human senses or with instruments and measuring devices that
extend human senses. Things that cannot be observed or measured by current meanssuch as supernatural
beings or eventsare outside the bounds of science. Consider these two questions about life on Earth:
Did life on Earth evolve over time?
Was life on Earth created through another method?
The rst question can be answered by science on the basis of scientic evidence and logic. The second
question could be a matter of belief. Therefore, it is outside the realm of science.
The Scientic Method

We also discovered that science is cool and fun because you get to do stu that no one has ever done
before. In the article Blackawton bees, published by eight to ten year old students: Biology Letters (2010)
http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2010/12/18/rsbl.2010.1056.abstract.
There are basic methods of gaining knowledge that are common to all of science. At the heart of science is
the scientic investigation, which is done by following the scientic method. A scientic investigation
is a plan for asking questions and testing possible answers. It generally follows the steps listed in Figure
1.2. See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KZaCy5Z87FA for an overview of the scientic method.
Figure 1.2: Steps of a Scientic Investigation. A scientic investigation typically has these steps.
Making Observations
A scientic investigation typically begins with observations. You make observations all the time. Lets say
you take a walk in the woods and observe a moth, like the one in Figure 1.3, resting on a tree trunk. You
notice that the moth has spots on its wings that look like eyes. You think the eye spots make the moth
look like the face of an owl.
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Figure 1.3: Does this moth remind you of an owl?
Asking a Question
Observations often lead to questions. For example, you might ask yourself why the moth has eye spots
that make it look like an owls face. What reason might there be for this observation?
Forming a Hypothesis
The next step in a scientic investigation is forming a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a possible answer
to a scientic question, but it isnt just any answer. A hypothesis must be based on scientic knowledge,
and it must be logical. A hypothesis also must be falsiable. In other words, it must be possible to make
observations that would disprove the hypothesis if it really is false. Assume you know that some birds eat
moths and that owls prey on other birds. From this knowledge, you reason that eye spots scare away birds
that might eat the moth. This is your hypothesis.
Testing the Hypothesis

To test a hypothesis, you rst need to make a prediction based on the hypothesis. A prediction is a
statement that tells what will happen under certain conditions. It can be expressed in the form: If A
occurs, then B will happen. Based on your hypothesis, you might make this prediction: If a moth has eye
spots on its wings, then birds will avoid eating it.
Next, you must gather evidence to test your prediction. Evidence is any type of data that may either
agree or disagree with a prediction, so it may either support or disprove a hypothesis. Assume that you
gather evidence by making more observations of moths with eye spots. Perhaps you observe that birds
really do avoid eating the moths. This evidence agrees with your prediction.
Drawing Conclusions
Evidence that agrees with your prediction supports your hypothesis. Does such evidence prove that your
hypothesis is true? No; a hypothesis cannot be proven conclusively to be true. This is because you
can never examine all of the possible evidence, and someday evidence might be found that disproves the
hypothesis. Nonetheless, the more evidence that supports a hypothesis, the more likely the hypothesis is
to be true.
Communicating Results
The last step in a scientic investigation is communicating what you have learned with others. This is
a very important step because it allows others to test your hypothesis. If other researchers get the same
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results as yours, they add support to the hypothesis. However, if they get dierent results, they may
disprove the hypothesis. When scientists share their results, they should describe their methods and point
out any possible problems with the investigation. For example, while you were observing moths, perhaps
your presence scared birds away. This introduces an error into your investigation. You got the results
you predicted (the birds avoided the moths while you were observing them), but not for the reason you
hypothesized. Other researchers might be able to think of ways to avoid this error in future studies.
Experiments
Figure 1.4 shows a laboratory experiment involving plants. An experiment is a special type of scientic
investigation that is performed under controlled conditions, usually in a laboratory. Some experiments
can be very simple, but even the simplest contributed important evidence that helped scientists better
understand the natural world. An example experiment can be seen here http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=dVRBDRAsP6U or here http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F10EyGwd57M&feature=related.
Figure 1.4: A laboratory experiment studying plant growth. What might this experiment involve?
KQED: Medicine From the Ocean Floor

Some experiments are much more sophisticated than those shown above. For example, scientists at the
University of California, Santa Cruz are using robots to sort through thousands of marine chemicals in
search of cures for diseases like cholera, breast cancer, and malaria. These experiments are described in
the following links:
http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2009/03/20/reporters-notes-medicine-from-the-ocean-floor/
http://www.kqed.org/quest/radio/medicine-from-the-ocean-floor
http://science.kqed.org/quest/slideshow/web-extra-medicine-from-the-ocean-floor-slideshow/
Variables
An experiment generally tests how one variable is aected by another. The aected variable is called the
dependent variable. In the plant experiment shown above, the dependent variable is plant growth. The
variable that aects the dependent variable is called the independent variable. In the plant experiment,
the independent variable is fertilizersome plants will get fertilizer, others will not. In any experiment,
other factors that might aect the dependent variable must be controlled. In the plant experiment, what
factors do you think should be controlled? (Hint: What other factors might aect plant growth?)
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Sample Size and Repetition

The sample in an experiment or other investigation consists of the individuals or events that are studied.
Typically, the sample is much smaller than all such individuals or events that exist in the world. Whether
the results based on the sample are true in general cannot be known for certain. However, the larger
the sample is, the more likely it is that the results are generally true. Similarly, the more times that an
experiment is repeated and the same results obtained, the more likely the results are valid. This is why
scientic experiments should always be repeated.
Other Types of Scientic Investigations

Experiments are sometimes hard or even impossible to do. For example, a scientist who is studying an
extinct animal cannot experiment with the animal because it no longer exists. The scientist must rely
instead on evidence in the natural world, such as fossils that the extinct animal left behind.
Natural Studies
When scientists do studies in nature, they usually cannot control factors that might aect the variables
they are investigating. This is a drawback, because it may make the observations diicult to interpret.
Without controls, it may not be possible to determine which of many factors explain the observations. For
example, assume you are studying how plants grow in a forest or eld. You cannot control the amount of
sunlight or rain water the plants receive, so it will be diicult to determine which factors most inuence
plant growth. On the other hand, a natural study shows what actually occurs in nature. Therefore, it may
provide a truer picture of what happens in the real world than an experiment does.
Modeling
Another way to gain scientic knowledge without experiments is by making and manipulating models. A
model is a representation of part of the real world. Did you ever build a model car? Scientic models are
something like model cars; they represent the real world but are simpler than the real world. This is one
reason that models are especially useful for investigating complex systems. By using a model, scientists
can better understand how the real system works. An example of a scientic model is shown in Figure
1.5. Do you know what systems these two models represent?
Like a hypothesis, a model must be evaluated. It is assessed by criteria such as how well it represents the
real world, what limitations it has, and how useful it is. The usefulness of a model depends on how well
its predictions match observations of the real world. Even when a models predictions match real-world
observations, however, it doesnt prove that the model is true or that it is the only model that works.
Scientic Theories
With repeated testing, some hypotheses may eventually become scientic theories. A scientic theory is
a broad explanation for events that is widely accepted as true. To become a theory, a hypothesis must be
tested over and over again, and it must be supported by a great deal of evidence. People commonly use
the word theory to describe a guess about how or why something happens. For example, you might say, I
think a woodchuck dug this hole in the ground, but its just a theory. Using the word theory in this way
is dierent from the way it is used in science. A scientic theory is more like a fact than a guess because
it is so well-supported. There are several well-known theories in biology, including the theory of evolution,
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Figure 1.5: Food Chains. These two food chains represent complex systems in nature. They make the
systems easier to understand. These are simple conceptual models. Models of very complex systems are
often based on mathematical equations or computer simulations.
cell theory, and germ theory. You will read about all three of these theories in the next lesson. A video
explaining scientic theories can be seen at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S5YGhprR6KE.
KQED: Bio-Inspiration: Nature as Muse

For hundreds of years, scientists have been using design ideas from structures in nature. Now, biologists
and engineers at the University of California, Berkeley are working together to design a broad range of
new products, such as life-saving milli-robots modeled on the way cockroaches run and adhesives based on
the amazing design of a geckos foot. This process starts with making observations of nature, which lead to
asking questions and to the additional aspects of the scientic process. Bio-Inspiration: Nature as Muse
can be observed at http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/bioinspiration-nature-as-muse.
Figure 1.6: (Run Custom Embedded Object)
Lesson Summary
The goal of science is to understand the natural world through systematic study. Scientic knowledge
is based on evidence and logic.
Scientists gain knowledge through scientic investigations. A scientic investigation is a plan for
asking questions and testing possible answers.
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Scientists use experiments to test hypotheses under controlled conditions. Experiments are often
done in a lab.
Other types of scientic investigations include natural studies and modeling. They can be used when
experiments are diicult to do.
Scientic theories are broad explanations that are widely accepted as true. This is because they are
supported by a great deal of evidence.
Lesson Review Questions

Recall
1. What is science? What is the goal of science?
2. Outline the steps of a scientic investigation.
3. What is a scientic hypothesis? What characteristics must a hypothesis have to be useful in science?
4. Give an example of a scientic question that could be investigated with an experiment. Then give an
example of scientic question that could not be investigated in this way.
5. What might be an advantage of collecting evidence in a natural setting rather than in a lab?
Apply Concepts
6. Identify the independent and dependent variables in the following experiment:
A scientist grew bacteria on gel in her lab. She wanted to nd out if the bacteria would grow
faster on gel A or gel B. She placed a few bacteria on gel A and a few on gel B. After 24 hours,
she observed how many bacteria were present on each type of gel.
Think Critically
7. Explain why science cannot provide answers to all questions.
8. Contrast how the term theory is used in science and in everyday language.
9. Explain how a hypothesis could become a theory.
Points to Consider
The Points to Consider at the end of each lesson in this book will help you relate what you just learned to
what is coming next. The questions will help guide you to the next lesson or chapter. Before reading the
next lesson of this chapter, consider these points:
Remember the opening photo of red blood cells and green viruses? The blood cells are cells of a
living thing. Do you think that the viruses are living things? Why or why not?
Lab experiments are the main method of gathering evidence in some branches of science. Why might
lab experiments not be the best way to study living things, such as wild animals?
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1.2
Biology: The Study of Life
Lesson Objectives
List the characteristics of all living things.

State four unifying principles of biology.
Describe how living things interact.
Explain how life on Earth evolves.
Vocabulary
adaptation
biodiversity
biology
biome
biosphere
cell
cell theory
community
competition
ecosystem
evolution
gene theory
homeostasis
natural selection
organ
organ system
organism
population
reproduction
symbiosis
tissue
Introduction
In this book, you will learn about one particular branch of science, the branch called biology. Biology is
the science of life. Do you know what life is? Can you dene it? Watch http://vimeo.com/15407847 to
begin your journey into the study of life.
Characteristics of Life
Look at the duck decoy in Figure 1.7. It looks very similar to a real duck. Of course, real ducks are living
things. What about the decoy duck? It looks like a duck, but it is actually made of wood. The decoy duck
doesnt have all the characteristics of a living thing. What characteristics set the real ducks apart from
the decoy duck? What are the characteristics of living things?
To be classied as a living thing, an object must have all six of the following characteristics:
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Figure 1.7: This duck decoy looks like its alive. It even fools real ducks. Why isnt it a living thing?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
It
It
It
It
It
It
responds to the environment.

grows and develops.
produces ospring.
maintains homeostasis.
has complex chemistry.
consists of cells.
Response to the Environment

All living things detect changes in their environment and respond to them. What happens if you step on
a rock? Nothing; the rock doesnt respond because it isnt alive. But what if you think you are stepping
on a rock and actually step on a turtle shell? The turtle is likely to respond by movingit may even snap
at you!
Growth and Development

All living things grow and develop. For example, a plant seed may look like a lifeless pebble, but under
the right conditions it will grow and develop into a plant. Animals also grow and develop. Look at the
animals in Figure 1.8. How will the tadpoles change as they grow and develop into adult frogs?
Figure 1.8: Tadpoles go through many changes to become adult frogs.
Reproduction
All living things are capable of reproduction. Reproduction is the process by which living things give rise
to ospring. Reproducing may be as simple as a single cell dividing to form two daughter cells. Generally,
however, it is much more complicated. Nonetheless, whether a living thing is a huge whale or a microscopic
bacterium, it is capable of reproduction.
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Keeping Things Constant

All living things are able to maintain a more-or-less constant internal environment. They keep things
relatively stable on the inside regardless of the conditions around them. The process of maintaining a
stable internal environment is called homeostasis. Human beings, for example, maintain a stable internal
body temperature. If you go outside when the air temperature is below freezing, your body doesnt freeze.
Instead, by shivering and other means, it maintains a stable internal temperature.
Complex Chemistry
All living thingseven the simplest life formshave complex chemistry. Living things consist of large,
complex molecules, and they also undergo many complicated chemical changes to stay alive. Complex
chemistry is needed to carry out all the functions of life.
Cells
All forms of life are built of cells. A cell is the basic unit of the structure and function of living things.
Living things may appear very dierent from one another on the outside, but their cells are very similar.
Compare the human cells in Figure 1.9 and onion cells in Figure 1.10. How are they similar? If you
click on the animation titled Inside a Cell at the link below, you can look inside a cell and see its internal
structures. http://bio-alive.com/animations/cell-biology.htm
Figure 1.9: Human Cells. If you looked at human cells under a microscope, this is what you might see.
Unifying Principles of Biology

Four unifying principles form the basis of biology. Whether biologists are interested in ancient life, the life
of bacteria, or how humans could live on the moon, they base their overall understanding of biology on
these four principles:
1.
2.
3.
4.
cell theory
gene theory
homeostasis
evolution
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Figure 1.10: Onion Cells. If you looked at onion cells under a microscope, this is what you might see.
The Cell Theory

According to the cell theory, all living things are made up of cells, and living cells always come from other
living cells. In fact, each living thing begins life as a single cell. Some living things, such as bacteria, remain
single-celled. Other living things, including plants and animals, grow and develop into many cells. Your
own body is made up of an amazing 100 trillion cells! But even youlike all other living thingsbegan
life as a single cell. More of the cell theory will be discussed in a later chapter.
The Gene Theory

The gene theory is the idea that the characteristics of living things are controlled by genes, which are
passed from parents to their ospring. Genes are located on larger structures, called chromosomes, that are
found inside every cell. Chromosomes, in turn, contain large molecules known as DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid). Molecules of DNA are encoded with instructions that tell cells what to do. To see how this happens,
click on the animation titled Journey into DNA at the link below. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/
genome/dna.html
Homeostasis
Homeostasis, or keeping things constant, is not just a characteristic of living things. It also applies to
nature as a whole. Consider the concentration of oxygen in Earths atmosphere. Oxygen makes up 21%
of the atmosphere, and this concentration is fairly constant. What keeps the concentration of oxygen
constant? The answer is living things. Most living things need oxygen to survive, and when they breathe,
they remove oxygen from the atmosphere. On the other hand, many living things, including plants, give
o oxygen when they make food, and this adds oxygen to the atmosphere. The concentration of oxygen
in the atmosphere is maintained mainly by the balance between these two processes. A quick overview of
homeostasis can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DFyt7FJn-UM.
Evolution
Evolution is a change in the characteristics of living things over time. Evolution occurs by a process
called natural selection. In natural selection, some living things produce more ospring than others,
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so they pass more genes to the next generation than others do. Over many generations, this can lead to
major changes in the characteristics of living things. Evolution explains how living things are changing
today and how modern living things have descended from ancient life forms that no longer exist on Earth.
As living things evolve, they generally become better suited for their environment. This is because they
evolve adaptations. An adaptation is a characteristic that helps a living thing survive and reproduce in
a given environment. Look at the mole in Figure 1.11. It has tentacles around its nose that it uses to
sense things by touch. The mole lives underground in the soil where it is always dark. However, by using
its touch organ, it can detect even tiny food items in the soil in total darkness. The touch organ is an
adaptation because it helps the mole survive in its dark, underground environment.
Figure 1.11: This mole uses its star-shaped nose organ to sense food by touch in the dark. The moles very
large front claws are also an adaptation for its life in the soil. Can you explain why?
A cartoon depicting the evolution of Homer (Simpson) can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=faRlFsYmkeY.
Interdependence of Living Things

All living things depend on their environment to supply them with what they need, including food, water,
and shelter. Their environment consists of physical factorssuch as soil, air, and temperatureand also
of other organisms. An organism is an individual living thing. Many living things interact with other
organisms in their environment. In fact, they may need other organisms in order to survive. For example,
living things that cannot make their own food must eat other organisms for food. Other interactions
between living things include symbiosis and competition.
Symbiosis
Symbiosis is a close relationship between organisms of dierent species in which at least one of the
organisms benets. The other organism may also benet, or it may be unaected or harmed by the
relationship. Figure 1.12 shows an example of symbiosis. The birds in the picture are able to pick out
food from the fur of the deer. The deer wont eat the birds. In fact, the deer knowingly lets the birds rest
on it. What, if anything, do you think the deer gets out of the relationship?
Competition
Competition is a relationship between living things that depend on the same resources. The resources
may be food, water, or anything else they both need. Competition occurs whenever they both try to get
the same resources in the same place and at the same time. The two organisms are likely to come into
conict, and the organism with better adaptations may win out over the other organism.
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Figure 1.12: A ock of starlings looks out, before searching for parasites on a red deer stag.
Levels of Organization
The living world can be organized into dierent levels. For example, many individual organisms can be
organized into the following levels:
Cell: basic unit of all living things

Tissue: group of cells of the same kind
Organ: structure composed of one or more types of tissues
Organ system: group of organs that work together to do a certain job
Organism: individual living thing that may be made up of one or more organ systems
Examples of these levels of organization are shown in Figure 1.13.
Figure 1.13: An individual mouse is made up of several organ systems. The system shown here is the
digestive system, which breaks down food to a form that cells can use. One of the organs of the digestive
system is the stomach. The stomach, in turn, consists of dierent types of tissues. Each type of tissue is
made up of cells of the same type.
There are also levels of organization above the individual organism. These levels are illustrated in Figure
1.14.
Organisms of the same species that live in the same area make up a population. For example, all
of the goldsh living in the same area make up a goldsh population.
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All of the populations that live in the same area make up a community. The community that
includes the goldsh population also includes the populations of other sh, coral and other organisms.
An ecosystem consists of all the living things in a given area, together with the nonliving environment. The nonliving environment includes water, sunlight, and other physical factors.
A group of similar ecosystems with the same general type of physical environment is called a biome.
The biosphere is the part of Earth where all life exists, including all the land, water, and air where
living things can be found. The biosphere consists of many dierent biomes.
Figure 1.14: This picture shows the levels of organization in nature, from the individual organism to the
biosphere.
Diversity of Life
Life on Earth is very diverse. The diversity of living things is called biodiversity. A measure of Earths
biodiversity is the number of dierent species of organisms that live on Earth. At least 10 million dierent species live on Earth today. They are commonly grouped into six dierent kingdoms. Examples of
organisms within each kingdom are shown in Figure 1.15.
Evolution of Life
The diversity of life on Earth today is the result of evolution. Life began on Earth at least 4 billion
years ago, and it has been evolving ever since. At rst, all living things on Earth were simple, singlecelled organisms. Much later, the rst multicellular organisms evolved, and after that, Earths biodiversity
greatly increased. Figure 1.16 shows a timeline of the history of life on Earth. You can also nd an
interactive timeline of the history of life at the link below. http://www.johnkyrk.com/evolution.html
Today, scientists accept the evolution of life on Earth as a fact. There is too much evidence supporting
evolution to doubt it. However, that wasnt always the case. An introduction to evolution and natural selection can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/0/
GcjgWov7mTM.
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Figure 1.15: Diversity of life from Archaebacteria to Plants and Animals.
Figure 1.16: This timeline shows the history of life on Earth. In the entire span of the time, humans are a
relatively new addition.
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Figure 1.17: (Watch Youtube Video)

http://www.ck12.org/exbook/embed/view/98
Darwin and the Theory of Evolution

The idea of evolution has been around for centuries. In fact, it goes all the way back to the ancient
Greek philosopher Aristotle. However, evolution is most often associated with Charles Darwin. Darwin
published a book on evolution in 1869 titled On the Origin of Species. In the book, Darwin stated the
theory of evolution by natural selection. He also presented a great deal of evidence that evolution occurs.
Despite all the evidence Darwin presented, his theory was not well-received at rst. Many people found it
hard to accept the idea that humans had evolved from an ape-like ancestor, and they saw evolution as a
challenge to their religious beliefs. Look at the cartoon in Figure 1.18. Drawn in 1871, it depicts Darwin
himself as an ape. The cartoon reects how many people felt about Darwin and his theory during his own
time. Darwin had actually expected this type of reaction to his theory and had waited a long time before
publishing his book for this reason. It was only when another scientist, named Alfred Wallace, developed
essentially the same theory of evolution that Darwin put his book into print.
Figure 1.18: Charles Darwins name is linked with the theory of evolution. This cartoon from the 1870s
makes fun of both Darwin and his theory.
Although Darwin presented a great deal of evidence for evolution in his book, he was unable to explain
how evolution occurs. Thats because he knew nothing about genes. As a result, he didnt know how
characteristics are passed from parents to ospring, let alone how they could change over time.
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Evolutionary Theory After Darwin

Since Darwins time, scientists have gathered even more evidence to support the theory of evolution. Some
of the evidence comes from fossils, and some comes from studies that show how similar living things are to
one another. By the 1930s, scientists had also learned about genes. As a result, they could nally explain
how characteristics of organisms could pass from one generation to the next and change over time.
Using modern technology, scientists can now directly compare the genes of living species. The more genes
dierent species share in common, the more closely related the species are presumed to be. Consider
humans and chimpanzees. They share about 98% of their genes. This means that they shared a common
ancestor in the not-too-distant past. This is just one of many pieces of evidence that show we are part of
the evolution of life on Earth.
Misconceptions About Evolution

Today, evolution is still questioned by some people. Often, people who disagree with the theory of evolution
do not really understand it. For example, some people think that the theory of evolution explains how
life on Earth rst began. In fact, the theory explains only how life changed after it rst appeared. Some
people think the theory of evolution means that humans evolved from modern apes. In fact, humans and
modern apes have a common ancestor that lived several million years ago. These and other misconceptions
about evolution contribute to the controversy that still surrounds this fundamental principle of biology.
Lesson Summary
Living things are distinguished from nonliving things on the basis of six characteristics: response to
the environment, growth and development, reproduction, homeostasis, complex chemistry, and cells.
Four underlying principles form the basis of biology. They are cell theory, gene theory, homeostasis,
and evolution.
Many living things interact with one another in some way. The interactions are often necessary for
their survival.
The great diversity of life on Earth today is the result of 4 billion years of evolution. During that
time, living things evolved from simple, single-celled organisms to complex, multicellular life forms.

Recall
1. List the six characteristics of all living things.
2. Identify four unifying principles of modern biology.
3. Outline the levels of organization of a complex, multicellular organism such as a mouse, starting with
the cell.
4. What is homeostasis? Give an example.
Apply Concepts
5. Describe examples of ways that you depend on other living things.
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6. Assume that you found an object that looks like a dead twig. You wonder if it might be a stick insect.
How could you determine if it is a living thing?
Think Critically
7. Compare and contrast symbiosis and competition.
8. Explain how a population diers from a community.
9. How is gene theory related to the theory of evolution?
Points to Consider
In this lesson, you learned that living things have complex chemistry.
Do you know which chemicals make up living things?
All living things need energy to carry out the processes of life. Where do you think this energy comes
from? For example, where do you get the energy you need to get through your day?
Image Sources
(1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Darwin_ape.jpg. Public Domain.
(2) CK-12 Foundation. . CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0.
(4) Image copyright Sebastian Kaulitzki, 2010. Human Cells. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(6) Image copyright Sebastian Duda, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com/. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(7) Image copyright Dennis Cox, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com/. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(8) Tadpole image copyright dabjola, 2010; frog image copyright Anyka, 2010; composite created by
CK-12 Foundation. http://www.shutterstock.com/. Used under licenses from Shutterstock.com.
(9) Image copyright Jubal Harshaw, 2010. Onion Cells. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
(10) (Archaebacteria) NASA; (Bacteria) Image copyright 4designersart, 2010; (Protist) Image copyright
MichaelTaylor, 2010; (Fungus) Image copyright turtleman, 2010; (Plant) Image copyright
momopixs, 2012; (Animal) Image copyright Alex Staroseltsev, 2010. [(Archaebacteria)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Halobacteria.jpg; (Bacteria)
http://www.shutterstock.com/; (Protist) (Fungus) (Plant) http://www.shutterstock.com;
(Animal) http://www.shutterstock.com/ ]. (Archaebacteria) Public domain; (Bacteria) Used
under license from Shutterstock.com; (Protist) Used under license from Shutterstock.com; (Fungus)
Used under license from Shutterstock.com; (Plant) Used under license from Shutterstock.com;
(Animal) Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
www.ck12.org
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(11) Andree Valley. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Earth_timeline.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0.

(12) Images copyright Morphart Creations inc., 2012. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under
license from Shutterstock.com.
(13) Image copyright Godrick, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com/. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(14) Image copyright Tramper, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com/. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(15) Image copyright Terry Alexander, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com/. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(16) OakleyOriginals. http://www.flickr.com/photos/oakleyoriginals/4536342259/sizes/l/.
CC-BY 2.0.
Opening image copyright by Kirsty Pargeter, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
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Chapter 2
The Principles of Ecology
These brilliant red feathers are actually animals called tube worms. They live in an extreme environment
on the deep ocean oor, thousands of meters below the waters surface. Their world is always very cold
and completely dark. Without sunlight, photosynthesis is not possible. So what do organisms eat at these
depths? Tube worms depend on chemosynthetic microorganisms that live inside them for food. In this
and other ways, tube worms have adapted to the extreme conditions of their environment.
All organisms must adapt to their environment in order to survive. This is true whether they live in
water or on land. Most environments are not as extreme as the deep ocean where tube worms live. But
they all have conditions that require adaptations. In this chapter, you will read about a wide variety of
environments and the organisms that live in them.
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2.1
The Science of Ecology
Lesson Objectives
Distinguish between abiotic and biotic factors.

Dene ecosystem and other ecological concepts.
Describe how energy ows through ecosystems.
Explain how food chains and webs model feeding relationships.
Identify trophic levels in a food chain or web.
Vocabulary
abiotic factor
biomass
biotic factor
carnivore
chemoautotroph
competitive exclusion principle
decomposer
detritivore
detritus
ecology
food chain
food web
habitat
herbivore
niche
omnivore
photoautotroph
saprotroph
scavenger
trophic level
Introduction
Ecology is the study of how living things interact with each other and with their environment. It is a
major branch of biology, but has areas of overlap with geography, geology, climatology, and other sciences.
This lesson introduces fundamental concepts in ecology, beginning with organisms and the environment.
Organisms and the Environment

Organisms are individual living things. Despite their tremendous diversity, all organisms have the same
basic needs: energy and matter. These must be obtained from the environment. Therefore, organisms are
not closed systems. They depend on and are inuenced by their environment. The environment includes
two types of factors: abiotic and biotic.
1. Abiotic factors are the nonliving aspects of the environment. They include factors such as sunlight,
soil, temperature, and water.
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2. Biotic factors are the living aspects of the environment. They consist of other organisms, including
members of the same and dierent species.
The Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a unit of nature and the focus of study in ecology. It consists of all the biotic and abiotic
factors in an area and their interactions. Ecosystems can vary in size. A lake could be considered an
ecosystem. So could a dead log on a forest oor. Both the lake and log contain a variety of species that
interact with each other and with abiotic factors. Another example of an ecosystem is pictured in Figure
2.1.
Figure 2.1: Desert Ecosystem. What are some of the biotic and abiotic factors in this desert ecosystem?
When it comes to energy, ecosystems are not closed. They need constant inputs of energy. Most ecosystems
get energy from sunlight. A small minority get energy from chemical compounds. Unlike energy, matter
is not constantly added to ecosystems. Instead, it is recycled. Water and elements such as carbon and
nitrogen are used over and over again.
Niche
One of the most important concepts associated with the ecosystem is the niche. A niche refers to the role
of a species in its ecosystem. It includes all the ways that the species interacts with the biotic and abiotic
factors of the environment. Two important aspects of a species niche are the food it eats and how the
food is obtained. Look at Figure 2.2. It shows pictures of birds that occupy dierent niches. Each species
eats a dierent type of food and obtains the food in a dierent way.
Habitat
Another aspect of a species niche is its habitat. The habitat is the physical environment in which a
species lives and to which it is adapted. A habitats features are determined mainly by abiotic factors such
as temperature and rainfall. These factors also inuence the traits of the organisms that live there.
Competitive Exclusion Principle

A given habitat may contain many dierent species, but each species must have a dierent niche. Two
dierent species cannot occupy the same niche in the same place for very long. This is known as the
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Figure 2.2: Bird Niches. Each of these species of birds has a beak that suits it for its niche. For example,
the long slender beak of the nectarivore allows it to sip liquid nectar from owers. The short sturdy beak
of the granivore allows it to crush hard, tough grains.
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competitive exclusion principle. If two species were to occupy the same niche, what do you think
would happen? They would compete with one another for the same food and other resources in the
environment. Eventually, one species would be likely to outcompete and replace the other.
Flow of Energy
Energy enters ecosystems in the form of sunlight or chemical compounds. Some organisms use this energy
to make food. Other organisms get energy by eating the food.
Producers
Producers are organisms that produce food for themselves and other organisms. They use energy and
simple inorganic molecules to make organic compounds. The stability of producers is vital to ecosystems
because all organisms need organic molecules. Producers are also called autotrophs. There are two basic
types of autotrophs: photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs.
1. Photoautotrophs use energy from sunlight to make food by photosynthesis. They include plants,
algae, and certain bacteria (see Figure 2.3).
2. Chemoautotrophs use energy from chemical compounds to make food by chemosynthesis. They
include some bacteria and also archaea. Archaea are microorganisms that resemble bacteria.
Consumers
Consumers are organisms that depend on other organisms for food. They take in organic molecules by
essentially eating other living things. They include all animals and fungi. (Fungi dont really eat; they
absorb nutrients from other organisms.) They also include many bacteria and even a few plants, such as
the pitcher plant in Figure 2.4. Consumers are also called heterotrophs. Heterotrophs are classied by
what they eat:
Herbivores consume producers such as plants or algae. They are a necessary link between producers
and other consumers. Examples include deer, rabbits, and mice.
Carnivores consume animals. Examples include lions, polar bears, hawks, frogs, salmon, and spiders. Carnivores that are unable to digest plants and must eat only animals are called obligate
carnivores. Other carnivores can digest plants but do not commonly eat them.
Omnivores consume both plants and animals. They include humans, pigs, brown bears, gulls,
crows, and some species of sh.
Decomposers
When organisms die, they leave behind energy and matter in their remains. Decomposers break down
the remains and other wastes and release simple inorganic molecules back to the environment. Producers
can then use the molecules to make new organic compounds. The stability of decomposers is essential to
every ecosystem. Decomposers are classied by the type of organic matter they break down:
Scavengers consume the soft tissues of dead animals. Examples of scavengers include vultures,
raccoons, and blowies.
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Figure 2.3: Dierent types of photoautotrophs are important in dierent ecosystems.
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Figure 2.4: Pitcher Plant. Virtually all plants are producers. This pitcher plant is an exception. It
consumes insects. It traps them in a sticky substance in its pitcher. Then it secretes enzymes that break
down the insects and release nutrients. Which type of consumer is a pitcher plant?
Detritivores consume detritusthe dead leaves, animal feces, and other organic debris that collects
on the soil or at the bottom of a body of water. On land, detritivores include earthworms, millipedes,
and dung beetles (see Figure 2.5). In water, detritivores include bottom feeders such as sea
cucumbers and catsh.
Saprotrophs are the nal step in decomposition. They feed on any remaining organic matter that
is left after other decomposers do their work. Saprotrophs include fungi and single-celled protozoa.
Fungi are the only organisms that can decompose wood.
Figure 2.5: Dung Beetle. This dung beetle is rolling a ball of feces to its nest to feed its young.
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KQED: Banana Slugs: The Ultimate Recyclers

One of the most beloved and iconic native species within the old growth redwood forests of California is
the Pacic Banana Slug. These slimy friends of the forest are the ultimate recyclers. Feeding on fallen
leaves, mushrooms or even dead animals, they play a pivotal role in replenishing the soil. QUEST goes to
Henry Cowell Redwoods State Park near Santa Cruz, California on a hunt to nd Ariolomax dolichophallus, a bright yellow slug with a very big personality. See http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/
science-on-the-spot-banana-slugs-unpeeled for more information.

Food Chains and Food Webs

Food chains and food webs are diagrams that represent feeding relationships. They show who eats whom.
In this way, they model how energy and matter move through ecosystems.
Food Chains
A food chain represents a single pathway through which energy and matter ow through an ecosystem.
An example is shown in Figure 2.7. Food chains are generally simpler than what really happens in nature.
Most organisms consumeand are consumed bymore than one species.
Figure 2.7: This food chain includes producers and consumers. How could you add decomposers to the
food chain?
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A musical summary of food chains can be heard at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TE6wqG4nb3M

(2:46).
Food Webs
A food web represents multiple pathways through which energy and matter ow through an ecosystem.
It includes many intersecting food chains. It demonstrates that most organisms eat, and are eaten, by
more than one species. An example is shown in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8: Food Web. This food web consists of several dierent food chains. Which organisms are
producers in all of the food chains included in the food web?
Trophic Levels
The feeding positions in a food chain or web are called trophic levels. The dierent trophic levels are
dened in Table 2.1. Examples are also given in the table. All food chains and webs have at least two or
three trophic levels. Generally, there are a maximum of four trophic levels.
Table 2.1: Trophic Levels
Trophic Level
Where It Gets Food
Example
1st Trophic Level: Producer

2nd Trophic Level: Primary
Consumer
3rd Trophic Level: Secondary
Consumer
4th Trophic Level: Tertiary Consumer
Makes its own food

Consumes producers
Plants make food

Mice eat plant seeds
Consumes primary consumers
Snakes eat mice
Consumes secondary consumers
Hawks eat snakes
Many consumers feed at more than one trophic level. Humans, for example, are primary consumers when
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they eat plants such as vegetables. They are secondary consumers when they eat cows. They are tertiary
consumers when they eat salmon.
Trophic Levels and Energy

Energy is passed up a food chain or web from lower to higher trophic levels. However, only about 10
percent of the energy at one level is available to the next level. This is represented by the pyramid in
Figure 2.9. What happens to the other 90 percent of energy? It is used for metabolic processes or given
o to the environment as heat. This loss of energy explains why there are rarely more than four trophic
levels in a food chain or web. Sometimes there may be a fth trophic level, but usually theres not enough
energy left to support any additional levels.
Figure 2.9: Ecological Pyramid. This pyramid shows how energy and biomass decrease from lower to
higher trophic levels. Assume that producers in this pyramid have 1,000,000 kilocalories of energy. How
much energy is available to primary consumers?
Energy pyramids are discussed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8T2nEMzk6_E&feature=related
(1:44).
Trophic Levels and Biomass

With less energy at higher trophic levels, there are usually fewer organisms as well. Organisms tend to
be larger in size at higher trophic levels, but their smaller numbers result in less biomass. Biomass is
the total mass of organisms at a trophic level. The decrease in biomass from lower to higher levels is also
represented by Figure 2.9.
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Lesson Summary
Ecology is the study of how living things interact with each other and with their environment. The
environment includes abiotic (nonliving) and biotic (living) factors.
An ecosystem consists of all the biotic and abiotic factors in an area and their interactions. A niche
refers to the role of a species in its ecosystem. A habitat is the physical environment in which a
species lives and to which it is adapted. Two dierent species cannot occupy the same niche in the
same place for very long.
Ecosystems require constant inputs of energy from sunlight or chemicals. Producers use energy and
inorganic molecules to make food. Consumers take in food by eating producers or other living things.
Decomposers break down dead organisms and other organic wastes and release inorganic molecules
back to the environment.
Food chains and food webs are diagrams that represent feeding relationships. They model how energy
and matter move through ecosystems.
The dierent feeding positions in a food chain or web are called trophic levels. Generally, there are
no more than four trophic levels because energy and biomass decrease from lower to higher levels.

Recall
1. Dene biotic and abiotic factors of the environment. Give an example of each.
2. How do ecologists dene the term ecosystem?
3. State the competitive exclusion principle.
4. Identify three dierent types of consumers. Name an example of each type.
5. Describe the role of decomposers in food webs.
Apply Concepts
6. Draw a terrestrial food chain that includes four trophic levels. Identify the trophic level of each organism
in the food chain.
Think Critically
7. Compare and contrast the ecosystem concepts of niche and habitat.
8. What can you infer about an ecosystem that depends on chemoautotrophs for food?
9. Explain how energy limits the number of trophic levels in a food chain or web.
Points to Consider
In this lesson, you learned
from inorganic molecules.
break down their remains
way, matter is recycled by
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how matter is transferred through food chains and webs. Producers make food
Other organisms consume the producers. When organisms die, decomposers
and release inorganic molecules that can be used again by producers. In this
the biotic factors in ecosystems.
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Do you think that abiotic factors in ecosystems might also play a role in recycling matter? In what
way?
What abiotic factors might be involved in recycling matter? For example, what abiotic factors might
be involved in recycling water?
2.2
Recycling Matter
Lesson Objectives
Dene biogeochemical cycles.

Describe the water cycle and its processes.
Give an overview of the carbon cycle.
Outline the steps of the nitrogen cycle.
Vocabulary
aquifer
biogeochemical cycle
carbon cycle
condensation
evaporation
exchange pool
groundwater
nitrogen cycle
nitrogen xation
precipitation
reservoir
runo
sublimation
transpiration
water cycle
Introduction
Where does the water come from that is needed by your cells? Or the carbon and nitrogen that is needed to
make your organic molecules? Unlike energy, matter is not lost as it passes through an ecosystem. Instead,
matter is recycled. This recycling involves specic interactions between the biotic and abiotic factors in
an ecosystem.
Biogeochemical Cycles
The chemical elements and water that are needed by organisms continuously recycle in ecosystems. They
pass through biotic and abiotic components of the biosphere. Thats why their cycles are called biogeochemical cycles. For example, a chemical might move from organisms (bio) to the atmosphere or ocean
(geo) and back to organisms again. Elements or water may be held for various periods of time in dierent
parts of a cycle.
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Part of a cycle that holds an element or water for a short period of time is called an exchange pool.
For example, the atmosphere is an exchange pool for water. It usually holds water (in the form of
water vapor) for just a few days.
Part of a cycle that holds an element or water for a long period of time is called a reservoir. The
ocean is a reservoir for water. The deep ocean may hold water for thousands of years.
The rest of this lesson describes three biogeochemical cycles: the water cycle, carbon cycle, and nitrogen
cycle.
The Water Cycle

Water on Earth is billions of years old. However, individual water molecules keep moving through the
water cycle. The water cycle is a global cycle. It takes place on, above, and below Earths surface, as
shown in Figure 2.10.
Figure 2.10: Like other biogeochemical cycles, there is no beginning or end to the water cycle. It just keeps
repeating.
During the water cycle, water occurs in three dierent states: gas (water vapor), liquid (water), and solid
(ice). Many processes are involved as water changes state in the water cycle.
Evaporation, Sublimation, and Transpiration

Water changes to a gas by three dierent processes:
1. Evaporation occurs when water on the surface changes to water vapor. The sun heats the water
and gives water molecules enough energy to escape into the atmosphere.
2. Sublimation occurs when ice and snow change directly to water vapor. This also happens because
of heat from the sun.
3. Transpiration occurs when plants release water vapor through leaf pores called stomata (see Figure
2.11). The water is a product of photosynthesis.
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Figure 2.11: Plant leaves have many tiny stomata. They release water vapor into the air.
Condensation and Precipitation

Rising air currents carry water vapor into the atmosphere. As the water vapor rises in the atmosphere,
it cools and condenses. Condensation is the process in which water vapor changes to tiny droplets of
liquid water. The water droplets may form clouds. If the droplets get big enough, they fall as precipitationrain, snow, sleet, hail, or freezing rain. Most precipitation falls into the ocean. Eventually, this
water evaporates again and repeats the water cycle. Some frozen precipitation becomes part of ice caps
and glaciers. These masses of ice can store frozen water for hundreds of years or longer.
Groundwater and Runo

Precipitation that falls on land may ow over the surface of the ground. This water is called runo. It
may eventually ow into a body of water. Some precipitation that falls on land may soak into the ground,
becoming groundwater. Groundwater may seep out of the ground at a spring or into a body of water
such as the ocean. Some groundwater may be taken up by plant roots. Some may ow deeper underground
to an aquifer. This is an underground layer of rock that stores water, sometimes for thousands of years.
The water cycle is demonstrated at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iohKd5FWZOE&feature=related
(4:00).
The Water Cycle Jump can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BayExatv8lE. (1:31).
KQED: Tracking Raindrops

We all rely on the water cycle, but how does it actually work? Scientists at University of California
Berkeley are embarking on a new project to understand how global warming is aecting our fresh water
supply. And theyre doing it by tracking individual raindrops in Mendocino and north of Lake Tahoe. See
http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/tracking-raindrops for more information.
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The Carbon Cycle

Flowing water can slowly dissolve carbon in sedimentary rock. Most of this carbon ends up in the ocean.
The deep ocean can store carbon for thousands of years or more. Sedimentary rock and the ocean are
major reservoirs of stored carbon. Carbon is also stored for varying lengths of time in the atmosphere, in
living organisms, and as fossil fuel deposits. These are all parts of the carbon cycle, which is shown in
Figure 2.12.
Figure 2.12: The Carbon Cycle. Carbon moves from one reservoir to another in the carbon cycle. What
role do organisms play in this cycle?
The carbon cycle is discussed in the following video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Vwa6qtEih8
(1:56).
Carbon cycles quickly between organisms and the atmosphere. Cellular respiration releases carbon into
the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and
uses it to make organic compounds. Carbon cycles far more slowly through geological processes such as
sedimentation. Carbon may be stored in sedimentary rock for millions of years.
The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of Earths atmosphere. Its also an important part of living things. Nitrogen
is found in proteins, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll. The nitrogen cycle moves nitrogen through the abiotic
and biotic parts of ecosystems. Figure 2.13 shows how nitrogen cycles through a terrestrial ecosystem.
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Nitrogen passes through a similar cycle in aquatic ecosystems.
Figure 2.13: Nitrogen Cycle in a Terrestrial Ecosystem. Nitrogen cycles between the atmosphere and living
things.
Plants cannot use nitrogen gas from the air to make organic compounds for themselves and other organisms.
The nitrogen gas must be changed to a form called nitrates, which plants can absorb through their roots.
The process of changing nitrogen gas to nitrates is called nitrogen xation. It is carried out by nitrogenxing bacteria. The bacteria live in soil and roots of legumes, such as peas.
When plants and other organisms die, decomposers break down their remains. In the process, they release
nitrogen in the form of ammonium ions. Nitrifying bacteria change the ammonium ions into nitrates. Some
of the nitrates are used by plants. Some are changed back to nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria.
The nitrogen cycle is discussed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pdY4I-EaqJA&feature=fvw
(5:08).
Lesson Summary
Chemical elements and water are recycled through biogeochemical cycles. The cycles include both
biotic and abiotic parts of ecosystems.
The water cycle takes place on, above, and below Earths surface. In the cycle, water occurs as
water vapor, liquid water, and ice. Many processes are involved as water changes state in the cycle.
The atmosphere is an exchange pool for water. Ice masses, aquifers, and the deep ocean are water
reservoirs.
In the carbon cycle, carbon passes among sedimentary rocks, fossil fuel deposits, the ocean, the
atmosphere, and living things. Carbon cycles quickly between organisms and the atmosphere. It
cycles far more slowly through geological processes.
The nitrogen cycle moves nitrogen back and forth between the atmosphere and organisms. Bacteria
change nitrogen gas from the atmosphere to nitrogen compounds that plants can absorb. Other
bacteria change nitrogen compounds back to nitrogen gas, which re-enters the atmosphere.
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Recall
1. What is a biogeochemical cycle? Name an example.
2. Identify and dene two processes by which water naturally changes from a solid or liquid to a gas.
3. Dene exchange pool and reservoir, and identify an example of each in the water cycle.
4. State three ways that carbon dioxide enters Earths atmosphere.
5. List all the ways that a single tree may be involved in the carbon cycle.
Apply Concepts
6. Assume you are a molecule of water. Describe one way you could go through the water cycle, starting
as water vapor in the atmosphere.
7. Read the following passage, then apply information from the lesson to explain why the farmer plants
peas:
A farmer has three elds in which she grows corn for market. Every year, she plants one of the elds with
peas, even though she cannot make as much money selling peas as she can selling corn. She rotates the
elds she plants with peas so that each eld is planted with peas every 3 years.
Think Critically
8. Compare and contrast biological and geological pathways of the carbon cycle.
9. Explain why bacteria are essential parts of the nitrogen cycle.
Points to Consider
In this lesson, you read how matter is recycled through ecosystems. Ecosystems vary in the amount of
matter they can recycle. For example, rainforests can recycle more matter than deserts.
Consider the abiotic and biotic factors of a rainforest and desert. How might they be dierent?
Why do you think a rainforest can recycle more matter than a desert?
2.3
Biomes
Lesson Objectives
Identify and describe terrestrial biomes.
Give an overview of aquatic biomes.
Vocabulary
aphotic zone
aquatic biome
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climate
dormancy
estuary
freshwater biome
growing season
intertidal zone
marine biome
photic zone
phytoplankton
terrestrial biome
wetland
zooplankton
Introduction
If you look at the two pictures in Figure 2.14, you will see very few similarities. The picture on the left
shows a desert in Africa. The picture on the right shows a rainforest in Australia. The desert doesnt have
any visible plants, whereas the rainforest is densely packed with trees. What explains these dierences?
Figure 2.14: Sahara Desert in northern Africa (left). Rainforest in northeastern Australia (right). Two
very dierent biomes are pictured here. Both are found at roughly the same distance from the equator.
The two pictures in Figure 2.14 represent two dierent biomes. A biome is a group of similar ecosystems
with the same general abiotic factors and primary producers. Biomes may be terrestrial or aquatic.
Terrestrial Biomes
Terrestrial biomes include all the land areas on Earth where organisms live. The distinguishing features
of terrestrial biomes are determined mainly by climate. Terrestrial biomes include tundras, temperate
forests and grasslands, chaparral, temperate and tropical deserts, and tropical forests and grasslands.
Terrestrial Biomes and Climate

Climate is the average weather in an area over a long period of time. Weather refers to the conditions
of the atmosphere from day to day. Climate is generally described in terms of temperature and moisture.
Temperature falls from the equator to the poles. Therefore, major temperature zones are based on latitude.
They include tropical, temperate, and arctic zones (see Figure 2.15). However, other factors besides
latitude may also inuence temperature. For example, land near the ocean may have cooler summers and
warmer winters than land farther inland. This is because water gains and loses heat more slowly than does
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land, and the water temperature inuences the temperature on the coast. Temperature also falls from
lower to higher altitudes. Thats why tropical zone mountain tops may be capped with snow.
Figure 2.15: Temperature Zones. Temperature zones are based on latitude. What temperature zone do
you live in?
In terms of moisture, climates can be classied as arid (dry), semi-arid, humid (wet), or semi-humid.
The amount of moisture depends on both precipitation and evaporation. Precipitation increases moisture.
Evaporation decreases moisture.
The global pattern of precipitation is inuenced by movements of air masses. For example, there is
a global belt of dry air masses and low precipitation at about 30 N and 30 S latitude.
Precipitation is also inuenced by temperature. Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air, so
tropical areas receive more rainfall than other parts of the world.
Nearness to the ocean and mountain ranges may also inuence the amount of precipitation an area
receives. This is explained in Figure 2.16.
Evaporation of moisture is greatest where it is hot and sunny. Therefore, cold climates with low
precipitation may not be as dry as warm climates with the same amount of precipitation.
Moist air from the ocean rises up over the mountain range.
As the air rises, it cools and its water vapor condenses. Precipitation falls on the windward side of
the mountain range.
The air is dry when it reaches the leeward side of the mountain range, so there is little precipitation
there. This creates a rain shadow.
Climate and Plant Growth

Plants are the major producers in terrestrial biomes. They have ve basic needs: air, warmth, sunlight,
water, and nutrients. How well these needs are met in a given location depends on the growing season and
soil quality, both of which are determined mainly by climate.
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Figure 2.16: This diagram shows how precipitation is aected by the ocean and a mountain range.
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The growing season is the period of time each year when it is warm and wet enough for plants to
grow. The growing season may last all year in a hot, wet climate but just a few months in a cooler
or drier climate.
Plants grow best in soil that contains plenty of nutrients and organic matter. Both are added to soil
when plant litter and dead organisms decompose. Decomposition occurs too slowly in cold climates
and too quickly in hot, wet climates for nutrients and organic matter to accumulate. Temperate
climates usually have the best soil for plant growth.
Climate and Biodiversity

Because climate determines plant growth, it also inuences the number and variety of other organisms in a
terrestrial biome. Biodiversity generally increases from the poles to the equator. It is also usually greater
in more humid climates. This is apparent from the desert and rainforest biomes pictured in Figure 2.14.
Climate and Adaptations

Organisms evolve adaptations that help them survive in the climate of the biome where they live. For
example, in biomes with arid climates, plants may have special tissues for storing water (see Figure 2.17).
The desert animals pictured in Figure 2.18 also have adaptations for a dry climate.
Figure 2.17: Aloe Plant and Barrel Cactus. The aloe plant on the left stores water in its large, hollow
leaves. The cactus plant on the right stores water in its stout, barrel-shaped stems.
In biomes with cold climates, plants may adapt by becoming dormant during the coldest part of the year.
Dormancy is a state in which a plant slows down cellular activities and may shed its leaves. Animals also
adapt to cold temperatures. One way is with insulation in the form of fur and fat. This is how the polar
bears in Figure 2.19 stay warm.
Survey of Terrestrial Biomes

Terrestrial biomes are classied by climatic factors and types of primary producers. The world map in
Figure 2.20 shows where 13 major terrestrial biomes are found.
The following gures summarize the basic features of major terrestrial biomes. Think about how its
biodiversity and types of plants and animals relate to its climate. For example, why do you think there are
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Figure 2.18: Gila Monster and Kangaroo Rat. The Gila monsters fat tail is an adaptation to its dry
climate. It serves as a storage depot for water. The kangaroo rat has very eicient kidneys. They produce
concentrated urine, thus reducing the amount of water lost from the body.
Figure 2.19: Polar Bears. Thick fur and a layer of blubber keep polar bears warm in their Arctic ecosystem.
Why do you think their fur is white? Why might it be an adaptation in an Arctic biome?
Figure 2.20: Worldwide Distribution of Terrestrial Biomes. This map shows the locations of Earths major
terrestrial biomes.
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no amphibians or reptiles in tundra biomes? (Hint: Amphibians and reptiles cannot maintain a constant
body temperature. Instead, they have about the same temperature as their surroundings.)
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Aquatic Biomes
Terrestrial organisms are generally limited by temperature and moisture. Therefore, terrestrial biomes
are dened in terms of these abiotic factors. Most aquatic organisms do not have to deal with extremes
of temperature or moisture. Instead, their main limiting factors are the availability of sunlight and the
concentration of dissolved oxygen and nutrients in the water. These factors vary from place to place in a
body of water and are used to dene aquatic biomes.
Aquatic Biomes and Sunlight

In large bodies of standing water, including the ocean and lakes, the water can be divided into zones based
on the amount of sunlight it receives:
1. The photic zone extends to a maximum depth of 200 meters (656 feet) below the surface of the
water. This is where enough sunlight penetrates for photosynthesis to occur. Algae and other
photosynthetic organisms can make food and support food webs.
2. The aphotic zone is water deeper than 200 meters. This is where too little sunlight penetrates for
photosynthesis to occur. As a result, food must be made by chemosynthesis or else drift down from
the water above.
These and other aquatic zones in the ocean are identied in Figure 2.21.
Figure 2.21: The ocean is divided into many dierent zones, depending on distance from shore and depth
of water.
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Aquatic Biomes and Dissolved Substances

Water in lakes and the ocean also varies in the amount of dissolved oxygen and nutrients it contains:
1. Water near the surface of lakes and the ocean usually has more dissolved oxygen than does deeper
water. This is because surface water absorbs oxygen from the air above it.
2. Water near shore generally has more dissolved nutrients than water farther from shore. This is
because most nutrients enter the water from land. They are carried by runo, streams, and rivers
that empty into a body of water.
3. Water near the bottom of lakes and the ocean may contain more nutrients than water closer to the
surface. When aquatic organisms die, they sink to the bottom. Decomposers near the bottom of the
water break down the dead organisms and release their nutrients back into the water.
Aquatic Organisms
Aquatic organisms generally fall into three broad groups: plankton, nekton, and benthos. They vary in
how they move and where they live.
1. Plankton are tiny aquatic organisms that cannot move on their own. They live in the photic zone.
They include phytoplankton and zooplankton. Phytoplankton are bacteria and algae that use
sunlight to make food. Zooplankton are tiny animals that feed on phytoplankton.
2. Nekton are aquatic animals that can move on their own by swimming through the water. They
may live in the photic or aphotic zone. They feed on plankton or other nekton. Examples of nekton
include sh and shrimp.
3. Benthos are aquatic organisms that crawl in sediments at the bottom of a body of water. Many are
decomposers. Benthos include sponges, clams, and anglersh like the one in Figure 2.22. How has
this sh adapted to a life in the dark?
Figure 2.22: Anglersh. This anglersh lives between 1000 and 4000 meters below sea level. No sunlight
penetrates to this depth. The rod-like structure on its face has a glow-in-the-dark tip. It is covered with
microorganisms that give o their own light. The sh wiggles the structure like a worm to attract prey.
In the darkness, only the rod-like worm is visible.
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Marine Biomes
Anglersh live in the ocean. Aquatic biomes in the ocean are called marine biomes. Organisms that live
in marine biomes must be adapted to the salt in the water. For example, many have organs for excreting
excess salt. Two ocean zones are particularly challenging to marine organisms: the intertidal zone and the
deep ocean. The intertidal zone is the narrow strip along the coastline that is covered by water at high
tide and exposed to air at low tide (see Figure 2.23). There are plenty of nutrients and sunlight in the
intertidal zone. However, the water is constantly moving in and out, and the temperature keeps changing.
These conditions requires adaptations in the organisms that live there, such as the barnacles in Figure
2.24.
Figure 2.23: These pictures show the intertidal zone of the Bay of Fundy, on the Atlantic coast in Maine.
Can you identify the intertidal zone from the pictures?
Figure 2.24: Barnacles. Barnacles secrete a cement-like substance that anchors them to rocks in the
intertidal zone.
Organisms that live deep in the ocean must be able to withstand extreme water pressure, very cold water,
and complete darkness. However, even here, thriving communities of living things can be found. Organisms
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cluster around hydrothermal vents in the ocean oor. The vents release hot water containing chemicals that
would be toxic to most other living things. The producers among them are single-celled chemoautotrophs.
They make food using energy stored in the chemicals. The tube worms in this chapters opening photo
depend on these chemoautotrophs for food.
Freshwater Biomes
Freshwater biomes have water that contains little or no salt. They include standing and running
freshwater biomes. Standing freshwater biomes include ponds and lakes. Lakes are generally bigger and
deeper than ponds. Some of the water in lakes is in the aphotic zone where there is too little sunlight for
photosynthesis. Plankton and plants (such as the duckweed in Figure 2.25) are the primary producers in
standing freshwater biomes.
Figure 2.25: The pond on the left has a thick mat of duckweed plants. They cover the surface of the water
and use sunlight for photosynthesis. The cattails on the right grow along a stream bed. They have tough,
slender leaves that can withstand moving water.
Running freshwater biomes include streams and rivers. Rivers are usually larger than streams. Streams
may start with runo or water seeping out of a spring. The water runs downhill and joins other running
water to become a stream. A stream may ow into a river that empties into a lake or the ocean. Running
water is better able to dissolve oxygen and nutrients than standing water. However, the moving water is
a challenge to many living things. Algae and plants (such as the cattails in Figure 2.25) are the primary
producers in running water biomes.
Wetlands
A wetland is an area that is saturated with water or covered by water for at least one season of the year.
The water may be freshwater or salt water. Wetlands are extremely important biomes for several reasons:
They
They
They
They
They
store excess water from oods.

slow down runo and help prevent erosion.
remove excess nutrients from runo before it empties into rivers or lakes.
provide a unique habitat that certain communities of plants need to survive.
provide a safe, lush habitat for many species of animals, so they have high biodiversity.
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KQED: Restoring Wetlands

More than 100,000 acres of wetlands are being restored in the Northern California Bay Area, but how
exactly do we know what to restore them to? Historical ecologists are recreating San Francisco Bay wetlands
that existed decades ago. To learn more, see http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/view/416.
For more than 100 years, south San Francisco Bay has been a center for industrial salt production. Now
federal and state biologists are working to restore the ponds to healthy wetlands for sh and other wildlife.
Salt marshes are rich habitats that provide shelter and food for many species, some of which are endangered
or threatened.
See http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/from-salt-ponds-to-wetlands for additional information.
KQED: San Francisco Bay: A Unique Estuary

An estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams owing into it,
and with a free connection to the ocean. Estuaries can be thought of as the most biologically productive
regions on Earth, with very high biodiversity. Estuaries are zones where land and sea come together, and
where fresh and salt water meet.
The San Francisco Bay is one of the great estuaries of the world. See http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=clZz2OjE5n0&playnext=1&list=PL0AAA2B9B3E9F6AB3 for further information.

KQED: Studying Aquatic Animals

Oceans cover more than 70 percent of our planet yet they make up one of the least explored regions on
Earth. Who better to unlock the mysteries of the ocean than marine animals themselves? Marine scientists
have been tagging and tracking sharks, leatherback turtles and other sea life to learn more about marine
ecosystems. Through the Tagging of Pacic Predators program (TOPP), scientists hope to both assess
and explain the migration routes, ecosystems and diversity of our oceans species.
Beginning in 2000, scientists from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Stanford University and the University of California, Santa Cruz combined to form TOPP. As part of TOPP, researchers
attach satellite tags to elephant seals, white sharks, giant leatherback turtles, bluen tuna, swordsh and
other marine animals. The tags collect information, such as how deep each animal dives, the levels of
ambient light (to help determine an animals location) and interior and exterior body temperature. Some
tags also collect information about the temperature, salinity and depth of the water surrounding an animal
to help scientists identify ocean currents. The tags send the data to a satellite, which in turn sends the
data the scientists. They use this information to create maps of migration patterns and discover new information about dierent marine ecosystems. The information collected by TOPP oers rare insights into
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the lives of marine animals. Without TOPP, that information would otherwise remain unknown. With
TOPP, scientists are developing a working knowledge of the particular migration routes animals take, as
well as the locations of popular breeding grounds and the environmental dangers faced by dierent species.
TOPP has shed light on how we can better protect the leatherback turtle and other endangered species.
See http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/tagging-pacific-predators- for more information.

Lesson Summary
Terrestrial biomes are determined mainly by climate. Climate inuences plant growth, biodiversity, and adaptations of land organisms. Terrestrial biomes include tundras, temperate forests and
grasslands, chaparral, temperate and tropical deserts, and tropical forests and grasslands.
Aquatic biomes are determined mainly by sunlight and concentrations of dissolved oxygen and nutrients in the water. Aquatic organisms are either plankton, nekton, or benthos. Marine biomes are
found in the salt water of the ocean. Freshwater biomes include standing and running water biomes.
Wetlands are extremely important biomes. They may have freshwater or salt water.

Recall
1. What is climate? How does it dier from weather?
2. What is a rain shadow?
3. How does climate inuence plant growth?
4. Identify two types of tundra and where they are found.
5. In which biome are you most likely to nd grasses, zebras, and lions?
6. What is the photic zone of the ocean?
Apply Concepts
7. Compare the data for Seattle and Denver in Table 2.2. Seattle is farther north than Denver. Why is
Seattle warmer?
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Table 2.2: Seattle versus Denver

City, State
Latitude (N)
Altitude (ft above

sea level)
Location (relative
to ocean)
Average Low Temperature in January (F)
Seattle, Washington
Denver, Colorado
48
429
Coastal
33
41
5183
Interior
15
8. If you were to design a well-adapted desert animal, what adaptations would you give it to help it survive
in its desert biome?
Think Critically
9. Explain the relationship between biodiversity and climate in terrestrial biomes.
10. Compare and contrast plankton, nekton, and benthos.
11. A developer wants to extend a golf course into a wetland. Outline environmental arguments you could
make against this plan.
Points to Consider
You read in this lesson that wetlands have high biodiversity.
In general, what abiotic factors do you think contribute to high biodiversity?
Do you think Earths biodiversity is increasing or decreasing? Why?
Image Sources
(1) Stomata: Photohound; Leaf: Jon Sullivan/pdphoto.org. [Stomata:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tomato_leaf_stomate_1-color.jpg; Leaf:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leaf_1_web.jpg ]. Both images are in the public domain.
(2) Samuel Wantman (composite created by Tttrung).
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bay_of_Fundy.jpg. GNU-FDL 1.2.
(3) Image copyright Chai Kian Shin, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(4) Tomas Castelazo. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Baja_California_Desert.jpg.
CC-BY-SA 2.5.
(6) Images of lion and landscape copyright by Eric Issele, 2010; image of girae copyright Kletr, 2010;
composite created by CK-12 Foundation. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under licenses from
Shutterstock.com.
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(7) Gila monster: Blueag9; Kangaroo rat: Courtesy of US Fish and Wildlife. [Gila monster:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gila_monster2.JPG; Kangaroo rat:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kangaroo-rat.jpg ]. Gila monster: CC-BY-SA 2.5;
Kangaroo rate: Public Domain.
(8) Dewet. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dungbeetle.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0.
(9) A Brauer. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Humpback_anglerfish.png. Public Domain.
(10) Michael Maggs. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chthamalus_stellatus.jpg.
CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(11) Desert: Nicholasink; Rainforest: Tim35. [Desert:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Desert1.jpg; Rainforest:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:DSC00686Cairns.JPG ]. Desert: CC-BY-SA 2.0;
Rainforest: Public Domain.
(12) Flower image copyright Laurent Renault, 2010; caterpillar image copyright ngstyle, 2010; frog image
copyright zaharch, 2010; snake image copyright ananas, 2010; owl image ; tree image copyright sabri
deniz kizil, 2010; composite created by CK-12 Foundation. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used
under licenses from Shuttesrtock.com.
(13) Tree: Haabet; Grass: Polishname; Diatoms: Gordon T. Taylor/Stony Brook University/National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; Seaweed: Flyingdream; Cyanobacteria: Barry H.
Rosen/US Geological Survey; Purple bacteria: Janice Carr/Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention; Composite created by CK-12 Foundation. [Tree:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Raunkiaer.jpg; Grass:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:TallWildGrass.jpg; Diatoms:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg; Seaweed:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Codiumfragile.jpg; Cyanobacteria:
http://microbiology.usgs.gov/image_gallery_cyanobacteria_phormidium.html; Purple
bacteria: http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/details.asp (ID 9999) ]. All images are under the public
domain.
(14) L Shyamal. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BirdBeaksA.svg. CC-BY-SA 2.5.
(19) Courtesy of US Geological Survey.
http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1316/html/circ1316chap14.html. Public Domain.
(20) Courtesy of US Fish and Wildlife Service. http://alaska.fws.gov/aba/budget/index.htm.
Public Domain.
(21) Aloe: Raul654; Cactus: MPF. [Aloe:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Split_Aloe.jpg; Cactus:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ferocactus1.jpg ]. Aloe: CC-BY-SA 3.0; Cactus:
GNU-FDL 1.2.
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(23) Duckweed: Pawel Ryszawa; Cattails: Bogdan. [Duckweed:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Warsaw_ZOO_-_Anas_in_Duckweeds.jpg; Cattails:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Typha_latifolia_02_bgiu.jpg ]. Duckweed: CC-BY-SA
2.5; Cattails: CC-BY-SA 3.0.
Opening image courtesy of the National Science Foundation, http://www.nsf.gov/news/overviews/
earth-environ/assets/interact06.jpg, and under the public domain.
Major terrestrial biomes:
(Alpine tundra) Fawcett5, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alpine_flora.png, Public Domain.
(Arctic tundra) Courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Tundra_coastal_vegetation_Alaska.jpg, Public Domain.
(Boreal forest) Courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, http://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Picea_mariana_taiga.jpg, Public Domain.
(Temperate forest) Mortis, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Forest-Creek-Eagleville-PA-USA.
jpg, GNU-FDL 1.2.
(Temperate grassland) Brian Kell, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oglala_National_
Grassland.jpg, Public Domain.
(Chaparral) Antandrus, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chaparral_California.jpg,
CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(Desert) Andrew Garrett, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Southern_California_Desert.
jpg, CC-BY-SA 2.5.
(Rainforest) Hettie van Nes, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cloud_forest_Ecuador.
jpg, GNU-FDL 1.2.
(Elephant) Sandra Fenley, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Elephantreaching.jpg,
GNU-FDL 1.2.
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Chapter 3
Communities and Populations
If you saw the movie Finding Nemo, then you probably recognize this sh. Its known as a clownsh,
and its swimming near the tentacles of an animal called a sea anemone. The sea anemone kills prey by
injecting poison with its tentacles. For some reason, the anemone doesnt harm the clownsh, perhaps
because the sh has a coating of mucus that helps disguise it. But why does the clownsh hang out with
the sea anemone? One reason is for the food. The clownsh eats the remains of the anemones prey after it
nishes feeding. Another reason is safety. The clownsh is safe from predators when its near the anemone.
Predators are scared away by the anemones poison tentacles. In return, the clownsh helps the anemone
catch food by attracting prey with its bright colors. Its feces also provide nutrients to the anemone. The
clownsh and anemone are just one example of the diverse ways that living things may help each other in
nature. You will learn more about species interactions such as this when you read this chapter.
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3.1
Community Interactions
Lesson Objectives
Dene community as the term is used in ecology.

Describe predation and its eects on population size and evolution.
Explain why interspecic competition leads to extinction or greater specialization.
Compare and contrast mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
Outline primary and secondary succession, and dene climax community.
Vocabulary
climax community
commensalism
ecological succession
host
interspecic competition
intraspecic competition
keystone species
mutualism
parasite
parasitism
pioneer species
predation
predator
prey
primary succession
secondary succession
specialization
Introduction
Biomes as dierent as deserts and wetlands share something very important. All biomes have populations
of interacting species. Species also interact in the same basic ways in all biomes. For example, all biomes
have some species that prey on others for food. The focus of study of species interactions is the community.
What Is a Community?
A community is the biotic part of an ecosystem. It consists of all the populations of all the species in the
same area. It also includes their interactions. Species interactions in communities are important factors in
natural selection. They help shape the evolution of the interacting species. There are three major types
of community interactions: predation, competition, and symbiosis.
Predation
Predation is a relationship in which members of one species (the predator) consume members of another
species (the prey). The lions and bualo in Figure 3.1 are classic examples of predators and prey. In
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addition to the lions, there is another predator in this gure. Can you spot it? The other predator is the
bualo. Like the lion, it consumes prey species, in this case species of grass. However, unlike the lions, the
bualo does not kill its prey. Predator-prey relationships such as these account for most energy transfers
in food chains and food webs.
Figure 3.1: Predators and Their Prey. Two lions feed on the carcass of a South African cape bualo.
Predation and Population

A predator-prey relationship tends to keep the populations of both species in balance. This is shown by
the graph in Figure 3.2. As the prey population increases, there is more food for predators. So, after a
slight lag, the predator population increases as well. As the number of predators increases, more prey are
captured. As a result, the prey population starts to decrease. What happens to the predator population
then?
Figure 3.2: Predator-Prey population Dynamics. As the prey population increases, why does the predator
population also increase?
Keystone Species
Some predator species are known as keystone species. A keystone species is one that plays an especially
important role in its community. Major changes in the numbers of a keystone species aect the populations
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of many other species in the community. For example, some sea star species are keystone species in coral
reef communities. The sea stars prey on mussels and sea urchins, which have no other natural predators.
If sea stars were removed from a coral reef community, mussel and sea urchin populations would have
explosive growth. This, in turn, would drive out most other species. In the end, the coral reef community
would be destroyed.
Adaptations to Predation
Both predators and prey have adaptations to predation that evolve through natural selection. Predator
adaptations help them capture prey. Prey adaptations help them avoid predators. A common adaptation
in both predator and prey is camouage. Several examples are shown in Figure 3.3. Camouage in prey
helps them hide from predators. Camouage in predators helps them sneak up on prey.
Figure 3.3: Camouage in Predator and Prey Species. Can you see the crab in the photo on the left? It
is camouaged with algae. The preying mantis in the middle photo looks just like the dead leaves in the
background. Can you tell where one zebra ends and another one begins? This may confuse a predator and
give the zebras a chance to run away.
Competition
Competition is a relationship between organisms that strive for the same resources in the same place. The
resources might be food, water, or space. There are two dierent types of competition:
1. Intraspecic competition occurs between members of the same species. For example, two male
birds of the same species might compete for mates in the same area. This type of competition is a
basic factor in natural selection. It leads to the evolution of better adaptations within a species.
2. Interspecic competition occurs between members of dierent species. For example, predators of
dierent species might compete for the same prey.
Interspecic Competition and Extinction

Interspecic competition often leads to extinction. The species that is less well adapted may get fewer of
the resources that both species need. As a result, members of that species are less likely to survive, and
the species may go extinct.
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Interspecic Competition and Specialization

Instead of extinction, interspecic competition may lead to greater specialization. Specialization occurs
when competing species evolve dierent adaptations. For example, they may evolve adaptations that allow
them to use dierent food sources. Figure 3.4 describes an example.
Figure 3.4: Specialization in Anole Lizards. Specialization lets dierent species of anole lizards live in the
same area without competing.
Symbiotic Relationships
Symbiosis is a close relationship between two species in which at least one species benets. For the other
species, the relationship may be positive, negative, or neutral. There are three basic types of symbiosis:
mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
Mutualism
Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both species benet. An example of mutualism involves
goby sh and shrimp (see Figure 3.5). The nearly blind shrimp and the sh spend most of their time
together. The shrimp maintains a burrow in the sand in which both the sh and shrimp live. When a
predator comes near, the sh touches the shrimp with its tail as a warning. Then, both sh and shrimp
retreat to the burrow until the predator is gone. From their relationship, the shrimp gets a warning of
approaching danger. The sh gets a safe retreat and a place to lay its eggs.
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Figure 3.5: The multicolored shrimp in the front and the green goby sh behind it have a mutualistic
relationship.
Commensalism
Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species benets while the other species is not
aected. One species typically uses the other for a purpose other than food. For example, mites attach
themselves to larger ying insects to get a free ride. Hermit crabs use the shells of dead snails for homes.
Parasitism
Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species (the parasite) benets while the other species
(the host) is harmed. Many species of animals are parasites, at least during some stage of their life. Most
species are also hosts to one or more parasites. Some parasites live on the surface of their host. Others live
inside their host. They may enter the host through a break in the skin or in food or water. For example,
roundworms are parasites of mammals, including humans, cats, and dogs (see Figure 3.6). The worms
produce huge numbers of eggs, which are passed in the hosts feces to the environment. Other individuals
may be infected by swallowing the eggs in contaminated food or water.
Some parasites kill their host, but most do not. Its easy to see why. If a parasite kills its host, the parasite
is also likely to die. Instead, parasites usually cause relatively minor damage to their host.
Ecological Succession
Communities are not usually static. The numbers and types of species that live in them generally change
through time. This is called ecological succession. Important cases of succession are primary and
secondary succession.
Primary Succession
Primary succession occurs in an area that has never before been colonized. Generally, the area is nothing
but bare rock. This type of environment may come about when
lava ows from a volcano and hardens into rock.
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Figure 3.6: Canine Roundworm. The roundworm above, found in a puppys intestine, might eventually ll
a dogs intestine unless it gets medical treatment.
a glacier retreats and leaves behind bare rock.

a landslide uncovers an area of bare rock.
The rst species to colonize a disturbed area such as this are called pioneer species (see Figure 3.7)
They change the environment and pave the way for other species to come into the area. Pioneer species
are likely to include bacteria and lichens that can live on bare rock. Along with wind and water, they help
weather the rock and form soil. Once soil begins to form, plants can move in. At rst, the plants include
grasses and other species that can grow in thin, poor soil. As more plants grow and die, organic matter
is added to the soil. This improves the soil and helps it hold water. The improved soil allows shrubs and
trees to move into the area.
Secondary Succession
Secondary succession occurs in a formerly inhabited area that was disturbed. The disturbance could be
a re, ood, or human action such as farming. This type of succession is faster because the soil is already
in place. In this case, the pioneer species are plants such as grasses, birch trees, and reweed. Organic
matter from the pioneer species improves the soil. This lets other plants move into the area. An example
of this type of succession is shown in Figure 3.8.
Climax Communities
Many early ecologists thought that a community always goes through the same series of stages during
succession. They also assumed that succession always ends with a nal stable stage. They called this stage
the climax community. Today, most ecologists no longer hold these views. They believe that continued
change is normal in most ecosystems. They think that most communities are disturbed too often to become
climax communities.
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Figure 3.7: Primary Succession. On an island near New Zealand, bare rocks from a volcanic eruption are
slowly being colonized by pioneer species.
Figure 3.8: Secondary Succession. This formerly plowed eld in Poland is slowly changing back to forest.
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Lesson Summary
A community is the biotic part of an ecosystem. It consists of all the populations of all the species
that live in the same area. It also includes their interactions.
Predation is a relationship in which members of one species (the predator) consume members of
another species (the prey). A predator-prey relationship keeps the populations of both species in
balance.
Competition is a relationship between organisms that strive for the same resources in the same place.
Intraspecic competition occurs between members of the same species. It improves the species
adaptations. Interspecic competition occurs between members of dierent species. It may lead to
one species going extinct or both becoming more specialized.
Symbiosis is a close relationship between two species in which at least one species benets. Mutualism
is a symbiotic relationship in which both species benet. Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship
in which one species benets while the other species is not aected. Parasitism is a symbiotic
relationship in which one species (the parasite) benets while the other species (the host) is harmed.
Ecological succession is the process in which a community changes through time. Primary succession
occurs in an area that has never before been colonized. Secondary succession occurs in a formerly
inhabited area that was disturbed.

Recall
1. List the three major types of community interactions.
2. Describe the relationship between a predator population and the population of its prey.
3. What is a keystone species? Give an example.
4. Dene mutualism and commensalism.
5. What is a climax community?
6. Summarize how ideas about ecological succession and climax communities have changed.
Apply Concepts
7. In 1980, a massive volcanic eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington State covered a large area
with lava and ash. By 2010, plants were growing in the area, including some small trees. What type of
ecological succession had occurred? How do you know? Describe how living things colonized the bare rock.
Think Critically
8. Compare and contrast the evolutionary eects of intraspecic and interspecic competition.
9. Explain why most parasites do not kill their host. Why is it in their own best interest to keep their
host alive?
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Points to Consider
Communities consist of populations of dierent species. The size and growth of populations in a community
are inuenced by species interactions. For example, predator-prey relationships control the growth of both
predator and prey populations.
How might populations grow without these inuences? What other factors do you think might aect
population growth?
What factors do you think may have aected the growth of the human population?
3.2
Characteristics of Populations
Lesson Objectives
Dene population size, density, and dispersion.

Relate population pyramids and survivorship curves to population structure.
Identify factors that determine population growth rate.
Compare and contrast exponential and logistic growth.
Vocabulary
age-sex structure
carrying capacity (K)
dispersal
emigration
exponential growth
immigration
K-selected
logistic growth
migration
population density
population distribution
population growth rate (r)
population pyramid
r-selected
survivorship curve
Introduction
Communities are made up of populations of dierent species. In biology, a population is a group of
organisms of the same species that live in the same area. The population is the unit of natural selection
and evolution. How large a population is and how fast it is growing are often used as measures of its
health.
Population Size, Density, and Distribution

Population size is the number of individuals in a population. For example, a population of insects might
consist of 100 individual insects, or many more. Population size inuences the chances of a species surviving
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or going extinct. Generally, very small populations are at greatest risk of extinction. However, the size of
a population may be less important than its density.
Population Density
Population density is the average number of individuals in a population per unit of area or volume. For
example, a population of 100 insects that live in an area of 100 square meters has a density of 1 insect per
square meter. If the same population lives in an area of only 1 square meter, what is its density? Which
population is more crowded? How might crowding aect the health of a population?
Population Distribution
Population density just gives the average number of individuals per unit of area or volume. Often, individuals in a population are not spread out evenly. Instead, they may live in clumps or some other pattern
(see Figure 3.9). The pattern may reect characteristics of the species or its environment. Population
distribution describes how the individuals are distributed, or spread throughout their habitat.
Figure 3.9: Patterns of Population Distribution. What factors inuence the pattern of a population over
space?
Population Structure
Population growth is the change in the size of the population over time. An important factor in population
growth is age-sex structure. This is the number of individuals of each sex and age in the population.
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The age-sex structure inuences population growth. This is because younger people are more likely to
reproduce, while older people have higher rates of dying.
Population Pyramids
Age-sex structure is represented by a population pyramid. This is a bar graph, like the one Figure
3.10. In this example, the bars become narrower from younger to older ages. Can you explain why?
Figure 3.10: Population Pyramid. A population pyramid represents the age-sex structure of a population.
Survivorship Curves
Another way to show how deaths aect populations is with survivorship curves. These are graphs that
represent the number of individuals still alive at each age. Examples are shown in Figure 3.11.
The three types of curves shown in the gure actually represent dierent strategies species use to adapt to
their environment:
Type I: Parents produce relatively few ospring and provide them with a lot of care. As a result,
most of the ospring survive to adulthood so they can reproduce. This pattern is typical of large
animals, including humans.
Type II: Parents produce moderate numbers of ospring and provide some parental care. Deaths
occur more uniformly throughout life. This pattern occurs in some birds and many asexual species.
Type III: Parents produce many ospring but provide them with little or no care. As a result,
relatively few ospring survive to adulthood. This pattern is typical of plants, invertebrates, and
many species of sh.
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Figure 3.11: Survivorship Curves. Survivorship curves reect death rates at dierent ages.
The type I strategy occurs more often in stable environments. The Type III strategy is more likely in
unstable environments. Can you explain why?
Population Growth
Populations gain individuals through births and immigration. They lose individuals through deaths and
emigration. These factors together determine how fast a population grows.
Population Growth Rate

Population growth rate (r) is how fast a population changes in size over time. A positive growth
rate means a population is increasing. A negative growth rate means it is decreasing. The two main
factors aecting population growth are the birth rate (b) and death rate (d). Population growth may also
be aected by people coming into the population from somewhere else (immigration, i) or leaving the
population for another area (emigration, e). The formula for population growth takes all these factors
into account.
r = (b + i) - (d + e)
r = population growth rate

b = birth rate
i = immigration rate
d = death rate
e = emigration rate
Two lectures on demography are available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3diw1Hu3auk (50:36)

and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wg3ESbyKbic (49:38).
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Dispersal and Migration

Other types of movements may also aect population size and growth. For example, many species have
some means of dispersal. This refers to ospring moving away from their parents. This prevents the
ospring from competing with the parents for resources such as light or water. For example, dandelion
seeds have parachutes. They allow the wind to carry the seeds far from the parents (see Figure 3.12).
Figure 3.12: Dandelion Seeds. These dandelion seeds may disperse far from the parent plant. Why might
this be benecial to both parents and ospring?
Migration is another type of movement that changes population size. Migration is the regular movement
of individuals or populations each year during certain seasons. The purpose of migration usually is to
nd food, mates, or other resources. For example, many Northern Hemisphere birds migrate thousands of
miles south each fall. They go to areas where the weather is warmer and more resources are available (see
Figure 3.13). Then they return north in the spring to nest. Some animals, such as elk, migrate vertically.
They go up the sides of mountains in spring as snow melts. They go back down the mountain sides in fall
as snow returns.
Patterns of Population Growth

Populations may show dierent patterns of growth. The growth pattern depends partly on the conditions
under which a population lives.
Exponential Growth
Under ideal conditions, populations of most species can grow at exponential rates. Curve A in Figure 3.14
represents exponential growth. The population starts out growing slowly. As population size increases,
the growth rate also increases. The larger the population becomes, the faster it grows.
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Figure 3.13: Swainsons hawks migrate from North to South America and back again each year. This map
shows where individual hawks have been identied during their migration.
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Figure 3.14: Exponential and Logistic Growth. Curve A shows exponential growth. Curve B shows logistic
growth.
Logistic Growth
Most populations do not live under ideal conditions. Therefore, most do not grow exponentially. Certainly,
no population can keep growing exponentially for very long. Many factors may limit growth. Often, the
factors are density dependent. These are factors that kick in when the population becomes too large and
crowded. For example, the population may start to run out of food or be poisoned by its own wastes. As
a result, population growth slows and population size levels o. Curve B in Figure 3.14 represents this
pattern of growth, which is called logistic growth.
At what population size does growth start to slow in the logistic model of growth? That depends on the
populations carrying capacity (see Figure 3.14). The carrying capacity (K) is the largest population
size that can be supported in an area without harming the environment. Population growth hits a ceiling
at that size in the logistic growth model.
K-Selected and r-Selected Species

Species can be divided into two basic types when it comes to how their populations grow.
Species that live in stable environments are likely to be K-selected. Their population growth is
controlled by density-dependent factors. Population size is generally at or near the carrying capacity.
These species are represented by curve B in Figure 3.14.
Species that live in unstable environments are likely to r-selected. Their potential population
growth is rapid. For example, they have large numbers of ospring. However, individuals are likely
to die young. Thus, population size is usually well below the carrying capacity. These species are
represented by the lower part of curve A in Figure 3.14.
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Lesson Summary
Population size is the number of individuals in a population. Population density is the average number
of individuals per unit of area or volume. The pattern of spacing of individuals in a population may
be aected by characteristics of a species or its environment.
The age-sex structure of a population is the number of individuals of each sex and age in the population. Age-sex structure inuences population growth. It is represented by a population pyramid.
The number of survivors at each age is plotted on a survivorship curve.
Population growth rate is how fast a population changes in size over time. It is determined by rates
of birth, death, immigration, and emigration.
Under ideal conditions, populations can grow exponentially. The growth rate increases as the population gets larger. Most populations do not live under ideal conditions and grow logistically instead.
Density-dependent factors slow population growth as population size nears the carrying capacity.

Recall
1. What is population density?
2. Dene immigration and emigration.
3. What is migration? Give an example.
4. Write the formula for the population growth rate. Identify all the variables.
5. State why dispersal of ospring away from their parents might be benecial.
6. Describe exponential population growth.
7. What are K-selected and r-selected species?
Apply Concepts
8. A population of 820 insects lives in a 1.2-acre area. They gather nectar from a population of 560
owering plants. The plants live in a 0.2-acre area. Which population has greater density, the insects or
the plants?
9. Assume that a population pyramid has a very broad base. What does that tell you about the population
it represents?
Think Critically
10. What can you infer about a species that has a random pattern of distribution over space? A uniform
pattern?
11. Compare and contrast Type I and Type III survivorship curves.
Points to Consider
Human populations have an interesting history that you will read about in the next lesson. You just read
about population dispersion and growth. Make some predictions about dispersion and growth in human
populations:
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Do you think human populations have a clumped, random, or uniform dispersion?

How fast do human populations grow? What might limit their growth?
3.3
Human Population Growth
Lesson Objectives
Describe early human population growth.

Outline the stages of the demographic transition.
Explain trends in recent human population growth.
Summarize the human population problem and possible solutions to the problem.
Vocabulary
demographic transition
Introduction
Humans have been called the most successful weed species Earth has ever seen. Like weeds, human
populations are fast growing. They also disperse rapidly. They have colonized habitats from pole to pole.
Overall, the human population has had a pattern of exponential growth, as shown in Figure 3.15. The
population increased very slowly at rst. As it increased in size, so did its rate of growth.
Figure 3.15: Growth of the Human Population. This graph gives an overview of human population growth
since 10,000 BC. It took until about 1800 AD for the number of humans to reach 1 billion. It took only a
little over 100 years for the number to reach 2 billion. Today, the human population is rapidly approaching
the 7 billion mark! Why do you think the human population began growing so fast?
Early Population Growth

Homo sapiens arose about 200,000 years ago in Africa. Early humans lived in small populations of nomadic
hunters and gatherers. They rst left Africa about 40,000 years ago. They soon moved throughout Europe,
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Asia, and Australia. By 10,000 years ago, they had reached the Americas. During this long period,
birth and death rates were both fairly high. As a result, population growth was slow. Humans invented
agriculture about 10,000 years ago. This provided a bigger, more dependable food supply. It also let them
settle down in villages and cities for the rst time. The death rate increased because of diseases associated
with domestic animals and crowded living conditions. The birth rate increased because there was more
food and settled life oered other advantages. The combined eect was continued slow population growth.
Demographic Transition
Major changes in the human population rst began during the 1700s in Europe and North America. First
death rates fell, followed somewhat later by birth rates.
Death Rates Fall

Several advances in science and technology led to lower death rates in 18th century Europe and North
America:
New scientic knowledge of the causes of disease led to improved water supplies, sewers, and personal
hygiene.
Better farming techniques and machines increased the food supply.
The Industrial Revolution of the 1800s led to new sources of energy, such as coal and electricity.
This increased the eiciency of the new agricultural machines. It also led to train transport, which
improved the distribution of food.
For all these reasons, death rates fell, especially in children. This allowed many more children to survive
to adulthood, so birth rates increased. As the gap between birth and death rates widened, the human
population grew faster.
Birth Rates Fall

It wasnt long before birth rates started to fall as well in Europe and North America. People started having
fewer children because large families were no longer benecial for several reasons.
As child death rates fell and machines did more work, farming families no longer needed to have as
many children to work in the elds.
Laws were passed that required children to go to school. Therefore, they could no longer work and
contribute to their own support. They became a drain on the familys income.
Eventually, birth rates fell to match death rates. As a result, population growth slowed to nearly zero.
Stages of the Demographic Transition

These changes in population that occurred in Europe and North America have been called the demographic transition. The transition can be summarized in the following four stages, which are illustrated
in Figure 3.16:
Stage 1High birth and death rates lead to slow population growth.
Stage 2The death rate falls but the birth rate remains high, leading to faster population growth.
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Stage 3The birth rate starts to fall, so population growth starts to slow.
Stage 4The birth rate reaches the same low level as the death rate, so population growth slows to
zero.
Figure 3.16: Stages of the Demographic Transition. In the demographic transition, the death rate falls
rst. After a lag, the birth rate also falls. How do these changes aect the rate of population growth over
time?
Recent Population Growth

At one time, scientists predicted that all human populations would pass through the same demographic
transition as Europe and North America. Now, they are not so sure. Death rates have fallen throughout
the world. No country today remains in Stage 1 of the transition. However, birth rates are still high in
many poor countries. These populations seem to be stuck in Stage 2. An example is the African country
of Angola. Its population pyramid for 2005 is shown in Figure 3.17. The wide base of the pyramid base
reects the high birth rate of this population.
Many other countries have shifted to Stage 3 of the transition. Birth rates have started to fall. As a result,
population growth is slowing. An example is Mexico. Its population pyramid for 1998 is shown in Figure
3.18. It reects a recent fall in the birth rate.
Most developed nations have entered Stage 4. Sweden is an example (see Figure 3.19). The birth rate
has been low for many years in Sweden. Therefore, the rate of population growth is near zero.
In some countries, birth rates have fallen even lower than death rates. As result, their population growth
rates are negative. In other words, the populations are shrinking in size. These populations have top-heavy
population pyramids, like the one for Italy shown in Figure 3.20. This is a new stage of the demographic
transition, referred to as Stage 5. You might think that a negative growth rate would be a good thing.
In fact, it may cause problems. For example, growth-dependent industries decline. Supporting the large
aging population is also a burden for the shrinking younger population of workers.
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Figure 3.17: Angolas population pyramid is typical of Stage 2 of the demographic transition.
Figure 3.18: Mexicos 1998 population pyramid is typical of Stage 3 population. How can you tell that the
birth rate has started to fall?
Figure 3.19: Swedens 1998 population pyramid shows a population in Stage 4.
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Figure 3.20: This 1998 population pyramid for Italy represents a Stage 5 population.
Future Population Growth

During the month of October 2011, the worlds population surpassed 7 billion people. It took just 12 years
for the population to increase by a billion people. At this rate, there may be well over 9 billion people
by 2050, and easily 10 billion people by 2100. This raises many questions for both people and the planet.
These issues are discussed at http://www.cnn.com/2011/10/17/opinion/sachs-global-population/
index.html.
The human population is now growing by more than 200,000 people a day. The human population may
well be close to its carrying capacity. It has already harmed the environment. An even larger human
population may cause severe environmental problems. This could lead to outbreaks of disease, starvation,
and global conict. There are three potential solutions:
1. Use technology to make better use of resources to support more people.
2. Change behaviors to reduce human numbers and how much humans consume.
3. Distribute resources more fairly among all the worlds people.
Which solution would you choose?
Census Update: What the World Will Look like in 2050

On June 30, 2011, Time.com published Census Update: What the World Will Look like in 2050 (http://
www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,2080404,00.html). According to the U.S Census Bureau,
in 2050, there will be 9.4 billion people:
India will be the most populous nation, surpassing China sometime around 2025.
The U.S. will remain the third most populous nation, with a population of 423 million (up from 308
million in 2010).
Declining birth rates Japan and Russia will cause them to fall from their current positions as the 9th
and 10th most populous nations, respectively, to 16th and 17th.
Nigeria will have a population of 402 million, up from 166 million people.
Ethiopias population will likely triple, from 91 million to 278 million, making the East African nation
one of the top 10 most populous countries in the world.
So what does all this mean?
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The African continent is expected to experience signicant population growth in the coming decades,
which could compound the already-problematic food-supply issues in some African nations.
Immigration and diering birth rates among races will change the ethnic composition of the U.S.
Population booms in Africa and India, the decline of Russia and the expected plateau of China will
all change the makeup of the estimated 9.4 billion people who will call Earth home in 2050.
Lesson Summary
Early humans lived in small populations of nomadic hunters and gatherers. Both birth and death
rates were fairly high. As a result, human population growth was very slow. The invention of
agriculture increased both birth and death rates. The population continued to grow slowly.
Major changes in the human population rst began during the 1700s. This occurred in Europe and
North America. First, death rates fell while birth rates remained high. This led to rapid population
growth. Later, birth rates also fell. As a result, population growth slowed.
Other countries have completed a similar demographic transition. However, some countries seem
stalled at early stages. They have high birth rates and rapidly growing populations.
The total human population may have to stop growing eventually. Even if we reduce our use of
resources and distribute them more fairly, at some point the carrying capacity will be reached.

Recall
1. How did the invention of agriculture aect human birth and death rates? How did it aect human
population growth?
2. Outline the four stages of the demographic transition as it occurred in Europe and North America.
3. State two reasons why death rates fell in Europe and North America, starting in the 1700s.
4. Why did birth rates fall in Europe and North America during the demographic transition?
5. Why was a fth stage added to the demographic transition model? Describe a population at this stage.
Apply Concepts
6. Which stage of the demographic transition is represented by the population pyramid 3.21?
Figure 3.21
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7. Assume you will add a line to the graph in Figure 3.16 to represent the population growth rate (r).
Describe what the line would like.
Think Critically
8. Evaluate how well the original demographic transition model represents human populations today.
9. What is the human population problem? What are some potential solutions? Which solution do you
think is best? Present a logical argument to support your choice.
Points to Consider
The human population may already be larger than its carrying capacity.
What evidence might show that there are too many people on Earth today?
How does human overpopulation aect the environment? How does it aect the populations of other
species?
3.4
The Biodiversity Crisis
Lesson Objectives
Dene biodiversity.
Identify economic benets and ecosystem services of biodiversity.
Relate human actions to the sixth mass extinction.
Vocabulary
exotic species
habitat loss
sixth mass extinction
Introduction
One of the eects of human overpopulation is the loss of other species. The rapidly growing human
population has reduced Earths biodiversity.
What Is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life and its processes, including the variety of living organisms, the
genetic dierences among them, and the communities and ecosystems in which they occur. Scientists have
identied about 1.9 million species alive today. They are divided into the six kingdoms of life shown in
Figure 3.22. Scientists are still discovering new species. Thus, they do not know for sure how many species
really exist today. Most estimates range from 5 to 30 million species.
A discussion of biodiversity is available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vGxJArebKoc (6:12).
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Figure 3.22: Known species represent only a fraction of all species that exist on Earth.
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Millions of Unseen Species

A study released in August 2011 estimates that Earth has almost 8.8 million animal, plant and fungi
species, but weve only discovered less than a quarter of them. So far, only 1.9 million species have
been found. Recent newly discovered species have been very diverse: a psychedelic frogsh, a lizard
the size of a dime and even a blind hairy mini-lobster at the bottom of the ocean. There are potential benets from these undiscovered species, which need to be found before they disappear from
the planet. The study estimates that of the 8.8 million species, about 6.5 million would be on land
and 2.2 million in the ocean. The research estimates that animals rule with 7.8 million species, followed by fungi with 611,000 and plants with just shy of 300,000 species. See http://news.yahoo.com/
wild-world-millions-unseen-species-fill-earth-210051661.html for additional information.
Why Is Biodiversity Important?

Human beings benet in many ways from biodiversity. Biodiversity has direct economic benets. It also
provides services to entire ecosystems.
Economic Benets of Biodiversity

The diversity of species provides humans with a wide range of economic benets:
Wild plants and animals maintain a valuable pool of genetic variation. This is important because
domestic species are genetically uniform. This puts them at great risk of dying out due to disease.
Other organisms provide humans with many dierent products. Timber, bers, adhesives, dyes, and
rubber are just a few.
Certain species may warn us of toxins in the environment. When the peregrine falcon nearly went
extinct, for example, it warned us of the dangers of DDT.
More than half of the most important prescription drugs come from wild species. Only a fraction of
species have yet been studied for their medical potential.
Other living things provide inspiration for engineering and technology. For example, the car design
in Figure 3.23 was based on a sh.
Ecosystem Services of Biodiversity

Biodiversity generally increases the productivity and stability of ecosystems. It helps ensure that at least
some species will survive environmental change. It also provides many other ecosystem services. For
example:
Plants and algae maintain the atmosphere. During photosynthesis, they add oxygen and remove
carbon dioxide.
Plants help prevent soil erosion. They also improve soil quality when they decompose.
Microorganisms purify water in rivers and lakes. They also return nutrients to the soil.
Bacteria x nitrogen and make it available to plants. Other bacteria recycle the nitrogen from organic
wastes and remains of dead organisms.
Insects and birds pollinate owering plants, including crop plants.
Natural predators control insect pests. They reduce the need for expensive pesticides, which may
harm people and other living things.
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Figure 3.23: From owers to sh, biodiversity benets humans in many ways.
Human Actions and the Sixth Mass Extinction

Over 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth have gone extinct. Five mass extinctions are recorded
in the fossil record. They were caused by major geologic and climatic events. Evidence shows that a sixth
mass extinction is occurring now. Unlike previous mass extinctions, the sixth extinction is due to human
actions.
Some scientists consider the sixth extinction to have begun with early hominids during the Pleistocene.
They are blamed for over-killing big mammals such as mammoths. Since then, human actions have had
an ever greater impact on other species. The present rate of extinction is between 100 and 100,000 species
per year. In 100 years, we could lose more than half of Earths remaining species.
Causes of Extinction
The single biggest cause of extinction today is habitat loss. Agriculture, forestry, mining, and urbanization
have disturbed or destroyed more than half of Earths land area. In the U.S., for example, more than 99
percent of tall-grass prairies have been lost. Other causes of extinction today include:
Exotic species introduced by humans into new habitats. They may carry disease, prey on native
species, and disrupt food webs. Often, they can out-compete native species because they lack local
predators. An example is described in Figure 3.24.
Over-harvesting of sh, trees, and other organisms. This threatens their survival and the survival of
species that depend on them.
Global climate change, largely due to the burning of fossil fuels. This is raising Earths air and ocean
temperatures. It is also raising sea levels. These changes threaten many species.
Pollution, which adds chemicals, heat, and noise to the environment beyond its capacity to absorb
them. This causes widespread harm to organisms.
Human overpopulation, which is crowding out other species. It also makes all the other causes of
extinction worse.
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Figure 3.24: Brown Tree Snake. The brown tree snake is an exotic species that has caused many extinctions
on Pacic islands such as Guam.
Eects of Extinction
The results of a study released in the summer of 2011 have shown that the decline in the numbers of
large predators like sharks, lions and wolves is disrupting Earths ecosystem in all kinds of unusual ways.
The study, conducted by scientists from 22 dierent institutions in six countries, conrmed the sixth mass
extinction. The study states that this mass extinction diers from previous ones because it is entirely
driven by human activity through changes in land use, climate, pollution, hunting, shing and poaching.
The eects of the loss of these large predators can be seen in the oceans and on land.
Fewer cougars in the western US state of Utah led to an explosion of the deer population. The deer
ate more vegetation, which altered the path of local streams and lowered overall biodiversity.
In Africa, where lions and leopard are being lost to poachers, there is a surge in the numbers of olive
baboons who are transferring intestinal parasites to human who live nearby.
In the oceans, industrial whaling led a change in the diets of killer whales, who eat more sea lion,
seals and otters and dramatically lowered those population counts.
The study concludes that the loss of big predators has likely driven many of the pandemics, population
collapses and ecosystem shifts the Earth has seen in recent centuries. See http://www.nsf.gov/news/
news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=121020 for additional information.
KQED: Disappearing Frogs

Around the world, frogs are declining at an alarming rate due to threats like pollution, disease and climate change. Frogs bridge the gap between water and land habitats, making them the rst indicators of
ecosystem changes. Meet the California researchers working to protect frogs across the state and across
the world at http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/disappearing-frogs. Learn about the plight of
the yellow-legged frog at http://www.kqed.org/quest/radio/plight-of-the-yellowlegged-frog.
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KQED: Nonnative Species

Scoop a handful of critters out of the San Francisco Bay and youll nd many organisms from far away
shores. Invasive kinds of mussels, sh and more are choking out native species, challenging experts
around the state to change the human behavior that brings them here. See http://www.kqed.org/
quest/television/san-francisco-bay-invaders for more information.
How You Can Help Protect Biodiversity

There are many steps you can take to help protect biodiversity. For example:
Consume wisely. Reduce your consumption wherever possible. Re-use or recycle rather than throw
out and buy new. When you do buy new, choose products that are energy eicient and durable.
Avoid plastics. Plastics are made from petroleum and produce toxic waste.
Go organic. Organically grown food is better for your health. It also protects the environment from
pesticides and excessive nutrients in fertilizers.
Save energy. Unplug electronic equipment and turn o lights when not in use. Take mass transit
instead of driving.
See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GnK7gNXxb3c for an outstanding 60 Minutes video of the Great
Migration in Kenya, and the issues facing these animals.
KQED: Lost Salmon

Because of a sharp decline in their numbers, the entire salmon shing season in the ocean o California and Oregon was canceled in both 2008 and 2009. At no other time in history has this salmon
shery been closed. The species in the most danger is the California coho salmon. Examine eorts
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to protect the coho in Northern California and explores the important role salmon play in the native
ecosystem at http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/californias-lost-salmon and http://www.
kqed.org/quest/television/coho-salmon-in-muir-woods.
The Encyclopedia of Life
The Encyclopedia of Life (EOL) is a free, online collaborative encyclopedia intended to document all
of the 1.9+ million living species known to science. It is compiled from existing scientic databases, and
from contributions by experts and non-experts world-wide. Its goal is to build one innitely expandable
page for each species, including videos, sound, images, graphics, and text. As the discovery of new species
is expected to continue (the current rate is about 20,000 new species identied per year), EOL will grow
continuously. As taxonomy nds new ways to include species identied by molecular techniques, the rate
of new species additions will increase - in particular with respect to the microbial world of (eu)bacteria,
archaebacteria and viruses. EOL went live on February 26, 2008 with 30,000 entries.
The EOL has developed web-based tools and services that provide visitors enhanced capability to use EOL
content for their own purposes and to contribute to the site and become part of a growing international
community interested in biodiversity.
See http://www.eol.org/ and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6NwfGA4cxJQ for additional information.
In addition, Understanding Biodiversity, the CK-12 and EOL biodiversity-themed resource currently under
development, is an expanding library of biodiversity information aimed at the secondary-level biology
classroom. Understanding Biodiversity pages will provide information for each species relevant to the high
school biology curriculum: cell biology, genetics, evolution, ecology, and physiology. If you would like
to submit a species page to Understanding Biodiversity, email a proposal for contributions to teachersrequests@ck12.org.
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Field Guides
http://education.eol.org/ideas/tools/fieldguide
Field Guides pull selected content from EOL species pages into a format that is easier to view and use
for particular projects. Rather than sorting through all 1.9 million species pages and all of the Table of
Contents information, users will see information for just the organisms and information they select. Users
are able to customize and edit the content in their eld guide.
You can try creating a eld guide for the organisms found in your schoolyard or for the organisms discussed
in another chapter of this FlexBook. See what information is found in EOL and what is missing. Is there
anything you can contribute to EOL, such as an image or class research information?
EOL Podcasts
http://education.eol.org/podcast
Lend an ear and discover the wonders of natureright outside your back door and halfway around the
world. EOL audio broadcasts are aimed at learning about life-from organisms as small as yeast to as big as
a bowhead whale. Hear peoples stories about nature and hone your backyard observation skills. Explore
the diversity of lifeve minutes and One Species at a Time. Listen to the podcasts online, or download
them and take them with you on your own exploration of the world around you.
One Species at a Time

The audio series One Species at a Time is a tribute to life on Earth http://education.eol.org/podcast/
one-species-time. Each episode is a story, a mystery, a riddle, or an exploration of a dierent creature
pulsing, uttering, surging, respiring, and galloping on this planet. Biodiversity is center stage, from
scurrying invasive beetles in Oregon to the threatened cedar trees of Lebanon to Ediacaran fauna from 580
million years ago. There are associated Extras and a Meet the Scientist section with each podcast. Some
have associated educational materials. Some have associated educational materials. All podcasts are freely
available and can be used in other projects.
The Biodiversity Heritage Library

http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/
Twelve major natural history museum libraries, botanical libraries, and research institutions have joined to
form the Biodiversity Heritage Library. The participating libraries have over two million volumes of
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biodiversity literature collected over 200 years to support the work of scientists, researchers, and students
in their home institutions and throughout the world.
The Biodiversity Heritage Library (BHL) consortium cooperates to digitize and make accessible the biodiversity literature held in their collections and to make that literature available for open access and
responsible use as a part of a global biodiversity commons. Because of the BHLs success in digitizing
a signicant mass of biodiversity literature, the scientic documentation of the study of living organisms
since the time of Linnaeus has became easily accessible.
Anyone can access the BHL website directly or link to it from any EOL species page. When on a species
page, scroll down through the Table of Contents on the left hand side of the page to the References and
More Information section and click on Biodiversity Heritage Library. BHL literature directly related to
the species under consideration will be shown.
The published literature on biological diversity has limited global distribution; much of it is available in only
a few select libraries in the developed world. These collections are of exceptional value because the domain
of systematic biology depends - more than any other science - upon historic literature. Yet, this wealth
of knowledge is available only to those few who can gain direct access to signicant library collections.
Literature about the life that exists in developing countries is often not available within their borders.
Biologists have long considered that access to the published literature is one of the chief impediments to
the eiciency of research in the eld. Among other results, free global access to digitized versions of the
literature would make available information about the Earths species to all parts of the world. Many
of the texts digitized by the BHL have until now only been held in a few European or North American
libraries. Now, with this resource, scientists and student in the developing world have access to them,
thereby accelerating biodiversity research.
Since 2009, the BHL has expanded globally. The European Commissions eContentPlus program has recently funded the BHL-Europe project, with 28 institutions, to assemble the European language literature.
Additionally, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Atlas of Living Australia, Brazil, and the Bibliotheca
Alexandrina have created regional BHL sites. These projects will work together to share content, protocols,
services, and digital preservation practices.
Lesson Summary
Biodiversity refers to the number of species in an ecosystem or the biosphere as a whole.
Biodiversity has direct economic benets. It also provides services to entire ecosystems.
Evidence shows that a sixth mass extinction is occurring. The single biggest cause is habitat loss
caused by human actions. There are many steps you can take to help protect biodiversity. For
example, you can use less energy.
The Encyclopedia of Life is a free, online collaborative encyclopedia intended to document all of the
1.9+ million living species known to science.

Recall
1. What is biodiversity?
2. List three economic benets of biodiversity.
3. Identify ecosystem services of biodiversity.
4. How is human overpopulation related to the sixth mass extinction?
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Apply Concepts
5. Create a poster that conveys simple tips for protecting biodiversity.
6. Why might the brown tree snake or the peregrine falcon serve as poster species for causes of the sixth
mass extinction?
Think Critically
7. Predict what would happen to other organisms in an ecosystem in which all the decomposers went
extinct?
8. Describe a hypothetical example showing how rising sea levels due to global warming might cause
extinction.
Points to Consider
All species depend on the environment to provide them with the resources they need. As populations grow,
resources may be used up. Just using the resources can create more problems.
What resources do you depend on?
Does using the resources pollute the environment? Are the resources running out?
3.5
Natural Resources and Climate Change
Lesson Objectives
Distinguish between renewable and nonrenewable resources.

Describe threats to soil and water resources.
Identify the causes and eects of air pollution.
Explain global climate change.
Vocabulary
acid rain
air pollution
algal bloom
dead zone
global warming
greenhouse eect
natural resource
nonrenewable resource
ozone hole
renewable resource
soil
sustainable use
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Introduction
A natural resource is something supplied by nature that helps support life. When you think of natural
resources, you may think of minerals and fossil fuels. However, ecosystems and the services they provide
are also natural resources. Biodiversity is a natural resource as well.
Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources

From the human point of view, natural resources can be classied as renewable or nonrenewable.
Renewable Resources
Renewable resources can be replenished by natural processes as quickly as humans use them. Examples
include sunlight and wind. They are in no danger of being used up (see Figure 3.29). Metals and other
minerals are renewable too. They are not destroyed when they are used and can be recycled.
Figure 3.29: Wind is a renewable resource. Wind turbines like this one harness just a tiny fraction of wind
energy.
Living things are considered to be renewable. This is because they can reproduce to replace themselves.
However, they can be over-used or misused to the point of extinction. To be truly renewable, they must
be used sustainably. Sustainable use is the use of resources in a way that meets the needs of the present
and also preserves the resources for future generations.
Nonrenewable Resources
Nonrenewable resources are natural resources that exist in xed amounts and can be used up. Examples
include fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas. These fuels formed from the remains of plants
over hundreds of millions of years. We are using them up far faster than they could ever be replaced.
At current rates of use, petroleum will be used up in just a few decades and coal in less than 300 years.
Nuclear power is also considered to be a nonrenewable resource because it uses up uranium, which will
sooner or later run out. It also produces harmful wastes that are diicult to dispose of safely.
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Soil and Water Resources

Theoretically, soil and water are renewable resources. However, they may be ruined by careless human
actions.
Soil
Soil is a mixture of eroded rock, minerals, partly decomposed organic matter, and other materials. It
is essential for plant growth, so it is the foundation of terrestrial ecosystems. Soil is important for other
reasons as well. For example, it removes toxins from water and breaks down wastes.
Although renewable, soil takes a very long to formup to hundreds of millions of years. So, for human
purposes, soil is a nonrenewable resource. It is also constantly depleted of nutrients through careless use
and eroded by wind and water. For example, misuse of soil caused a huge amount of it to simply blow
away in the 1930s during the Dust Bowl (see Figure 3.30). Soil must be used wisely to preserve it for the
future. Conservation practices include contour plowing and terracing. Both reduce soil erosion. Soil also
must be protected from toxic wastes.
Figure 3.30: The Dust Bowl occurred between 1933 and 1939 in Oklahoma and other southwestern U.S.
states. Plowing had exposed prairie soil. Drought turned the soil to dust. Intense dust storms blew away
vast quantities of the soil. Much of the soil blew all the way to the Atlantic Ocean.
Water
Water is essential for all life on Earth. For human use, water must be fresh. Of all the water on Earth,
only 1 percent is fresh, liquid water. Most of the rest is either salt water in the ocean or ice in glaciers and
ice caps.
Although water is constantly recycled through the water cycle, it is in danger. Over-use and pollution
of freshwater threaten the limited supply that people depend on. Already, more than 1 billion people
worldwide do not have adequate freshwater. With the rapidly growing human population, the water
shortage is likely to get worse.
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KQED: Are We in Danger of Running Out of Water?

Californias population is growing by 600,000 people a year, but much of the state receives as much annual
rainfall as Morocco. With sh populations crashing, global warming, and the demands of the countrys
largest agricultural industry, the pressures on our water supply are increasing. Are we in danger of running
out of water? See http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/state-of-thirst-californias-water-future
for additional information.
Too Much of a Good Thing

Water pollution comes from many sources. One of the biggest sources is runo. Runo picks up chemicals
such as fertilizer from agricultural elds, lawns, and golf courses. It carries the chemicals to bodies of
water. The added nutrients from fertilizer often cause excessive growth of algae, creating algal blooms
(see Figure 3.32). The algae use up oxygen in the water so that other aquatic organisms cannot survive.
This has occurred over large areas of the ocean, creating dead zones, where low oxygen levels have killed
all ocean life. A very large dead zone exists in the Gulf of Mexico. Measures that can help prevent these
problems include cutting down on fertilizer use. Preserving wetlands also helps because wetlands lter
runo.
Figure 3.32: Algal Bloom. Nutrients from fertilizer in runo caused this algal bloom.
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The Atmosphere
The atmosphere plays an important part in maintaining Earths freshwater supply. It is part of the water
cycle. It rells lakes and rivers with precipitation. The atmosphere also provides organisms with gases
needed for life. It contains oxygen for cellular respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
Air Pollution
Earths atmosphere is vast. However, it has been seriously polluted by human activities. Air pollution
consists of chemical substances and particles released into the atmosphere, mainly by human actions. The
major cause of outdoor air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels. Power plants, motor vehicles, and home
furnaces all burn fossil fuels and contribute to the problem (see Table 3.1). Ranching and using chemicals
such as fertilizers also cause air pollution. Erosion of soil in farm elds and construction sites adds dust
particles to the air as well. Fumes from building materials, furniture, carpets, and paint add toxic chemicals
to indoor air.
Table 3.1:
Pollutant
Example/Major Source
Problem
Sulfur oxides (SOx )

Nitrogen oxides (NOx )
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon dioxide (CO2 )
Particulate matter (smoke, dust)
Coal-red power plants

Motor vehicle exhaust
All fossil fuel burning
Wood and coal burning
Mercury
Smog
Coal-red power plants, medical

waste
Coal burning
Acid Rain
Acid Rain
Poisoning
Global Warming
Respiratory disease, Global Dimming
Neurotoxicity
Ground-level ozone
Respiratory problems; eye irritation

Respiratory problems; eye irritation
In humans, air pollution causes respiratory and cardiovascular problems. In fact, more people die each year
from air pollution than automobile accidents. Air pollution also aects ecosystems worldwide by causing
acid rain, ozone depletion, and global warming. Ways to reduce air pollution from fossil fuels include
switching to nonpolluting energy sources (such as solar energy) and using less energy. What are some ways
you could use less energy?
Acid Rain
All life relies on a relatively narrow range of pH, or acidity. Thats because protein structure and function is very sensitive to pH. Air pollution can cause precipitation to become acidic. Nitrogen and sulfur
oxidesmainly from motor vehicle exhaust and coal burningcreate acids when they combine with water
in the air. The acids lower the pH of precipitation, forming acid rain. If acid rain falls on the ground, it
may damage soil and soil organisms. If it falls on plants, it may kill them (see Figure 3.33). If it falls into
lakes, it lowers the pH of the water and kills aquatic organisms.
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Figure 3.33: Eects of Acid Rain. These trees in a European forest were killed by acid rain.
Ozone Depletion
There are two types of ozone. You can think of them as bad ozone and good ozone. Both are aected by
air pollution.
Bad ozone forms near the ground when sunlight reacts with pollutants in the air. Ground-level ozone
is harmful to the respiratory systems of humans and other animals.
Good ozone forms in a thin layer high up in the atmosphere, between 15 and 35 kilometers above
Earths surface. This ozone layer shields Earth from most of the suns harmful UV radiation. It
plays an important role in preventing mutations in the DNA of organisms.
Unfortunately, the layer of good ozone is being destroyed by air pollution. The chief culprits are chlorine
and bromine gases. They are released in aerosol sprays, coolants, and other products. Loss of ozone has
created an ozone hole over Antarctica. Ozone depletion results in higher levels of UV radiation reaching
Earth. In humans, this increases skin cancers and eye cataracts. It also disturbs the nitrogen cycle, kills
plankton, and disrupts ocean food webs. The total loss of the ozone layer would be devastating to most
life. Its rate of loss has slowed with restrictions on pollutants, but it is still at risk.
Global Climate Change

Another major problem caused by air pollution is global climate change. Gases such as carbon dioxide from
the burning of fossil fuels increase the natural greenhouse eect. This raises the temperature of Earths
surface.
What Is the Greenhouse Eect?

The greenhouse eect is a natural feature of Earths atmosphere. It occurs when gases in the atmosphere
radiate the suns heat back down to Earths surface (see Figure 3.34). Otherwise, the heat would escape
into space. Without the greenhouse eect, Earths surface temperature would be far cooler than it is. In
fact, it would be too cold to support life as we know it.
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Figure 3.34: The Greenhouse Eect. Without greenhouse gases, most of the suns energy would be radiated
from Earths surface back out to space.
Global Warming
Global warming refers to a recent increase in Earths average surface temperature (see Figure 3.35).
During the past century, the temperature has risen by almost 1C (about 1.3F). That may not seem like
much. But consider that just 10C is the dierence between an ice-free and an ice-covered Earth.
Figure 3.35: The average annual temperature on Earth has been rising for the past 100 years.
Most scientists agree that global warming is caused by more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (see Figure
3.36). This increases the greenhouse eect. There is more carbon dioxide mainly because of the burning
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of fossil fuels. Destroying forests is another cause. With fewer forests, less carbon dioxide is removed from
the atmosphere by photosynthesis.
Figure 3.36: This graph shows the recent trend in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Eects of Climate Change

How has global warming aected Earth and its life? Some of its eects include:
Decline in cold-adapted species such as polar bears.

Melting of glaciers and rising sea levels.
Coastal ooding and shoreline erosion.
Heat-related human health problems.
More droughts and water shortages.
Changing patterns of precipitation.
Increasing severity of storms.
Major crop losses.
These two videos discuss some of the consequences from changes in ecosystems: http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=jHWgWxDWhsA (7:47) and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5qblwORXwrg (2:26).
KQED: Climate Watch: California at the Tipping Point

The worlds climate is changing and California is now being aected in both dramatic and subtle ways.
In 2008, scientists determined that Californias temperatures increased by more than 2.1F during the last
century. Whats more, the data showed that human activity has played a signicant role in that climate
change. Whats just 2 degrees? you may wonder. But, as the science shows, just 2 degrees is extremely
signicant.
What does all this temperature change mean? For starters, declining mountain snowpack and prolonged
drought conditions could pose a threat to limited water supplies. Heat waves are projected to be longer,
bringing increased danger from wildres and heat-related deaths. Rising sea levels due to temperature
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shifts jeopardize life in coastal areas, both for human communities and the plants and animals that rely
on intertidal and rich wetland ecosystems. Also, more precipitation is expected to fall as rain rather than
snow, thereby increasing the risk of oods. And, as heat increases the formation of smog, poor air quality
could get even worse.
Climate change may also profoundly aect the economy in California and elsewhere. Shorter ski seasons
and damage to the marine ecosystem mean a reduction in tourism. Water shortages mean issues with the
commercial and recreational shing industry, and higher temperatures will aect crop growth and quality,
weakening the agricultural industry, to name just a few of the economic issues associated with climate
change.
Get an in-depth look at the science behind climate change at http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/
climate-watch-california-at-the-tipping-point-part-one.
KQED: Giant Redwoods and Global Warming

Forest ecologist Steve Sillett is leading a team of scientists as they climb and measure every branch of some
of the last and tallest old growth redwoods in California. Their goal is to learn how these ancient giants have
historically responded to climatic shifts and to monitor how they are being impacted today by global warming. See http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/science-on-the-spot-measuring-redwood-giants
KQED: Acidic Seas

Melting glaciers, rising temperatures and droughts are all impacts of global warming. But how does global
warming actually aect the oceans? The sea, it turns out, absorbs carbon dioxide emissions. The ocean
acts like a giant sponge, absorbing carbon dioxide emissions from the air. And as we add more and more
carbon dioxide to air by burning fossil fuels, the ocean is absorbing it. On one level, its done us a big
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favor. Scientists say that we would be experiencing much more extreme climate change were it not for
the oceans ability to remove the heat-trapping gas. However, these emissions are causing the oceans to
become more acidic. Changing pH levels threaten entire marine food webs, from coral reefs to salmon. See
http://www.kqed.org/quest/radio/acidic-seas for additional information.
What Can Be Done?

Eorts to reduce future global warming mainly involve energy use. We need to use less energy, for example,
by driving more fuel-eicient cars. We also need to switch to energy sources that produce less carbon
dioxide, such as solar and wind energy. At the same time, we can increase the amount of carbon dioxide
that is removed from air. We can stop destroying forests and plant new ones.
KQED: Earth Day

Earth Day Networks mission is to broaden, diversify and activate the environmental movement worldwide,
driving action year-round through a combination of education, public policy, and consumer campaigns. See
http://www.earthday.org/ for additional information.
Each year, April 22 marks the anniversary of what many consider the birth of the modern environmental
movement in 1970. The idea came to Earth Day founder Gaylord Nelson, then a U.S. Senator from
Wisconsin, after witnessing the ravages of the 1969 massive oil spill in Santa Barbara, California. On
the 22nd of April, 20 million Americans took to the streets, parks, and auditoriums to demonstrate for a
healthy, sustainable environment in massive coast-to-coast rallies. Thousands of colleges and universities
organized protests against the deterioration of the environment. Groups that had been ghting against
oil spills, polluting factories and power plants, raw sewage, toxic dumps, pesticides, freeways, the loss of
wilderness, and the extinction of wildlife suddenly realized they shared common values.
As 1990 approached, a group of environmental leaders organized another big campaign. This time, Earth
Day went global, mobilizing 200 million people in 141 countries and lifting environmental issues onto the
world stage. Earth Day 1990 gave a huge boost to recycling eorts worldwide and helped pave the way for
the 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro.
As the year 2000 approached, 5,000 environmental groups in a record 184 countries reached out to hundreds
of millions of people. Earth Day 2000 used the Internet to organize activists, but also featured a talking
drum chain that traveled from village to village in Gabon, Africa, and hundreds of thousands of people
gathered on the National Mall in Washington, DC. Earth Day 2000 sent world leaders the loud and clear
message that citizens around the world wanted quick and decisive action on clean energy.
In 2010, the Earth Day Network reestablished Earth Day as a powerful focal point around which people
could demonstrate their commitment. The Earth Day Network brought 225,000 people to the National
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Mall for a Climate Rally, amassed 40 million environmental service actions toward its 2012 goal of A
Billion Acts of Green, launched an international, 1-million tree planting initiative with Avatar director
James Cameron, and tripled its online base to over 900,000 members. The ght for a clean environment
continues in a climate of increasing urgency, as the ravages of climate change become more manifest every
day.
See http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/earth-day-tv-special-where-weve-been-where-were-headed
for more information on Californias environmental movement.
Lesson Summary
Renewable resources can be replaced by natural processes as quickly as humans use them. Examples
include sunlight and wind. Nonrenewable resources exist in xed amounts. They can be used up.
Examples include fossil fuels such as coal.
Soil and water are renewable resources but may be ruined by careless human actions. Soil can be
depleted of nutrients. It can also be eroded by wind or water. Over-use and pollution of freshwater
threaten the limited supply that people depend on.
Air pollution consists of chemical substances and particles released into the air, mainly by human
actions. The major cause of outdoor air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels. Indoor air can also
be polluted. Air pollution, in turn, causes acid rain, ozone depletion, and global warming.
Gases such as carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels increase the natural greenhouse eect.
This is raising the temperature of Earths surface, and is called global warming.

Recall
1. Dene natural resource.
2. Distinguish between renewable and nonrenewable resources and give examples.
3. Summarize the environmental eects of burning fossil fuels.
4. How does air pollution contribute to global warming?
Apply Concepts
5. How could you create a three-dimensional model of the greenhouse eect? What processes would you
demonstrate with your model? What materials would you use?
6. Apply lesson concepts to explain the relationship between the graphs in Figure 3.35 and Figure 3.36
Think Critically
7. Infer factors that determine whether a natural resource is renewable or nonrenewable.
8. Why would you expect a dead zone to start near the mouth of a river, where the river ows into a body
of water?
9. Explain how air pollution is related to acid rain and ozone depletion.
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Points to Consider
Microorganisms such as bacteria are important living resources in all ecosystems. They recycle nutrients
and other matter.
What do you know about microorganisms? Besides bacteria, are there other types of microorganisms?
Are viruses microorganisms? Are they living things?
Image Sources
(2) Nipik. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Acid_rain_woods1.JPG. Public Domain.
(3) US Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/country.php. Public Domain.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Swainson%27s_hawk_migration_route.jpg. Public
Domain.
(5) Joel Mills. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Canine_roundworm_1.JPG. CC-BY-SA
2.5.
(7) Charmed88. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stage5.jpg. Public Domain.
(8) Luca Galuzzi - www.galuzzi.it. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Male_Lion_and_Cub_Chitwa_South_Africa_Luca_Galuzzi_2004.JPG. CC-BY-SA 2.5.
(9) (Left) Courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; (Right) Courtesy of US
Department of Agriculture. [(Left)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dust_Storm_Texas_1935.jpg; (Right)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dust_Bowl_-_Dallas,_South_Dakota_1936.jpg ].
(Left) Public Domain; (Right) Public Domain.
(10) Robert A. Rohde/Global Warming Art.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Instrumental_Temperature_Record.png.
GNU-FDL 1.2.
(11) CK-12 Foundation, based on data from US Census Bureau. . CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0.
(12) Flower: pinay06; Fish: J Petersen; Car: CK-12 Foundation. [Flower:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kumintang2.JPG; Fish:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ostracion_cubicus.JPG ]. Flower: CC-BY-SA 2.5;
Fish: CC-BY 2.5; Car: CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0.
(13) Crab: Mila Zinkova; Mantis: Adrian Pingstone; Zebra: Pharaoh Hound, Fir0002. [Crab:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Camouflaged_crab.JPG; Mantis:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bristol.zoo.dead.leaf.mantis.arp.jpg; Zebra:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zebra_Botswana_edit02.jpg ]. Crab: CC-BY-SA 3.0;
Mantis: Public Domain; Zebra: CC-BY 2.5.
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(14) thomasbentley. http://whoooaaa.wikispaces.com/file/detail/algae-bloom.jpg. CC-BY-SA

3.0.
(16) Ground Anole image: pondhawk; Tree Anole image copyright Dewitt, 2010. [Ground Anole image:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/38686613@N08/4750887836/; Tree Anole image:
http://www.shutterstock.com ]. Ground Anole image: CC-BY 2.0; Tree Anole image used under
(17) Nevilley. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rangitotolavapath.jpg. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(18) Image copyright Andy Z., 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(20) Haplochromis. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gobie_and_Shrimp.JPG. CC-BY-SA
3.0.
(21) Snake image courtesy of National Park Service. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Brown_tree_snake_Boiga_irregularis_2_USGS_Photograph.jpg. Public Domain.
(24) Tomasz Kuran. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Secondary_succesion_cm02.jpg.
CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(25) Smhur, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mauna_Loa_Carbon_Dioxide-en.svg. CC-BY-SA
3.0.
(26) Barbara Akre/CK-12 Foundation based on data from http://cnx.org/content/m12174/latest/
and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity. . CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0.
(28) US EPA. http://epa.gov/climatechange/indicators/slideshow.html?placeValuesBeforeTB_
=savedValues&TB_iframe=true&height=550&width=800. Public Domain.
(30) PiccoloNamek.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Photos-photos_1088103921_Floating.jpg.
CC-BY-SA 3.0.
Opening image courtesy of Metatron (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ocellaris_clownfish.
JPG) and under the Creative Commons license CC-BY-SA 3.0.
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Chapter 4
Introduction to Animals
Do you know what these greenish, blob-like shapes are? Would it surprise you to learn that they are
animals? They dont look anything like the animals you are probably familiar withanimals such as dogs
and deer, sh and frogs. But the greenish blobs are animals nonetheless. They belong to a phylum called
Cnidaria, but you may know them as jellysh. They are very simple animals and not sh at all. How can
an organism as simple as a jellysh be considered an animal? How are animals dened? What traits must
an organism have to be classied in the animal kingdom? In this chapter, you will learn the answers to
these questions. You will nd out just what it means to be an animal.
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4.1
Overview of Animals
Lesson Objectives
Identify characteristics that all animals share.
Give an overview of animal classication.
Outline major trends in animal evolution.
Vocabulary
amniote
animal
exoskeleton
invertebrate
notochord
vertebral column
vertebrate
Introduction
There is great variation among species that make up the animal kingdom. Some of this variation is shown
in Figure 4.1. Despite the variation, there are a number of traits that are shared by all animals. The fact
that all animals have certain traits in common shows that they share a common ancestor. How did such
a diverse group of organisms evolve? What traits do all animals share? Read on to nd out.
Characteristics of Animals
Animals are a kingdom of multicellular eukaryotes. They cannot make their own food. Instead, they get
nutrients by eating other living things. Therefore, animals are heterotrophs.
Animal Cells
Like the cells of all eukaryotes, animal cells have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles (see
Figure 4.2). Unlike the cells of plants and fungi, animal cells lack a cell wall. This gives animal cells
exibility. It lets them take on dierent shapes so they can become specialized to do particular jobs. The
human nerve cell shown in Figure 4.3 is a good example. Its shape suits it for its function of transmitting
nerve impulses over long distances. A nerve cell would be unable to take this shape if it were surrounded
by a rigid cell wall.
Animal Structure and Function

Animals not only have specialized cells. Most animals also have tissues and organs. In many animals,
organs form organ systems, such as a nervous system. Higher levels of organization allow animals to
perform many complex functions. What can animals do that most other living things cannot? Here are
some examples. All of them are illustrated in Figure 4.4.
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Figure 4.1: Diversity of Animals. These photos give just an inkling of the diversity of organisms that belong
to the animal kingdom. (A) Sponge (B) Flatworm (C) Flying Insect (D) Frog (E) Tiger (F) Gorilla.
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Figure 4.2: Animal Cell. The shape of an animal cell is not constrained by a rigid cell wall. A bacterial
cell is shown above for comparison.
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Figure 4.3: Human Nerve Cell. A human nerve cell is specialized to transmit nerve impulses. How do you
think the cells shape helps it perform this function?
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Animals can detect environmental stimuli, such as light, sound, and touch. Stimuli are detected
by sensory nerve cells. The information is transmitted and processed by the nervous system. The
nervous system, in turn, may direct the body to respond.
All animals can move, at least during some stage of their life cycle. Muscles and nerves work together
to allow movement. Being able to move lets animals actively search for food and mates. It also helps
them escape from predators.
Virtually all animals have internal digestion of food. Animals consume other organisms and may use
special tissues and organs to digest them. (Many other organisms absorb nutrients directly from the
environment.)
Figure 4.4: Characteristics of Animals. Most animals share these characteristics: sensory organs, movement, and internal digestion.
Animal Life Cycle and Reproduction

Many animals have a relatively simple life cycle. A general animal life cycle is shown in Figure 4.5. Most
animals spend the majority of their life as diploid organisms. Just about all animals reproduce sexually.
Diploid adults undergo meiosis to produce sperm or eggs. Fertilization occurs when a sperm and an egg
fuse. The zygote that forms develops into an embryo. The embryo eventually develops into an adult.
Classication of Animals
All animals share basic traits. But animals also show a lot of diversity. They range from simple sponges
to complex humans.
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Figure 4.5: Animal Life Cycle. An animal life cycle that includes only sexual reproduction is shown here.
Some animals also reproduce asexually. How does the animal life cycle compare with the life cycle of a
plant?
Major Animal Phyla

Members of the animal kingdom are divided into more than 30 phyla. Table 4.1 lists the 9 phyla with the
greatest number of species. Each of the animal phyla listed in the table have at least 10,000 species.
Table 4.1: Major Phyla of the Animal Kingdom
Phylum
Animals It Includes
Porifera
sponges
Cnidaria
jellysh, corals
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Table 4.1: (continued)

Phylum
Animals It Includes
Platyhelminthes
atworms, tapeworms, ukes
Nematoda
roundworms
Mollusca
snails, clams, squids
Annelida
earthworms,
worms
Arthropoda
insects, spiders, crustaceans, centipedes
Echinodermata
sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers
Chordata
tunicates, lancelets, sh, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals
leeches,
marine
Invertebrate vs. Vertebrate

The rst eight phyla listed in Table 4.1 include only invertebrate animals. Invertebrates are animals that
lack a vertebral column, or backbone. The last phylum in the table, the Chordata, also includes many
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invertebrate species. Tunicates and lancelets are both invertebrates. Altogether, invertebrates make up at
least 95 percent of all animal species. The remaining animals are vertebrates. Vertebrates are animals
that have a backbone. All vertebrates belong to the phylum Chordata. They include sh, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and mammals.
Major Trends in Animal Evolution

The oldest animal fossils are about 630 million years old. By 500 million years ago, most modern phyla of
animals had evolved. Figure 4.6 shows when some of the major events in animal evolution took place.
Figure 4.6: Partial Geologic Time Scale. This portion of the geologic time scale shows major events in
animal evolution.
Animal Origins
Who were the ancestors of the earliest animals? They may have been marine protists that lived in colonies.
Scientists think that cells of some protist colonies became specialized for dierent jobs. After a while, the
specialized cells came to need each other for survival. Thus, the rst multicellular animal evolved. Look
at the cells in Figure 4.7. One type of sponge cell, the choanocyte, looks a lot like the protist cell. How
does this support the hypothesis that animals evolved from protists?
Evolution of Invertebrates
Many important animal adaptations evolved in invertebrates. Without these adaptations, vertebrates
would not have been able to evolve. They include:
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Figure 4.7: Choanoagellate Protist and Choanocyte Cells in Sponges. Sponge choanocytes look a lot like
choanoagellate protists.
Tissues, organs, and organ systems.

A symmetrical body.
A brain and sensory organs.
A uid-lled body cavity.
A complete digestive system.
A body divided into segments.
You can read about all of these adaptations in the next lesson.
Moving from Water to Land

When you think of the rst animals to colonize the land, you may think of amphibians. Its true that
ancestors of amphibians were the rst vertebrates to move to land. However, the very rst animals to go
ashore were invertebrates, most likely arthropods.
The move to land required new adaptations. For example, animals needed a way to keep their body
from drying out. They also needed a way to support their body on dry land without the buoyancy of
water. One way early arthropods solved these problems was by evolving an exoskeleton. This is a
non-bony skeleton that forms on the outside of the body. It supports the body and helps retain water.
The video Walking with Monsters is a depiction of the evolution of life from water onto land: http:
//www.youtube.com/watch?v=gytrNU3iwvM (4:43).
Evolution of Chordates
Another major step in animal evolution was the evolution of a notochord. A notochord is a rigid rod that
runs the length of the body. It supports the body and gives it shape (see Figure 4.8). It also provides
a place for muscles to anchor, and counterbalances them when they contract. Animals with a notochord
are called chordates. They also have a hollow nerve cord that runs along the top of the body. Gill slits
and a tail are two other chordate features. Many modern chordates have some of these structures only as
embryos.
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Figure 4.8: Primitive Chordate: Tunicate. This tunicate is a primitive, deep-sea chordate. It is using its
notochord to support its head, while it waits to snatch up prey in its big mouth.
Evolution of Vertebrates
Vertebrates evolved from primitive chordates. This occurred about 550 million years ago. The earliest
vertebrates may have been jawless sh, like the hagsh in Figure 4.9. Vertebrates evolved a backbone to
replace the notochord after the embryo stage. They also evolved a cranium, or bony skull, to enclose and
protect the brain.
Figure 4.9: Primitive Vertebrate: Hagsh. Hagsh are very simple vertebrates.
As early vertebrates evolved, they became more complex. Around 365 million years ago, they nally made
the transition from water to land. The rst vertebrates to live on land were amphibians. They evolved
from lobe-nned sh. You can compare a lobe-nned sh and an amphibian in Figure 4.10.
Evolution of Amniotes
Amphibians were the rst animals to have true lungs and limbs for life on land. However, they still had
to return to water to reproduce. Thats because their eggs lacked a waterproof covering and would dry
out on land. The rst fully terrestrial vertebrates were amniotes. Amniotes are animals that produce
eggs with internal membranes. The membranes let gases but not water pass through. Therefore, in an
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Figure 4.10: From Lobe-Finned Fish to Early Amphibian. Lobe-nned sh evolved into the earliest
amphibians. A lobe-nned sh could breathe air for brief periods of time. It could also use its ns to walk
on land for short distances. What similarities do you see between the lobe-nned sh and the amphibian?
amniotic egg, an embryo can breathe without drying out. Amniotic eggs were the rst eggs that could be
laid on land. The earliest amniotes evolved about 350 million years ago. They may have looked like the
animal in Figure 4.11. Within a few million years, two important amniote groups evolved: synapsids and
sauropsids. Synapsids evolved into mammals. The sauropsids gave rise to reptiles, dinosaurs, and birds.
Figure 4.11: Early Amniote. The earliest amniotes probably looked something like this. They were
reptile-like, but not actually reptiles. Reptiles evolved somewhat later.
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Lesson Summary
Animals are multicellular eukaryotes that lack cell walls. All animals are heterotrophs. They have
sensory organs, the ability to move, and internal digestion. They also have sexual reproduction.
Vertebrates have a backbone, but invertebrates do not. Except for the chordates, all animal phyla
consist only of invertebrates. Chordates include both vertebrates and invertebrates.
The earliest animals evolved from colonial protists more than 600 million years ago. Many important
animal adaptations evolved in invertebrates, including tissues and a brain. The rst animals to live
on land were invertebrates. Amphibians were the rst vertebrates to live on land. Amniotes were
the rst animals that could reproduce on land.
Review Questions
Recall
1. Identify traits that characterize all animals.
2. State one way that animal cells dier from the cells of plants and fungi. What is the signicance of this
dierence?
3. Describe a general animal life cycle.
4. State how the phylum Chordata diers from other animal phyla.
5. List three traits that evolved in invertebrate animals.
Apply Concepts
6. Assume that a new species of animal has been discovered. It is an egg-laying animal that lives and
reproduces on land. Explain what you know about its eggs without ever seeing them.
Think Critically
7. Compare and contrast invertebrates and vertebrates.
8. Relate similarities between choanoagellates and choanocytes to animal origins.
Points to Consider
Vertebrates are the animals with which we are most familiar. But there are far more invertebrates than
vertebrates on the planet. The next lesson provides an overview of invertebrate animals.
Before reading the next lesson, think about what you now know about invertebrates. Can you identify
some invertebrate traits?
Invertebrates are sometimes referred to as lower animals. This is because they evolved earlier and
are simpler than vertebrates. Do you think invertebrates are also less adapted to their environments
than vertebrates? Why or why not?
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4.2
Overview of Invertebrates
Lesson Objectives
Describe general characteristics of invertebrates.
Outline major events in invertebrate evolution.
Give an overview of invertebrate classication.
Vocabulary
bilateral symmetry
cephalization
coelom
complete digestive system
ectoderm
endoderm
hydrostatic skeleton
incomplete digestive system
larva (plural, larvae)
mesoderm
pseudocoelom
radial symmetry
segmentation
Introduction
The majority of animals today are invertebrates. They have a wide range of physical traits and ways of
life. Modern invertebrates include animals as dierent as the sponge and tarantula shown in Figure 4.12.
Why are both of these animals classied as invertebrates? What traits do they have common?
Figure 4.12: Examples of Invertebrates. Both a sponge (left) and tarantula (right) are invertebrates. Can
you identify any traits they share?
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Characteristics of Invertebrates
One trait the sponge and tarantula share is lack of a backbone. In fact, they dont have any bones at all.
These are dening traits of all invertebrates. Some invertebrates have a skeleton, but it isnt made of bone.
Many other traits of invertebrates show considerable diversity.
Digestion
Invertebrates have one of two types of digestive system. They are called incomplete and complete digestive
systems. Both are shown in Figure 4.13. An incomplete digestive system consists of a digestive cavity
with one opening. The single opening serves as both mouth and anus. A complete digestive system
consists of a digestive tract with two openings. One opening is the mouth. The other is the anus.
Figure 4.13: Two Types of Digestive Systems in Invertebrates. On the left is an incomplete digestive
system, found in a jellysh; on the right is the complete digestive system of a roundworm. Invertebrates
may have either of these two types of digestive system. Find the parts of each digestive system in each
drawing. How do the two systems dier?
Movement
All invertebrates can move on their own during at least some stage of their life cycle. However, they may
dier in how they move. Several ways are described below.
Some invertebrates are simply carried along by water currents. They cannot control their movement
in a particular direction. An example is a jellysh.
Other invertebrates can contract muscles to move independently of water currents or on solid surfaces.
They can also control the direction in which they move. An example is a roundworm. It can move
forward and to the left or right.
Still other invertebrates have specialized appendages for movement. For example, they may have
jointed legs for walking or climbing or wings for ying. An example is an insect such as a y.
Nervous System
Most invertebrates have a nervous system. The nervous system allows them to sense and respond to their
environment. The simplest invertebrate nervous system is just a network of nerves that can sense touch
(see Figure 4.14). Most invertebrates have a more complex nervous system. It may include a brain and
several dierent sense organs.
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Figure 4.14: Nerve Net (Coral). The body of a coral is lined with a net of nerves that can detect touch.
How might this ability be adaptive?
Reproduction
Most invertebrates reproduce sexually. Diploid adults produce haploid gametes (sperm and eggs). In some
species, the same individuals produce both sperm and eggs. In other species, sperm and eggs are produced
by separate male and female individuals. Fertilization occurs when a sperm and an egg fuse to form a
diploid zygote. The zygote develops into an embryo and eventually into a new adult organism. On the
way, it may pass through one or more larval stages. A larva (plural, larvae) is a juvenile, or immature,
stage of an animal. It is generally quite dierent in form and function from the adult form of the species.
For example, the larva may be able to swim freely, whereas the adult must remain permanently attached
to a solid surface.
Some invertebrates can also reproduce asexually. This may occur by ssion or budding. Fission takes place
when an animal simply divides into two parts. Each part then regrows the missing part. The result is two
whole organisms. Budding may take place when a parent forms a small bump, or bud. The bud remains
attached to the parent while it develops into a new individual.
Invertebrate Evolution
Invertebrates evolved several important traits before vertebrates even appeared. These traits are now
found in just about all animals.
Multicellularity
The rst animal trait to evolve was multicellularity. This was highly adaptive. Multiple cells could do
dierent jobs. They could evolve special adaptations that allowed them to do their job really well. However,
the rst invertebrates still lacked tissues. Sponges represent the rst organism at this stage of invertebrate
evolution.
Tissues
Living cnidarians, such as jellysh, represent the next stage of invertebrate evolution. This was the
evolution of tissues. It was the rst step in the evolution of organs and organ systems. At rst, invertebrates
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developed tissues from just two embryonic cell layers. There was an outer cell layer called ectoderm and
an inner cell layer called endoderm. The two cell layers allowed dierent types of tissues to form.
Radial Symmetry
Another trait that evolved early on was symmetry. To understand symmetry, you need to see an animal
that lacks symmetry. A sponge, like the one in Figure 4.15, lacks symmetry. This means it cannot be
divided into two identical halves. A symmetrical organism, in contrast, can be divided into two identical
halves. Both the coral polyp and the beetle in Figure 4.15 have symmetry.
Figure 4.15: Symmetry in Invertebrates. Sponges lack symmetry. Radial symmetry evolved rst. This
was followed by bilateral symmetry. How do the two types of symmetry dier?
The coral polyp in Figure 4.15 has radial symmetry. This was the rst type of symmetry to evolve.
The coral has a distinct top and bottom but not distinct ends. It can be divided into identical halves like
a pie, but not into right and left halves. Animals with radial symmetry have no sense of directions such as
forward and backward or left and right. This makes controlled movement in these directions impossible.
Cephalization
Flatworms represent the next stage of invertebrate evolution. They evolved cephalization. This is the
concentration of nerve tissue at one end of the body, forming a head region. This is highly adaptive. It
allows central control of the entire organism. Cephalization was rst step in the evolution of a brain.
Bilateral Symmetry
An outcome of cephalization was bilateral symmetry. This is demonstrated by the beetle in Figure
4.15. With concentrated nerve tissue at the head but not at the tail end, the two ends of the body are
distinct from each other. The animal can be divided down the middle to form identical right and left
halves. It allows the animal to tell front from back and left from right. This is needed for controlled
movements in these directions.
Mesoderm
Ancestors of atworms also evolved mesoderm. This is a third layer of cells between the ectoderm and
the endoderm (see Figure 4.16). Evolution of this new cell layer allowed animals to develop new types of
tissues, such as muscle.
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Figure 4.16: Three Cell Layers in a Flatworm. A atworm has three cell layers.
Complete Digestive System

Early invertebrates had an incomplete digestive system. There was just one opening for the mouth and
anus. Ancestors of modern roundworms were the rst animals to evolve a complete digestive system. With
a separate mouth and anus, food could move through the body in just one direction. This made digestion
more eicient. An animal could keep eating while digesting food and getting rid of waste. Dierent parts of
the digestive tract could also become specialized for dierent digestive functions. This led to the evolution
of digestive organs.
Pseudocoelom and Coelom

Ancestors of roundworms also evolved a pseudocoelom. This is a partial body cavity that is lled with
uid. It allows room for internal organs to develop. The uid also cushions the internal organs. The
pressure of the uid within the cavity provides stiness. It gives the body internal support, forming a
hydrostatic skeleton. It explains why roundworms are round and atworms are at. Later, a true
coelom evolved. This is a uid-lled body cavity, completely enclosed by mesoderm. It lies between the
digestive cavity and body wall (see Figure 4.17). Invertebrates with a true coelom include mollusks and
annelids.
Segmented Body
Segmentation evolved next. This is a division of the body into multiple segments. Both the earthworm
and ant pictured in Figure 4.18 have segmented bodies. This trait increases exibility. It permits a wider
range of motion. All annelids and arthropods are segmented. Arthropods also evolved jointed appendages.
For example, they evolved jointed legs for walking and feelers (antennae) for sensing.
Notochord
Some invertebrates evolved a notochord. This is the sti support rod in a chordate. The rst chordates
were probably similar to modern invertebrate chordates. The sea squirt in Figure 4.19 is an example.
Later, some invertebrate chordates evolved into vertebrates.
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Figure 4.17: Cross Section of an Invertebrate with a Coelom. The coelom forms within the mesoderm.
Figure 4.18: Segmented Invertebrates. Earthworm (Annelid) and Black Ant (Arthropod). An earthworm
consists of many small segments. An ant has three larger segments. Notice the ants jointed legs and
feelers.
Figure 4.19: Notochord. A sea squirt is an invertebrate with a notochord.
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Classication of Invertebrates
Eight major phyla contain the majority of invertebrate species.
Major Invertebrate Phyla

Table 4.2 gives an overview of the eight invertebrate phyla with the greatest number of species. The next
chapter describes each phylum in greater detail.
Table 4.2: Major Invertebrate Phyla
Phylum (includes)
Notable Characteristics
Example
Porifera (sponges)
multicellularity, specialized cells

but no tissues, asymmetry, incomplete digestive system
radial symmetry, true tissues, incomplete digestive system
cephalization, bilateral symmetry, mesoderm, complete digestive system
pseudocoelom, complete digestive system
true coelom, organ systems, some
with primitive brain
segmented body, primitive brain
sponges
Cnidaria (jellysh, corals)

Platyhelminthes
tapeworms, ukes)
(atworms,
Nematoda (roundworms)
Mollusca (snails, clams, squids)
Annelida (earthworms, leeches,
marine worms)
Arthropoda (insects, spiders,
crustaceans, centipedes)
Echinodermata (sea stars, sea
urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers)
segmented body, jointed appendages, exoskeleton, brain

complete
digestive
system,
coelom, spiny internal skeleton
jellysh
atworm
roundworm
snail
earthworm
insect (dragony)
sea urchin
Protostomes and Deuterostomes

Most invertebrates (and higher animals) can also be placed in one of two groups based on how they
develop as embryos. The two groups are called protostomes and deuterostomes. As shown in Figure 4.20,
organisms in the two groups have dierent ways of forming the coelom and mouth, among other dierences.
Mollusks, annelids, and arthropods are protostomes. Echinoderms and chordates are deuterostomes. This
distinction is important. Why does it matter? It shows that echinoderms are more closely related to
chordates than are the other invertebrate phyla. This is not apparent based on other, more obvious traits.
Lesson Summary
The majority of living animals are invertebrates. Invertebrates lack a backbone. They may have
an incomplete or a complete digestive system. They vary in how they move and in the complexity
of their nervous system. Most invertebrates reproduce sexually. After hatching, many invertebrates
pass through one or more larval stages that are dierent from the adult stage.
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Figure 4.20: Protostomes vs. Deuterostomes. In protostomes such as mollusks, the coelom forms within
the mesoderm. In deuterostomes such as echinoderms, the coelom forms from a pouch of endoderm. How
does the formation of the mouth dier in these two groups of animals?
Many important traits evolved in invertebrates. They include: multicellularity, tissues and organs,
radial and bilateral symmetry, cephalization, mesoderm, complete digestive system, coelom, segmented body, and notochord.
Eight invertebrate phyla contain most invertebrate species. Invertebrates (and higher animals) can
also be placed in one of two groups based on how they develop as embryos.

Recall
1. Describe the range of variation in the nervous systems of invertebrates.
2. Distinguish among asymmetry, radial symmetry, and bilateral symmetry.
3. Dene cephalization. What is its relationship to bilateral symmetry?
4. What is mesoderm? Name an invertebrate with mesoderm.
5. Dene coelom. How is the coelom related to the hydrostatic skeleton?
6. What is segmentation? Why is it adaptive?
7. Describe evidence showing that echinoderms are more closely related to chordates than are other
invertebrate phyla.
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Apply Concepts
8. Create a diagram to show the life cycle of an invertebrate with a larval stage. Include simple sketches
of the adult and larval stages of the animal.
9. Assume you have discovered a new invertebrate. It has a segmented body, a brain, and jointed appendages. In which phylum would you place it? Why?
Think Critically
10. Compare and contrast incomplete and complete digestive systems. Why is a complete digestive system
more eicient?
11. Explain how invertebrate movement is related to body symmetry.
Points to Consider
This chapter presents an overview of invertebrate phyla. The next chapter describes invertebrate phyla in
greater detail.
What questions do you have about invertebrate phyla now? For example, do you wonder where
organisms in the dierent phyla live or what they eat?
Invertebrates evolved hundreds of millions of years ago. Which invertebrate phylum do you think
has the greatest number of species today?
Image Sources
(1) Courtesy of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pacific_hagfish_Myxine.jpg. Public Domain.
(2) (A) Mila Zinkova; (B) L. Shyamal; (C) Mila; (D) Max Gross; (E) World66; (F) Image copyright
Mike Price, 2011. [(A)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sponge_in_papua_new_guinea.jpg; (B)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TurbellerianWynaad.jpg; (C)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flying_insect.jpg; (D)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Argentine_Horned_Frog_%28Ceratophrys_ornata%291.JPG; (E)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Panthera_tigris_amoyensis.jpg; (F)
http://www.shutterstock.com ]. (A) CC-BY-SA 3.0; (B) CC-BY-SA 3.0; (C) CC-BY-SA 3.0; (D)
CC-BY-SA 3.0; (E) CC-BY-SA 1.0; (F) Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
(3) Top to bottom: JJ Harrison; Photo Collection of Dr. James P. McVey, NOAA Sea Grant Program;
Image copyright Steve Heap, 2010. [Top to bottom:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Salticidae_sp._AF_2.jpg;
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/reef0206.htm; http://www.shutterstock.com ]. Top to
bottom: CC-BY-SA 3.0; Public Domain; Used under license from Shuttesrtock.com.
(5) Mariana Ruiz Villarreal. [(Top):
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Prokaryote_cell_diagram.svg; (Bottom):
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Animal_cell_structure.svg ]. Both images are in public

domain.
(6) ArthurWeasley. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Archaeothyris_BW.jpg. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(7) Earthworm image copyright Pakhnyushcha, 2010 and ant image copyright Fong Kam Yee, 2010.
http://www.shutterstock.com. Both images used under licenses from Shutterstock.com.
(8) Image copyright John A. Anderson, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(12) Courtesy of National Institute of Drug Abuse.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nerve.nida.jpg. Public Domain.
(13) YassineMrabet. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Protovsdeuterostomes.svg. CC-BY-SA
3.0.
(14) (Left) Stephen Fairclough; (Right) Xvazquez. [(Left)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monosiga_Brevicollis_Phase.jpg; (Right)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ascon_anatomia.jpg ]. (Left) CC-BY-SA 2.5;
(Right) Public Domain.
(15) (Beetle) Image copyright Yuran, 2010; (Coral) Created by CK-12 Foundation; (Sponge) Image
copyright Martina Orlich, 2010; Composite created by CK-12 Foundation.
http://www.shutterstock.com. Beetle and sponge images used under licenses from
Shutterstock.com; coral image CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0.
(16) (Sponge) Courtesy of US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; (Spider)
Fir0002/Flagstaotos. [(Sponge):
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phakellia_600.jpg; (Spider)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brachypelma_edit.jpg ]. (Sponge): Public Domain;
(Spider); GNU-FDL 1.2.
(19) Image copyright fotosub, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
Opening image copyright RAGMA IMAGES, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
For Table 4.1, top to bottom,
Image copyright Stubbleeld Photography, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
Image copyright saiva_l, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
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Image copyright Daryl H, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
Courtesy of Agricultural Research Service. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Soybean_
cyst_nematode_and_egg_SEM.jpg. Public Domain.
Image copyright Sergios, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
Image copyright Cre8tive Images, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
Image copyright Subbotina Anna, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
Image copyright almondd, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
Image copyright Nataliya_Ostapenko, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license
from Shutterstock.com.
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Chapter 5
From Sponges to Invertebrate
Chordates
This may look like a scary creature from your worst nightmare, but it wouldnt hurt a y. In fact, it is
a y! The picture shows the charming portrait of a horsey, up close and personal. Those big, striped,
colorful orbs are its eyes. Did you ever look through a kaleidoscope? If so, then you have an idea of what
the world looks like to a horsey.
What other organs do insects like this horsey have? Besides sensing their environment, what other
functions do their organs serve? In this chapter, you will nd out. You will read not only about y eyes.
Youll also read about octopus ink, spider fangs, and other fascinating features of invertebrates.
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5.1
Sponges, Cnidarians, Flatworms, and Roundworms
Lesson Objectives
Describe invertebrates in the phylum Porifera.

Outline characteristics of cnidarians.
Give an overview of the platyhelminths.
Summarize traits of nematode invertebrates.
Vocabulary
Cnidaria
endoskeleton
lter feeder
medusa (plural, medusae)
Nematoda
Platyhelminthes
polyp
Porifera
sessile
Introduction
Invertebrates are animals without a backbone. They are the most numerous animals on Earth. Most
invertebrates are insects. However, simpler invertebrates evolved before insects. Somelike the sponges
you will read about nexthave existed virtually unchanged for hundreds of millions of years. Their
continued existence is evidence that they are well adapted for their habitats. They also evolved some of
the most important traits that are found in almost all animals today. Without the traits that evolved in
sponges and other simple invertebrates, you would not exist.
Sponges
Sponges are aquatic invertebrates that make up the phylum Porifera. The word porifera means porebearing. The phylum is aptly named. As you can see from Figure 5.1, a sponge has a porous body. There
are at least 5,000 living species of sponges. Almost all of them inhabit the ocean, living mainly on coral
reefs or the ocean oor.
Structure and Function of Sponges

Sponges come in a variety of shapes and sizes. For example, they may be shaped like tubes, fans, cones, or
just blobs. They range in diameter from about a centimeter (0.4 inches) to over a meter (3.3 feet). Many
species live in colonies that may be quite large. Adult sponges are sessile. This means they are unable to
move from place to place. Root-like projections anchor them to solid surfaces such as rocks and reefs.
Sponges have an internal skeleton that gives them support and protection. An internal skeleton is called
an endoskeleton. A sponge endoskeleton consists of short, sharp rods called spicules (see Figure 5.2).
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Figure 5.1: Sponge on a Coral Reef. This orange sponge is covered with pores. Can you predict the
function of the pores?
Spicules are made of silica, calcium carbonate, or spongin, a tough protein. They grow from specialized
cells in the body of the sponge.
Figure 5.2: Sponge Anatomy. A sponge lacks tissues and organs, but it has several types of specialized
cells.
Sponges are lter feeders. They pump water into their body through their pores. The water ows
through a large central cavity called the spongocoel (see Figure 5.2). As the water ows by, specialized
collar cells lter out food particles such as bacteria. Collar cells have tiny hairs that trap the particles.
They also have a agellum that whips the water and keeps it moving. Once the food is trapped, the collar
cells digest it (see Figure 5.3). Cells called amebocytes also help digest the food. They distribute the
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nutrients to the rest of the body as well. Finally, the water ows back out of the body through an opening
called the osculum. As water ows through the sponge, oxygen diuses from the water to the sponges
cells. The cells also expel wastes into the water for removal through the osculum.
Figure 5.3: Collar Cell. The collar cells of sponges trap and digest food.
Sponge Reproduction
Sponges reproduce both asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction occurs by budding. Figure 5.4
shows the sponge life cycle when sexual reproduction is involved. Adult sponges produce eggs and sperm.
In many species, the same individuals produce both. However, they dont produce eggs and sperm at
the same time. As a result, self-fertilization is unlikely to occur. What is an advantage of avoiding
self-fertilization?
Sperm are released into the surrounding water through the osculum. If they enter a female sponge through
a pore, they may be trapped by collar cells. Trapped sperm are delivered to eggs inside the female body,
where fertilization takes place. The resulting zygote develops into a larva. Unlike the adult, the larva is
motile. It is covered with cilia that propel it through the water. As the larva grows, it becomes more
similar to an adult sponge and loses its ability to swim.
Ecology of Sponges
Sponges that live on coral reefs have symbiotic relationships with other reef species. They provide shelter
for algae, shrimp, and crabs. In return, they get nutrients from the metabolism of the organisms they
shelter. Sponges are a source of food for many species of sh. Because sponges are sessile, they cannot
ee from predators. Their sharp spicules provide some defense. They also produce toxins that may poison
predators that try to eat them.
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Figure 5.4: Sponge Life Cycle. When sponges reproduce sexually, they have this life cycle.
Cnidarians
Cnidarians are invertebrates such as jellysh and corals. They belong to the phylum Cnidaria. All
cnidarians are aquatic. Most of them live in the ocean. Cnidarians are a little more complex than sponges.
They have radial symmetry and tissues. There are more than 10,000 cnidarian species. They are very
diverse, as shown in Figure 5.5.
Structure and Function of Cnidarians

All cnidarians have something in common. Its a nematocyst, like the one shown in Figure 5.6. A
nematocyst is a long, thin, coiled stinger. It has a barb that may inject poison. These tiny poison darts
are propelled out of special cells. They are used to attack prey or defend against predators.
There are two basic body plans in cnidarians. They are called the polyp and medusa. Both are shown in
Figure 5.7. The polyp has a tubular body and is usually sessile. The medusa (plural, medusae) has
a bell-shaped body and is typically motile. Some cnidarian species alternate between polyp and medusa
forms. Other species exist in just one form or the other.
The body of a cnidarian consists of two cell layers, ectoderm and endoderm. The cells surround a digestive
cavity called the coelenteron (see Figure 5.8). Cnidarians have a simple digestive system. The single
opening is surrounded by tentacles, which are used to capture prey. The tentacles are covered with
nematocyst cells. Digestion takes place in the coelenteron. Nutrients are absorbed and gases exchanged
through the cells lining this cavity. Fluid in the coelenteron creates a hydrostatic skeleton. Cnidarians have
a simple nervous system consisting of a nerve net that can detect touch. They may also have other sensory
structures. For example, jellysh have light-sensing structures and gravity-sensing structures. These senses
give them a sense of up versus down. It also helps them balance.
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Figure 5.5: Cnidarian Diversity. Cnidarians show a lot of variability.
Figure 5.6: Cnidarian Nematocyst. A cnidarian nematocyst is like a poison dart. It is ejected from a
specialized cell (shown here in yellow).
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Figure 5.7: Cnidarian Body Plans. Cnidarians may exist in the polyp (left) or medusa (right) form.
Cnidarian Reproduction
Figure 5.8 shows a general cnidarian life cycle. Polyps usually reproduce asexually. One type of asexual
reproduction in polyps leads to the formation of new medusae. Medusae usually reproduce sexually.
Sexual reproduction forms a zygote. The zygote develops into a larva called a planula. The planula, in
turn, develops into a polyp. There are many variations on the general life cycle. Obviously, species that
exist only as polyps or medusae have a life cycle without the other form.
Figure 5.8: General Cnidarian Life Cycle. Cnidarians may reproduce both asexually and sexually.
Ecology of Cnidarians
Cnidarians can be found in almost all ocean habitats. They may live in water that is shallow or deep,
warm or cold. A few species live in freshwater. Some cnidarians live alone, while others live in colonies.
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Corals form large colonies in shallow tropical water. They are conned to shallow water because they have
a mutualistic relationship with algae that live inside them. The algae need sunlight for photosynthesis, so
they must be relatively close to the surface of the water. Corals exist only as polyps. They catch plankton
with their tentacles. Many secrete a calcium carbonate exoskeleton. Over time, this builds up to become
a coral reef (see Figure 5.9). Coral reefs provide food and shelter to many ocean organisms. They also
help protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing some of the energy of waves. Coral reefs are at risk of
destruction today.
Figure 5.9: Great Barrier Reef. The Great Barrier Reef is a coral reef o the coast of Australia.
Unlike corals, jellysh spend most of their lives as medusae. They live virtually everywhere in the ocean.
They are typically carnivores. They prey on zooplankton, other invertebrates, and the eggs and larvae of
sh.
KQED: Amazing Jellies

Jellysh. They are otherworldly creatures that glow in the dark, without brains or bones, some more than
100 feet long. And there are many dierent types. Jellysh are free-swimming members of the phylum
Cnidaria. Jellysh are found in every ocean, from the surface to the deep sea. To nd out more about
jellysh, see http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/amazing-jellies--siphonophores2.
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Flatworms
Flatworms belong to the phylum Platyhelminthes. Examples of atworms are shown in Figure 5.11.
There are more than 25,000 species in the atworm phylum.
Figure 5.11: Platyhelminthes. Platyhelminths include atworms, tapeworms, and ukes.
Structure and Function of Flatworms

Flatworms range in length from about 1 millimeter (0.04 inches) to more than 20 meters (66 feet). They
have a at body because they do not have a coelom or even a pseudocoelom. They also lack a respiratory
system. Instead, their cells exchange gases by diusion directly with the environment. Their digestive
system is incomplete.
Flatworms reect several major evolutionary advances in invertebrates. They have three embryonic cell
layers, including mesoderm. The mesoderm layer allows them to develop organ systems. For example, they
have muscular and excretory systems. The muscular system allows them to move from place to place over
solid surfaces. The excretory system lets them maintain a proper balance of water and salts. Flatworms
also show cephalization and bilateral symmetry.
Flatworm Reproduction
Flatworms reproduce sexually. In most species, the same individuals produce both eggs and sperm. After
fertilization occurs, the fertilized eggs pass out of the adults body and hatch into larvae. There may be
several dierent larval stages. The nal larval stage develops into the adult form, and the life cycle repeats.
Ecology of Flatworms
Both ukes and tapeworms are parasites with vertebrate hosts, including human hosts. Flukes live in the
hosts circulatory system or liver. Tapeworms live in the hosts digestive system. Usually, more than one
type of host is required to complete the parasites life cycle. Look at the life cycle of the liver uke in
Figure 5.12. As an adult, the uke has a vertebrate host. As a larva, it has an invertebrate host. If you
follow the life cycle, you can see how each host becomes infected so the uke can continue its life cycle.
Tapeworms and ukes have suckers and other structures for feeding on a host. Tapeworms also have a
ring of hooks on their head to attach themselves to the host (see Figure 5.13). Unlike other invertebrates,
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Figure 5.12: Life Cycle of the Sheep Liver Fluke. The sheep liver uke has a complicated life cycle with
two hosts. How could such a complicated way of life evolve?
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tapeworms lack a mouth and digestive system. Instead, they absorb nutrients directly from the hosts
digestive system with their suckers.
Figure 5.13: Tapeworm Suckers and Hooks. The head of a tapeworm has several suckers. At the very top
of the head is a crown of hooks called a scolex.
Not all atworms are parasites. Some are free-living carnivores. They eat other small invertebrates and
decaying animals. Most of the free-living species live in aquatic habitats, but some live in moist soil.
Roundworms
Roundworms make up the phylum Nematoda. This is a very diverse animal phyla. It has more than
80,000 known species.
Structure and Function of Roundworms

Roundworms range in length from less than 1 millimeter to over 7 meters (23 feet) in length. As their
name suggests, they have a round body. This is because they have a pseudocoelom. This is one way they
dier from atworms. Another way is their complete digestive system. It allows them to take in food,
digest food, and eliminate wastes all at the same time.
Roundworms have a tough covering of cuticle on the surface of their body. It prevents their body from
expanding. This allows the buildup of uid pressure in the pseudocoelom. As a result, roundworms have a
hydrostatic skeleton. This provides a counterforce for the contraction of muscles lining the pseudocoelom.
This allows the worms to move eiciently along solid surfaces.
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Roundworm Reproduction
Roundworms reproduce sexually. Sperm and eggs are produced by separate male and female adults.
Fertilization takes place inside the female organism. Females lay huge numbers of eggs, sometimes as many
as 100,000 per day! The eggs hatch into larvae, which develop into adults. Then the cycle repeats.
Ecology of Roundworms
Roundworms may be free-living or parasitic. Free-living worms are found mainly in freshwater habitats.
Some live in soil. They generally feed on bacteria, fungi, protozoans, or decaying organic matter. By
breaking down organic matter, they play an important role in the carbon cycle.
Parasitic roundworms may have plant, vertebrate, or invertebrate hosts. Several species have human
hosts. For example, hookworms, like the one in Figure 5.14, are human parasites. They infect the human
intestine. They are named for the hooks they use to grab onto the hosts tissues. Hookworm larvae enter
the host through the skin. They migrate to the intestine, where they mature into adults. Adults lay eggs,
which pass out of the host in feces. Then the cycle repeats.
Figure 5.14: Hookworm Parasite. Hookworms like this one are common human parasites.
Tiny pinworms are the most common roundworm parasites of people in the U.S. In some areas, as many as
one out of three children are infected. Humans become infected when they ingest the nearly microscopic
pinworm eggs. The eggs hatch and develop into adults in the hosts digestive tract. Adults lay eggs that
pass out of the hosts body to continue the cycle. Pinworms have a fairly simple life cycle with only one
host.
Lesson Summary
Sponges are aquatic invertebrates. They make up the phylum Porifera. Sponges have specialized
cells and an endoskeleton. They lack tissues and body symmetry. Adult sponges are sessile lter
feeders. Sponge larvae have cilia for swimming.
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Cnidarians include jellysh and corals. They are aquatic invertebrates. They have tissues and radial
symmetry. They also have tentacles with stingers. There are two cnidarian body plans: the polyp
and the medusa. They dier in several ways. Many corals secrete an exoskeleton that builds up to
become a coral reef.
Platyhelminths are atworms such as tapeworms and ukes. They have a mesoderm cell layer and
simple organ systems. They also show cephalization and bilateral symmetry. Many atworms are
parasites with vertebrate hosts. Some are free-living carnivores that live mainly in aquatic habitats.
Roundworms make up the phylum Nematoda. They have a pseudocoelom and hydrostatic skeleton.
Their body is covered with tough cuticle. Free-living roundworms are found mainly in freshwater
habitats. Parasitic roundworms have a variety of hosts, including humans.

Recall
1. Dene sessile. Name an invertebrate with a sessile adult stage.
2. Describe the skeleton of a sponge.
3. Sponges have specialized cells called collar cells. Describe how collar cells are specialized for the functions
they serve.
4. What is a nematocyst? What is its function?
5. How do coral reefs form?
6. Describe specialized feeding structures of parasitic platyhelminths.
7. How do free-living nematodes contribute to the carbon cycle?
Apply Concepts
8. Create a diagram of an adult sponge body plan that shows how sponges obtain food.
9. Apply what you know about pinworms to develop one or more recommendations for preventing pinworm
infections in humans.
Think Critically
10. Compare and contrast cnidarian polyps and medusae.
11. Platyhelminths and nematodes are both worms. Justify classifying them in dierent invertebrate phyla.
12. Some parasitic atworms have a very complicated life cycle with more than one host. Infer why this
might be adaptive.
Points to Consider
In this lesson, you read about atworms and roundworms. In the next lesson, youll read about worms
called annelids. Mollusks such as snails are also described in the next lesson.
How are annelids dierent from atworms and roundworms?
Why do you think annelids are placed in a lesson with mollusks instead of with atworms and
roundworms?
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5.2
Mollusks and Annelids
Lesson Objectives
Describe invertebrates in the phylum Mollusca.
Summarize the characteristics of annelids.
Vocabulary
Annelida
deposit feeder
gills
heart
mantle
Mollusca
regeneration
Introduction
Mollusks are invertebrates such as the common snail. Most mollusks have shells. Annelids are worms such
as the familiar earthworm. They have segmented bodies. Annelids look like roundworms on the outside,
but on the inside they are more like mollusks.
Mollusks
Have you ever been to the ocean or eaten seafood? If you have, then you probably have encountered
members of the phylum Mollusca. Mollusks include snails, scallops, and squids, as shown in Figure
5.15. There are more than 100,000 known species of mollusks. About 80 percent of mollusk species are
gastropods.
Figure 5.15: This gure shows some of the more common and familiar mollusks.
Structure and Function of Mollusks

Mollusks are a very diverse phylum. Some mollusks are nearly microscopic. The largest mollusk, a colossal
squid, may be as long as a school bus and weigh over half a ton! The basic body plan of a mollusk is
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shown in Figure 5.16. The main distinguishing feature is a hard outer shell. It covers the top of the body
and encloses the internal organs. Most mollusks have a distinct head region. The head may have tentacles
for sensing the environment and grasping food. There is generally a muscular foot, which may be used for
walking. However, the foot has evolved modications in many species to be used for other purposes.
Figure 5.16: Basic Mollusk Body Plan. The basic body plan shown here varies among mollusk classes. For
example, several mollusk species no longer have shells. Do you know which ones?
Two unique features of mollusks are the mantle and radula (see Figure 5.16). The mantle is a layer of
tissue that lies between the shell and the body. It secretes calcium carbonate to form the shell. It forms
a cavity, called the mantle cavity, between the mantle and the body. The mantle cavity pumps water for
lter feeding. The radula is a feeding organ with teeth made of chitin. It is located in front of the mouth
in the head region. Herbivorous mollusks use the radula to scrape food such as algae o rocks. Predatory
mollusks use the radula to drill holes in the shells of their prey.
Mollusks have a coelom and a complete digestive system. Their excretory system consists of tube-shaped
organs called nephridia (see Figure 5.16). The organs lter waste from body uids and release the waste
into the coelom. Terrestrial mollusks exchange gases with the surrounding air. This occurs across the lining
of the mantle cavity. Aquatic mollusks breathe under water with gills. Gills are thin laments that
absorb gases and exchange them between the blood and surrounding water. Mollusks have a circulatory
system with one or two hearts that pump blood. The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood through
the circulatory system when its muscles contract. The circulatory system may be open or closed, depending
on the species.
The major classes of mollusks vary in structure and function. You can read about some of their dierences
in Figure 5.17.
Mollusk Reproduction
Mollusks reproduce sexually. Most species have separate male and female sexes. Gametes are released
into the mantle cavity. Fertilization may be internal or external, depending on the species. Fertilized eggs
develop into larvae. There may be one or more larval stages. Each one is dierent from the adult stage.
Mollusks (and annelids) have a unique larval form called a trochophore. It is a tiny organism with cilia for
swimming.
Ecology of Mollusks
Mollusks live in most terrestrial, freshwater, and marine habitats. However, the majority of species live
in the ocean. They can be found in both shallow and deep water and from tropical to polar latitudes.
Mollusks are a major food source for other organisms, including humans. You may have eaten mollusks such
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Figure 5.17: Use this gure to compare and contrast gastropods, bivalves, and cephalopods
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as clams, oysters, scallops, or mussels. The dierent classes of mollusks have dierent ways of obtaining
food.
Gastropods are may be herbivores, predators, or internal parasites. They live in both aquatic and
terrestrial habitats. Marine species live mainly in shallow coastal waters. Gastropods use their foot
to crawl slowly over rocks, reefs, or soil, looking for food.
Bivalves are generally sessile lter feeders. They live in both freshwater and marine habitats. They
use their foot to attach themselves to rocks or reefs or to burrow into mud. Bivalves feed on plankton
and nonliving organic matter. They lter the food out of the water as it ows through their mantle
cavity.
Cephalopods are carnivores that live only in marine habitats. They may be found in the open ocean
or close to shore. They are either predators or scavengers. They generally eat other invertebrates
and sh.
KQED: Cool Critters: Dwarf Cuttlesh

Whats the coolest critter in the ocean under 4 inches long? The Dwarf Cuttlesh! Cuttlesh are marine animals that belong to the class Cephalopoda. Despite their name, cuttlesh are not sh but molluscs. Recent studies indicate that cuttlesh are among the most intelligent invertebrates, with one of
the largest brain-to-body size ratios of all invertebrates. Cuttlesh have an internal shell called the
cuttlebone and eight arms and two tentacles furnished with denticulated suckers, with which they secure their prey. For more information on the cuttlesh, see http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/
cool-critters-dwarf-cuttlefish.
KQED: The Fierce Humboldt Squid

The Humboldt squid is a large, predatory invertebrate found in the waters of the Pacic Ocean. A
mysterious sea creature up to 7 feet long, with 10 arms, a sharp beak and a ravenous appetite, packs of
erce Humboldt Squid attack nearly everything they see, from sh to scuba divers. Traveling in groups
of 1,000 or more and swimming at speeds of more than 15 miles an hour, these animals hunt and feed
together, and use jet propulsion to shoot out of the water to escape predators. Humboldt squid live
at depths of between 600 and about 2,000 feet, coming to the surface at night to feed. They live for
approximately two years and spend much of their short life in the oceans oxygen-minimum zone, where
very little other life exists. Because they live at such depths, little is known about these mysterious sea
creatures. The Humboldt squid usually lives in the waters of the Humboldt Current, ranging from the
southern tip of South America north to California, but in recent years, this squid has been found as far north
as Alaska. Marine biologists are working to discover why they have headed north from their traditional
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homes o South America. See http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/the-fierce-humboldt-squid

Wheres the Octopus?

When marine biologist Roger Hanlon captured the rst scene in this video he started screaming. Hanlon, senior scientist at the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole, studies camouage in cephalopodssquid,
cuttlesh and octopus. They are masters of optical illusion. The video at http://www.sciencefriday.
com/videos/watch/10397 shows some of Hanlons top video picks of sea creatures going in and out of
hiding.

Annelids
The phylum Annelida is made up of segmented worms such as earthworms. Segmented worms are divided
into many repeating segments. There are roughly 15,000 species of annelids. Most belong to one of three
classes. A species in each class is pictured in Figure 5.21.
Structure and Function of Annelids

Annelids range in length from less than 1 millimeter to over 3 meters. They never attain the large size of
some mollusks. Like mollusks, however, they have a coelom. In fact, the annelid coelom is even larger,
allowing greater development of internal organs. Annelids have other similarities with mollusks, including:
A closed circulatory system (like cephalopods).
An excretory system consisting of tubular nephridia.
A complete digestive system.
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Figure 5.21: Classes of Annelids. The majority of annelids are polychaetes. They live on the ocean oor,
so you may not be familiar with them.
A brain.
Sensory organs for detecting light and other stimuli.
Gills for gas exchange (but many exchange gas through their skin).
The segmentation of annelids is highly adaptive. For one thing, it allows more eicient movement. Each
segment generally has its own nerve and muscle tissues. Thus, localized muscle contractions can move just
those segments needed for a particular motion. Segmentation also allows an animal to have specialized
segments to carry out particular functions. This allows the whole animal to be more eicient. Annelids
have the amazing capacity to regrow segments that break o. This is called regeneration.
Annelids have a variety of structures on the surface of their body for movement and other functions. These
vary, depending on the species. Several of the structures are described in Figure 5.22.
Annelid Reproduction
Most species of annelids can reproduce both asexually and sexually. However, leeches can reproduce only
sexually. Asexual reproduction may occur by budding or ssion. Sexual reproduction varies by species.
In some species, the same individual produces both sperm and eggs. But worms mate to exchange
sperm, rather than self-fertilizing their own eggs. Fertilized eggs are deposited in a mucous cocoon.
Ospring emerge from the cocoon looking like small adults. They grow to adult size without going
through a larval stage.
In polychaete species, there are separate sexes. Adult worms go through a major transformation to
develop reproductive organs. This occurs in many adults at once. Then they all swim to the surface
and release their gametes in the water, where fertilization takes place. Ospring go through a larval
stage before developing into adults.
Ecology of Annelids
Annelids live in a diversity of freshwater, marine, and terrestrial habitats. They vary in what they feed on
and how they obtain their food.
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Figure 5.22: Annelid External Structures. Many annelids have bristles and other types of external structures. Each structure is not present in all species.
Earthworms are deposit feeders. They burrow through the ground, eating soil and extracting organic matter from it. Earthworm feces, called worm casts, are very rich in plant nutrients. Earthworm
burrows help aerate soil, which is also good for plants.
Polychaete worms live on the ocean oor. They may be sedentary lter feeders or active predators
or scavengers. Active species crawl along the ocean oor in search of food.
Leeches are either predators or parasites. As predators, they capture and eat other invertebrates. As
parasites, they feed o the blood of vertebrate hosts. They have a tubular organ, called a proboscis,
for feeding.
Lesson Summary
Mollusks are invertebrates such as snails, scallops, and squids. They have a hard outer shell. There
is a layer of tissue called the mantle between the shell and the body. Most mollusks have tentacles
for feeding and sensing, and many have a muscular foot. Mollusks also have a coelom, a complete
digestive system, and specialized organs for excretion. The majority of mollusks live in the ocean.
Dierent classes of mollusks have dierent ways of obtaining food.
Annelids are segmented worms such as earthworms and leeches. Annelids have a coelom, closed
circulatory system, excretory system, and complete digestive system. They also have a brain. Earthworms are important deposit feeders that help form and enrich soil. Leeches are either predators or
parasites. Parasitic leeches feed o the blood of vertebrate hosts.
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Recall
1. Describe the basic body plan of a mollusk.
2. What are gills? What is their function?
3. What is the dierence between an open and a closed circulatory system?
4. What is a radula? What is it used for?
5. Dene regeneration.
Apply Concepts
6. Create a Venn diagram to show important similarities and dierences among the three major classes of
mollusks.
Think Critically
7. Explain the advantages of a segmented body.
8. Polychaete worms have an interesting reproductive strategy. Describe this strategy and infer its adaptive
signicance.
Points to Consider
Most invertebrates you have read about so far live in aquatic habitats. Many of those that are not aquatic
live inside other organisms as parasites. In the next lesson you will read about invertebrates that live
mainly on land. They are the arthropods, such as insects.
Compared with aquatic invertebrates, what challenges do you think terrestrial invertebrates might
face?
How might terrestrial invertebrates meet these challenges? What special tissues, organs, or appendages might they have evolved to adapt to life on land?
5.3
Arthropods and Insects
Lesson Objectives
Give an overview of the phylum Arthropoda.
Outline the characteristics and importance of insects.
Vocabulary
arthropod
metamorphosis
molting
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pupa
trilobite
Introduction
Arthropods are not only the largest phylum of invertebrates. They are by far the largest phylum of
the animal kingdom. Some 80 percent of all species living on Earth today are arthropods. Obviously,
arthropods have been extremely successful. What accounts for their success? In this lesson, you will nd
out.
Arthropods
There are more than a million known species of arthropods. There may actually be ten times that many.
Arthropods include insects, spiders, lobsters, and centipedes. The arthropods pictured in Figure 5.23 give
just a hint of the phylums diversity.
Figure 5.23: Arthropod Diversity. Dust mites are among the smallest of arthropods. Japanese spider crabs
are the largest. Besides size, what other dierences among arthropods do you see in these photos?
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Structure and Function of Arthropods

Arthropods range in length from about 1 millimeter to 4 meters (about 13 feet). They have a segmented
body with a hard exoskeleton. They also have jointed appendages. The body segments are the head,
thorax, and abdomen (see Figure 5.24). In some arthropods, the head and thorax are joined together as
a cephalothorax.
Figure 5.24: Arthropod Body Plan. The honeybee shows the general body plan of an arthropod.
The arthropod exoskeleton consists of several layers of cuticle. The exoskeleton prevents water loss and
gives support and protection. It also acts as a counterforce for the contraction of muscles. The exoskeleton
doesnt grow as the animal grows. Therefore, it must be shed and replaced with a new one periodically
through life. This is called molting. The jointed appendages of arthropods may be used as legs for
walking. Being jointed makes them more exible. Try walking or climbing stairs without bending your
knees, and youll see why joints are helpful. In most arthropods, the appendages on the head have been
modied for other functions. Figure 5.25 shows some of head appendages found in arthropods. Sensory
organs such as eyes are also found on the head.
Some arthropods have special excretory structures. They are called coxal glands and Malphigian tubules.
Coxal glands collect and concentrate liquid waste from blood. They excrete the waste from the body
through a pore. Malphigian tubules carry waste from the digestive tract to the anus. The waste is
excreted through the anus.
Like mollusks and annelids, aquatic arthropods may have gills to exchange gases with the water (discussed
below). Terrestrial arthropods, on the other hand, have special respiratory structures to exchange gases
with the air. These are described in Figure 5.26.
Underwater Spiders
In the ponds of northern Europe lives a tiny brown spider that spends its entire life underwater. But
just like land spiders, it needs oxygen to breathe. So, how does this spider breath? Does it use book
lungs? No. In fact, aquatic spiders, known as diving bell spiders, have gills, and every so often, the
spider leaves its underwater web to visit the surface and bring back a bubble of air that sticks to its
hairy abdomen. It deposits the bubble into a little silk air tank. This diving bell, is a gill that sucks
oxygen from the water, allowing the spider to stay underwater for up to 24 hours. See http://news.
sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2011/06/spiders.html?ref=hp for additional information and additional
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Figure 5.25: Arthropod Head. Arthropods have evolved a variety of specialized appendages and other
structures on their head.
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Figure 5.26: How Terrestrial Arthropods Breathe Air. Terrestrial arthropods have respiratory structures
that let them breathe air.
pictures. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GidrcvjoeKE shows these spiders in action.
Figure 5.27: A pair of diving bell (water) spiders.
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Arthropod Reproduction
Arthropods have a life cycle with sexual reproduction. Most species go through larval stages after hatching. The larvae are very dierent from the adults. They change into the adult form in a process called
metamorphosis. This may take place within a cocoon. A familiar example of metamorphosis is the
transformation of a caterpillar (larva) into a buttery (adult). Other arthropod species, in contrast, hatch
young that look like small adults. These species lack both larval stages and metamorphosis.
Evolution of Arthropods
The oldest known arthropods are trilobites. A fossil trilobite is shown in Figure 5.29. Trilobites were
marine arthropods. They had many segments with paired appendages for walking. As arthropods continued
to evolve, segments fused. Eventually, arthropods with three major segments evolved. Appendages were
also lost or modied during the course of arthropod evolution.
Figure 5.29: Trilobite Fossil. This trilobite fossil represents the earliest arthropods. Trilobites rst appeared
more than 500 million years ago. They lived for at least 200 million years before going extinct. They left
behind large numbers of fossils.
Arthropods were the rst animals to live on land. The earliest terrestrial arthropods were probably
millipedes. They moved to land about 430 million years ago. Early land arthropods evolved adaptations
such as book lungs or trachea to breathe air. The exoskeleton was another important adaptation. It
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prevents an animal from drying out. It also provides support in the absence of buoyant water.
Classication of Arthropods
Living arthropods are divided into four subphyla. They are described in Table 5.1. The Hexapoda
subphylum includes mainly insects. There are so many insects and they are so important that they are
described in greater detail below.
Table 5.1: Classication of Living Arthropods
Subphylum (includes)
Description
Example
milli-
terrestrial; herbivores or predators; 10400 walking legs; poison

claws for hunting
centipede
Chelicerata (spiders, scorpions,

mites, ticks, horseshoe crabs, sea
spiders)
mainly terrestrial; predators or

parasites; 8 walking legs; appendages called chelicerae for
grasping prey; poison fangs for
killing prey; no mandibles, maxillae, antennae; two body segments
spider
(lobsters,
Crustacea
shrimp, barnacles, krill)
mainly aquatic, predators, scavengers, or lter feeders; two

pairs of antennae and claws
for hunting; unique larval stage
(called nauplius) with head appendages for swimming
mainly terrestrial or aerial; herbivores, predators, parasites,
scavengers, or decomposers; 6
walking legs; many modied appendages, such as wings for ying
lobster
Myriapoda (centipedes,
pedes)
crabs,
Hexapoda (ants, ies, grasshoppers, beetles, butteries, moths,

bees, springtails)
beetle
Insects
Most members of the subphylum Hexapoda are insects (class Insecta). In fact, more than half of all known
organisms are insects. There may be more than 10 million insect species in the world, most of them yet to
be identied. Its clear that insects, and not humans, dominate life on Earth.
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Structure and Function of Insects

Insects range in length from less than a millimeter to about the length of your arm. They can be found in
most habitats, but they are mainly terrestrial. Many can y, so they are also aerial. Like other arthropods,
insects have a head, thorax, and abdomen. They have a wide variety of appendages, including six legs
attached to the thorax. Insects have a pair of antennae for smelling and tasting chemicals. Some
insects can also use their antennae to detect sound. Other sensory organs on the head include several
simple eyes and a pair of compound eyes. The compound eyes let insects see images. Butteries and bees
can even see in color. For feeding, the head contains one pair of mandibles and two pairs of maxillae.
Insects consume a wide range of foods, and their mouthparts have become specialized. Several variations
are shown in Figure 5.30.
Figure 5.30: Mouthpart Specialization in Insects. The mouthparts of insects are adapted for dierent food
sources. How do you think the dierent mouthparts evolved?
An insects abdomen contains most of the internal organs. Like other arthropods, insects have a complete
digestive system. They also have an open circulatory system and central nervous system. Like other
terrestrial arthropods, they have trachea for breathing air and Malphigian tubules for excretion.
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Insect Flight
The main reason that insects have been so successful is their ability to y. Insects are the only invertebrates
that can y and the rst animals to evolve ight. Flight has important advantages. Its a guaranteed means
of escape from nonying predators. It also aids in the search for food and mates. Insects generally have two
pairs of wings for ight. Wings are part of the exoskeleton and attached to the thorax. Insect wings show
a lot of variation. As you can see in Figure 5.31, buttery wings are paper-thin, whereas beetle wings are
like armor. Not all insect wings work the same way, either. They dier in how the muscles are attached and
whether the two pairs of wings work independently or together. Besides ight, wings serve other functions.
They may protect the body (beetles), communicate visually with other insects (butteries), or produce
sounds to attract mates (katydids).
Figure 5.31: Form and Function in Insect Wings. Beetles, butteries, and katydids all have two pairs of
wings that they use for ight. However, the wings are very dierent because they have other functions as
well.
Insect Reproduction
Nearly all insects reproduce sexually. Some can also reproduce asexually. An example of an insect life
cycle is shown in Figure 5.32.
When an insect egg hatches, a larva emerges. The larva eats and grows and then enters the pupa stage.
The pupa is immobile and may be encased in a cocoon. During the pupa stage, the insect goes through
metamorphosis. Tissues and appendages of the larva break down and reorganize into the adult form. How
did such an incredible transformation evolve? Metamorphosis is actually very advantageous. It allows
functions to be divided between life stages. Each stage can evolve adaptations to suit it for its specic
functions without aecting the adaptations of the other stage.
Insect Behavior
Insects are capable of a surprising range of behaviors. Most of their behaviors, such as ying and mating,
are instinctive. These are behaviors that dont need to be learned. They are largely controlled by genes.
However, some insect behaviors are learned. For example, ants and bees can learn where food is located
and keep going back for more.
Many species of insects have evolved complex social behaviors. They live together in large, organized
colonies (see Figure 5.33). This is true of ants, termites, bees, and wasps. Colonies may include millions
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Figure 5.32: Insect Life Cycle. This diagram represents the life cycle of a y. Most insects have a similar
life cycle.
of individual insects. Colony members divide up the labor of the colony. Dierent insects are specialized
for dierent jobs. Some reproduce, while others care for the young. Still others get food or defend the
nest.
Figure 5.33: Termite Nest. This cathedral-like structure is the nest of a huge colony of termites in Australia.
In fact, it is the worlds largest known termite nest. It towers 7.5 meters (25 feet) above the ground and
houses millions of termites.
Living in a large colony requires good communication. Ants communicate with chemicals called pheromones.
For example, an ant deposits pheromones on the ground as it returns to the nest from a food source. It is
marking the path so other ants can nd the food. Honeybees communicate by doing a waggle dance.
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KQED: Ants: The Invisible Majority

Most of us think ants are just pests. But not Brian Fisher. Known as The Ant Guy, hes on a mission
to show the world just how important and amazing these little creatures are and in the process, catalog
all of the worlds 30,000 ant species before they become casualties of habitat loss. See http://www.kqed.
org/quest/television/ants-the-invisible-majority2 for more information.
KQED: Landbugs: A Population of Millions

Ladybugs, also known as ladybird beetles, have a life cycle of four to six weeks. In one year as many as six
generations of ladybird beetles may hatch. In the spring, each adult female lays up to 300 eggs in small
clusters on plants where aphids are present. After a week the wingless larvae hatch. Both the ladybird
beetle larvae and adults are active predators, eating only aphids, scales, mites and other plant-eating
insects. The ladybugs live on the vegetation where their prey is found, which includes roses, oleander,
milkweed and broccoli. Adult ladybugs dont taste very good. A bird careless enough to try to eat one
will not swallow it.
By late May to early June, when the larvae have depleted the food supply, the adults migrate to the
mountains. There, they eat mainly pollen. The ladybugs gain fat from eating the pollen and this tides
them over their nine-month hibernation. Thousands of adults hibernate overwinter in tight clusters,
called aggregates, under fallen leaves and ground litter near streams. In the clear, warmer days of early
spring, the ladybugs break up the aggregates and begin several days of mating. Learn about ladybugs at
http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/ladybug-pajama-party.
Insects and Humans

Most humans interact with insects every day. Many of these interactions are harmless and often go
unnoticed. However, insects cause humans a lot of harm. They spread human diseases. For example, the
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deadly bubonic plague of the middle ages was spread by eas. Today, millions of people die each year from
malaria, which is spread by mosquitoes. Insects also eat our crops. Sometimes they travel in huge swarms
that completely strip the land of all plant material (see Figure 5.36). On the other hand, we depend on
insects for the very food we eat. Without insects to pollinate them, owering plantsincluding many food
cropscould not reproduce.
Figure 5.36: Locust Swarm. A swarm of locusts in the African country of Mauritania darkens the mid-day
sky. The hungry insects will eat virtually all the plants in their path.
KQED: Better Bees: Super Bee and Wild Bee

Honeybees are one of the most well-known insects on the planet. Bees are naturalized on every continent
except Antarctica. Honeybees have a highly developed social structure and depend on their community,
or colony, for survival, with a colony containing up to 20,000 bees. When bees search plants for nectar,
pollen sticks to the fuzzy hairs that cover their hind legs. At the next ower, some of the pollen rubs o
and fertilizes that ower. In this way, bees help improve fruit production. Bees pollinate an estimated
130 dierent varieties of fruit, owers, nuts and vegetables in the United States alone. Farmers obviously
depend on bees to pollinate crops, such as fruit and nuts, but in recent years thousands of bee colonies
have disappeared. This could be a devastating issue for farmers. Can anything be done? Meet two
Northern California researchers looking for ways to make sure we always have bees to pollinate our crops
at http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/better-bees-super-bee-and-wild-bee.
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Lesson Summary
Arthropods are the largest phylum in the animal kingdom. Most arthropods are insects. The phylum
also includes spiders, centipedes, and crustaceans. The arthropod body consists of three segments
with a hard exoskeleton and jointed appendages. Terrestrial arthropods have adaptations for life on
land, such as trachea or book lungs for breathing air. The earliest arthropods were trilobites. The
earliest land arthropods were millipedes.
Insects are arthropods in the class Hexapoda. They are the most numerous organisms in the world.
Most are terrestrial, and many are aerial. Insects have six legs and a pair of antennae for sensing
chemicals. They also have several eyes and specialized mouthparts for feeding. Insects are the only
invertebrates than can y. Flight is the main reason for their success. Insects may live in large
colonies and have complex social behaviors. Insects spread disease and destroy crops. However, they
are essential for pollinating owering plants.

Recall
1. Identify distinguishing traits of most arthropods.
2. What is molting? Why does it occur?
3. Name three arthropod head appendages and state their functions.
4. Describe two structures that allow arthropods to breathe air.
5. List several traits that characterize insects.
6. State two important advantages of ight in insects.
7. Give examples of insect behavior.
Apply Concepts
8. Assume you see a bug crawling over the ground. It has two body segments and lacks antennae. Which
arthropod subphylum does the bug belong to? Explain your answer.
9. Create a timeline of arthropod evolution.
Think Critically
10. Present facts and a logical argument to support the following statement: Insects dominate life on
Earth.
11. Relate form to function in the mouthparts of insects.
12. Explain why distinctive life stages and metamorphosis are adaptive.
Points to Consider
The invertebrates described so far in this chapter are protostomes. They dier from the other major grouping of animals, the deuterostomes, in how their embryos develop. The next lesson describes invertebrates
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that are deuterostomes. These invertebrates are more closely related to vertebrates such as humans. Some
of these invertebrates are even placed in the chordate phylum.
What traits do you think might characterize deuterostome invertebrates?
How might chordate invertebrates dier from nonchordate invertebrates?
5.4
Echinoderms and Invertebrate Chordates
Lesson Objectives
Summarize traits of echinoderm invertebrates.
Outline the characteristics and classication of chordates.
Describe the two subphyla of invertebrate chordates.
Vocabulary
chordates
echinoderms
lancelets
tunicates
Introduction
The invertebrate phyla described in the rst three lessons of this chapter are all nonchordates. They
dont have a notochord, and they are not closely related to chordates. In this lesson, you will read about
invertebrates that are closely related to chordatesincluding you.
Echinoderms
Echinoderms are marine organisms that make up the phylum Echinodermata. They can be found in
the ocean from the equator to the poles. There are roughly 6000 living species of echinoderms. They are
among the most distinctive organisms within the animal kingdom. Members of the phylum include sea
stars (starsh), sand dollars, and feather stars, all shown in Figure 5.38.
Structure and Function of Echinoderms

Echinoderms are named for their spiny skin. However, the spines arent on their skin. They are part
of the endoskeleton. The endoskeleton consists of calcium carbonate plates and spines, covered by a thin
layer of skin. Adult echinoderms have radial symmetry. This is easy to see in the sea star and sand dollar
in Figure 5.38. However, echinoderms evolved from an ancestor with bilateral symmetry. Evidence for
this is the bilateral symmetry of their larvae.
A unique feature of echinoderms is their water vascular system. This is a network of canals that extend
along each body part. In most echinoderms, the canals have external projections called tube feet (see
Figure 5.39). The feet have suckers on the ends. Muscle contractions force water into the feet, causing
them to extend outward. As the feet extend, they attach their suckers to new locations, farther away from
their previous points of attachment. This results in a slow but powerful form of movement. The suckers
are very strong. They can even be used to pry open the shells of prey.
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Figure 5.38: Examples of Echinoderms. You may have seen sea stars and sand dollars at the beach because
they live in shallow water near the shore. Other echinoderms, such as feather stars, are less commonly
seen because they live in the deep ocean.
Figure 5.39: Tube Feet of a Sea Star. The tube feet of a sea star (in white) are part of its water vascular
system. There is a sucker on the end of each foot that allows the animal to walk slowly over a surface.
The suckers are strong enough to pry open shells.
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Echinoderms lack respiratory and excretory systems. Instead, the thin walls of their tube feet allow oxygen
to diuse in and wastes to diuse out. Echinoderms also lack a centralized nervous system. They have an
open circulatory system and lack a heart. On the other hand, echinoderms have a well-developed coelom
and a complete digestive system. Echinoderms use pheromones to communicate with each other. They
detect the chemicals with sensory cells on their body surface. Some echinoderms also have simple eyes
(ocelli) that can sense light. Like annelids, echinoderms have the ability to regenerate a missing body part.
Echinoderm Reproduction
Some echinoderms can reproduce asexually by ssion, but most echinoderms reproduce sexually. They
generally have separate sexes and external fertilization. Eggs hatch into free-swimming larvae. The larvae
undergo metamorphosis to change into the adult form. During metamorphosis, their bilateral symmetry
changes to radial symmetry.
Echinoderm Classication
Living echinoderms are placed in ve classes. These ve classes show many similarities. Organisms in each
class are described in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Classes of Living Echinoderms
Class (includes)
Description
Example
Crinoidea
fewer than 100 species; many

have more than ve arms; earliest and most primitive echinoderms; live on the ocean oor,
mainly in deep water; lter feeders
feather star
almost 2000 species; most have

ve arms; many are brightly colored; live on the ocean oor,
mainly in shallow water; predators or scavengers
sea star
about 2000 species; central disk

distinct from arms; move by apping their arms, which lack suckers; live on the ocean oor in
shallow or deep water; predators,
scavengers, deposit feeders, or lter feeders
about 100 species; do not have
arms but do have tube feet; have
a specialized mouth part with
teeth to scrape food from rocks;
live on the ocean oor in shallow
or deep water; predators, herbivores, or lter feeders
brittle star
feathers stars
sea lilies
Asteroidea
sea stars
Ophiuroidea
brittle stars
Echinoidea
sea urchins
sand dollars
sea biscuits
heart urchins
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sea urchin

Class (includes)
Description
Example
Holothuroidea
about 1000 species; long body

without arms; unlike other echinoderms, have a respiratory system; live on the ocean oor in
shallow or deep water; deposit
feeders, or lter feeders
sea cucumber
sea cucumbers
Introduction to Chordates
The phylum Chordata consists of both invertebrates and vertebrates chordates. It is a large and diverse
phylum. It includes some 60,000 species. Chordates range in length from about a centimeter to over 30
meters (100 feet). They live in marine, freshwater, terrestrial, and aerial habitats. They can be found from
the equator to the poles. Several examples of chordates are pictured in Figure 5.40.
Characteristics of Chordates
Chordates have three embryonic cell layers. They also have a segmented body with a coelom and bilateral
symmetry. Chordates have a complete digestive system and a closed circulatory system. Their nervous
system is centralized. There are four additional traits that are unique to chordates. These four traits,
shown in Figure 5.41, dene the chordate phylum.
Post-anal tail: The tail is opposite the head and extends past the anus.
Dorsal hollow nerve cord: The nerve cord runs along the top, or dorsal, side of the animal. (In
nonchordate animals, the nerve cord is solid and runs along the bottom).
Notochord: The notochord lies between the dorsal nerve cord and the digestive tract. It provides
stiness to counterbalance the pull of muscles.
Pharyngeal slits: Pharyngeal slits are located in the pharynx. This is the tube that joins the mouth
to the digestive and respiratory tracts.
In some chordates, all four traits persist throughout life and serve important functions. However, in many
chordates, including humans, all four traits are present only during the embryonic stage. After that, some
of the traits disappear or develop into other organs. For example, in humans, pharyngeal slits are present
in embryos and later develop into the middle ear.
Classication of Chordates
Living species of chordates are classied into three major subphyla: Vertebrata, Urochordata, and Cephalochordata. Vertebrates are all chordates that have a backbone. The other two subphyla are invertebrate
chordates that lack a backbone.
Invertebrate Chordates
Members of the subphylum Urochordata are tunicates (also called sea squirts). Members of the subphylum
Cephalochordata are lancelets. Both tunicates and lancelets are small and primitive. They are probably
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Figure 5.40: Diversity of Chordates. These six species illustrate the diversity of the phylum Chordata.
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Figure 5.41: Body Plan of a Typical Chordate. The body plan of a chordate includes a post-anal tail,
notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, and pharyngeal slits.
similar to the earliest chordates that evolved more than 500 million years ago.
Tunicates
There are about 3,000 living species of tunicates (see Figure 5.42). They inhabit shallow marine waters.
Larval tunicates are free-swimming. They have all four dening chordate traits. Adult tunicates are sessile.
They no longer have a notochord or post-anal tail.
Figure 5.42: Tunicates (Urochordata). Tunicates are one of two subphyla of invertebrate chordates.
Adult tunicates are barrel-shaped. They have two openings that siphon water into and out of the body. The
ow of water provides food for lter feeding. Tunicates reproduce sexually. Each individual produces both
male and female gametes. However, they avoid self-fertilization. Tunicates can also reproduce asexually
by budding.
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Lancelets
There are only about 25 living species of lancelets. They inhabit the ocean oor where the water is shallow.
Lancelet larvae are free-swimming. The adults can swim but spend most of their time buried in the sand.
Like tunicates, lancelets are lter feeders. They take in water through their mouth and expel it through
an opening called the atriopore (see Figure 5.43). Lancelets reproduce sexually and have separates sexes.
Figure 5.43: Lancelet (Cephalochordata). Unlike tunicates, lancelets retain all four dening chordate traits
in the adult stage. Can you nd them?
Lesson Summary
Echinoderms are marine invertebrates. They include sea stars, sand dollars, and feather stars. They
have a spiny endoskeleton. They have radial symmetry as adults but bilateral symmetry as larvae.
Echinoderms have a unique water vascular system with tube feet. This allows slow but powerful
movement.
Chordates include vertebrates and invertebrates that have a notochord. Chordates also have a postanal tail, dorsal hollow nerve cord, and pharyngeal slits. Vertebrate chordates have a backbone.
Invertebrate chordates do not. Invertebrate chordates include tunicates and lancelets. Both are
primitive marine organisms.

Recall
1. Describe the echinoderm endoskeleton.
2. Give an example of an organism in each class of living echinoderms.
3. Identify the four dening traits of chordates.
4. Name and describe the two subphyla of invertebrate chordates.
Apply Concepts
5. Create a labeled drawing that explains how the tube feet of echinoderms allow them to walk.
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Think Critically
6. Adult sea stars and other echinoderms have obvious radial symmetry. What evidence supports the
claim that echinoderms evolved from an ancestor with bilateral symmetry?
7. Adult humans lack the dening traits of chordates. Why are humans still classied in the chordate
phylum?
Points to Consider
This chapter and the chapter before it describe the amazing diversity of invertebrates. The remaining
chapters are devoted to vertebrates.
How do vertebrates dier from invertebrates? What is the main distinguishing feature of vertebrates?
Many traits that evolved in invertebrates characterize all vertebrate animals as well. Which invertebrate traits do you think are also found in vertebrates such as humans?
Image Sources
(1) (Tunicate) Chika Watanabe; (Rhinoceros) Kwh; (Kangaroo) Fir0002/Flagstaotos; (Shark) Terry
Goss; (Cormorant) Mdf; (Whale) courtesy of US National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration. [(Tunicate) http://www.flickr.com/photos/chikawatanabe/61157859/;
(Rhinoceros) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ceratotherium_simum_kwh_2.jpg;
(Kangaroo) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kangaroo_and_joey03.jpg; (Shark)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_shark.jpg; (Cormorant)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phalacrocorax-auritus-007.jpg; (Whale)
http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/bluewhale.htm ]. (Tunicate)
CC-BY 2.0; (Rhinoceros) CC-BY-SA 2.5; (Kangaroo) GNU-FDL 1.2; (Shark) CC-BY 2.0;
(Cormorant) CC-BY-SA 3.0; (Whale) Public Domain.
(4) Courtesy of US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elephant-ear-sponge.jpg. Public Domain.
(5) (Sand dollar) Image copyright Noah Strycker, 2010; (Sea star) Image copyright Mircea
BEZERGHEANU, 2010; (Feather star) Courtesy of NOAA. [(Sand dollar)
http://www.shutterstock.com/pic.mhtml?id=1160127; (Sea star)
http://www.shutterstock.com/pic.mhtml?id=54725755; (Feather star)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Harpacticoid_copepod_GLERL_1.jpg ]. (Sand dollar
and sea star) Used under licenses from Shutterstock.com; (Feather star) Public domain.
(6) Image copyright Sebastian Kaulitzki, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license
(7) Courtesy of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/ndvi_locusts.html. Public Domain.
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(9) (Coral) Raimond Spekking/Wikimedia Commons; (Anemone) Courtesy of National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration; (Hydrozoa) Tims; (Jellysh) Tom Murphy VII. [(Coral)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scheibenanemonen_%28Actinodiscus_spec%29.jpg;
(Anemone) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Giant_Green_Anemone.gif; (Hydrozoa)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ColonialHydrozoa.jpg; (Jellysh)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jelly_Monterey.jpg ]. (Coral) CC-BY-SA-3.0 &
GNU-FDL 1.2; (Anemone) Public Domain; (Hydrozoa) Public Domain; (Jellysh) CC-BY-SA 2.5.
(11) (Flatworm) Image copyright FAUP, 2010; (Tapeworm) Courtesy of Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention; (Fluke) Flukeman. [(Flatworm) http://www.shutterstock.com; (Tapeworm)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tenia_solium_scolex.jpg; (Fluke)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:F._magna_from_liver.jpg ]. (Flatworm) Used
under license from Shutterstock.com; (Tapeworm) Public Domain; (Fluke) CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(13) Snail image copyright Vaclav Volrab, 2010; clams image copyright sunsetman, 2010; octopus image
copyright Jason Mintzer, 2011. http://www.shutterstock.com. All images used under licenses
(15) Philcha. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hydra_nematocyst_firing_01.png. Public
Domain.
(16) Image copyright D. Kucharski & K. Kucharska, 2011. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under
(18) Dlloyd. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trilobite_Redlichia.jpg. GNU-FDL 1.2.
(21) Image copyright Christian Musat, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(22) (Snail) macrophile; (Scallop) Dann Blackwood/US Geological Survey; (Squid) Hans Hillewaert.
[(Snail) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Common_snail.jpg; (Scallop)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg; (Squid)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Loligo_vulgaris.jpg ]. (Snail) CC-BY 2.0; (Scallop)
Public Domain; (Squid) CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(23) (Left) Courtesy of Burke Museum of Natural History & Culture; (Right) Mary Wellman. [(Left)
http://www.washington.edu/burkemuseum/spidermyth/myths/gasmask.html; (Right)
http://bugguide.net/node/view/353721/bgimage ]. (Left) Public Domain; (Right) Public
Domain.
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(25) (Bristles) Mnolf; (Paired appendages) C-Ack; (Feeding tentacles) Courtesy of Chris
Gotschalk/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; (Suckers) Image copyright
orionmystery@ickr, 2011. [(Bristles)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lumbricidae-bristles.jpg; (Paired appendages)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bearded_Fireworm_%28Small%29.jpg; (Feeding
tentacles) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Featherduster_300.jpg; (Suckers)
http://www.shutterstock.com ]. (Bristles) GNU-FDL 1.2 & CC-BY-SA 2.0; (Paired appendages)
CC-BY-SA 3.0; (Feeding tentacles) Public Domain; (Suckers) Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(26) Courtesy of US Geological Survey. http://nas.er.usgs.gov/taxgroup/tunicates/. Public
Domain.
(27) Richard Ling. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG.
GNU-FDL 1.2.
(28) Image copyright Photobank, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(30) (Marine worm) Richard Ling; (Earthworm) Image copyright Zeljko Radojko, 2010; (Leech) Chris
Schuster. [(Marine worm)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Christmas_Tree_Worm.jpg; (Earthworm)
http://www.shutterstock.com; (Leech)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leech_blutegel.jpg ]. (Marine worm) CC-BY-SA 2.0;
(Earthworm) Used under license from Shutterstock.com; (Leech) CC-BY-SA 2.0 Germany.
(31) Norbert Schuller. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_bell_spider. Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license..
(33) (Dust mite) Courtesy of FDA; (Spider crab) Michael Wolf, modied by Hans Hillewaert; (Barnacles)
Mial Zinkova; (Millipede) Eric Guinther/Marshman; (Wasp) Fir0002/Flagstaotos; (Scorpion) Guy
Haimovitch. [(Dust mite) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:House_Dust_Mite.jpg; (Spider
crab) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Macrocheira_kaempferi.jpg; (Barnacles)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Barnacles_in_tidepools.JPG; (Millipede)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Millipede.jpg; (Wasp)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:European_wasp_white_bg.jpg; (Scorpion)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SCORPIO_MAURUS_PALMATUS.jpg ]. (Dust mite)
Public Domain; (Spider crab) CC-BY-SA 3.0; (Barnacles) CC-BY-SA 3.0; (Millipede) GNU-FDL
1.2; (Wasp) GNU-FDL 1.2; (Scorpion) GNU-FDL 1.2.
(34) Beetle image copyright dexns, 2010; buttery image copyright Irina Volkova, 2010; katydid image by
The_undertow. [Beetle and buttery: http://www.shutterstock.com; katydid:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Katydid_92688.jpg ]. Beetle and buttery images
used under licenses from Shutterstock.com; katydid: CC-BY-SA 2.5.
(35) Courtesy of the CDC. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fasciola_LifeCycle.gif.
Public Domain.
Opening image copyright Mikhail Melnikov, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
For Table 5.1, from top to bottom:
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Marshal Hedin. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Female_centipede_with_eggs.jpg.

CC-BY-SA 2.5.
Fir0002/Flagstaotos. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Victorian_funnelweb.jpg. GNUFDL 1.2.
Cefaclor. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Europ%C3%A4ischer_hummer.jpg. CC-BY
2.5.
Dominik Stodulsk. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BIEDRONA.JPG. GNU-FDL 1.2.
For Table 5.2, from top to bottom:
Eric Beach. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Feather-star1.jpg. Public Domain.
Courtesy of NOAA. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sandstar_300.jpg. Public domain.
Courtesy of Larry Zetwoch/Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary/NOAA. http://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reef2589.jpg. Public domain.
Tomasz Sienicki. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Woda-5_ubt.jpeg. CC-BY-2.5.
Courtesy of NOAA. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Parastichopus_californicus.
jpg. Public domain.
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Chapter 6
From Fishes to Birds
This stunning bird is a peacock. Do you know why he is spreading out his big, colorful tail feathers like a
fan? He is trying to attract a female for mating. Both the feathers and the behavior evolved because they
increase the chances that males of the species will reproduce and pass their genes to the next generation.
Many other vertebrates have similar behaviors for attracting mates. Even sh display some remarkably
sophisticated mating behaviors.
Fish and birds are both vertebrates. Vertebrates are a diverse and fascinating group of animals. In many
ways, they are very dierent from the invertebrates described in previous chapters. Elaborate mating
behaviors are just one way they dier. This chapter describes many other dierences between vertebrates
and invertebrates. It also describes in detail the classes of vertebrates from sh to birds.
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6.1
Overview of Vertebrates
Lesson Objectives
List the
Explain
Identify
Give an
characteristics of vertebrates.
how vertebrates reproduce.
the nine classes of vertebrates.
overview of vertebrate evolution.
Vocabulary
bone
cartilage
cranium
ectothermy
endothermy
immune system
kidney
ovipary
ovovivipary
vertebrae (singular, vertebra)
vivipary
Introduction
Vertebrates are a subphylum of the phylum Chordata. Like all chordates, vertebrates have a notochord, a
dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail. What other characteristics do vertebrates
have? What traits set them apart from invertebrate chordates?
Characteristics of Vertebrates
The main distinguishing feature of vertebrates is their vertebral column, or backbone (see Figure 6.1).
The backbone runs from the head to the tail along the dorsal (top) side of the body. The vertebral column
is the core of the endoskeleton. It allows a vertebrate to hold its shape. It also houses and protects the
spinal (nerve) cord that passes through it. The vertebral column is made up of repeating units called
vertebrae (singular, vertebra). In many species, there are shock-absorbing discs between the vertebrae
to cushion them during movement.
Vertebrate Endoskeleton
Another distinguishing feature of vertebrates is an endoskeleton made of bone or cartilage. Cartilage is
a tough tissue that contains a protein called collagen. Bone is a hard tissue that consists of a collagen
matrix, or framework, lled in with minerals such as calcium. Bone is less exible than cartilage but
stronger. An endoskeleton made of bone rather than cartilage allows animals to grow larger and heavier.
Bone also provides more protection for soft tissues and internal organs. As shown in Figure 6.2, the
vertebrate endoskeleton includes a cranium, or skull, to enclose and protect the brain. It also generally
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Figure 6.1: Human Vertebral Column and Vertebrae. The human vertebral column consists of 33 vertebrae.
Two vertebrae are shown here enlarged.
includes two pairs of limbs. Limb girdles (such as the human hips and shoulders) connect the limbs to the
rest of the endoskeleton.
Figure 6.2: Vertebrate Endoskeletons. The vertebrate endoskeleton includes a vertebral column, cranium,
limbs, and limb girdles. Can you nd these parts in each endoskeleton shown here?
Other Vertebrate Traits

There are several additional traits found in virtually all vertebrates.
Vertebrates have a system of muscles attached to the endoskeleton to enable movement. Muscles
control movement by alternately contracting (shortening) and relaxing (lengthening). Generally,
muscles work together in opposing pairs.
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Vertebrates have a closed circulatory system with a heart. Blood is completely contained within
blood vessels that carry the blood throughout the body. The heart is divided into chambers that
work together to pump blood. There are between two and four chambers in the vertebrate heart.
With more chambers, there is more oxygen in the blood and more vigorous pumping action.
Most vertebrates have skin covered with scales, feathers, fur, or hair. These features serve a variety
of functions, such as waterproong and insulating the body.
Vertebrates have an excretory system that includes a pair of kidneys. Kidneys are organs that lter
wastes from blood so they can be excreted from the body.
Vertebrates have an endocrine system of glands that secrete hormones. Hormones are chemical
messengers that control many body functions.
Vertebrates have an adaptive immune system. The immune system is the organ system that defends
the body from pathogens and other causes of disease. Being adaptive means that the immune system
can learn to recognize specic pathogens. Then it can produce tailor-made chemicals called antibodies
to attack them. This allows the immune system to launch a rapid attack whenever the pathogens
invade the body again.
Vertebrates have a centralized nervous system. As shown in Figure 6.3, the nervous system consists
of a brain in the head region. It also includes a long spinal cord that runs from the brain to the tail
end of the backbone. Long nerve bers extend from the spinal cord to muscles and organs throughout
the body.
Figure 6.3: Nervous System (Human). The vertebrate nervous system includes a brain and spinal cord. It
also includes a body-wide network of nerves, called peripheral nerves. They connect the spinal cord with
the rest of the body.
Vertebrate Reproduction
Vertebrates reproduce sexually, and almost all of them have separate male and female sexes. Generally,
aquatic species have external fertilization, whereas terrestrial species have internal fertilization. Can you
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think of a reason why aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates dier in this way? Vertebrates have one of the
following three reproductive strategies: ovipary, ovovivipary, or vivipary.
Ovipary refers to the development of an embryo within an egg outside the mothers body. This
occurs in most amphibians and reptiles and in all birds.
Ovovivipary refers to the development of an embryo inside an egg within the mothers body until it
hatches. The mother provides no nourishment to the developing embryo inside the egg. This occurs
in some species of sh and reptiles.
Vivipary refers to the development and nourishment of an embryo within the mothers body. Birth
may be followed by a period of parental care of the ospring. This reproductive strategy occurs in
almost all mammals.
Vertebrate Classication
There are about 50,000 vertebrate species, and they are placed in nine dierent classes. Five of the classes
are sh. The other classes are amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Table 6.1 lists some of the
distinguishing traits of each class.
Table 6.1: Classes of Vertebrates
Class
Distinguishing Traits
Example
Hagsh
They have a cranium but no

backbone; they do not have jaws;
their endoskeleton is made of cartilage; they are ectothermic.
hagsh
Lampreys
They have a partial backbone;

they do not have jaws; their endoskeleton is made of cartilage;
they are ectothermic.
lamprey
Cartilaginous Fish
They have a complete backbone;

they have jaws; their endoskeleton is made of cartilage; they are
ectothermic.
shark
Ray-Finned Fish
They have a backbone and jaws;

their endoskeleton is made of
bones; they have thin, bony ns;
they are ectothermic.
perch
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Class
Distinguishing Traits
Example
Lobe-Finned Fish
They have a backbone and jaws;

their endoskeleton is made of
bones; they have thick, eshy
ns; they are ectothermic.
coelacanth
Amphibians
They have a bony endoskeleton

with a backbone and jaws; they
have gills as larvae and lungs as
adults; they have four limbs; they
are ectothermic
frog
Reptiles

breathe only with lungs; they
have four limbs; their skin is covered with scales; they have amniotic eggs; they are ectothermic.
alligator
Birds
They have a bony endoskeleton with a backbone but no

jaws; they breathe only with
lungs; they have four limbs, with
the two front limbs modied
as wings; their skin is covered
with feathers; they have amniotic
eggs; they are endothermic.
breathe only with lungs; they
have four limbs; their skin is covered with hair or fur; they have
amniotic eggs; they have mammary (milk-producing) glands;
they are endothermic.
bird
Mammals
bear
Vertebrate Evolution
The earliest vertebrates were jawless sh, similar to living hagsh. They lived between 500 and 600 million
years ago. They had a cranium but no vertebral column. The phylogenetic tree in Figure 6.4 gives an
overview of vertebrate evolution. As more data become available, new ideas about vertebrate evolution
emerge.
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Figure 6.4: Phylogenetic Tree of Vertebrate Evolution. The earliest vertebrates evolved almost 550 million
years ago. Which class of vertebrates evolved last?
Evolution of Fish
Not too long after hagsh rst appeared, sh similar to lampreys evolved a partial vertebral column. The
rst sh with a complete vertebral column evolved about 450 million years ago. These sh also had jaws
and may have been similar to living sharks. Up to this point, all early vertebrates had an endoskeleton
made of cartilage rather than bone. About 400 million years ago, the rst bony sh appeared. A bony
skeletal could support a larger body. Early bony sh evolved into modern ray-nned and lobe-nned sh.
Evolution of Other Vertebrate Classes

Amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds evolved after sh.
The rst amphibians evolved from a lobe-nned sh ancestor about 365 million years ago. They were
the rst vertebrates to live on land, but they had to return to water to reproduce. This meant they
had to live near bodies of water.
The rst reptiles evolved from an amphibian ancestor at least 300 million years ago. They laid
amniotic eggs and had internal fertilization. They were the rst vertebrates that no longer had to
return to water to reproduce. They could live just about anywhere.
Mammals and birds both evolved from reptile-like ancestors. The rst mammals appeared about 200
million years ago and the earliest birds about 150 million years ago.
Evolution of Endothermy
Until mammals and birds evolved, all vertebrates were ectothermic. Ectothermy means regulating body
temperature from the outside through behavioral changes. For example, an ectotherm might stay under a
rock in the shade in order to keep cool on a hot, sunny day. Almost all living sh, amphibians, and reptiles
are ectothermic. Their metabolic rate and level of activity depend mainly on the outside temperature.
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They can raise or lower their own temperature only slightly through behavior alone.
Both mammals and birds evolved endothermy. Endothermy means regulating body temperature from
the inside through metabolic or other physical changes. On a cold day, for example, an endotherm may
produce more heat by raising its metabolic rate. On a hot day, it may give o more heat by increasing
blood ow to the surface of the body. Keeping body temperature stable allows cells to function at peak
eiciency at all times. The metabolic rate and activity level can also remain high regardless of the outside
temperature. On the other hand, maintaining a stable body temperature requires more energyand more
food.
Lesson Summary
Vertebrates are a subphylum of chordates that have a vertebral column and an endoskeleton made
of cartilage or bone. Vertebrates also have complex organ systems, including a closed circulatory
system with a heart, an excretory system with a pair of kidneys, and an adaptive immune system.
Vertebrates reproduce sexually, and almost all have separate male and female sexes. Aquatic species
generally have external fertilization, whereas terrestrial species usually have internal fertilization.
Vertebrates have one of three reproductive strategies, known as ovipary, ovovivipary, or vivipary.
The 50,000 species of living vertebrates are placed in nine classes: hagsh, lampreys, cartilaginous
sh, ray-nned sh, lobe-nned sh, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
The earliest vertebrates resembled hagsh and lived more than 500 million years ago. As other
classes of sh appeared, they evolved traits such as a complete vertebral column, jaws, and a bony
endoskeleton. Amphibians were the rst tetrapod vertebrates as well as the rst vertebrates to live
on land. Reptiles were the rst amniotic vertebrates. Mammals and birds, which both descended
from reptile-like ancestors, evolved endothermy, or the ability to regulate body temperature from the
inside.

Recall
1. Describe the vertebrate vertebral column, and list its functions.
2. Contrast cartilage and bone, and state the advantages of a bony endoskeleton relative to a cartilaginous
endoskeleton.
3. Identify the components of the vertebrate nervous system.
4. What is an adaptive immune system?
5. Dene ovipary, ovovivipary, and vivipary. Which vertebrates use each type of reproductive strategy?
Apply Concepts
6. Create a time line of vertebrate evolution that shows how and when important vertebrate traits evolved.
Think Critically
7. Explain the signicance of changes in the number of heart chambers during the course of vertebrate
evolution.
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8. Compare and contrast ectothermy and endothermy, including their pros and cons.
Points to Consider
The earliest and simplest vertebrates are sh. Fish also have the greatest number of vertebrate classes.
Think about some of the sh you are familiar with, such as sh you eat or sh you may have seen in
aquariums.
Using the Classes of Vertebrates Table 6.1, which sh class or classes should these sh be placed
in?
How are all of the sh the same? In what ways do they dier?
6.2
Fish
Lesson Objectives
Describe structure and function in sh.

Explain how sh reproduce and develop.
Give an overview of the ve living classes of sh.
Summarize the evolution of sh.
Outline the ecology of the dierent sh classes.
Vocabulary
sh
spawning
swim bladder
Introduction
Fish are aquatic vertebrates. They make up more than half of all vertebrate species. They are especially
important in the study of vertebrate evolution because several important vertebrate traits evolved in sh.
Structure and Function in Fish

Fish show great diversity in body size. They range in length from about 8 millimeters (0.3 inches) to 16
meters (about 53 feet). Most are ectothermic and covered with scales. Scales protect sh from predators
and parasites and reduce friction with the water. Multiple, overlapping scales provide a exible covering
that allows sh to move easily while swimming.
Adaptations for Water

Many structures in sh are adaptations for their aquatic lifestyle. Several are described below and shown
in Figure 6.5.
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Fish have gills that allow them to breathe oxygen in water. Water enters the mouth, passes over
the gills, and exits the body through a special opening. Gills absorb oxygen from the water as it
passes over them.
Fish have a stream-lined body. They are typically long and narrow, which reduces water resistance
when they swim.
Most sh have several ns for swimming. They use some of their ns to propel themselves through
the water and others to steer the body as they swim.
Fish have a system of muscles for movement. Muscle contractions ripple through the body in waves
from head to tail. The contractions whip the tail n against the water to propel the sh through the
water.
Most sh have a swim bladder. This is a balloon-like internal organ that contains gas. By changing
the amount of gas in the bladder, a sh can move up or down through the water column.
Figure 6.5: General Fish Body Plan. A sh has a stream-lined body with gills and ns. (1) operculum (gill
cover) (2) lateral line system (a sensory organ system) (3) dorsal n (4) fat n (5) caudal peduncle (narrow
body region that connects the main body to the caudal n) (6) caudal n (7) anal n (8) photophores
(light emitting organs found on some sh) (9) pelvic ns (paired) (10) pectoral ns (paired).
Fish Organ Systems

Fish have a circulatory system with a two-chambered heart. Their digestive system is complete and includes
several organs and glands. Jawed sh use their jaws and teeth to grind up food before passing it to the
rest of the digestive tract. This allows them to consume larger prey.
Fish also have a centralized nervous system with a brain. Fish brains are small compared with the brains
of other vertebrates, but they are large and complex compared with the brains of invertebrates. Fish also
have highly developed sense organs that allow them to see, hear, feel, smell, and taste. Sharks and some
other sh can even sense the very low levels of electricity emitted by other animals. This helps them locate
prey.
Fish Reproduction and Development

Nearly all sh reproduce sexually, and most species have separate sexes. Those without separate sexes
avoid self-fertilization by producing sperm and eggs at dierent times. Each sh typically produces a large
number of gametes. In most sh species, fertilization takes place externally. These sh are oviparous.
Eggs are laid and embryos develop outside the mothers body. In a minority of sh, including sharks, eggs
develop inside the mothers body but without nourishment from the mother. These sh are ovoviviparous.
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Spawning
In many species of sh, a large group of adults come together to release their gametes into the water at
the same time. This is called spawning. It increases the chances that fertilization will take place. It also
means that many embryos will form at once, which helps ensure that at least some of them will be able
to escape predators. With spawning, there is no way for sh parents to know which embryos are their
own. Therefore, sh generally dont provide any care to their eggs or ospring. There are some exceptions,
however, including the sh described in Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6: Mouth Brooding. Some species of sh carry their fertilized eggs in their mouth until they
hatch. This is called mouth brooding. If you look closely, you can see the eggs inside the mouth of the
African tilapia sh pictured here.
Fish Larvae
Fish eggs hatch into larvae that are dierent from the adult form of the species (see Figure 6.7). A larva
swims attached to a large yolk sac, which provides the larva with food. The larva eventually goes through
metamorphosis and changes into the adult form. However, it still needs to mature before it can reproduce.
Classication of Fish
There are about 28,000 existing species of sh, and they are placed in ve dierent classes. The classes
are commonly referred to as hagsh, lampreys, cartilaginous sh, ray-nned sh, and lobe-nned sh (see
Table 6.1 in the previous lesson).
Hagsh
Hagsh are very primitive sh. They retain their notochord throughout life rather than developing a
backbone, and they lack scales and ns. They are classied as vertebrates mainly because they have a
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Figure 6.7: Salmon Larva. This newly hatched salmon larva doesnt look very sh-like. The structure
hanging from the larva is the yolk sac.
cranium. Hagsh are noted for secreting large amounts of thick, slimy mucus. The mucus makes them
slippery, so they can slip out of the jaws of predators.
Lampreys
Like hagsh, lampreys also lack scales, but they have ns and a partial backbone. The most striking
feature of lampreys is a large round sucker, lined with teeth, that surrounds the mouth (see Figure 6.8).
Lampreys use their sucker to feed on the blood of other sh species.
Figure 6.8: Sucker Mouth of a Lamprey. The mouth of a lamprey is surrounded by a tooth-lined sucker.
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Cartilaginous Fish
Cartilaginous sh include sharks, rays, and ratsh (see Figure 6.9). In addition to an endoskeleton
composed of cartilage, these sh have a complete backbone. They also have a relatively large brain. They
can solve problems and interact with other members of their species. They are generally predators with
keen senses. Cartilaginous sh lack a swim bladder. Instead, they stay aoat by using a pair of muscular
ns to push down against the water and create lift.
One of the most important traits of cartilaginous sh is their jaws. Jaws allow them to bite food and
break it into smaller pieces. This is a big adaptive advantage because it greatly expands the range of food
sources they can consume. Jaws also make cartilaginous sh excellent predators. It youve ever seen the
lm Jaws, then you know that jaws make sharks very erce predators (see also Figure 6.10).
Ray-Finned Fish
Ray-ned sh include the majority of living sh species. including goldsh, tuna, salmon, perch, and cod.
They have a bony endoskeleton and a swim bladder. Their thin ns consist of webs of skin over exible
bony rays, or spines. The ns lack muscle, so their movements are controlled by muscles in the body wall.
You can compare their ray ns with the eshy ns of lobe-nned sh in Figure 6.11.
Lobe-Finned Fish
Lobe-ned sh are currently far fewer in number than ray-nned sh. Their ns, like the one shown in
Figure 6.11, contain a stump-like appendage of bone and muscle. There are two groups of lobe-nned sh
still alive today: coelacanths and lungsh.
1. Coelacanths are ancient sh with just two living species. They are at risk of extinction because of
their very small numbers.
2. Lungsh have a lung-like organ for breathing air. The organ is an adaptation of the swim bladder.
It allows them to survive for long periods out of water.
Evolution of Fish
Invertebrate chordates use their gills to lter food out of water, not to absorb oxygen. In the early evolution
of sh, there was a switch to using gills to absorb oxygen instead of to lter food. Gills consist of many
thin, folded tissues that provide a large surface area for oxygen uptake. With more oxygen absorbed by
the gills, sh could become much larger and more active.
Timing of Fish Evolution

Ancestors of hagsh are thought to have been the earliest vertebrates. Their fossils date back to about
550 million years ago. Fossils of cartilaginous sh with jaws, resembling living sharks, rst appeared in the
fossil record about 450 million years ago. They were followed about 50 million years later by the bony sh.
The Bony Fish

At rst, the lobe-nned bony sh were much more common than the ray-nned bony sh that dominate
today. Lobe-nned sh were also ancestral to amphibians. Their stump-like appendages and lung-like
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Figure 6.9: Cartilaginous Fish. All of these sh belong to the class of cartilaginous sh with jaws. (a)
Oceanic whitetip shark (b) Ray (c) Ratsh
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Figure 6.10: Jaws of a Shark. Sharks have powerful jaws with multiple rows of sharp, saw-like teeth. Most
other sh are no match for these powerful predators.
Figure 6.11: Fins of Bony Fish. The ns of ray-nned and lobe-nned sh are quite dierent. How is the
form of the ns related to their dierent functions in the two classes of sh? Ray Fin (left), Lobe Fin
(right)
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organs evolved into amphibian legs and lungs. Ray-nned bony sh may have been the rst sh to evolve
in freshwater. They eventually became the most diverse and dominant class of sh.
Ecology of Fish
The habitats and diets of sh are varied. They live throughout the ocean and also in freshwater lakes,
ponds, rivers, and streams.
Fish Food
Most sh are predators, but the nature of their prey and how they consume it diers from one class to
another and even within classes.
Hagsh are deep-ocean bottom dwellers. They feed on other sh, either living or dead. They enter
the body of their prey through the mouth or anus. Then they literally eat their prey from the inside
out.
Lampreys generally live in shallow ocean water or freshwater. They either consume small invertebrates or suck blood from larger sh with their sucker mouth.
Cartilaginous sh such as sharks may live on the bottom of the ocean. However, most live in the
water column. They prey on other sh and aquatic mammals or else consume plankton.
Bony sh may live in salt water or freshwater. They consume a wide range of foods. For example,
they may eat algae, smaller sh, detritus, or dead organisms, depending on the species of sh.
Fish at Risk
Today, more than 1,000 species of sh are at risk of extinction. This is mainly because of human actions.
Specic causes include over-shing and habitat destruction caused by water pollution, dam building, and
the introduction of non-native species.
Lesson Summary
Fish are aquatic, ectothermic vertebrates. Many structures in sh are adaptations for their aquatic
lifestyle. For example, sh have a stream-lined body that reduces water resistance while swimming.
They also have gills for breathing oxygen in water and ns for propelling and steering their body
through water.
Nearly all sh reproduce sexually and have separate sexes. Fertilization is generally external, and
most sh are oviparous. Many adults of the same species may come together in a group and release
gametes into the water at the same time, which is called spawning. Fish hatch into larvae that are
dierent from the adult form of the species.
There are about 28,000 existing species of sh, and they are placed in ve classes: hagsh, lampreys,
cartilaginous sh, ray-nned bony sh, and lobe-nned bony sh.
The evolution of sh included a shift from using the gills for ltering food to using them to absorb
oxygen from water. The earliest sh, resembling living hagsh, evolved about 550 million years
ago. Adaptations that eventually evolved in sh include a complete vertebral column, jaws, and an
endoskeleton made of bones instead of cartilage.
Fish live throughout the ocean and in freshwater lakes and streams. Most sh are predators, but
the nature of their prey and how they consume it may vary. Many species of sh are threatened by
human actions, such as water pollution and over-shing.
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Recall
1. What are gills? What purpose do they serve in sh?
2. Describe sh scales, and state their functions.
3. Describe how sh use their muscles to swim.
4. What is a swim bladder? How is it used?
5. List two ways that sh can sense prey animals.
Apply Concepts
6. Assume that a new species of sh has been discovered deep in the ocean. It has a complete vertebral
column made of cartilage. Which class should the new species be placed in? Name one other trait you
would expect to nd in the new species of sh. Explain your answers.
Think Critically
7. Explain why the practice of spawning is adaptive.
8. Fish with jaws may be very large. Infer how their jaws may be related to their large body size.
Points to Consider
Lobe-nned sh were the ancestors of amphibians, which were the rst vertebrates to live on land.
What are some examples of amphibians?
How do you think amphibians might dier from lobe-nned sh? What adaptations do you think
amphibians needed to evolve in order to live on land?
6.3
Amphibians
Lesson Objectives
Describe structure and function in amphibians.

Outline the reproduction and development of amphibians.
Identify the three living amphibian orders.
Describe how amphibians evolved.
State where amphibians live and how they obtain food.
Vocabulary
amphibian
cloaca
keratin
tetrapod
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Introduction
Amphibians are vertebrates that exist in two worlds. They divide their time between freshwater and
terrestrial habitats. They share a number of features with air-breathing lungsh, but they also dier from
lungsh in many ways. One way they dier is their appendages. Amphibians are the rst true tetrapods,
or vertebrates with four limbs. Modern amphibians include frogs, salamanders, and caecilians, as shown
Figure 6.12.
Figure 6.12: Examples of Living Amphibians. In what ways do these three amphibians appear to be
similar? In what ways do they appear to be dierent?
Structure and Function in Amphibians

Amphibians have less variation in size than sh, ranging in length from 1 centimeter (2.5 inches) to 1.5
meters (about 5 feet). They generally have moist skin without scales. Their skin contains keratin, a
tough, brous protein found in the skin, scales, feathers, hair, and nails of tetrapod vertebrates, from
amphibians to humans. Some forms of keratin are tougher than others. The form in amphibian skin is not
very tough, and it allows gases and water to pass through their skin.
Amphibian Ectothermy
Amphibians are ectothermic, so their internal body temperature is generally about the same as the temperature of their environment. When its cold outside, their body temperature drops, and they become
very sluggish. When the outside temperature rises, so does their body temperature, and they are much
more active. What do you think might be some of the pros and cons of ectothermy in amphibians?
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Amphibian Organ Systems

All amphibians have digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems. All three systems share a body cavity
called the cloaca. Wastes enter the cloaca from the digestive and excretory systems, and gametes enter
the cloaca from the reproductive system. An opening in the cloaca allows the wastes and gametes to leave
the body.
Amphibians have a relatively complex circulatory system with a three-chambered heart. Their nervous
system is also rather complex, allowing them to interact with each other and their environment. Amphibians have sense organs to smell and taste chemicals. Other sense organs include eyes and ears. Of all
amphibians, frogs generally have the best vision and hearing. Frogs also have a larynx, or voice box, to
make sounds.
Most amphibians breathe with gills as larvae and with lungs as adults. Additional oxygen is absorbed
through the skin in most species. The skin is kept moist by mucus, which is secreted by mucous glands. In
some species, mucous glands also produce toxins, which help protect the amphibians from predators. The
golden frog shown in Figure 6.13 is an example of a toxic amphibian.
Figure 6.13: Toxic Frog. This golden frog is only about 5 centimeters (2 inches) long, but its the most
poisonous vertebrate on Earth. One dose of its toxin can kill up to 20 humans!
Amphibian Reproduction and Development

Amphibians reproduce sexually with either external or internal fertilization. They attract mates in a
variety of ways. For example, the loud croaking of frogs is their mating call. Each frog species has its own
distinctive call that other members of the species recognize as their own. Most salamanders use their sense
of smell to nd a mate. The males produce a chemical odor that attracts females of the species.
Amphibian Eggs
Unlike other tetrapod vertebrates (reptiles, birds, and mammals), amphibians do not produce amniotic
eggs. Therefore, they must lay their eggs in water so they wont dry out. Their eggs are usually covered
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in a jelly-like substance, like the frog eggs shown in Figure 6.14. The jelly helps keep the eggs moist and
oers some protection from predators.
Figure 6.14: Frog Eggs. Frog eggs are surrounded by jelly. What is its function?
Amphibians generally lay large number of eggs. Often, many adults lay eggs in the same place at the same
time. This helps to ensure that eggs will be fertilized and at least some of the embryos will survive. Once
eggs have been laid, most amphibians are done with their parenting.
Amphibian Larvae
The majority of amphibian species go through a larval stage that is very dierent from the adult form, as
you can see from the frog in Figure 6.15. The early larval, or tadpole, stage resembles a sh. It lacks legs
and has a long tail, which it uses to swim. The tadpole also has gills to absorb oxygen from water. As the
larva undergoes metamorphosis, it grows legs, loses its tail, and develops lungs. These changes prepare it
for life on land as an adult frog.
Classication of Amphibians
There are about 6,200 known species of living amphibians. They are placed in three dierent orders:
1. Frogs and toads
2. Salamanders and newts
3. Caecilians
Frogs and Toads

One feature that distinguishes frogs and toads from other amphibians is lack of a tail in adulthood. Frogs
and toads also have much longer back legs than other amphibians. Their back legs are modied for jumping.
Frogs can jump up to 20 times their own body length. Thats the same as you jumping at least 100 feet,
or more than the length of a basketball court. Think how fast you could move if you could travel that far
on one jump!
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Figure 6.15: Frog Development: From Tadpole to Adult. A frog larva (tadpole) goes through many changes
by adulthood. How do these changes prepare it for life as an adult frog?
Frogs and toads are closely related, but they dier in several ways. Generally, frogs spend more time in
water, and toads spend more time on land. As you can see from Figure 6.16, frogs also have smoother,
moister skin than toads, as well as longer hind legs.
Salamanders and Newts

Unlike frogs and toads, salamanders and newts keep their tails as adults (see Figure 6.17). They also have
a long body with short legs, and all their legs are about the same length. This is because they are adapted
for walking and swimming rather than jumping. An unusual characteristic of salamanders is their ability
to regenerate, or regrow, legs that have been lost to predators.
Caecilians
Caecilians are most closely related to salamanders. As you can see from Figure 6.18, they have a long,
worm-like body without legs. Caecilians evolved from a tetrapod ancestor, but they lost their legs during
the course of their evolution.
Evolution of Amphibians
Fossil evidence shows that amphibians evolved about 365 million years ago from a lobe-nned lungsh
ancestor. As the earliest land vertebrates, they were highly successful. Some of them were much larger
than todays amphibians. For more than 100 million years, amphibians remained the dominant land
vertebrates. Then some of them evolved into reptiles. Once reptiles appeared, with their amniotic eggs,
they replaced amphibians as the dominant land vertebrates.
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Figure 6.16: Frog and Toad. Frogs (a) and toads (b) are placed in the same amphibian order. What traits
do they share?
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Figure 6.17: Salamander and Newt. Salamanders and newts can walk or swim. Salamander on a leaf (left),
newt swimming in the water (right).
Figure 6.18: Swimming Caecilian. Caecilians are the only amphibians without legs.
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Ecology of Amphibians
Amphibians can be found in freshwater and moist terrestrial habitats throughout the world. The only
continent without amphibians is Antarctica. Amphibians are especially numerous in temperate lakes and
ponds and in tropical rainforests.
Amphibians as Prey and Predators

Amphibians are an important food source for animals such as birds, snakes, raccoons, and sh. Amphibians
are also important predators. As larvae, they feed mainly on small aquatic animals such as water insects.
They may also feed on algae. As adults, amphibians are completely carnivorous. They may catch and
eat worms, snails, and insects, as the frog in Figure 6.19 is doing. Unlike other amphibians, caecilians
are burrowers. They use their head to dig in the soil, and they feed on earthworms and other annelids.
Caecilians can be found in moist soil near rivers and streams in tropical regions.
Figure 6.19: Frog Predator. A frog eating its insect prey.
The Threat of Amphibian Extinction

Currently, almost one third of all amphibian species face the threat of extinction. The reasons include
habitat loss, pollution, climate change, and the introduction of non-native species. Most of these problems
are the result of human actions.
Amphibians have permeable skin that easily absorbs substances from the environment. This may explain
why they seem to be especially sensitive to pollution. Monitoring the health and survival of amphibians
may help people detect pollution early, before other organisms are aected.
Lesson Summary
Amphibians are ectothermic vertebrates that divide their time between freshwater and terrestrial
habitats. They are the rst true tetrapods, or vertebrates with four limbs. Amphibians breathe with
gills as larvae and with lungs as adults. They have a three-chambered heart and relatively complex
nervous system.
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Amphibians reproduce sexually with either external or internal fertilization. They may attract mates
with calls or scents. They do not produce amniotic eggs, so they must reproduce in water. Their
larvae go through metamorphosis to change into the adult form.
There are about 6,200 known species of living amphibians that are placed in three orders: frogs and
toads, salamanders and newts, and caecilians. Frogs and toads are adapted for jumping. Salamanders
and newts may walk or swim. Caecilians live in the water or soil and are the only amphibians without
legs.
Amphibians evolved about 365 million years ago from a lobe-nned sh ancestor. As the earliest
land vertebrates, amphibians were highly successful for more than 100 million years until reptiles
took over as the dominant land vertebrates.
Amphibians are found throughout the world except in Antarctica and Greenland. They are important
prey for animals such as birds, snakes, and raccoons. They are important predators of insects, worms,
and other invertebrates. Up to one third of all amphibian species are at risk of extinction because of
human actions, such as habitat destruction, climate change, and pollution.

Recall
1. What is a tetrapod?
2. How does the temperature of the environment aect the level of activity of an amphibian?
3. What is the cloaca? What functions does it serve in amphibians?
4. Describe three dierent ways that amphibians may absorb oxygen.
5. Outline the life cycle of frogs.
Apply Concepts
6. Assume that a certain species of toad appears to be dying out in a given ecosystem, perhaps because
of pollution. Many people think that the toad problem is unimportant because its just a toad. Write a
letter to a hypothetical newspaper editor in which you explain why the health and survival of amphibians
such as this toad species are important to all living things in an ecosystem.
Think Critically
7. Compare and contrast the three orders of living amphibians.
8. Explain why amphibians were able to become the dominant land vertebrates for millions of years.
Points to Consider
Amphibians gave rise to reptiles, which replaced them as the dominant land vertebrates.
Besides amniotic eggs, can you think of other ways that reptiles dier from amphibians?
What other adaptations might reptiles have evolved that contributed to their success on land?
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6.4
Reptiles
Lesson Objectives
Give an overview of form and function in reptiles.

Describe the amniotic egg and reptile reproduction.
Identify the four living orders of reptiles
Summarize how reptiles evolved.
Describe where reptiles live and what they eat.
Vocabulary
diaphragm
reptile
sauropsid
synapsid
Introduction
Reptiles are a class of tetrapod vertebrates that produce amniotic eggs. They include crocodiles, alligators,
lizards, snakes, and turtles. The reptile class is one of the largest classes of vertebrates. It consists of all
amniotes except birds and mammals.
Structure and Function in Reptiles

Reptiles have several adaptations for living on dry land that amphibians lack. For example, as shown in
Figure 6.20, the skin of most reptiles is covered with scales. The scales are made of very tough keratin,
and they protect reptiles from injury, and also prevent them from losing water.
Figure 6.20: Crocodile Scales. These crocodiles are covered with tough, waterproof scales.
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Reptile Respiration
The scales of reptiles prevent them from absorbing oxygen through their skin, as amphibians can. Instead,
reptiles breathe air only through their lungs. However, their lungs are more eicient than the lungs of
amphibians, with more surface area for gas exchange. This is another important reptile adaptation for life
on land.
Reptiles have various ways of moving air into and out of their lungs. Lizards and snakes use muscles of
the chest wall for this purpose. These are the same muscles used for running, so lizards have to hold their
breath when they run. Crocodiles and alligators have a large sheet of muscle below the lungs, called a
diaphragm, that controls their breathing. This is a structure that is also found in mammals.
Ectothermy in Reptiles
Like amphibians, reptiles are ectotherms with a slow metabolic rate. Their metabolism doesnt generate
enough energy to keep their body temperature stable. Instead, reptiles regulate their body temperature
through their behavior. For example, the crocodile in Figure 6.21 is soaking up heat from the environment
by basking in the sun. Because of their ectothermy, reptiles can get by with as little as one tenth the food
needed by endotherms such as mammals. Some species of reptiles can go several weeks between meals.
Figure 6.21: Heat Transfer to an Ectothermic Reptile. This crocodile is being warmed by the environment
in three ways. Heat is radiating directly from the sun to the animals back. Heat is also being conducted
to the animal from the rocks it rests on. In addition, convection currents are carrying warm air from
surrounding rocks to the animals body.
Other Reptile Structures

Like amphibians, most reptiles have a heart with three chambers, although crocodiles and alligators have
a four-chambered heart like birds and mammals. The reptile brain is also similar in size to the amphibian
brain, taking into account overall body size. However, the parts of the reptile brain that control the senses
and learned behavior are larger than in amphibians.
Most reptiles have good eyesight and a keen sense of smell. Snakes smell scents in the air using their forked
tongue (see Figure 6.22). This helps them locate prey. Some snakes have heat-sensing organs on their
head that help them nd endothermic prey, such as small mammals and birds.
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Figure 6.22: Snake Smelling the Air. A snake icks its tongue in and out to capture scent molecules in
the air.
Reptile Reproduction
Most reptiles reproduce sexually and have internal fertilization. Males have one or two penises that pass
sperm from their cloaca to the cloaca of a female. Fertilization occurs within the cloaca, and fertilized eggs
leave the females body through the opening in the cloaca. In a minority of species, the eggs are retained
inside the females body until they hatch. Then the ospring leave the mothers body through the cloaca
opening.
Amniotic Eggs
Unlike amphibians, reptiles produce amniotic eggs (see Figure 6.23). The shell, membranes, and other
structures of an amniotic egg protect and nourish the embryo. They keep the embryo moist and safe while
it grows and develops. They also provide it with a rich, fatty food source (the yolk).
Reptile Young
Unlike amphibians, reptiles do not have a larval stage. Instead, newly hatched reptiles look like smaller
versions of the adults. They are able to move about on their own, but they are vulnerable to predators.
Even so, most reptile parents provide no care to their hatchlings. In fact, most reptiles dont even take care
of their eggs. For example, female sea turtles lay their eggs on a sandy beach and then return to the ocean.
The only exceptions are female crocodiles and alligators. They may defend their nest from predators and
help the hatchings reach the water. If the young remain in the area, the mother may continue to protect
them for up to a year.
Classication of Reptiles
There are more than 8,200 living species of reptiles, with the majority being snakes or lizards. They are
commonly placed in four dierent orders. The four orders are described in Table 6.2.
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Figure 6.23: Amniotic Egg. The amniotic egg is an important adaptation in fully terrestrial vertebrates.
It rst evolved in reptiles. The shells of reptile eggs are either hard or leathery.
Table 6.2: Orders of Living Reptiles
Order
Characteristics
Example
Crocodilia: crocodiles, alligators,

caimans, gharials
They have four sprawling legs

that can be used to gallop; they
replace their teeth throughout
life; they have strong jaws and a
powerful bite; they have a more
advanced brain and greater intelligence than other reptiles; they
have a four-chambered heart.
They are the least specialized
of all living reptiles; their brain
is very similar to the amphibian brain; they have a threechambered heart, but it is more
primitive than the heart of other
reptiles.
Lizards: most have four legs for
running or climbing, and they
can also swim; many change color
when threatened; they have a
three-chambered heart.
Snakes: they do not have legs, although they evolved from a tetrapod ancestor; they have a very
exible jaw for swallowing large
prey whole; some inject poison
into their prey through fangs;
they have a three-chambered
heart.
caiman
Sphenodontia: tuataras
Squamata: lizards, snakes
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tuatara
lizard
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Order
Testudines:
terrapins
turtles, tortoises,
Characteristics
Example
They have four legs for walking;

they have a hard shell covering
most of their body; they have a
three-chambered heart.
terrapin
Evolution of Reptiles
The earliest amniotes evolved about 350 million years ago. They resembled small lizards, but they were
not yet reptiles. Their amniotic eggs allowed them to move away from bodies of water and become larger.
They soon became the most important land vertebrates.
Synapsids and Sauropsids

By about 320 million years ago, early amniotes had diverged into two groups, called synapsids and sauropsids. Synapsids were amniotes that eventually gave rise to mammals. Sauropsids were amniotes that
evolved into reptiles, dinosaurs, and birds. The two groups of amniotes diered in their skulls. The earliest
known reptile, pictured in Figure 6.24 dates back about 315 million years.
Figure 6.24: Earliest Reptile: Hylonomus. The earliest known reptile is given the genus name Hylonomus.
It was about 20 to 30 centimeters (8 to 12 inches) long, lived in swamps, and ate insects and other small
invertebrates.
At rst, synapsids were more successful than sauropsids. They became the most common vertebrates on
land. However, during the Permian mass extinction 245 million years ago, most synapsids went extinct.
Their niches were taken over by sauropsids, which had been relatively unimportant until then. This is
called the Triassic takeover.
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Rise and Fall of the Dinosaurs

By the middle of the Triassic about 225 million years ago, sauropsids had evolved into dinosaurs. Dinosaurs
became increasingly important throughout the rest of the Mesozoic Era, as they radiated to ll most
terrestrial niches. This is why the Mesozoic Era is called the Age of the Dinosaurs. During the next mass
extinction, which occurred at the end of the Mesozoic Era, all of the dinosaurs went extinct. Many other
reptiles survived, however, and they eventually gave rise to modern reptiles.
Evolution of Modern Reptile Orders

Figure 6.25 shows a traditional phylogenetic tree of living reptiles. Based on this tree, some of the earliest
reptiles to diverge were ancestors of turtles. The rst turtle-like reptiles are thought to have evolved about
250 million years ago. Ancestral crocodilians evolved at least 220 million years ago. Tuataras may have
diverged from squamates (snakes and lizards) not long after that. Finally, lizards and snakes went their
separate ways about 150 million years ago.
Figure 6.25: Traditional Reptile Phylogenetic Tree. This phylogenetic tree is based on physical traits
of living and fossil reptiles. Trees based on DNA comparisons may dier from the traditional tree and
from each other, depending on the DNA sequences used. Reptile evolution is currently an area of intense
research and constant revision.
Ecology of Reptiles
Today, reptiles live in a wide range of habitats. They can be found on every continent except Antarctica.
Many turtles live in the ocean, while others live in freshwater or on land. Lizards are all terrestrial, but
their habitats may range from deserts to rainforests, and from underground burrows to the tops of trees.
Most snakes are terrestrial and live in a wide range of habitats, but some snakes are aquatic. Crocodilians
live in and around swamps or bodies of freshwater or salt water.
Reptile Diets
What reptiles eat is also very diverse, but the majority of reptiles are carnivores. Large reptiles such as
crocodilians are the top predators in their ecosystems, preying on birds, sh, deer, turtles, and sometimes
domestic livestock. Their powerful jaws can crush bones and even turtle shells. Smaller reptilesincluding
tuataras, snakes, and many lizardsare also important predators, preying on insects, frogs, birds, and
small mammals such as mice.
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Most terrestrial turtles are herbivores. They graze on grasses, leaves, owers, and fruits. Marine turtles
and some species of lizards are omnivores, feeding on plants as well as insects, worms, amphibians, and
small sh.
Reptiles at Risk
Many species of reptiles, especially marine reptiles, are at risk of extinction. Some are threatened by
habitat loss. For example, many beaches where turtles lay their eggs have been taken over and developed
by people. Other marine reptiles have been over-hunted by humans. Marine turtles and their eggs are still
eaten in some countries despite being protected species.
Some reptiles are preyed upon by non-native species introduced by humans. For example, marine iguanas
on the Galpagos Islands are threatened by dogs and cats that people have brought to the islands. The
iguanas are slow and tame and have no adaptations to these new predators.
Lesson Summary
Reptiles are a class of ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates. They have several adaptations for living
on dry land, such as tough keratin scales and eicient lungs for breathing air. They also have a
three-chambered heart and relatively well-developed brain.
Most reptiles reproduce sexually and have internal fertilization. Their eggs are amniotic, so they can
be laid on land instead of in water. Reptiles do not have a larval stage, and their hatchlings are
relatively mature. Reptile parents provide little if any care to their young.
There are more than 8,200 living species of reptiles, and they are placed in four orders: Crocodilia,
which includes crocodiles and alligators; Sphenodontia, or tuataras; Squamata, which includes lizards
and snakes; and Testudines, such as turtles and tortoises.
The earliest amniotes appeared about 350 million years ago, and the earliest reptiles evolved from
a sauropsid ancestor by about 315 million years ago. Dinosaurs evolved around 225 million years
ago and dominated animal life on land until 65 million years ago, when they all went extinct. Other
reptiles survived and evolved into the classes of reptiles that exist today.
Reptiles can be found on every continent except Antarctica. They may live in terrestrial, freshwater,
or marine habitats. Most reptiles are carnivores, and large reptiles are the top predators in their
ecosystems. Many species of reptiles, especially marine reptiles, are at risk of extinction.

Recall
1. Describe reptile scales and the functions they serve.
2. What is a diaphragm? What does it do?
3. Describe two senses that reptiles may use to locate prey.
4. Outline the structure and function of an amniotic egg.
5. Identify amniotes called synapsids and sauropsids.
6. Give a brief overview of reptile evolution.
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Apply Concepts
7. Pretend you are a reptile such as a lizard. Explain how you might stay warm on a cold day.
Think Critically
8. Compare and contrast crocodilians with other orders of reptiles.
9. Explain why reptiles were able to replace amphibians as the dominant land vertebrates.
Points to Consider
Birds evolved from a reptile ancestor but they are very dierent from reptiles today. Birds are also the
most numerous tetrapod vertebrates.
What are some traits that dier in birds and modern reptiles?
What traits might explain why birds have been so successful?
6.5
Birds
Lesson Objectives
Outline structure and function in birds.

Describe how birds reproduce and care for their young.
Identify several common orders of modern birds.
Give an overview of the evolution of birds.
Summarize the diversity of bird habitats and food sources.
Vocabulary
bird
courtship
crop
generalist
gizzard
incubation
Introduction
Birds are endothermic tetrapod vertebrates. They are bipedal, which means they walk on two legs. Birds
also lay amniotic eggs, and the eggs have hard, calcium carbonate shells. Although birds are the most
recent class of vertebrates to evolve, they are now the most numerous vertebrates on Earth. Why have
birds been so successful? What traits allowed them to increase and diversify so rapidly?
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Structure and Function in Birds

Birds can vary considerably in size, as you can see from the worlds smallest and largest birds, pictured in
Figure 6.26. The tiny bee hummingbird is just 5 centimeter (2 inches) long, whereas the ostrich towers
over people at a height of 2.7 meters (9 feet). All modern birds have wings, feathers, and beaks. They
have a number of other unique traits as well, most of which are adaptations for ight. Flight is used by
birds as a means of locomotion in order to nd food and mates and to avoid predators. Although not all
modern birds can y, they all evolved from ancestors that could.
Figure 6.26: Range of Body Size in Birds. The bee hummingbird is the smallest bird. The ostrich is the
largest.
Wings and Feathers

Wings are an obvious adaptation for ight. They are actually modied front legs. Birds move their wings
using muscles in the chest. These muscles are quite large, making up as much as 35 percent of a birds
body weight.
Feathers help birds y and also provide insulation and serve other purposes. Birds actually have two basic
types of feathers: ight feathers and down feathers. Both are shown in Figure 6.27. Flight feathers are
long, sti, and waterproof. They provide lift and air resistance without adding weight. Down feathers are
short and uy. They trap air next to a birds skin for insulation.
Organ Systems Adapted for Flight

Birds need a light-weight body in order to stay aloft. Even so, ying is hard work, and ight muscles need
a constant supply of oxygen- and nutrient-rich blood. The organ systems of birds are adapted to meet
these needs.
Birds have light-weight bones that are lled with air. They also lack a jaw, which in many vertebrates
is a dense, heavy bone with many teeth. Instead, birds have a light-weight keratin beak without teeth.
Birds have air sacs that store inhaled air and push it into the lungs like bellows. This keeps the lungs
constantly lled with oxygenated air. The lungs also contain millions of tiny passages that create a
very large surface area for gas exchange with the blood (see Figure 6.28).
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Figure 6.27: Types of Bird Feathers. These two types of bird feathers have dierent uses. How is each
feathers structure related to its function?
Birds have a relatively large, four-chambered heart. The heart beats rapidly to keep oxygenated
blood owing to muscles and other tissues. Hummingbirds have the fastest heart rate at up to 1,200
times per minute. Thats almost 20 times faster than the human resting heart rate!
Birds have a sac-like structure called a crop to store and moisten food that is waiting to be digested.
They also have an organ called a gizzard that contains swallowed stones. The stones make up for
the lack of teeth by grinding food, which can then be digested more quickly. Both structures make
it easier for the digestive system to produce a steady supply of nutrients from food.
Nervous System and Sense Organs

Birds have a large brain relative to the size of their body. Not surprisingly, the part of the brain that
controls ight is the most developed part. The large brain size of birds is also reected by their high level
of intelligence and complex behavior. In fact, birds such as crows and ravens may be more intelligent than
many mammals. They are smart enough to use objects such as twigs for tools. They also demonstrate
planning and cooperation. Most birds have a poor sense of smell, but they make up for it with their
excellent sense of sight. Predatory birds have especially good eyesight. Hawks, for example, have vision
that is eight times sharper than human vision.
Bird Reproduction
Reproduction in birds may be quite complicated and lengthy. Birds reproduce sexually and have separate
sexes and internal fertilization, so males and females must mate for fertilization to occur. Mating is
generally preceded by courtship. In most species, parents also take care of their eggs and hatchlings.
Courtship and Mating

Courtship is behavior that is intended to attract a mate. It may involve singing specic courtship songs
or putting on some type of visual display. For example, a bird may spread out and display its tail feathers
or do a ritualized mating dance. Typically, males perform the courtship behavior, and females choose a
mate from among competing males.
During mating, a male bird presses his cloaca against his mates cloaca and passes sperm from his cloaca
to hers. After fertilization, eggs pass out of the females body, exiting through the opening in the cloaca.
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Figure 6.28: Organ System Adaptations for Flight. The intricate passageways in a birds lung are adapted
for eicient gas exchange. Find the crop and gizzard in the digestive tract diagram. What are their
functions? Bird Lung (left), Bird Digestive Tract (right)
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Nesting and Incubation

Eggs are usually laid in a nest. The nest may be little more than a small depression in the ground, or it
may be very elaborate, like the weaver bird nest in Figure 6.29. Eggs that are laid on the ground may
be camouaged to look like their surroundings (also shown in Figure 6.29). Otherwise, eggs are usually
white or pastel colors such as pale blue or pink.
Figure 6.29: Variation in Bird Nests. A weaver bird uses grasses to weave an elaborate nest (left). The
eggs of a ground-nesting gull are camouaged to blend in with the nesting materials (right).
After birds lay their eggs, they generally keep the eggs warm with their body heat while the embryos inside
continue to develop. This is called incubation, or brooding. In most species, parents stay together for at
least the length of the breeding season. In some species, they stay together for life. By staying together,
the males as well as females can incubate the eggs and later care for the hatchlings. Birds are the only
nonhuman vertebrates with this level of male parental involvement.
Hatchlings
Ground-nesting birds, such as ducks and chickens, have hatchlings that are able to run around and feed
themselves almost as soon as they break through the eggshell. Being on the ground makes them vulnerable
to predators, so they need to be relatively mature when they hatch in order to escape. In contrast, birds
that nest o the groundin trees, bushes, or buildingshave hatchlings that are naked and helpless. The
parents must protect and feed the immature ospring for weeks or even months. However, this gives the
ospring more time to learn from the parents before they leave the nest and go out on their own.
Classication of Birds
There are about 10,000 living species of birds. Almost all of them can y, but there are several exceptions.
Flightless Birds
Some birds have lost the ability to y during the course of their evolution. Several ightless birds are
shown in Figure 6.30. They include the ostrich, kiwi, rhea, cassowary, and moa. All of these birds have
long legs and are adapted for running. The penguins shown in the gure are also ightless birds, but they
have a very dierent body shape. Thats because they are adapted for swimming rather than running.
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Figure 6.30: Flightless Birds. Flightless birds that are adapted for running include the ostrich, kiwi, rhea,
cassowary, and moa. Penguins are ightless birds adapted for swimming.
Flying Birds
Birds that are able to y are divided into 29 orders that dier in their physical traits and behaviors. Table
6.3 describes seven of the most common orders. As shown in the table, the majority of ying birds are
perching birds, like the honeyeater described in the last row of the table. The order of perching birds has
more species than all the other bird orders combined. In fact, this order of birds is the largest single order
of land vertebrates.
Table 6.3: Orders of Flying Birds
Order
Landfowl:
pheasants
turkeys,
chickens,
Waterfowl: ducks, geese, swans
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Description
Example
They are large in size; they spend

most of their time on the ground;
they usually have a thick neck
and short, rounded wings; their
ight tends to be brief and close
to the ground.
turkey
They are large in size; they spend

most of their time on the water
surface; they have webbed feet
and are good swimmers; most are
strong yers.
ducks
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Order
Description
Example
Shorebirds: puins, gulls, plovers
They range from small to large;

most live near the water, and
some are sea birds; they have
webbed feet and are good swimmers; most are strong yers.
puin
Diurnal Raptors: hawks, falcons,

eagles

they are active during the day
and sleep during the night; they
have a sharp, hooked beak and
strong legs with clawed feet; they
hunt by sight and have excellent
vision.
hawk
Nocturnal Raptors: burrowing

owls, barn owls, horned owls

they are active during the night
and sleep during the day; they
have a sharp, hooked beak and
strong legs with clawed feet; they
have large, forward-facing eyes;
they have excellent hearing and
can hunt with their sense of hearing alone.
burrowing owl
Parrots:
parakeets
parrots,

they are found in tropical regions; they have a strong, curved
bill; they stand upright on strong
legs with clawed feet; many are
brightly colored; they are very intelligent.
cockatoo
honeyeaters,
They are small in size; they perch

above the ground in trees and on
buildings and wires; they have
four toes for grasping a perch;
many are songbirds.
honeyeater
cockatoos,
Perching Birds:
sparrows, crows
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Evolution of Birds
Birds are thought to have evolved from a group of bipedal dinosaurs called theropods. The ancestor of birds
was probably similar to the theropod called Deinonychus, which is represented by the sketch in Figure
6.31. Fossils of Deinonychus were rst identied in the 1960s. This was an extremely important discovery.
It nally convinced most scientists that birds had descended from dinosaurs, which had been debated for
almost a century.
Figure 6.31: Extinct Bird Relative: Deinonychus. Deinonychus shared many traits with birds. What
similarities with birds to you see?
What was Deinonychus?

Deinonychus is the genus name of an extinct dinosaur that is considered to be one of the closest non-bird
relatives of modern birds. It lived about 110 million years ago in what is now North America. Deinonychus
was a predatory carnivore with many bird-like features. For example, it had feathers and wings. It also had
strong legs with clawed feet, similar to modern raptors. Its respiratory, circulatory, and digestive systems
were similar to those of birds as well. The location of fossilized eggs near Deinonychus fossils suggests that
it may have brooded its eggs. This would mean that it was endothermic. (Can you explain why?) On the
other hand, Deinonychus retained a number of reptile-like traits, such as jaws with teeth and hands with
claws at the tips of its wings.
Evolution of Flight
Scientists have long speculated about the evolution of ight in birds. They wonder how and why birds
evolved wings from a pair of front limbs. Several hypotheses have been suggested. Here are just two:
1. Wings evolved in a bird ancestor that leapt into the air to avoid predators or to capture prey.
Therefore, wings are modied arms that helped the animal leap higher.
2. Wings evolved in a bird ancestor that lived in trees. Thus, wings are modied arms that helped the
animal glide from branch to branch.
Scientists still dont know how or why wings and ight evolved, but they continue to search for answers.
In addition to fossils, they are studying living vertebrates such as bats that also evolved adaptations for
ight.
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Ecology of Birds
Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats on all seven continents, from the Arctic to Antarctica.
Because they are endothermic, birds can live in a wider range of climates than reptiles or amphibians,
although the greatest diversity of birds occurs in tropical regions. Birds are important members of every
ecosystem in which they live, occupying a wide range of ecological positions.
Bird Diets
Some birds are generalists. A generalist is an organism that can eat many dierent types of food. Other
birds are highly specialized in their food needs and can eat just one type of food. Raptors such as hawks
and owls are carnivores. They hunt and eat mammals and other birds. Vultures are scavengers. They eat
the remains of dead animals, such as roadkill. Aquatic birds generally eat sh or water plants. Perching
birds may eat insects, fruit, honey, or nectar. Many fruit-eating birds play a key role in seed dispersal, and
some nectar-feeding birds are important pollinators. Bird beaks are generally adapted for the food they
eat. For example, the sharp, hooked beak of a raptor is well suited for killing and tearing apart prey. The
long beak of the hummingbird in Figure 6.32 co-evolved with the tube-shaped owers from which it sips
nectar.
Figure 6.32: Hummingbird Sipping Nectar. A hummingbird gets nectar from owers and pollinates the
owers in return. What type of relationship exists between the bird and the owering plant?
Birds at Risk
Hundreds of species of birds have gone extinct as a result of human actions. A well-known example is
the passenger pigeon. It was once the most common bird in North America, but over-hunting and habitat
destruction led to its extinction in the 1800s. Habitat destruction and use of the pesticide DDT explain
the recent extinction of the dusky seaside sparrow. This native Florida bird was declared extinct in 1990.
Today, some 1,200 species of birds are threatened with extinction by human actions. Humans need to take
steps to protect this precious and important natural resource. What can you do to help?
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KQED: The Golden Eagle

Although not as famous as its bald cousin, Golden Eagles are much easier to nd in Northern California
- one of the largest breeding populations for Golden Eagles. The largest of the raptors, Golden Eagles
weigh typically between 8 and 12 pounds, and their wing span is around 6 to 7 feet. These eagles dive
towards earth to catch prey, and can reach speeds of up to 200 mph! Meet one of the largest birds of prey
at http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/cool-critters-the-golden-eagle.
KQED: The Great Horned Owl

Owls are amazing creatures. They have many adaptations that allow them to thrive in their environments.
Their claws are enormous and powerful, they have excellent hearing, and fantastic vision in low light. And
the Great Horned Owl can y almost silently due to fringes on their feathers that help to break up the
sound of air passing over their wings. Learn more of the Great Horned Owl at http://www.kqed.org/
quest/television/cool-critters-great-horned-owls-.
KQED: The Turkey Vulture

Ever wonder why a vultures head is bald? Turkey Vultures are very interesting birds. The Turkey Vulture
has no vocal organs they can only grunt or hiss, although they usually stay silent. They do not build nests
they lay their eggs directly on the ground in caves, crevices, burrows, hollow logs, under fallen trees, or
even in abandoned buildings. While these vultures have few natural predators, their main form of defense
is vomiting. The foul smelling substance deters most creatures, and will also sting if the oending animal is
close enough to get vomit on them. Learn more about Turkey Vultures at http://www.kqed.org/quest/
television/cool-critters-turkey-vultures. Also see http://www.wildlife-museum.org/ for the
Lindsay Wildlife Museum.
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Lesson Summary
Birds are endothermic tetrapod vertebrates. They are bipedal and have wings and feathers. Their
organ systems are adapted for ight. For example, they have light-weight air-lled bones and a large
four-chambered heart. Birds also have relatively large brains and a high level of intelligence.
Birds reproduce sexually and have internal fertilization. Mating is generally preceded by courtship.
Their amniotic eggs have hard shells and are laid in a nest. The eggs are usually incubated until
they hatch. Most species have a relatively long period of parental care.
There are about 10,000 living species of birds, almost all of which can y. Flying birds are divided into
29 orders. The most common orders include landfowl, waterfowl, shorebirds, diurnal and nocturnal
raptors, parrots, and perching birds.
Birds are thought to have evolved from theropod dinosaurs around 150 million years ago. Their
ancestor may have been similar to the extinct theropod Deinonychus, whose fossils convinced most
scientists that birds evolved from dinosaurs. Scientist still dont know how or why wings and ight
evolved, but they continue to search for answers.
Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats on all seven continents. They occupy a wide range
of ecological positions. Raptors are carnivores; aquatic birds eat sh or water plants; and perching
birds may eat insects, fruit, honey, or nectar. Some birds are pollinators that co-evolved with plants.
Human actions have caused the extinction of hundreds of species of birds, and some 1,200 species
are threatened with extinction today.

Recall
1. List two functions of feathers in birds.
2. Describe the bird crop and gizzard. What are their functions?
3. How do birds keep their lungs lled with oxygenated air?
4. Give an example of bird behavior that shows their relatively great intelligence.
5. What is courtship? What is its purpose?
Apply Concepts
6. Draw a sketch of a hypothetical bird that preys on small mammals. The bird must exhibit traits that
suit it for its predatory role.
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Think Critically
7. Relate two unique traits of birds to ight.
8. Contrast hatchling maturity in birds that are ground-nesting and those that nest o the ground. What
is the adaptive signicance of the dierences?
9. Why did the hummingbird pictured in the Hummingbird Sipping Nectar Figure 6.32 evolve such
a long, pointed beak?
Points to Consider
Birds share a number of important traits with mammals, including a four-chambered heart and endothermy.
The next chapter describes mammals in detail.
What are some examples of mammals?
What other traits do you think mammals might have? What traits do you think set mammals apart
from all other vertebrates, including birds?
Image Sources
(1) Drow male. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Petromyzon_marinus.003_-_Aquarium_Finisterrae.JPG. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(2) (Hummingbird) Image copyright Sari ONeal, 2011; (Ostrich) Image copyright Sam DCruz, 2010.
(3) Illustrations by Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, colored and arranged by TomCatX.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Metamorphosis_frog_Meyers.png. Public Domain.
(4) (All images except penguins) Composite created by Richard001; (Penguin) Mila Zinkova. [(All
images except penguins) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ratites.PNG; (Penguin)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pygoscelis_antarctica_feeding_a_chick.jpg.jpg ].
CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(5) Courtesy of National Institutes of Health.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spinewithcord.jpg. Public domain.
(6) Image copyright Mike Truchon, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(7) (Flight) Image copyright ajt, 2010; (Down) Image copyright Sherjaca, 2010.
(8) (a) Aomorikuma; (b) Courtesy of W. Battaglin/US Geological Survey. [(a)
Raninae_Rana_R_ornativentris_Montane_brown_frog.jpg; (b)
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Domain.
(9) Nobu Tamura and Dinoguy2.
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(12) wildxplorer. http://www.flickr.com/photos/krayker/2120341021/. CC-BY 2.0.
(13) Horst Frank, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anatomy_of_an_egg_unlabeled_horizontal.svg.
GNU-FDL 1.2.
(14) Lukas3, modied by CK-12 Foundation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:
Lampanyctodes_hectoris_%28Hector%27s_lanternfish%292.png. CC-BY-SA 1.0.
(15) Image copyright OlegD, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(16) Cli. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Aquatic_Caecilian_%28Typhlonectes_natans%29.jpg. CC-BY 2.0.
(17) Tarquin. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frogspawn_closeup.jpg. GNU-FDL 1.2.
(18) Matthew Miller.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cyphotilapia_frontosa_mouthbrooding.jpg. CC-BY-SA
2.5.
(19) Image copyright Andrea Danti, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(20) Image copyright JinYoung Lee, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(21) Uwe Kils. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Salmonlarvakils.jpg. GNU-FDL 1.2.
(22) (left) Tino Strauss; (right) JoJan. [(left)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dorsal_fin_01.jpg; (right)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Latimeria_chalumnae01.jpg ]. (left) CC-BY-SA 2.5;
(right) CC-BY-SA 3.0.
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Snook/MBNMS/US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. [(a)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oceanic_Whitetip_Shark.png; (b)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ray.jpg; (c)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hydrolagus_colliei.jpg ]. (a) GNU-FDL 1.2; (b)
CC-BY-SA 2.5; (c) Public Domain.
(24) ArthurWeasley. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hylonomus_BW.jpg. CC-BY 2.5.
(25) Salamander image copyright Jason Patrick Ross, 2010 and newt image copyright Dirk Ercken, 2010.
(27) Image copyright Potapov Alexander, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license
(28) Steve Ryan. http://www.flickr.com/photos/juniorvelo/1848810721/. CC-BY-SA 2.0.
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(29) Wilfried Berns. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Schrecklicherpfeilgiftfrosch-01.jpg.

CC-BY-SA 2.0 Germany.
(30) (Weaver nest) JM Garg; (Gull eggs) Banangraut. [(Weaver nest)
Baya_Weaver_%28Ploceus_philippinus%29-_Male_making_nest_W_IMG_0657.jpg; (Gull eggs)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Larus_marinus_eggs.jpg ]. (Weaver nest)
GNU-FDL 1.2; (Gull eggs) CC-BY-SA 2.5.
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http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Salamander_Foto_Silar.jpg; (Caecilian)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Caecilian.jpg ]. (Frog) GNU-FDL 1.2;
(Salamander) GNU-FDL 1.2; (Caecilian) CC-BY-SA 2.5.
Opening image copyright J. McPhail, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
For Table 6.1, from top to bottom,
Courtesy of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/File:Pacific_hagfish_Myxine.jpg. Public Domain.
Image copyright Andrei Nekrassov, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
Image copyright Andreas Meyer, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
Courtesy of the US Department of Agriculture. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:YellowPerch.
jpg. Public Domain.
Image copyright Sergey Mikhaylov, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
Harmen Piekema. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Frog_on_bough.jpg. GNU-FDL
1.2.
Courtesy of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alligator.
jpg. Public Domain.
Image copyright Steve Byland, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
Courtesy of Terry Tollefsbol/US Fish and Wildlife Service. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Grizzly_Bear_Yellowstone.jpg. Public Domain.
Lea Maimone. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Caiman_yacare.jpg. CC-BY-SA 2.0.
Knutschie. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tuatara.jpg. Public Domain.
Manuel Werner. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Qadromannportrait.jpg. CC-BYSA 2.0 Germany.
Trisha Shears. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diamondback_Terrapin.jpg. Public
Domain.
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jpg. GNU-FDL 1.2.
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Image copyright John A. Anderson, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
Image copyright Tomasz Parys, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
Steve Jurvetson. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hawk_eating_prey.jpg. CC-BY 2.0.
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29_REFON_.jpg. CC-BY 2.5.
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Shutterstock.com.
Fir0002/Flagstaotos. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yellow-faced_Honeyeater_nov07_
02.jpg. GNU-FDL 1.2.
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Chapter 7
Mammals and Animal Behavior
You might think that these young tigers are ghting, but theyre really playing. Like most other young
mammals, tigers like to play. Why do mammals play? Is playing just for fun, or does it serve some other
purpose as well?
Playing is actually an important way of learning. By playing, these tigers are learning moves that will help
them become successful predators as adults. Playing is just one of many ways that mammals and other
animals learn how to behave. In this chapter, you will learn more about mammals such as tigers. You will
also learn more about animal behavior and other ways that animals learn.
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7.1
Mammalian Traits
Lesson Objectives
List characteristics of mammals.
Describe structure and function in mammals.
Vocabulary
alveoli (singular, alveolus)

arboreal
cerebrum
lactation
mammal
mammary gland
neocortex
Introduction
Mammals are a class of endothermic vertebrates. They have four limbs and produce amniotic eggs.
Examples of mammals include bats, whales, mice, and humans. Clearly, mammals are a very diverse
group. Nonetheless, they share many traits that set them apart from other vertebrates.
Characteristics of Mammals
Two characteristics are used to dene the mammal class. They are mammary glands and body hair (or
fur).
1. Female mammals have mammary glands. The glands produce milk after the birth of ospring.
Milk is a nutritious uid. It contains disease-ghting molecules as well as all the nutrients a baby
mammal needs. Producing milk for an ospring is called lactation.
2. Mammals have hair or fur. It insulates the body to help conserve body heat. It can also be used for
sensing and communicating. For example, cats use their whiskers to sense their surroundings. They
also raise their fur to look larger and more threatening (see Figure 7.1).
Most mammals share several other traits. The traits in the following list are typical of, but not necessarily
unique to, mammals.
The skin of many mammals is covered with sweat glands. The glands produce sweat, the salty uid
that helps cool the body.
Mammalian lungs have millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli. They provide a very large surface area
for gas exchange.
The heart of a mammal consists of four chambers. This makes it more eicient and powerful for
delivering oxygenated blood to tissues.
The brain of a mammal is relatively large and has a covering called the neocortex. This structure
plays an important role in many complex brain functions.
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Figure 7.1: Cat Communicating a Warning. By raising its fur, this cat is saying that its big and
dangerous. This might discourage a predator from attacking.
The mammalian middle ear has three tiny bones that carry sound vibrations from the outer to inner
ear. The bones give mammals exceptionally good hearing. In other vertebrates, the three bones are
part of the jaw and not involved in hearing.
Mammals have four dierent types of teeth. The teeth of other vertebrates, in contrast, are all alike.
Structure and Function in Mammals

Many structures and functions in mammals are related to endothermy. Mammals can generate and conserve
heat when its cold outside. They can also lose heat when they become over-heated. How do mammals
control their body temperature in these ways?
How Mammals Stay Warm

Mammals generate heat mainly by keeping their metabolic rate high. The cells of mammals have many
more mitochondria than the cells of other animals. The extra mitochondria generate enough energy to
keep the rate of metabolism high. Mammals can also generate little bursts of heat by shivering. Shivering
occurs when many muscles contract a little bit all at once. Each muscle that contracts produces a small
amount of heat.
Conserving heat is also important, especially in small mammals. A small body has a relatively large surface
area compared to its overall size. Because heat is lost from the surface of the body, small mammals lose a
greater proportion of their body heat than large mammals. Mammals conserve body heat with their hair
or fur. It traps a layer of warm air next to the skin. Most mammals can make their hair stand up from
the skin, so it becomes an even better insulator (see Figure 7.2). Mammals also have a layer of fat under
the skin to help insulate the body. This fatty layer is not found in other vertebrates.
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Figure 7.2: Goosebumps. Mammals raise their hair with tiny muscles in the skin. Even humans automatically contract these muscles when they are cold. They cause goosebumps, as shown here.
How Mammals Stay Cool

One way mammals lose excess heat is by increasing blood ow to the skin. This warms the skin so heat can
be given o to the environment. Thats why you may get ushed, or red in the face, when you exercise on
a hot day. You are likely to sweat as well. Sweating also reduces body heat. Sweat wets the skin, and when
it evaporates, it cools the body. Evaporation uses energy, and the energy comes from body heat. Animals
with fur, such as dogs, use panting instead of sweating to lose body heat (see Figure 7.3). Evaporation
of water from the tongue and other moist surfaces of the mouth and throat uses heat and helps cool the
body.
Eating and Digesting Food

Maintaining a high metabolic rate takes a lot of energy. The energy must come from food. Therefore,
mammals need a nutritious and plentiful diet. The diets of mammals are diverse. Except for leaf litter
and wood, almost any kind of organic matter may be eaten by mammals. Some mammals are strictly
herbivores or strictly carnivores. However, most mammals will eat other foods if necessary. Some mammals
are omnivores. They routinely eat a variety of both plant and animal foods. Most mammals also feed on
a variety of other species. The few exceptions include koalas, which feed only on eucalyptus plants, and
giant pandas, which feed only on bamboo. Types of mammalian diets and examples of mammals that eat
them are given in Table 7.1. How would you classify your own diet?
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Figure 7.3: Panting Dog. This dog is overheated. It is losing excess body heat by panting.
Table 7.1: Mammalian Diets
Type of Diet
Foods Eaten
Examples of Mammals with this

Type of Diet
herbivorous diet: plants
leaves, grasses, shoots, stems,

roots, tubers, seeds, nuts, fruits,
bark, conifer needles, owers
rabbit, mouse, sea cow, horse,

goat, elephant, zebra, girae,
deer, elk, hippopotamus, kangaroo, monkey
carnivorous diet: animals
other mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, sh, mollusks,

worms, insects
aardvark, anteater, whale, hyena,

dog, jackal, dolphin, wolf, weasel,
seal, walrus, cat, otter, mole
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Type of Diet
Foods Eaten
Examples of Mammals with this

Type of Diet
omnivorous diet: plants and animals
any of the foods eaten in herbivorous and carnivorous diets
bear, badger, mongoose, fox, raccoon, human, rat, chimpanzee,

pig
Dierent diets require dierent types of digestive systems. Mammals that eat a carnivorous diet generally
have a relatively simple digestive system. Their food consists mainly of proteins and fats that are easily
and quickly digested. Herbivorous mammals, on the other hand, tend to have a more complicated digestive
system. Complex plant carbohydrates such as cellulose are more diicult to digest. Some herbivores have
more than one stomach. The stomachs store and slowly digest plant foods.
Mammalian teeth are also important for digestion. The four types of teeth are specialized for dierent
feeding functions, as shown in Figure 7.4. Together, the four types of teeth can cut, tear, and grind food.
This makes food easier and quicker to digest.
Figure 7.4: Mammalian Teeth (Human). With their dierent types of teeth, mammals can eat a wide
range of foods.
Lungs and Heart of Mammals

Keeping the rate of metabolism high takes a constant and plentiful supply of oxygen. Thats because
cellular respiration, which produces energy, requires oxygen. The lungs and heart of mammals are adapted
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to meet their oxygen needs.

The lungs of mammals are unique in having alveoli. These are tiny, sac-like structures. Each alveolus is
surrounded by a network of very small blood vessels (see Figure 7.5). Because there are millions of alveoli
in each lung, they greatly increase the surface area for gas exchange between the lungs and bloodstream.
Human lungs, for example, contain about 300 million alveoli. They give the lungs a total surface area for
gas exchange of up to 90 square meters (968 square feet). Thats about as much surface area as one side
of a volleyball court!
Figure 7.5: Alveoli of Mammalian Lungs. Clusters of alveoli resemble tiny bunches of grapes. They are
surrounded by many blood vessels for gas exchange.
Mammals breathe with the help of a diaphragm. This is the large muscle that extends across the bottom
of the chest below the lungs. When the diaphragm contracts, it increases the volume of the chest. This
decreases pressure on the lungs and allows air to ow in. When the diaphragm relaxes, it decreases the
volume of the chest. This increases pressure on the lungs and forces air out.
The four-chambered mammalian heart can pump blood in two dierent directions. The right side of the
heart pumps blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen. The left side of the heart pumps blood containing
oxygen to the rest of the body. Because of the dual pumping action of the heart, all of the blood going to
body cells is rich in oxygen.
The Mammalian Brain

Of all vertebrates, mammals have the biggest and most complex brain for their body size (see Figure 7.6).
The front part of the brain, called the cerebrum, is especially large in mammals. This part of the brain
controls functions such as memory and learning.
The brains of all mammals have a unique layer of nerve cells covering the cerebrum. This layer is called
the neocortex (the pink region of the brains in Figure 7.6). The neocortex plays an important role in
many complex brain functions. In some mammals, such as rats, the neocortex is relatively smooth. In
other mammals, especially humans, the neocortex has many folds. The folds increase the surface area of
the neocortex. The larger this area is, the greater the mental abilities of an animal.
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Figure 7.6: Vertebrate Brains. Vertebrate brains come in a range of sizes. Even the brains of mammals
show a lot of variation in size. The area of the neocortex is greatest in humans.
Intelligence of Mammals
Mammals are very intelligent. Of all vertebrates, they are the animals that are most capable of learning.
Mammalian ospring are fed and taken care of by their parents for a relatively long time. This gives
them plenty of time to learn from their parents. By learning, they can benet from the experiences of
their elders. The ability to learn is the main reason that the large mammalian brain evolved. Its also the
primary reason for the success of mammals.
Social Living in Mammals

Many mammals live in social groups. Social living evolved because it is adaptive. Consider these two
examples:
1. Herbivores such as zebras and elephants live in herds. Adults in the herd surround and protect the
young, who are most vulnerable to predators.
2. Lions live in social groups called prides. Adult females in the pride hunt cooperatively, which is more
eicient than hunting alone. Then they share the food with the rest of the pride. For their part,
adult males defend the prides territory from other predators.
Locomotion in Mammals
Mammals are noted for the many ways they can move about. Generally, their limbs are very mobile.
Often, they can be rotated. Many mammals are also known for their speed. The fastest land animal is a
predatory mammal. Can you guess what it is? Racing at speeds of up to 112 kilometers (70 miles) per
hour, the cheetah wins hands down. In addition, the limbs of mammals let them hold their body up above
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the ground. Thats because the limbs are attached beneath the body, rather than at the sides as in reptiles
(see Figure 7.7).
Figure 7.7: Limb Positions in Reptiles and Mammals. The sprawling limbs of a reptile keep it low to the
ground. A mammal has a more upright stance.
Mammals may have limbs that are specialized for a particular way of moving. They may be specialized
for running, jumping, climbing, ying, or swimming. Mammals with these dierent modes of locomotion
are pictured in Figure 7.8.
The deer in the Figure 7.8 is specialized for running. Why? It has long legs and hard hooves. Can you see
why the other animals in the gure are specialized for their particular habitats? Notice how arboreal, or
tree-living animals, have a variety of dierent specializations for moving in trees. For example, they may
have:
A prehensile, or grasping, tail. This is used for climbing and hanging from branches.
Very long arms for swinging from branch to branch. This way of moving is called brachiation.
Sticky pads on their ngers. The pads help them cling to tree trunks and branches.
Lesson Summary
Mammals are a class of endothermic vertebrates. They have four limbs and produce amniotic eggs.
The mammal class is dened by the presence of mammary glands and hair (or fur). Other traits of
mammals include sweat glands in their skin, alveoli in their lungs, a four-chambered heart, and a
brain covering called the neocortex.
Mammals have several ways of generating and conserving heat, such as a high metabolic rate and
hair to trap heat. They also have several ways to stay cool, including sweating or panting. Mammals
may be herbivores, carnivores, or omnivores. They have four types of teeth, so they can eat a wide
range of foods. Traits of the heart and lungs keep the cells of mammals well supplied with oxygen
and nutrients.
Mammals have a relatively large brain and a high level of intelligence. They also have many ways of
moving about and may move very quickly.
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Figure 7.8: Mammalian Locomotion. Mammals have many dierent modes of locomotion.
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Recall
1. List ve traits that are shared by all mammals, including the two traits that are used to dene the
mammal class.
2. Describe how mammals stay warm.
3. What is the function of sweating?
4. Identify mammals that are herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.
5. What are alveoli? What is their function?
Apply Concepts
6. A certain mammal has very long forelimbs. What does that suggest about where the animal lives and
how it moves?
Think Critically
7. Explain how mammalian teeth dier from the teeth of other vertebrates. How are mammalian teeth
related to endothermy?
8. Compare and contrast the mammalian brain with the brains of other vertebrates. How is the brain of
mammals related to their ability to learn?
Points to Consider
Most mammals are born as live young, as opposed to hatching from eggs. Giving birth to live young has
certain advantages over egg laying.
What do you think the advantages of live births might be? How might this form of reproduction
help ensure that the ospring survive?
Do you think that giving birth to live young, as opposed to laying eggs, might have disadvantages?
What might the disadvantages be?
7.2
Reproduction in Mammals
Lesson Objectives
Describe female reproductive structures of therian mammals.

Outline reproduction in placental mammals.
Explain how marsupials reproduce.
Describe monotreme reproduction.
Vocabulary
marsupial
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monotreme
placenta
placental mammal
therian mammal
uterus (plural, uteri)
vagina
Introduction
Most mammals are viviparous. Their young are born live. They are born either as relatively large,
well-developed fetuses or as tiny, immature embryos. Mammals that are viviparous are called therian
mammals. Only a few mammals lay eggs instead of giving birth to an infant or embryo.
Therian Mammals
Like other female vertebrates, all female mammals have ovaries. These are the organs that produce eggs
(see Figure 7.9). Therian mammals also have two additional female reproductive structures that are not
found in other vertebrates. They are the uterus and vagina.
The uterus (plural, uteri) is a pouch-like, muscular organ. The embryo or fetus develops inside the
uterus. Muscular contractions of the uterus push the ospring out during birth.
The vagina is a tubular passageway through which the embryo or fetus leaves the mothers body
during birth. The vagina is also where the male deposits sperm during mating.
Figure 7.9: Female Reproductive System of a Therian Mammal (Human). The female reproductive system
of all therian mammals is similar to that of humans.
Therian mammals are divided into two groups: placental mammals and marsupial mammals. Each group
has a somewhat dierent reproductive strategy.
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Placental Mammals
Placental mammals are therian mammals in which a placenta develops during pregnancy. The placenta
sustains the fetus while it grows inside the mothers uterus. Placental mammals give birth to relatively
large and mature infants. Most mammals are placental mammals.
The Placenta
The placenta is a spongy structure. It consists of membranes and blood vessels from both mother and
embryo (see Figure 7.10). The placenta passes oxygen, nutrients, and other useful substances from the
mother to the fetus. It also passes carbon dioxide and other wastes from the fetus to the mother. The
placenta lets blood from the fetus and mother exchange substances without actually mixing. Thus, it
protects the fetus from being attacked by the mothers immune system as a foreign parasite.
Figure 7.10: Placenta of a Placental Mammal (Human). The placenta allows the exchange of gases,
nutrients, and other substances between the fetus and mother.
Pros and Cons of Placental Reproduction

The placenta permits a long period of fetal growth in the uterus. As a result, the fetus can become large
and mature before birth. This increases its chances of surviving.
On the other hand, supporting a growing fetus is very draining and risky for the mother. The mother has
to eat more food to nourish the fetus. She also becomes heavier and less mobile as the fetus gets larger. As
a result, she may be less able to escape from predators. Because the fetus is inside her, she cant abandon
it to save her own life if she is pursued or if food is scarce. Giving birth to a large infant is also risky. It
may even result in the mothers death.
Marsupials
Marsupials have a dierent way of reproducing that reduces the mothers risks. A marsupial is a therian
mammal in which the embryo is born at an early, immature stage. The embryo completes its development
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outside the mothers body in a pouch on her belly. Only a minority of therian mammals are marsupials.
They live mainly in Australia. Examples of marsupials are pictured in Figure 7.11.
Figure 7.11: Marsupials. Marsupials include the kangaroo, koala, and opossum.
The Marsupial Embryo

The marsupial embryo is nourished inside the uterus with food from a yolk sac instead of through a
placenta. The yolk sac stores enough food for the short period of time the embryo remains in the uterus.
After the embryo is born, it moves into the mothers pouch, where it clings to a nipple (see Figure 7.12).
It remains inside the pouch for several months while it continues to grow and develop. Even after the
ospring is big enough to leave the pouch, it may often return to the pouch for warmth and nourishment.
Eventually, the ospring is mature enough to remain outside the pouch on its own.
Figure 7.12: Marsupial Embryo in the Pouch. A kangaroo embryo suckles a nipple inside its mothers
pouch.
Pros and Cons of Marsupial Reproduction

In marsupials, the short period of development within the mothers uterus reduces the risk of her immune
system attacking the embryo. In addition, the marsupial mother doesnt have to eat extra food or carry
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a large fetus inside her. The risks of giving birth to a large fetus are also avoided. Another pro is that
the mother can expel the embryo from her pouch if she is pursued by a predator or if food is scarce. On
the other hand, a newborn marsupial is tiny and fragile. Therefore, it may be less likely to survive than a
newborn placental mammal.
KQED: The North American Marsupial: The Opossum

Most people think of Opossums as scary creatures. Is this because they look kind of funny, walk kind of
funny, have beady eyes and sharp teeth, and can emit a very foul odor? Maybe. But what is so dierent
about opossums is that they are the only marsupial in North America.
But opossums can be benecial to humans. They use their sharp teeth to crush bone which means that
they are good getting rid of unwanted rodents in your neighborhood. They have excellent immune systems
and they emit that terrible oder for protection. Learn more about opossums at http://www.kqed.org/
quest/blog/2009/03/31/producers-notes-for-cool-critters-opossums/.

Monotremes
Only ve living species of mammals are not therian mammals. They are called monotremes. Monotremes
are mammals that reproduce by laying eggs. The only living monotreme species are the platypus and
echidnas (see Figure 7.14 and Figure 7.15). They are found solely in Australia and New Guinea (an
island not far from Australia).
Eggs and Lactation in Monotremes

Female monotremes lack a uterus and vagina. Instead, they have a cloaca with one opening, like the cloacas
of reptiles and birds. The opening is used to excrete wastes as well as lay eggs.
Monotreme eggs have a leathery shell, like the eggs of reptiles. The eggs are retained inside the mothers
body for at least a couple of weeks. During that time, the mother provides the eggs with nutrients.
Platypus females lay their eggs in a burrow. Echidna females have a pouch in which they store their eggs.
Female monotremes have mammary glands but lack nipples. Instead, they sweat milk from a patch on
their belly.
Pros and Cons of Monotreme Reproduction

The mothers risks are less in monotremes than in therian mammals. The mother doesnt need to eat more
or put herself at risk by carrying and delivering a fetus or an embryo. On the other hand, externally laid
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Figure 7.14: Platypus. The platypus is a monotreme, a mammal that reproduces by laying eggs.
Figure 7.15: Echidna. Like the platypus, the echnida is a monotreme. The only living monotreme species
inhabit Australia and New Guinea.
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eggs are more diicult to protect than an embryo in a pouch or a fetus in a uterus. Therefore, monotreme
ospring may be less likely to survive than the ospring of therian mammals.
Lesson Summary
Therian mammals are viviparous. They give birth to an embryo or infant rather than laying eggs.
The female reproductive system of a therian mammal includes a uterus and a vagina. There are two
groups of therian mammals: placental mammals and marsupials.
Placental mammals give birth to a relatively large and mature fetus. This is possible because they
have a placenta to nourish the fetus and protect it from the mothers immune system. This allows
for a long period of growth and development before birth. Because the ospring is relatively large
and mature at birth, it has a good chance of surviving. However, carrying and giving birth to a large
fetus is risky for the mother. It also requires her to eat more food.
Marsupials give birth to a tiny, immature embryo. The embryo then continues to grow and develop
in a pouch on the mothers belly. This is less risky for the mother. However, the embryo is fragile,
so it may be less likely to survive than the fetus of a placental mammal.
Monotremes reproduce by laying eggs. They have a cloaca instead of a uterus and vagina. The eggs
pass through the opening of the cloaca. This form of reproduction is the least risky for the mother.
However, eggs are harder to protect than is an embryo or a fetus in a pouch or uterus. Therefore,
monotreme ospring may have a lower chance of surviving than the ospring of therian mammals.

Recall
1. What are the functions of the uterus and vagina in therian mammals?
2. What is the placenta? What is its role?
3. Where does a marsupial embryo develop? How is it nourished?
4. Describe eggs and egg laying in monotremes.
5. How does lactation dier in monotremes and therian mammals?
Apply Concepts
6. Create a chart that you could use to explain to a younger student the dierent ways that mammals
reproduce.
Think Critically
7. Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of the three forms of reproduction in mammals.
8. Placental mammals greatly outnumber the other two groups of mammals. Infer why placental mammals
have been so successful.
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Points to Consider
Monotremes are less similar to therian mammals than the two groups of therian mammals are to each
other.
How might the dierent groups of mammals have evolved?
Which group of mammals do you think evolved rst?
7.3
Evolution and Classication of Mammals
Lesson Objectives
Describe the therapsid ancestors of mammals.

Outline the evolution of monotreme, marsupial, and placental mammals.
Summarize the evolution of modern mammals.
Contrast traditional and phylogenetic classications of mammals.
Vocabulary
therapsid
Introduction
Which mammalian trait evolved rst? What was the rst mammal like? When did the earliest mammal
live? Detailed answers to these questions are still in dispute. However, scientists generally agree on the
major events in the evolution of mammals. These are summarized in Table 7.2. Refer back to the table
as you read about the events in this lesson. *mya = millions of years ago
Table 7.2: Major Events in Mammalian Evolution
Era
Period
Epoch
Major Events
Start (mya)*
Cenozoic
Neogene
Holocene
0.01
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Rise of human civilization;

spread
and dominance of
modern humans
Spread and then
extinction of many
large
mammals;
appearance
of
modern humans
Appearance
of
many
existing
genera of mammals,
including
the genus Homo
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Era
Period
Epoch
Major Events
Start (mya)*
Miocene
23.0
Paleogene
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
Mesozoic
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Paleozoic
Permian
Appearance
of
remaining modern
mammal families;
diversication
of
horses
and
mastodons; rst
apes
Rapid
evolution
and
diversication of placental
mammals
Appearance
of
several
modern
mammal families;
diversication of
primitive whales
Appearance of the
rst large mammals
Emergence
of
monotreme,
marsupial,
and
placental
mammals;
possible
rst appearance
of four clades
(superorders)
of
placental
mammals
(Afrotheria,
Xenarthra,
Laurasiatheria,
Supraprimates)
Spread of mammals, which remain small in size
Evolution of cynodonts to become
smaller and more
mammal-like; appearance of the
rst mammals
Evolution
and
spread of synapsids (pelycosaurs
and therapsids)
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33.9
55.8
65.5
145.5
199.6
251.0
299.0

Era
Period
Epoch
Major Events
Start (mya)*
Carboniferous
Appearance
of
amniotes, the rst
fully
terrestrial
vertebrates
359.0
Mammalian Ancestors
Ancestors of mammals evolved close to 300 million years ago. They were amniotes called synapsids.
Figure 7.16 shows how modern mammals evolved from synapsids. The stages of evolution from synapsids
to mammals are described below.
Figure 7.16: Phylogeny of Mammalian Evolution. This diagram represents the evolution of mammals.
Pelycosaurs
Synapsids called pelycosaurs became the most common land vertebrates during the rst half of the Permian
Period. A pelycosaur genus called Dimetrodon is shown in Figure 7.17. Dimetrodon had sprawling legs
and walked like a lizard. It also had a fairly small brain. However, it had started to develop some of the
traits of mammals. For example, it had teeth of dierent types.
Therapsids
Some pelycosaurs gave rise to a group of animals called therapsids. The earliest therapsids lived about 260
million years ago. At rst, the therapsids looked a lot like Dimetrodon. But after a while, they could easily
be mistaken for mammals. They evolved a number of mammalian traits, such as legs positioned under the
body instead of along the sides. Therapsids became the most common and diverse land vertebrates during
the second half of the Permian Period.
The Permian Period ended about 250 million years ago with a mass extinction. Most therapsids went
extinct. Their niches were taken over by sauropsids. These were the amniotes that evolved into dinosaurs,
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Figure 7.17: Pelycosaur Synapsid: Dimetrodon. Dimetrodon was a pelycosaur. It lived about 275 million
years ago.
reptiles, and birds. Not all therapsids went extinct, however. The few that remained no longer had to
compete with many other therapsids. Some of them eventually evolved into mammals.
Cynodonts
The surviving therapsids were small animals. Some of the most successful were the cynodonts (see Figure
7.18). They ourished worldwide during the rst half of the Triassic Period. Some of them ate insects and
were nocturnal, or active at night. Being nocturnal may have helped save them from extinction. Why? A
nocturnal niche was one of the few niches that dinosaurs did not take over in the Triassic Period.
Cynodonts became more mammal-like as they continued to evolve. Some of their mammalian traits may
have been adaptations to their nocturnal niche. For example:
The ability to regulate body temperature might have been selected for because it would allow nocturnal animals to remain active in the cool of the night.
A good sense of hearing might have been selected for because it would be more useful than good
vision when hunting in the dark.
By the end of the Triassic Period, cynodonts had become even smaller in size. They also had evolved many
mammalian traits. For example, they had
Four dierent types of teeth.

A relatively large brain.
Three tiny bones in the middle ear.
A diaphragm for breathing.
Endothermy.
Lactation.
Hair.
Cynodonts probably gave rise to mammals about 200 million years ago. However, they are not considered
to be mammals themselves. In fact, competition with early mammals may have led to their extinction.
They went extinct sometime during the Jurassic or Cretaceous Period.
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Figure 7.18: Probable Mammalian Ancestor: Cynodont. Cynodonts were mammal-like therapsids. They
may have been ancestral to mammals. They were about the size of a rat.
Evolution of Early Mammals

The earliest mammals evolved from cynodonts. But the evolution of mammals didnt end there. Mammals
continued to evolve. Monotreme mammals probably split o from other mammals rst. They were followed
by marsupials. Placental mammals probably evolved last.
Evolution of Monotremes
The rst monotremes may have evolved about 150 million years ago. Early monotreme fossils have been
found in Australia. An example is a genus called Steropodon, shown in Figure 7.19. It may have been the
ancestor of the platypus. Early monotremes retained some of the traits of their therapsid ancestors. For
example, they laid eggs and had a cloaca. These traits are still found in modern monotremes.
Figure 7.19: Probable Monotreme Ancestor: Steropodon. Like the platypus, Steropodon probably had a
bill.
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Evolution of Marsupials
The rst marsupials may have evolved about 130 million years ago. One of the earliest was the extinct
genus Sinodelphys. A fossil of this mammal is shown in Figure 7.20. It is a remarkable fossil nd. It
represents a nearly complete animal. Even tufts of hair and imprints of soft tissues were preserved.
Figure 7.20: Early Marsupial: Sinodelphys. The dark shapes on these two rock slabs are two halves of the
fossil named Sinodelphys. The head is at the top of the image. The legs point toward the center.
Sinodelphys was about 15 centimeters (6 inches) long. Its limb structure suggests that it was a climbing
animal. It could escape from predators by climbing into trees. It probably lived on a diet of insects and
worms.
Evolution of Placental Mammals

The earliest placental mammals may have evolved about 110 million years ago. The ancestor of placental
mammals may be the extinct genus Eomaia. Fossils of Eomaia have been found in what is now China. It
was only about 10 centimeters (4 inches) long. It was a tree climber and probably ate insects and worms.
Eomaia had several traits of placental mammals. Figure 7.21 shows how Eomaia may have looked.
Figure 7.21: Probable Ancestor of Placental Mammals: Eomaia. Eomaia lived a little over 100 million
years ago.
The placental mammal descendants of Eomaia were generally more successful than marsupials and monotremes.
On most continents, placental mammals became the dominant mammals, while marsupials and monotremes
died out. Marsupials remained the most common and diverse mammals in Australia. The reason for their
success there is not yet resolved.
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Evolution of Modern Mammals

The Cretaceous Period ended with another mass extinction. This occurred about 65 million years ago. All
of the dinosaurs went extinct at that time. Did the extinction of the dinosaurs allow mammals to take
over?
Traditional View
Scientists have long assumed that the extinction of the dinosaurs opened up many niches for mammals
to exploit. Presumably, this led to an explosion of new species of mammals early in Cenozoic Era. Few
mammalian fossils from the early Cenozoic have been found to support this theory. Even so, it was still
widely accepted until recently.
View from the Mammalian Supertree

In 2007, an international team of scientists compared the DNA of almost all known species of living
mammals. They used the data to create a supertree of mammalian evolution. The supertree shows that
placental mammals started to diversify as early as 95 million years ago.
What explains the diversication of mammals long before the dinosaurs went extinct? What else was happening at that time? One change was a drop in Earths temperature. This may have favored endothermic
mammals over ectothermic dinosaurs. Flowering plants were also spreading at that time. They may have
provided new and plentiful foods for small mammals or their insect prey.
The supertree also shows that another major diversication of mammals occurred about 50 million years
ago. Again, worldwide climate change may have been one reason. This time Earths temperature rose. The
warmer temperature led to a greater diversity of plants. This would have meant more food for mammals
or their prey.
Classication of Placental Mammals

Traditional classications of mammals are based on similarities in structure and function. Increasingly,
mammals are being classied on the basis of molecular similarities.
Traditional Classication
The most widely accepted traditional classication of mammals divides living placental mammals into 17
orders. These orders are shown in Table 7.3. This classication of mammals was widely accepted for more
than 50 years. Placental mammals are still commonly placed in these orders. However, this classication
is not very useful for studies of mammalian evolution. Thats because it groups together some mammals
that do not seem to be closely related by descent from a recent common ancestor.
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Table 7.3: Orders of Placental Mammals (Traditional Classication)

Order
Example
Sample Trait
Insectivora
mole
small sharp teeth
Edentata
anteater
few or no teeth
Pholidota
pangolin
large plate-like scales
Chiroptera
bat
digits
wings
Carnivora
coyote
long pointed canine teeth
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support
membranous

Order
Example
Sample Trait
Rodentia
mouse
incisor teeth grow continuously
Lagomorpha
rabbit
chisel-like incisor teeth
Perissodactyla
horse
odd-toed hooves
Artiodactyla
deer
even-toed hooves
Cetacea
whale
paddlelike forelimbs
Primates
monkey
ve digits on hands and feet
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Order
Example
Sample Trait
Proboscidea
elephant
tusks
Hyracoidea
hyrax
rubbery pads on feet
Dermoptera
colugo
membrane of skin between legs

for gliding
Pinnipedia
seal
feet with ns
Sirenia
manatee
paddle-like tail
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Order
Example
Sample Trait
Tubulidentata
aardvark
teeth without enamel
Phylogenetic Classication
The mammalian supertree classies placental mammals phylogenetically. It groups together mammals
that are closely related because they share a recent common ancestor. These groups are not necessarily
the same as the traditional groups based on structure and function. The supertree classication places
placental mammals in four superorders. The four superorders and some of the mammals in them are:
Afrotheriaaardvarks, elephants, manatees.

Xenarthraanteaters, sloths, armadillos.
Laurasiatheriabats, whales, hoofed mammals, carnivores.
Supraprimatesprimates, rabbits, rodents.
All four superorders appear to have become distinct from one another between 85 and 105 million years
ago. The exact relationships among the superorders are still not clear. Revisions in this classication of
mammals may occur as new data become available.
Lesson Summary
Amniotes called synapsids were the ancestors of mammals. Synapsids named pelycosaurs had some of
the traits of mammals by 275 million years ago. Some of them evolved into therapsids, which became
widespread during the Permian Period. The few therapsids that survived the Triassic takeover were
small, arboreal insect eaters. They were also nocturnal. Being active at night may explain why they
survived and evolved still more mammalian traits.
Monotremes evolved about 150 million years ago. Like modern monotremes, they had a cloaca and
laid eggs. Marsupials evolved about 130 million years ago. They were very small and ate insects and
worms. Placental mammals evolved about 110 million years ago. They were also small and climbed
trees. Placental mammals became the dominant land mammals. Most marsupials and monotremes
died out except in Australia.
Mammals used to be classied on the basis of similarities in structure and function into 17 dierent
orders. Recently, DNA analyses have shown that the traditional orders include mammals that are
not closely related. Phylogenetic classication, based on DNA data, groups placental mammals in
four superorders. The superorders appear to have become distinct from each other 85105 million
years ago.
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Recall
1. What were the synapsids? When were they most widespread?
2. Identify the therapsids. How were they related to mammals?
3. Describe cynodonts. What is their place in the evolution of mammals?
4. Outline the evolution of monotreme, marsupial, and placental mammals.
5. What is the mammalian supertree?
Apply Concepts
6. Assume that a new species of placental mammal has been discovered. Scientists have examined it closely
and studied its DNA. It has wings similar to a bat that it uses for gliding. Its DNA is most similar to the
DNA of rodents such as mice. How would you classify the new mammal? Explain your answer.
Think Critically
7. Explain why the extinction of most therapsids at the end of the Permian Period may have allowed
mammals to evolve.
8. Relate the extinction of dinosaurs to the diversication of modern mammals.
9. Compare and contrast traditional and phylogenetic classications of placental mammals. Explain which
type of classication is more useful for understanding how mammals evolved.
Points to Consider
Some mammalian traits, such as dierent types of teeth, evolved in ancestors of mammals. Other traits,
such as placental reproduction, evolved after the rst mammals appeared. Mammals also evolved many
behavioral traits.
How do mammals behave? What behaviors do you think characterize mammals?
How do you think these behaviors evolved?
7.4
Overview of Animal Behavior
Lesson Objectives
Describe how and why ethologists study animal behavior.

Explain how animal behaviors evolve.
Dene innate behavior.
State ways that animals learn.
Identify types of animal behavior.
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Vocabulary
aggression
animal behavior
circadian rhythm
cooperation
ethology
innate behavior
instinct
learning
nature-nurture debate
reex
social animal
society
stimulus
Introduction
Did you ever see a dog sit on command? Have you ever watched a cat trying to catch a mouse? These
are just two examples of the many behaviors of animals. Animal behavior includes all the ways that
animals interact with each other and the environment. Examples of common animal behaviors are pictured
in Figure 7.22.
Figure 7.22: Examples of Animal Behavior. Can you think of other examples of animal behavior besides
the three shown here?
Studying Animal Behavior

The branch of biology that studies animal behavior is called ethology. Ethologists usually study how
animals behave in their natural environment, rather than in a lab. They generally try to answer four basic
questions about the behaviors they observe:
1. What causes the behavior? What is the stimulus, or trigger, for the behavior? What structures
and functions of the animal are involved in the behavior?
2. How does the behavior develop? Is it present early in life? Or does it appear only as the animal
matures? Are certain experiences needed for the behavior to develop?
3. Why did the behavior evolve? How does the behavior aect the tness of the animal performing it?
How does it aect the survival of the species?
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4. How did the behavior evolve? How does it compare with similar behaviors in related species? In
what ancestor did the behavior rst appear?
As you read about animal behavior in the rest of this lesson, think about these four questions. Try to
answer the questions for dierent types of animal behavior.
Evolution of Animal Behavior

To the extent that behaviors are controlled by genes, they may evolve through natural selection. If behaviors
increase tness, they are likely to become more common over time. If they decrease tness, they are likely
to become less common.
Nature vs. Nurture

Some behaviors seem to be controlled solely by genes. Others appear to be due to experiences in a given
environment. Whether behaviors are controlled mainly by genes or by the environment is often a matter of
debate. This is called the nature-nurture debate. Nature refers to the genes an animal inherits. Nurture
refers to the environment that the animal experiences. In reality, most animal behaviors are not controlled
by nature or nurture. Instead, they are inuenced by both nature and nurture. In dogs, for example,
the tendency to behave toward other dogs in a certain way is probably controlled by genes. However, the
normal behaviors cant develop in an environment that lacks other dogs. A puppy raised in isolation from
other dogs may never develop the normal behaviors. It may always fear other dogs or act aggressively
toward them.
How Behaviors Evolve

Its easy to see how many common types of behavior evolve. Thats because they obviously increase the
tness of the animal performing them. For example, when wolves hunt together in a pack, they are more
likely to catch prey (see Figure 7.23). Therefore, hunting with others increases a wolfs tness. The wolf
is more likely to survive and pass its genes to the next generation by behaving this way.
The evolution of certain other types of behavior is not as easy to explain. An example is a squirrel
chattering loudly to warn other squirrels that a predator is near. This is likely to help the other squirrels
avoid the predator. Therefore, it could increase their tness. But what about the squirrel raises the alarm?
This squirrel is more likely to be noticed by the predator. Therefore, the behavior may actually lower this
squirrels tness. How could such a behavior evolve through natural selection?
One possible answer is that helping others often means helping close relatives. Close relatives share many
of the same genes that they inherited from their common ancestor. As a result, helping a close relative
may actually increase the chances that copies of ones own genes will be passed to the next generation. In
this way, a behavior that puts oneself at risk could actually increase through natural selection. This form
of natural selection is called kin selection.
Innate Behavior
Behaviors that are closely controlled by genes with little or no environmental inuence are called innate
behaviors. These are behaviors that occur naturally in all members of a species whenever they are
exposed to a certain stimulus. Innate behaviors do not have to be learned or practiced. They are also
called instinctive behaviors. An instinct is the ability of an animal to perform a behavior the rst time
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Figure 7.23: Wolves Hunting Cooperatively. Wolves hunt together in packs. This is adaptive because it
increases their chances of killing prey and obtaining food.
it is exposed to the proper stimulus. For example, a dog will drool the rst timeand every timeit is
exposed to food.
Signicance of Innate Behavior

Innate behaviors are rigid and predictable. All members of the species perform the behaviors in the same
way. Innate behaviors usually involve basic life functions, such as nding food or caring for ospring.
Several examples are shown in Figure 7.24. If an animal were to perform such important behaviors
incorrectly, it would be less likely to survive or reproduce.
Intelligence and Innate Behavior

Innate behaviors occur in all animals. However, they are less common in species with higher levels of
intelligence. Humans are the most intelligent species, and they have very few innate behaviors. The only
innate behaviors in humans are reexes. A reex is a response that always occurs when a certain stimulus
is present. For example, a human infant will grasp an object, such as a nger, that is placed in its palm.
The infant has no control over this reaction because it is innate. Other than reexes such as this, human
behaviors are learnedor at least inuenced by experiencerather than being innate.
Learned Behavior
Learning is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Compared with innate behaviors,
learned behaviors are more exible. They can be modied to suit changing conditions. This may make
them more adaptive than innate behaviors. For example, drivers may have to modify how they drive (a
learned behavior) when roads are wet or icy. Otherwise, they may lose control of their vehicle.
Animals may learn behaviors in a variety of ways. Some ways are quite simple. Others are more complex.
Several types of learning are described in Figure 7.25.
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Figure 7.24: Examples of Innate Behavior. These innate behaviors are necessary for survival or reproduction. Can you explain why each behavior is important?
Insight learning, which is based on past experience and reasoning, is a hallmark of the human animal.
Humans have used insight learning to solve problems ranging from starting a re to traveling to the moon.
Types of Animal Behavior

Dierent types of behavior evolved in animals because the behaviors helped them survive or reproduce.
Several dierent types of animal behavior are described below.
Social Behavior and Cooperation

In many species, animals live together in a close-knit group with other members of their species. Such
a group is referred to as a society. Animals that live in a society are known as social animals. They
live and work together for the good of the group. This called cooperation. Generally, each member of the
group has a specic role that it plays in the society. Cooperation allows the group to do many things
that a lone animal could never do. Look at the ants in Figure 7.26. By working together, they are able
to carry a large insect back to the nest to feed other members of their society.
Communication
For individuals to cooperate, they need to communicate. Animals can communicate with sounds, chemicals,
or visual cues. For example, to communicate with sounds, birds sing and frogs croak. Both may be
communicating that they are good mates. Ants communicate with chemicals called pheromones. For
example, they use the chemicals to mark trails to food sources so other ants can nd them. Male dogs use
pheromones in urine to mark their territory. They are telling other dogs to stay out of their yard. You
can see several examples of visual communication in Figure 7.27.
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Figure 7.25: Types of Learning. Five dierent ways that animals may learn behaviors are shown here.
What have you learned in each of these ways?
Figure 7.26: Cooperation in a Social Insect. These ants are cooperating in a task that a single ant would
be too small to do alone.
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Figure 7.27: Visual Communication in Animals. Many animals use visual cues to communicate.
Cyclic Behaviors
Many animal behaviors occur in a regular cycle. Two types of cyclic behaviors are circadian rhythms and
migration.
Circadian rhythms are regular changes in biology or behavior that occur in a 24-hour cycle. In
humans, for example, blood pressure and body temperature change in a regular way throughout each
24-hour day.
Migration refers to seasonal movements of animals from one area to another. Migrants typically
travel long distances. Usually, the migrants move to another area in order to nd food or mates.
Many birds, sh, and insects migrate. Mammals such as whales and caribou migrate as well. Figure
7.28 shows the migration route of a bird called a godwit.
KQED: Flyways: The Migratory Routes of Birds

For thousands of years and countless generations, migratory birds have own the same long-distance paths
between their breeding and feeding grounds. Understanding the routes these birds take, called yways,
helps conservation eorts and gives scientists better knowledge of global changes, both natural and manmade. See http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/the-great-migration for additional information.
Aggression
Aggression is behavior that is intended to cause harm or pain. It may involve physical violence against
other individuals. For example, two male gorillas may ght and use their canine teeth to inict deep
wounds. Expressing aggression this way may lead to serious injury and even death. In many species,
display behaviorsrather than actual physical attacksare used to show aggression. This helps prevent
injury and death. Male gorillas, for example, are more likely to put on a display of aggression than to attack
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Figure 7.28: Godwit Migration Route. Godwits make this incredibly long journey twice a year. In the fall,
they migrate from the Arctic to Antarctica. They make the return ight in the spring.
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another male. In fact, gorillas have a whole series of display behaviors that they use to show aggression.
They beat on their chest, dash back and forth, and pound the ground with their hands.
Competition
Aggressive behavior often occurs when individuals compete for the same resources. Animals may compete
for territory, water, food, or mates. There are two basic types of competition: intraspecic and interspecic.
Intraspecic competition occurs between members of the same species. For example, two male deer
may compete for mates by clashing their antlers together.
Interspecic competition occurs between members of dierent species. For example, one species of
ant may attack and take over the colony of another ant species.
Mating and Courtship

Mating refers to the union of a male and female of the same species for reproduction. The relationship
between mates varies by species. Adults may have many mates, or they may mate with just one individual.
Mates may stay together only while mating. Or they may stay together for an entire breeding season or
even for life. Females are likely to be more selective than males in choosing mates. In many species, males
put on courtship displays to encourage females to choose them as mates. For example, to attract a mate, a
male bowerbird builds an elaborate nest decorated with hundreds of small blue objects (see Figure 7.30).
Other examples were described above and in previous lessons.
Figure 7.30: Bowerbird Decorating His Nest. A male bowerbird spends many hours collecting bits of blue
glass and other small blue objects to decorate his nest. A female bowerbird inspects the nests of many
males before choosing as a mate the male with the best nest.
Parental Care
In most species of sh, amphibians, and reptiles, parents provide no care to their ospring. In birds and
mammals, on the other hand, parental care is common. Most often, the mother provides the care. However,
in some species, both parents or just the father may be involved.
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Parental care is generally longest and most involved in mammals. Besides feeding and protecting their
ospring, parents may teach their ospring skills they will need to survive on their own. For example,
meerkat adults teach their pups how to eat scorpions. They show the pups how to safely handle the
poisonous insects and how to remove the stingers.
Lesson Summary
The branch of biology that studies animal behavior is called ethology. Ethologists usually study how
animals behave in their natural environment. They try to determine the cause of behaviors, how
behaviors develop, and how and why behaviors evolve.
Most animal behaviors are controlled by both genes and experiences in a given environment. To
the extent that behaviors are controlled by genes, they may evolve. Behaviors that improve tness
increase through natural selection.
Innate behaviors are instinctive. They are controlled by genes and always occur in the same way.
They do not have to be learned or practiced. Innate behaviors generally involve basic life functions,
so its important that they be performed correctly.
Learning is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Learned behaviors are adaptive
because they are exible. They can change if the environment changes. Behaviors can be learned in
several dierent ways, including through play.
Types of animal behavior include social behaviors such as cooperation, communication such as facial
expressions, and cyclic behaviors such as migration. Competition may lead to aggressive behaviors or
displays of aggression. Behaviors relating to reproduction include mating, courtship, and parenting
behaviors.

Recall
1. Dene animal behavior.
2. What is the nature-nurture debate?
3. What are innate behaviors? Give an example.
4. What is the relationship between intelligence and learning?
5. Name three types of learning in animals.
6. Describe an example of courtship behavior in animals.
Apply Concepts
7. Assume you are an ethologist. Apply lesson concepts to develop a hypothesis about a particular animal
behavior. As an ethologist, how would you study the behavior in order to test your hypothesis?
8. Create a bulletin board or brief video to demonstrate the role of facial expressions in human communication.
Think Critically
9. Infer how and why cooperative hunting in female lions evolved.
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10. Compare and contrast instinct and learning.

11. Explain why communication is needed for social living.
Points to Consider
In this lesson, you learned some of the ways that humans dier from other mammals. For example, humans
have a larger and more complex brain than other mammals. Thats why they are also the most intelligent
mammals. The next chapter introduces the biology of the human animal.
Besides their big brain and intelligence, how else might humans dier from other mammals?
What organs and organ systems do you think make up the human body?
Image Sources
(1) (Running deer) Scott Bauer/Agricultural Research Society; (Kangaroo) PanBK; (Spider monkey)
Gustav Mtzel; (Gibbon) Troy B Thompson; (Tarsier) LDC, Inc. Foundation; (Bat) F Chanut;
(Dolphin) US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. [(Running deer)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Deer_running.jpg; (Kangaroo)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kangaroo-in-flight.jpg; (Spider monkey)
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//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brachiating_Gibbon_%28Some_rights_reserved%29.jpg;
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(5) (Bald man facial expressions) All images copyright Gorich, 2010; (Chimp) Frans de Waal/Emory
University; (Blue-footed booby) Image copyright XuRa, 2010; (Frigate bird) Image copyright Mariko
Yuki, 2010. [(Chimp) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Young_male_chimp.png; (All
other images) http://www.shutterstock.com ]. (Chimp) CC-BY 2.5; all other images used under
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GNU-FDL 1.2.
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(8) (Spider) Duk; (Bird) Miguel Andrade; (Caterpillar) Fir0002/Flagstaotos; (Dolphin) Image
copyright Four Oaks, 2010. [(Spider)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Araneus_diadematus_underside_1.jpg; (Bird)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nest_bird.jpg; (Caterpillar)
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http://www.shutterstock.com ]. (Spider) GNU-FDL 1.2; (Bird) Public Domain; (Caterpillar)
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http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brains-fr.svg. Public Domain.
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(25) (Kangaroo) Fir0002/Flagstaotos; (Koala) David Ili; (Opossum) Drcyrus. [(Kangaroo)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kangaroo_and_joey03.jpg; (Koala)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Koala_climbing_tree.jpg; (Opossum)
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]. (Kangaroo) GNU-FDL 1.2; (Koala) CC-BY-SA 3.0; (Opossum) CC-BY-SA 2.1 Australia.
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Domain.
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(27) (3D rendered mouth) Image copyright Zoltan Pataki, 2010; Composite created by CK-12
Foundation. http://www.shutterstock.com. (3D rendered mouth) Used under license of
Shutterstock.com.
(28) (Scarecrow/crows) JoJan; (Rat) Image copyright Cathy Keifer, 2011; (Monkey) Yosemite; (Kitten)
Broc; (Chimp) Image copyright Norma Cornes, 2010. [(Scarecrow/crows)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Scarecrow1.jpg; (Rat)
http://www.shutterstock.com; (Monkey)
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Chapter 8
Introduction to the Human
Body: Bones, Muscles, and Skin
This image was made by an electron microscope. What do you think it shows? To give you an idea of the
scale of the image, the cylindrical yellow objects are bacterial cells. Heres another hint: the image shows
a tiny part of the largest organ of the human body. Now can you guess what it is? Is it the stomach? The
heart? The answer may surprise you. Its the human skin.
The word organ may bring to mind internal organs such as the stomach or heart, but the skin is an organ
too. The skin is thin, averaging only 2 mm in thickness, but it covers a large areaabout 2 m2 in adults,
making it the largest organ of the human body. You will learn more about the skin and how these organs
come together to form the human body when you read this chapter.
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8.1
Organization of the Human Body
Lesson Objectives
Outline the levels of organization of the human body.
Explain how organ systems maintain homeostasis of the body.
Vocabulary
connective tissue
epithelial tissue
muscle tissue
nervous tissue
Introduction
Many people have compared the human body to a machine. Think about some common machines, such
as drills and washing machines. Each machine consists of many parts, and each part does a specic job,
yet all the parts work together to perform an overall function. The human body is like a machine in all
these ways. In fact, it may be the most fantastic machine on Earth, as you will discover when you learn
more about it in this and the remaining chapters of this FlexBook.
As a preview of the human machine, the Emmy award-winning video at this link is highly recommended:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=chqwSh4ii84&feature=related.

Levels of Organization
The human machine is organized at dierent levels, starting with the cell and ending with the entire
organism (see Figure 8.2). At each higher level of organization, there is a greater degree of complexity.
Cells
The most basic parts of the human machine are cellsan amazing 100 trillion of them by the time the
average person reaches adulthood! Cells are the basic units of structure and function in the human body,
as they are in all living things. Each cell carries out basic life processes that allow the body to survive.
Many human cells are specialized in form and function, as shown in Figure 8.3. Each type of cell in the
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Figure 8.2: The human organism has several levels of organization.

gure plays a specic role. For example, nerve cells have long projections that help them carry electrical
messages to other cells. Muscle cells have many mitochondria that provide the energy they need to move
the body.
You can watch a video about some of the specialized cells of the human body and how they function at
this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I8uXewS9dJU&feature=related.
Figure 8.3: Dierent types of cells in the human body are specialized for specic jobs. Do you know the
functions of any of the cell types shown here?
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Tissues
After the cell, the tissue is the next level of organization in the human body. A tissue is a group of connected
cells that have a similar function. There are four basic types of human tissues: epithelial, muscle, nervous,
and connective tissues. These four tissue types, which are shown in Figure 8.4, make up all the organs of
the human body.
Figure 8.4: The human body consists of these four tissue types.
Connective tissue is made up of cells that form the bodys structure. Examples include bone and
cartilage.
Epithelial tissue is made up of cells that line inner and outer body surfaces, such as the skin and
the lining of the digestive tract. Epithelial tissue protects the body and its internal organs, secretes
substances such as hormones, and absorbs substances such as nutrients.
Muscle tissue is made up of cells that have the unique ability to contract, or become shorter.
Muscles attached to bones enable the body to move.
Nervous tissue is made up of neurons, or nerve cells, that carry electrical messages. Nervous tissue
makes up the brain and the nerves that connect the brain to all parts of the body.
Organs and Organ Systems

After tissues, organs are the next level of organization of the human body. An organ is a structure that
consists of two or more types of tissues that work together to do the same job. Examples of human organs
include the brain, heart, lungs, skin, and kidneys. Human organs are organized into organ systems, many
of which are shown in Figure 8.5. An organ system is a group of organs that work together to carry out
a complex overall function. Each organ of the system does part of the larger job.
You can watch overviews of the human organ systems and their functions at the links below.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=po8D290YF9o&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SSqwRkDLyH4&feature=related
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KidJ-2H0nyY&feature=player_embedded#!
Figure 8.5: Many of the organ systems that make up the human body are represented here. What is the
overall function of each organ system?
A Well-Oiled Machine
All of the organs and organ systems of the human body work together like a well-oiled machine. This is
because they are closely regulated by the nervous and endocrine systems. The nervous system controls
virtually all body activities, and the endocrine system secretes hormones that regulate these activities.
Functioning together, the organ systems supply body cells with all the substances they need and eliminate
their wastes. They also keep temperature, pH, and other conditions at just the right levels to support life
processes.
Maintaining Homeostasis
The process in which organ systems work to maintain a stable internal environment is called homeostasis.
Keeping a stable internal environment requires constant adjustments. Here are just three of the many
ways that human organ systems help the body maintain homeostasis:
Respiratory system: A high concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood triggers faster breathing.
The lungs exhale more frequently, which removes carbon dioxide from the body more quickly.
Excretory system: A low level of water in the blood triggers retention of water by the kidneys. The
kidneys produce more concentrated urine, so less water is lost from the body.
Endocrine system: A high concentration of sugar in the blood triggers secretion of insulin by an
endocrine gland called the pancreas. Insulin is a hormone that helps cells absorb sugar from the
blood.
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Failure of Homeostasis
Many homeostatic mechanisms such as these work continuously to maintain stable conditions in the human
body. Sometimes, however, the mechanisms fail. When they do, cells may not get everything they need,
or toxic wastes may accumulate in the body. If homeostasis is not restored, the imbalance may lead to
disease or even death.
Lesson Summary
The human body is organized at dierent levels, starting with the cell. Cells are organized into
tissues, and tissues form organs. Organs are organized into organ systems such as the skeletal and
muscular systems.
All of the organ systems of the body work together to maintain homeostasis of the organism. If
homeostasis fails, death or disease may result.

Recall
1. What are the levels of organization of the human body?
2. Which type of tissue covers the surface of the body?
3. What are the functions of the skeletal system?
4. Which organ system supports the body and allows it to move?
5. What is homeostasis?
6. Describe how one of the human organ systems helps maintain homeostasis.
Apply Concepts
7. A house has several systems, such as the electrical system, plumbing system, and heating and cooling
system. In what ways are the systems of a house similar to human body systems?
Think Critically
8. Explain how form and function are related in human cells. Include examples.
9. Compare and contrast epithelial and muscle tissues.
Points to Consider
In this lesson, you learned that an organ system is a group of organs that work together to do a common
job. You also learned that organ systems help maintain homeostasis of the body.
The skeletal system is one of the human organ systems. Can you name the organs of the skeletal
system?
How do you think the skeletal system helps the body maintain homeostasis?
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8.2
The Skeletal System
Lesson Objectives
Give an overview of the human skeleton and its functions.

Describe the cells and tissues that make up bones.
Explain how bones grow and develop.
Distinguish dierent types of joints and how they move.
List common problems that may aect bones and joints.
Vocabulary
bone marrow
bone matrix
compact bone
joint
ligament
ossication
osteoblast
osteoclast
osteocyte
periosteum
skeletal system
spongy bone
Introduction
The skeletal system consists of all the bones of the body. How important are your bones? Try to
imagine what you would look like without them. You would be a soft, wobbly pile of skin, muscles, and
internal organs, so you might look something like a very large slug. Not that you would be able to see
yourselffolds of skin would droop down over your eyes and block your vision because of your lack of skull
bones. You could push the skin out of the way, if you could only move your arms, but you need bones for
that as well!
The Skeleton
The human skeleton is an internal framework that, in adults, consists of 206 bones, most of which are
shown in Figure 8.6. Bones are described in detail in the following sections of this lesson, as well as in the
animation Bones Narrated at the link below. In addition to bones, the skeleton also consists of cartilage
and ligaments. http://www.medtropolis.com/vbody.asp
Cartilage is a type of dense connective tissue, made of tough protein bers, that provides a smooth
surface for the movement of bones at joints.
A ligament is a band of brous connective tissue that holds bones together and keeps them in place.
The skeleton supports the body and gives it shape. It has several other functions as well, including:
1. protecting internal organs
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Figure 8.6: The human skeleton consists of bones, cartilage, and ligaments.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
providing attachment surfaces for muscles

producing blood cells
storing minerals
maintaining mineral homeostasis.
Maintaining mineral homeostasis is a very important function of the skeleton, because just the right levels
of calcium and other minerals are needed in the blood for normal functioning of the body. When mineral
levels in the blood are too high, bones absorb some of the minerals and store them as mineral salts, which
is why bones are so hard. When blood levels of minerals are too low, bones release some of the minerals
back into the blood, thus restoring homeostasis.
Structure of Bones
Many people think of bones as being dead, dry, and brittle. These adjectives correctly describe the bones of
a preserved skeleton, but the bones in a living human being are very much alive. As shown in Figure 8.7,
the basic structure of bones is bone matrix, which forms the underlying rigid framework of bones, formed
of both compact and spongy bone. The bone matrix consists of tough protein bersmainly collagenthat
become hard and rigid due to mineralization with calcium crystals. Bone matrix is crisscrossed by blood
vessels and nerves and also contains specialized bone cells that are actively involved in metabolic processes.
You can watch an animated video of bone matrix and other structures of bone at this link: http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=4qTiw8lyYbs.
Figure 8.7: Bone matrix provides bones with their basic structure. Notice the spongy bone in the middle,
and the compact bone towards the outer region. The osteon is the functional unit of compact bone.
Bone Cells
There are three types of specialized cells in human bones: osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. These
cells are responsible for bone growth and mineral homeostasis.
Osteoblasts make new bone cells and secrete collagen that mineralizes to become bone matrix.
They are responsible for bone growth and the uptake of minerals from the blood.
Osteocytes regulate mineral homeostasis. They direct the uptake of minerals from the blood and
the release of minerals back into the blood as needed.
Osteoclasts dissolve minerals in bone matrix and release them back into the blood.
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Bones are far from static, or unchanging. Instead, they are dynamic, living tissues that are constantly
being reshaped. Under the direction of osteocytes, osteoblasts continuously build up bone, while osteoclasts
continuously break it down. You can watch an animated video of these processes in bone at http:
//www.youtube.com/watch?v=yENNqRJ2mu0&feature=related.
Bone Tissues
Bones consist of dierent types of tissue, including compact bone, spongy bone, bone marrow, and periosteum. All of these tissue types are shown in Figure 8.8.
Compact bone makes up the dense outer layer of bone. It is very hard and strong.
Spongy bone is found inside bones and is lighter and less dense than compact bone. This is because
spongy bone is porous.
Bone marrow is a soft connective tissue that produces blood cells. It is found inside the pores of
spongy bone.
Periosteum is a tough, brous membrane that covers and protects the outer surfaces of bone.
Figure 8.8: This bone contains dierent types of bone tissue. How does each type of tissue contribute to
the functions of bone?
Growth and Development of Bones

Early in the development of a human fetus, the skeleton is made entirely of cartilage. The relatively soft
cartilage gradually turns into hard bone through ossication. This is a process in which mineral deposits
replace cartilage. As shown in Figure 8.9, ossication of long bones, which are found in the arms and
legs, begins at the center of the bones and continues toward the ends. By birth, several areas of cartilage
remain in the skeleton, including the ends of the long bones. This cartilage grows as the long bones grow,
so the bones can keep increasing in length during childhood.
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Figure 8.9: Long bones ossify and get longer as they grow and develop.
In the late teens or early twenties, a person reaches skeletal maturity. By then, all of the cartilage has
been replaced by bone, so no further growth in bone length is possible. However, bones can still increase
in thickness. This may occur in response to increased muscle activity, such as weight training.
Joints
A joint is a place where two or more bones of the skeleton meet. With the help of muscles, joints work like
mechanical levers, allowing the body to move with relatively little force. The surfaces of bones at joints are
covered with a smooth layer of cartilage that reduces friction at the points of contact between the bones.
Types of Joints
There are three main types of joints: immovable, partly movable, and movable. For a video about these
types of joints, go to the following link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOMFX_83sqk.
Immovable joints allow no movement because the bones at these joints are held securely together by
dense collagen. The bones of the skull are connected by immovable joints.
Partly movable joints allow only very limited movement. Bones at these joints are held in place by
cartilage. The ribs and sternum are connected by partly movable joints.
Movable joints allow the most movement. Bones at these joints are connected by ligaments. Movable
joints are the most common type of joints in the body, so they are described in more detail next.
Movable Joints
Movable joints are also known as synovial joints. This is because the space between the bones is lled with
a thick uid, called synovial uid, that cushions the joint (see Figure 8.10).
There are a variety of types of movable joints, which are illustrated in Figure 8.11. The joints are classied
by how they move. For example, a ball-and-socket joint, such as the shoulder, has the greatest range of
motion, allowing movement in several directions. Other movable joints, including hinge joints such as the
knee, allow less movement.
You can watch an animation of movable joints and how they function at this link: http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=zWo9-3GJpr8&feature=related.
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Figure 8.10: A movable, or synovial, joint is protected and cushioned by cartilage and synovial uid.
Figure 8.11: Types of Movable Joints in the Human Skeleton. Movable joints can move in a variety of
ways. Try moving each of the joints indicated in the diagram. Can you tell how their movements dier?
Other joints in the human skeleton that are not depicted here include saddle, elipsoid, and plane joints.
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Skeletal System Problems

Despite their hardness and strength, bones can suer from injury and disease. Bone problems include
fractures, osteoarthritis, and rickets.
Fractures are breaks in bone, usually caused by excessive stress on bone. Fractures heal when osteoclasts form new bone. The animation at this link shows how this happens: http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=qVougiCEgH8&feature=PlayList&p=33EEC8ACDC4F4B45&playnext_from=
PL&playnext=1&index=2.
Osteoarthritis is a condition in which cartilage breaks down in joints due to wear and tear, causing
joint stiness and pain. For a brief animation about osteoarthritis, go to this link: http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=0dUSmaev5b0.
Rickets is softening of the bones in children that occurs because bones do not have enough calcium.
Rickets can lead to fractures and bowing of the leg bones, which is shown in the X-ray in Figure
8.12.
Figure 8.12: The bones of a child with rickets are so soft that the weight of the body causes them to bend.
Lesson Summary
The adult human skeleton includes 206 bones and other tissues. It supports the body, protects
internal organs, produces blood cells, and maintains mineral homeostasis.
Under the direction of osteocytes, osteoblasts continuously build up bone, while osteoclasts continuously break down bone to maintain mineral homeostasis. Bone tissues include compact bone, spongy
bone, bone marrow, and periosteum.
Bones become increasingly ossied and grow larger during fetal development, childhood, and adolescence. When skeletal maturity is reached at about age 20, no additional growth in bone length can
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occur.
Joints are places where two or more bones of the skeleton meet. With the help of muscles, joints
allow the body to move with relatively little force. Some joints can move more than others.
Skeletal system problems include fractures, osteoarthritis, and rickets.

Recall
1. What is cartilage? What is its role in the skeletal system?
2. List three functions of the human skeleton.
3. Identify the three types of specialized bone cells and what they do.
4. Dene immovable joint, and give an example of bones that are connected by this type of joint.
5. Describe the movement of a pivot joint, such as the elbow.
Apply Concepts
6. A newborn baby has a soft spot on the top of its head. Over the next few months, the soft spot gradually
hardens. What explains this?
7. Jana is 17 years old and 172 cm tall. She plays basketball and hopes to grow at least 4 cm more before
she turns 18 and goes to college. Jana recently injured her leg, and her doctor took an X-ray of it. Based
on the X-ray, the doctor determined that Jana had reached skeletal maturity. How much taller is Jana
likely to grow? Explain your answer.
Think Critically
8. Explain how bones maintain mineral homeostasis in the body.
9. Compare and contrast the structure and function of compact bone and spongy bone.
10. Osteoporosis is a disease in which osteoclasts are more active than osteoblasts. How is this likely to
aect the bones? Why would a person with osteoporosis have a greater-than-normal risk of bone fractures?
Points to Consider
Human organ systems work together to carry out many of their functions. The skeletal and muscular
systems are no exception.
Do you know how the skeletal and muscular systems work together?
How do you think muscles are able to move bones?
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8.3
The Muscular System
Lesson Objectives
Identify and describe the three types of human muscle tissue.
Describe the structure of skeletal muscles, and explain how they move bones.
Explain how muscles contract according to the sliding lament theory.
Vocabulary
cardiac muscle
muscle ber
muscular system
skeletal muscle
sliding lament theory
smooth muscle
tendon
Introduction
The muscular system consists of all the muscles of the body. Does the word muscle make you think of
the bulging biceps of a weightlifter, like the man in Figure 8.13? Muscles such as biceps that move the
body are easy to feel and see, but they arent the only muscles in the human body. Many muscles are deep
within the body. They form the walls of internal organs such as the heart and stomach. You can ex your
biceps like a body builder but you cannot control the muscles inside you. Its a good thing that they work
on their own without any conscious eort your part, because movement of these muscles is essential for
survival.
Figure 8.13: This weightlifter works hard to build big muscles in his upper arms.
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What Are Muscles?

Muscles are organs composed mainly of muscle cells, which are also called muscle bers. Each muscle
ber is a very long, thin cell that can do something no other cell can do. It can contract, or shorten. Muscle
contractions are responsible for virtually all the movements of the body, both inside and out. There are
three types of muscle tissues in the human body: cardiac, smooth, and skeletal muscle tissues. They are
shown in Figure 8.14 and described below. You can also watch an overview of the three types at this link:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TermIXEkavY.
Figure 8.14: Types of Muscle Tissue. Both skeletal and cardiac muscles appear striated, or striped, because
their cells are arranged in bundles. Smooth muscles are not striated because their cells are arranged in
sheets instead of bundles.
Smooth Muscle
Muscle tissue in the walls of internal organs such as the stomach and intestines is smooth muscle. When
smooth muscle contracts, it helps the organs carry out their functions. For example, when smooth muscle
in the stomach contracts, it squeezes the food inside the stomach, which helps break the food into smaller
pieces. Contractions of smooth muscle are involuntary. This means they are not under conscious control.
Skeletal Muscle
Muscle tissue that is attached to bone is skeletal muscle. Whether you are blinking your eyes or running a
marathon, you are using skeletal muscle. Contractions of skeletal muscle are voluntary, or under conscious
control. Skeletal muscle is the most common type of muscle in the human body, so it is described in more
detail below.
Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle is found only in the walls of the heart. When cardiac muscle contracts, the heart beats
and pumps blood. Cardiac muscle contains a great many mitochondria, which produce ATP for energy.
This helps the heart resist fatigue. Contractions of cardiac muscle are involuntary like those of smooth
muscle.
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Skeletal Muscles
There are well over 600 skeletal muscles in the human body, some of which are identied in Figure 8.15.
Skeletal muscles vary considerably in size, from tiny muscles inside the middle ear to very large muscles in
the upper leg.
Figure 8.15: Skeletal Muscles. Skeletal muscles enable the body to move.
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Structure of Skeletal Muscles

Each skeletal muscle consists of hundreds or even thousands of skeletal muscle bers. The bers are
bundled together and wrapped in connective tissue as shown Figure 8.16. The connective tissue supports
and protects the delicate muscle cells and allows them to withstand the forces of contraction. It also
provides pathways for nerves and blood vessels to reach the muscles. Skeletal muscles work hard to move
body parts. They need a rich blood supply to provide them with nutrients and oxygen and to carry away
their wastes. You can watch a video about skeletal muscle structure and how skeletal muscles work at this
link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XoP1diaXVCI.
Figure 8.16: Skeletal Muscle Structure. A skeletal muscle contains bundles of muscle bers inside a coat
of connective tissue.
The Anatomy of a Muscle Cell is available at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/

48/uY2ZOsCnXIA (16:32).

Skeletal Muscles and Bones

Skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton by tough connective tissues called tendons (see Figure
8.16). Many skeletal muscles are attached to the ends of bones that meet at a joint. The muscles span
the joint and connect the bones. When the muscles contract, they pull on the bones, causing them
to move. You can watch a video showing how muscles and bones move together at this link: http:
//www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Rzi7zYlWno&feature=related. Muscles can only contract. They
cannot actively extend, or lengthen. Therefore, to move bones in opposite directions, pairs of muscles
must work in opposition. For example, the biceps and triceps muscles of the upper arm work in opposition
to bend and extend the arm at the elbow (see Figure 8.18). You can watch an animation of these two
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muscles working in opposition at the link below. What other body movements do you think require
opposing muscle pairs? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T-ozRNVhGVg&feature=related
Figure 8.18: Triceps and biceps muscles in the upper arm are opposing muscles.
Use It or Lose It
In exercises such as weight lifting, skeletal muscle contracts against a resisting force (see Figure 8.19).
Using skeletal muscle in this way increases its size and strength. In exercises such as running, the cardiac
muscle contracts faster and the heart pumps more blood. Using cardiac muscle in this way increases its
strength and eiciency. Continued exercise is necessary to maintain bigger, stronger muscles. If you dont
use a muscle, it will get smaller and weakerso use it or lose it.
Figure 8.19: This exercise pits human muscles against a force. What force is it?
Muscle Contraction
Muscle contraction occurs when muscle bers get shorter. Literally, the muscle bers get smaller in size.
To understand how this happens, you need to know more about the structure of muscle bers.
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Structure of Muscle Fibers

Each muscle ber contains hundreds of organelles called myobrils. Each myobril is made up of two
types of protein laments: actin laments, which are thinner, and myosin laments, which are thicker.
Actin laments are anchored to structures called Z lines (see Figure 8.20). The region between two Z
lines is called a sarcomere. Within a sarcomere, myosin laments overlap the actin laments. The myosin
laments have tiny structures called cross bridges that can attach to actin laments.
Figure 8.20: Sarcomere. A sarcomere contains actin and myosin laments between two Z lines.
Sliding Filament Theory

The most widely accepted theory explaining how muscle bers contract is called the sliding lament
theory. According to this theory, myosin laments use energy from ATP to walk along the actin
laments with their cross bridges. This pulls the actin laments closer together. The movement of the actin
laments also pulls the Z lines closer together, thus shortening the sarcomere. You can watch this occurring
in a video animation at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7V-zFVnFkWg&feature=related. When
all of the sarcomeres in a muscle ber shorten, the ber contracts. A muscle ber either contracts fully
or it doesnt contract at all. The number of bers that contract determines the strength of the muscular
force. When more bers contract at the same time, the force is greater.
Actin, myosin and muscle contraction are discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/
c/7A9646BC5110CF64/45/zopoN2i7ALQ (9:38).
Additional information about muscle contraction is available at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#
p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/46/LiOfeSsjrB8 (9:22) and http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/
c/7A9646BC5110CF64/47/SauhB2fYQkM (14:42).
Muscles and Nerves

Muscles cannot contract on their own. They need a stimulus from a nerve cell to tell them to contract.
Lets say you decide to raise your hand in class. Your brain sends electrical messages to nerve cells, called
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motor neurons, in your arm and shoulder. The motor neurons, in turn, stimulate muscle bers in your
arm and shoulder to contract, causing your arm to rise. Involuntary contractions of cardiac and smooth
muscles are also controlled by nerves.
Lesson Summary
There are three types of human muscle tissue: smooth muscle (in internal organs), skeletal muscle,
and cardiac muscle (only in the heart).
Skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton and cause bones to move when they contract.
According to the sliding lament theory, a muscle ber contracts when myosin laments pull actin
laments closer together and thus shorten sarcomeres within a ber. When all the sarcomeres in a
muscle ber shorten, the ber contracts.

Recall
1. What can muscle cells do that other cells cannot?
2. Why are skeletal and cardiac muscles striated?
3. Where is smooth muscle tissue found?
4. What is the function of skeletal muscle?
5. How are skeletal muscles attached to bones?
Apply Concepts
6. A serious neck injury may leave a person paralyzed from the neck down. Explain why.
Think Critically
7. Compare and contrast the three types of muscle tissue.
8. Explain why many skeletal muscles must work in opposing pairs.
9. Explain how muscles contract according to the sliding lament theory.
Points to Consider
Bones and muscles are organs. They are contained within the skin, which is also an organ.
Do you know which organ system the skin belongs to?
What other organs might belong to the same organ system as the skin?
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8.4
The Integumentary System
Lesson Objectives
Describe the skin and its functions, and identify common skin problems.
Outline the structure and functions of the hair and nails.
Vocabulary
dermis
epidermis
hair follicle
integumentary system
melanin
sebaceous gland
sweat gland
Introduction
The skin is the major organ of the integumentary system, which also includes the nails and hair.
Because these organs are external to the body, you may think of them as little more than accessories,
like clothing or jewelry, but the organs of the integumentary system serve important biological functions.
They provide a protective covering for the body and help the body maintain homeostasis. For an overview
of the integumentary system, you can watch the animation at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=IAAt_MfIJ-Y.
The Skin
The skin is the bodys largest organ and a remarkable one at that. Consider these skin facts. The average
square inch (6.5 cm2 ) of skin has 20 blood vessels, 650 sweat glands, and more than a thousand nerve
endings. It also has an incredible 60,000 pigment-producing cells. All of these structures are packed into
a stack of cells that is just 2 mm thick, or about as thick as the cover of a book.
You can watch an excellent video introduction to the skin and its marvels at the following link: http:
//www.youtube.com/watch?v=uH_uzjY2bEE&feature=fvw.
Although the skin is thin, it consists of two distinct layers, called the epidermis and the dermis. These layers
are shown in Figure 8.24. You can watch animations of the two layers of skin and how they function at
these links: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d-IJhAWrsm0&feature=related and http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=c_IGuPYLsFI&feature=related.
Epidermis
The epidermis is the outer layer of skin, consisting of epithelial cells and little else (see Figure 8.25).
For example, there are no nerve endings or blood vessels in the epidermis. The innermost cells of the
epidermis are continuously dividing through mitosis to form new cells. The newly formed cells move up
through the epidermis toward the skin surface, while producing a tough, brous protein called keratin. The
cells become lled with keratin and die by the time they reach the surface, where they form a protective,
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Figure 8.24: Layers of Human Skin. The outer layer of the skin is the epidermis, and the inner layer is the
dermis. Most skin structures originate in the dermis.
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waterproof layer called the stratum corneum. The dead cells are gradually shed from the surface of the
skin and replaced by other cells.
Figure 8.25: Cell Layers of the Epidermis. The epidermis consists mainly of epithelial cells.
The epidermis also contains melanocytes, which are cells that produce melanin. Melanin is the brownish
pigment that gives skin much of its color. Everyone has about the same number of melanocytes, but
the melanocytes of people with darker skin produce more melanin. The amount of melanin produced is
determined by heredity and exposure to UV light, which increases melanin output. Exposure to UV light
also stimulates the skin to produce vitamin D. Because melanin blocks UV light from penetrating the skin,
people with darker skin may be at greater risk of vitamin D deciency.
Dermis
The dermis is the lower layer of the skin, located directly beneath the epidermis (see Figure 8.26). It
is made of tough connective tissue and attached to the epidermis by collagen bers. The dermis contains
blood vessels and nerve endings. Because of the nerve endings, skin can feel touch, pressure, heat, cold,
and pain. The dermis also contains hair follicles and two types of glands.
Hair follicles are the structures where hairs originate. Hairs grow out of follicles, pass through the
epidermis, and exit at the surface of the skin.
Sebaceous glands produce an oily substance called sebum. Sebum is secreted into hair follicles
and makes its way to the skin surface. It waterproofs the hair and skin and helps prevent them from
drying out. Sebum also has antibacterial properties, so it inhibits the growth of microorganisms on
the skin.
Sweat glands produce the salty uid called sweat, which contains excess water, salts, and other
waste products. The glands have ducts that pass through the epidermis and open to the surface
through pores in the skin.
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Figure 8.26: Structures of the Dermis. The dermis contains most of the structures found in skin.
Functions of the Skin

The skin has multiple roles in the body. Many of these roles are related to homeostasis. The skins main
functions are preventing water loss from the body and serving as a barrier to the entry of microorganisms.
In addition, melanin in the skin blocks UV light and protects deeper layers from its damaging eects.
The skin also helps regulate body temperature. When the body is too warm, sweat is released by the
sweat glands and spreads over the skin surface. As the sweat evaporates, it cools the body. Blood vessels
in the skin also dilate, or widen, when the body is too warm. This allows more blood to ow through the
skin, bringing body heat to the surface, where it radiates into the environment. When the body is too
cool, sweat glands stop producing sweat, and blood vessels in the skin constrict, or narrow, thus conserving
body heat.
Skin Problems
In part because it is exposed to the environment, the skin is prone to injury and other problems. Two
common problems of the skin are acne and skin cancer (see Figure 8.27).
Acne is a condition in which red bumps called pimples form on the skin due to a bacterial infection.
It aects more than 85 percent of teens and may continue into adulthood. The underlying cause
of acne is excessive secretion of sebum, which plugs hair follicles and makes them good breeding
grounds for bacteria. At the following link, you can watch an animation showing how acne develops:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=11I7ONVqcc0.
Skin cancer is a disease in which skin cells grow out of control. It is caused mainly by excessive
exposure to UV light. People with lighter skin are at greater risk of developing skin cancer because
they have less melanin to block harmful UV radiation. The best way to prevent skin cancer is to
avoid UV exposure by using sunscreen and wearing protective clothing.
Nails and Hair

In addition to the skin, the integumentary system includes the nails and hair. Like the skin, these organs
help the body maintain homeostasis.
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Figure 8.27: ABCDs of Skin Cancer. A brown spot on the skin is likely to be a harmless mole, but it could
be a sign of skin cancer. Unlike moles, skin cancers are generally asymmetrical, have irregular borders,
may be very dark in color, and may have a relatively great diameter.
Nails
Fingernails and toenails consist of specialized epidermal cells that are lled with keratin. The keratin
makes them tough and hard, which is important for the functions they serve. Fingernails prevent injury
by forming protective plates over the ends of the ngers. They also enhance sensation by acting as a
counterforce to the sensitive ngertips when objects are handled.
Hair
Hair is a ber that is found only in mammals. Its main component is keratin. A hair shaft consists of
dead, keratin-lled cells that overlap each other like the shingles on a roof (see Figure 8.28). Like roof
shingles, the overlapping cells help shed water from the hair.
Figure 8.28: Shaft of Human Hair. This shaft of hair is magnied to show its overlapping cells.
Hair helps to insulate and protect the body. Head hair is especially important in preventing heat loss from
the body. Eyelashes and eyebrows protect the eyes from water, dirt, and other irritants. Hairs in the nose
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trap dust particles and microorganisms in the air and prevent them from reaching the lungs. Hair also
provides sensory input when objects brush against it or it sways in moving air.
Lesson Summary
The skin consists of two layers: the epidermis, which contains mainly epithelial cells, and the dermis,
which contains most of skins other structures, including blood vessels, nerve endings, hair follicles,
and glands.
Skin protects the body from injury, water loss, and microorganisms. It also plays a major role in
maintaining a stable body temperature. Common skin problems include acne and skin cancer.
Nails and hair contain mostly keratin. They protect the body and enhance the sense of touch.

Recall
1. What organs make up the integumentary system?
2. Describe how new epidermal cells form, develop, and are shed from the body.
3. What is keratin? What role does it play in the organs of the integumentary system?
4. What is the function of the stratum corneum?
5. What causes acne?
Apply Concepts
6. Assume that you get a paper cut, but it doesnt bleed. How deep is the cut? How do you know?
7. Skin cancer has been increasing over recent decades. What could explain this? (Hint: What is the main
cause of skin cancer?)
8. A certain disease causes the loss of all body hair. How might homeostasis of the body be disturbed by
the absence of hair? (Hint: What are the functions of hair?)
Think Critically
9. Explain how melanin is related to skin color, vitamin D production, and skin cancer.
10. Explain how the skin helps the body maintain a stable temperature.
Points to Consider
In this lesson, you learned that the skin is the major organ that regulates body temperature. You also
learned that acne is a common problem of the skin, especially in teens.
What do you think causes sweat production and dilation of blood vessels when the body becomes
too warm? Do you know which organ system signals these changes to occur?
Why do you think acne occurs most often in teens? Which organ system might stimulate excessive
sebum production in this age group?
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Image Sources
(1) Helix84 and Tsaitgaist. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hair_follicle-en.svg.
Public Domain.
(2) http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/8682.jpg.
(5) Courtesy of U.S. National Cancer Institutes Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER)
Program. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_compact_spongy_bone.jpg. Public
Domain.
(6) Skeleton image copyright 3drenderings, 2010. Joints image courtesy of Produnis. Modied by CK-12
Foundation. [(Skeleton) http://www.shutterstock.com/pic.mhtml?id=35668138; (Joints)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gelenke_Zeichnung01.jpg ]. Skeleton image used
under license from Shutterstock.com. Joints image under GNU-FDL 1.2.
(8) Madhero88. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joint.png. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(9) Image copyright hkannn, 2010; modied by CK-12 Foundation. http://www.shutterstock.com.
Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
(10) Image copyright Alila Sao Mai, 2011. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(11) Mikael Hggstrm. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Epidermal_layers.png. CC-BY-SA
3.0.
(12) Mrich. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:XrayRicketsLegssmall.jpg. CC-BY-SA 1.0.
(13) Image copyright Blamb, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(14) Image copyright Istvan Csak, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(15) Images copyright alxhar, 2011. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under licenses from
Shutterstock.com.
(16) Guillaume Paumier. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human_hair_SEM.svg.
CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(18) GeorgeStepanek. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PreacherBenchBicepsCurl.JPG.
CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(19) Courtesy of National Cancer Institute/SEER Training Modules. . Public Domain.
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(20) (Skeletal) Department of Histology, Jagiellonian University Medical College; (Smooth) Polarlys;
(Cardiac) Nathanael Reveal (Nathanael);. [(Skeletal)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Skeletal_muscle_-_longitudinal_section.jpg;
(Smooth) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glatte_Muskelzellen.jpg;
(Cardiac)http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Purkinje_fibers.jpg; ]. All images under
GNU-FDL 1.2.
(21) Mariana Ruiz Villarreal.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human_skeleton_front_en.svg. Public Domain.
(22) Courtesy of Skin Cancer Foundation/National Cancer Institute. [(Left to right)
http://visualsonline.cancer.gov/details.cfm?imageid=2362;
http://visualsonline.cancer.gov/details.cfm?imageid=2184 ]. All images are in the public
domain.
(23) Courtesy of National Cancer Institute/SEER Training Modules.
http://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/muscular/structure.html. Public Domain.
Opening image copyright by Sebastian Kaulitzki, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
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Chapter 9
The Nervous and Endocrine
Systems
A spider web? Some sort of exotic bacteria? Maybe an illustration of a new species of jellysh. This
is actually a nerve cell, the cell of the nervous system. This cell sends electrical sparks that transmit
signals throughout your body. In this chapter, you will learn more about nerve cells such as this one and
their impressive abilities.
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9.1
The Nervous System
Lesson Objectives
Describe the structure of a neuron, and identify types of neurons.

Explain how nerve impulses are transmitted.
Identify parts of the central nervous system and their functions.
Outline the divisions and subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system.
Explain how sensory stimuli are perceived and interpreted.
State how drugs aect the nervous system.
Identify several nervous system disorders.
Vocabulary
action potential
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
axon
brain
brain stem
cell body
central nervous system (CNS)
cerebellum
dendrite
drug abuse
drug addiction
interneuron
motor neuron
myelin sheath
nerve
nerve impulse
nervous system
neuron
neurotransmitter
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
psychoactive drug
resting potential
sensory neuron
sensory receptor
somatic nervous system (SNS)
spinal cord
synapse
Introduction
A small child darts in front of your bike as you race down the street. You see the child and immediately
react. You put on the brakes, steer away from the child, and yell out a warningall in just a split second.
How do you respond so quickly? Such rapid responses are controlled by your nervous system. The nervous
system is a complex network of nervous tissue that carries electrical messages throughout the body (see
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Figure 9.1). To understand how nervous messages can travel so quickly, you need to know more about
nerve cells.
Figure 9.1: The human nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system) and
nerves that run throughout the body (peripheral nervous system).
Nerve Cells
Although the nervous system is very complex, nervous tissue consists of just two basic types of nerve cells:
neurons and glial cells. Neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous system. They
transmit electrical signals, called nerve impulses. Glial cells provide support for neurons. For example,
they provide neurons with nutrients and other materials.
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Neuron Structure
As shown in Figure 9.2, a neuron consists of three basic parts: the cell body, dendrites, and axon. You can
watch an animation of the parts of a neuron at this link: http://www.garyfisk.com/anim/neuronparts.
swf.
The cell body contains the nucleus and other cell organelles.
Dendrites extend from the cell body and receive nerve impulses from other neurons.
The axon is a long extension of the cell body that transmits nerve impulses to other cells. The axon
branches at the end, forming axon terminals. These are the points where the neuron communicates
with other cells.
Figure 9.2: The structure of a neuron allows it to rapidly transmit nerve impulses to other cells.
The neuron is discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/39/
ob5U8zPbAX4 (6:13).

Myelin Sheath
The axon of many neurons has an outer layer called a myelin sheath (see Figure 9.2). Myelin is a lipid
produced by a type of a glial cell known as a Schwann cell. The myelin sheath acts like a layer of insulation,
similar to the plastic that encases an electrical cord. Regularly spaced nodes, or gaps, in the myelin sheath
allow nerve impulses to skip along the axon very rapidly.
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Types of Neurons
Neurons are classied based on the direction in which they carry nerve impulses.
Sensory neurons carry nerve impulses from tissues and organs to the spinal cord and brain.
Motor neurons carry nerve impulses from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands (see
Figure 9.4).
Interneurons carry nerve impulses back and forth between sensory and motor neurons.
Figure 9.4: This axon is part of a motor neuron. It transmits nerve impulses to a skeletal muscle, causing
the muscle to contract.
Nerve Impulses
Nerve impulses are electrical in nature. They result from a dierence in electrical charge across the plasma
membrane of a neuron. How does this dierence in electrical charge come about? The answer involves
ions, which are electrically charged atoms or molecules.
Resting Potential
When a neuron is not actively transmitting a nerve impulse, it is in a resting state, ready to transmit
a nerve impulse. During the resting state, the sodium-potassium pump maintains a dierence in charge
across the cell membrane (see Figure 9.5). It uses energy in ATP to pump positive sodium ions (Na+ )
out of the cell and potassium ions (K+ ) into the cell. As a result, the inside of the neuron is negatively
charged, compared to the extracellular uid surrounding the neuron. This is due to many more positivly
charged ions outside the cell compared to inside the cell This dierence in electrical charge is called the
resting potential.
Action Potential
A nerve impulse is a sudden reversal of the electrical charge across the membrane of a resting neuron.
The reversal of charge is called an action potential. It begins when the neuron receives a chemical
signal from another cell. The signal causes gates in sodium ion channels to open, allowing positive sodium
ions to ow back into the cell. As a result, the inside of the cell becomes positively charged compared
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Figure 9.5: The sodium-potassium pump maintains the resting potential of a neuron.
to the outside of the cell. This reversal of charge ripples down the axon very rapidly as an electric
current (see Figure 9.6). You can watch a detailed animation of an action potential at this link: http:
//outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/actionpotential.swf.
Figure 9.6: An action potential speeds along an axon in milliseconds.

In neurons with myelin sheaths, ions ow across the membrane only at the nodes between sections of
myelin. As a result, the action potential jumps along the axon membrane from node to node, rather than
spreading smoothly along the entire membrane. This increases the speed at which it travels.
The action potential is discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
42/gkQtRec2464 (18:53) and http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/43/
7wgb7ggzFNs (12:04).
You may choose to review the sodium-potassium pump (http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#
p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/40/C_H-ONQFjpQ) prior to watching the action potential videos.
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The Synapse
The place where an axon terminal meets another cell is called a synapse. The axon terminal and other
cell are separated by a narrow space known as a synaptic cleft (see Figure 9.10). When an action potential
reaches the axon terminal, the axon terminal releases molecules of a chemical called a neurotransmitter.
The neurotransmitter molecules travel across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the membrane of
the other cell. If the other cell is a neuron, this starts an action potential in the other cell. You can view
animations of neurotransmission at a synapse at the following links:
http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/synaptic.swf
http://www.garyfisk.com/anim/neurotransmission.swf.
Figure 9.10: At a synapse, neurotransmitters are released by the axon terminal. They bind with receptors
on the other cell.
The synapse is further discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
44/Tbq-KZaXiL4.
Central Nervous System

The nervous system has two main divisions: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
(see Figure 9.12). The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord (see Figure
9.13). You can see an overview of the central nervous system at this link: http://vimeo.com/2024719.
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Figure 9.12: The two main divisions of the human nervous system are the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system has additional divisions.
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Figure 9.13: This diagram shows the components of the central nervous system.
The Brain
The brain is the most complex organ of the human body and the control center of the nervous system.
It contains an astonishing 100 billion neurons! The brain controls such mental processes as reasoning,
imagination, memory, and language. It also interprets information from the senses. In addition, it controls
basic physical processes such as breathing and heartbeat. The brain has three major parts: the cerebrum,
cerebellum, and brain stem. These parts are shown in Figure 9.14 and described in this section. For a
video of the parts of the brain and their functions, go to this link: http://www.teachers.tv/video/13838.
You can also take interactive animated tours of the brain at these links:
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/3d/index.html
http://www.garyfisk.com/anim/neuroanatomy.swf.
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It controls conscious functions such as reasoning,
language, sight, touch, and hearing. It is divided into two hemispheres, or halves. The hemispheres
are very similar but not identical to one another. They are connected by a thick bundle of axons
deep within the brain. Each hemisphere is further divided into the four lobes shown in Figure 9.15.
The cerebellum is just below the cerebrum. It coordinates body movements. Many nerve pathways
link the cerebellum with motor neurons throughout the body.
The brain stem is the lowest part of the brain. It connects the rest of the brain with the spinal cord
and passes nerve impulses between the brain and spinal cord. It also controls unconscious functions
such as heart rate and breathing.
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Figure 9.14: In this drawing, assume you are looking at the left side of the head. This is how the brain
would appear if you could look underneath the skull.
Figure 9.15: Each hemisphere of the cerebrum consists of four parts, called lobes. Each lobe is associated
with particular brain functions. Just one function of each lobe is listed here.
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Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue that extends from the brainstem and continues
down the center of the back to the pelvis. It is protected by the vertebrae, which encase it. The spinal
cord serves as an information superhighway, passing messages from the body to the brain and from the
brain to the body.
Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the nervous tissue that lies outside the central
nervous system. It is shown in yellow in Figure 9.16. It is connected to the central nervous system by
nerves. A nerve is a cable-like bundle of axons. Some nerves are very long. The longest human nerve is
the sciatic nerve. It runs from the spinal cord in the lower back down the left leg all the way to the toes
of the left foot. Like the nervous system as a whole, the peripheral nervous system also has two divisions:
the sensory division and the motor division.
The sensory division of the PNS carries sensory information from the body to the central nervous
system. How sensations are detected and perceived is described in a later section of this lesson.
The motor division of the PNS carries nerve impulses from the central nervous system to muscles
and glands throughout the body. The nerve impulses stimulate muscles to contract and glands to
secrete hormones. The motor division of the peripheral nervous system is further divided into the
somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system (SNS) controls mainly voluntary activities that are under conscious
control. It is made up of nerves that are connected to skeletal muscles. Whenever you perform a conscious
movementfrom signing your name to riding your bikeyour somatic nervous system is responsible. The
somatic nervous system also controls some unconscious movements called reexes. A reex is a very rapid
motor response that is not directed by the brain. In a reex, nerve impulses travel to and from the spinal
cord in a reex arc, like the one in Figure 9.17. In this example, the person jerks his hand away from
the ame without any conscious thought. It happens unconsciously because the nerve impulses bypass the
brain.
Autonomic Nervous System

All other involuntary activities not under conscious control are the responsibility of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Nerves of the ANS are connected to glands and internal organs. They control
basic physical functions such as heart rate, breathing, digestion, and sweat production. The autonomic
nervous system also has two subdivisions: the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division. You
can watch an animation comparing these two subdivisions at this link: http://www.garyfisk.com/anim/
autonomicns.swf.
The sympathetic division deals with emergency situations. It prepares the body for ght or ight.
Do you get clammy palms or a racing heart when you have to play a solo or give a speech? Nerves
of the sympathetic division control these responses.
The parasympathetic division controls involuntary activities that are not emergencies. For example,
it controls the organs of your digestive system so they can break down the food you eat.
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Figure 9.16: The nerves of the peripheral nervous system are shown in yellow in this image. Can you
identify the sciatic nerve?
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Figure 9.17: A reex arc like this one enables involuntary actions. How might reex responses be benecial
to the organism?
The Senses
The sensory division of the PNS includes several sense organsthe eyes, ears, mouth, nose, and skin. Each
sense organ has special cells, called sensory receptors, that respond to a particular type of stimulus. For
example, the nose has sensory receptors that respond to chemicals, which we perceive as odors. Sensory
receptors send nerve impulses to sensory nerves, which carry the nerve impulses to the central nervous
system. The brain then interprets the nerve impulses to form a response.
Sight
Sight is the ability to sense light, and the eye is the organ that senses light. Light rst passes through the
cornea of the eye, which is a clear outer layer that protects the eye (see Figure 9.18). Light enters the
eye through an opening called the pupil. The light then passes through the lens, which focuses it on the
retina at the back of the eye. The retina contains light receptor cells, like those in the photograph on the
rst page of this chapter. These cells send nerve impulses to the optic nerve, which carries the impulses to
the brain. The brain interprets the impulses and tells us what we are seeing. To learn more about the
eye and the sense of sight, you can go to the link below. Be sure to take the quick quiz at the end of the
animation. http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=AP14304
Hearing
Hearing is the ability to sense sound waves, and the ear is the organ that senses sound. Sound waves enter
the auditory canal and travel to the eardrum (see Figure 9.19). They strike the eardrum and make it
vibrate. The vibrations then travel through several other structures inside the ear and reach the cochlea.
The cochlea is a coiled tube lled with liquid. The liquid moves in response to the vibrations, causing
tiny hair cells lining the cochlea to bend. In response, the hair cells send nerve impulses to the auditory
nerve, which carries the impulses to the brain. The brain interprets the impulses and tells us what we
are hearing.
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Figure 9.18: The eye is the organ that senses light and allows us to see.
Balance
The ears are also responsible for the sense of balance. Balance is the ability to sense and maintain body
position. The semicircular canals inside the ear (see Figure 9.19) contain uid that moves when the head
changes position. Tiny hairs lining the semicircular canals sense movement of the uid. In response, they
send nerve impulses to the vestibular nerve, which carries the impulses to the brain. The brain interprets
the impulses and sends messages to the peripheral nervous system. This system maintains the bodys
balance by triggering contractions of skeletal muscles as needed.
Taste and Smell

Taste and smell are both abilities to sense chemicals. Like other sense receptors, both taste and odor
receptors send nerve impulses to the brain, and the brain tells use what we are tasting or smelling. Taste
receptors are found in tiny bumps on the tongue called taste buds (see Figure 9.20). There are separate
taste receptors for sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and meaty tastes. The meaty taste is called umami. You can
learn more about taste receptors and the sense of taste by watching the animation at the following link:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/taste/taste_ani_f5.swf.
Odor receptors line the passages of the nose (see Figure 9.21). They sense chemicals in the air. In fact,
odor receptors can sense hundreds of dierent chemicals. Did you ever notice that food seems to have less
taste when you have a stuy nose? This occurs because the sense of smell contributes to the sense of taste,
and a stuy nose interferes with the ability to smell.
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Figure 9.19: The ear is the organ that senses sound waves and allows us to hear. It also senses body
position so we can keep our balance.
Figure 9.20: Taste buds on the tongue contain taste receptor cells.
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Figure 9.21: Odor receptors. Odor receptors and their associated nerves (in yellow) line the top of the
nasal passages.
Touch
Touch is the ability to sense of pressure. Pressure receptors are found mainly in the skin. They are especially
concentrated on the tongue, lips, face, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. Some touch receptors
sense dierences in temperature or pain. How do pain receptors help maintain homeostasis? (Hint: What
might happen if we couldnt feel pain?) See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xRkPNwqm0mM (0.51) for
a summary.
KQED: The Flavor of Food: Smell + Taste + Touch

Did you know that about 95 percent of what we think is taste is actually smell? Or that the way we perceive
avor comes from a complex relationship between our senses, emotions and memories? As scientists decode
how our taste and olfactory receptors work, top chefs are taking that knowledge and creating science in
the kitchen. See the Science of Taste at http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/science-of-taste
for more information.
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Drugs and the Nervous System

A drug is any chemical that aects the bodys structure or function. Many drugs, including both legal
and illegal drugs, are psychoactive drugs. This means that they aect the central nervous system,
generally by inuencing the transmission of nerve impulses. For example, some psychoactive drugs mimic
neurotransmitters. At the link below, you can watch an animation showing how psychoactive drugs aect
the brain. http://www.thirteen.org/closetohome/animation/neuron-main.html
Examples of Psychoactive Drugs

Caeine is an example of a psychoactive drug. It is found in coee and many other products (see Table
9.1). Caeine is a central nervous system stimulant. Like other stimulant drugs, it makes you feel more
awake and alert. Other psychoactive drugs include alcohol, nicotine, and marijuana. Each has a dierent
eect on the central nervous system. Alcohol, for example, is a depressant. It has the opposite eects of a
stimulant like caeine.
Table 9.1: Caeine Content of Popular Products
Product
Caeine Content (mg)
Coee (8 oz)
Tea (8 oz)
Cola (8 oz)
Coee ice cream (8 oz)
Hot cocoa (8 oz)
Dark chocolate candy (1.5 oz)
130
55
25
60
10
30
Drug Abuse and Addiction

Psychoactive drugs may bring about changes in mood that users nd desirable, so the drugs may be abused.
Drug abuse is use of a drug without the advice of a medical professional and for reasons not originally
intended. Continued use of a psychoactive drug may lead to drug addiction, in which the drug user is
unable to stop using the drug. Over time, a drug user may need more of the drug to get the desired eect.
This can lead to drug overdose and death.
Disorders of the Nervous System

There are several dierent types of problems that can aect the nervous system.
Vascular disorders involve problems with blood ow. For example, a stroke occurs when a blood clot
blocks blood ow to part of the brain. Brain cells die quickly if their oxygen supply is cut o. This
may cause paralysis and loss of other normal functions, depending on the part of the brain that is
damaged.
Nervous tissue may become infected by microorganisms. Meningitis, for example, is caused by a viral
or bacterial infection of the tissues covering the brain. This may cause the brain to swell and lead to
brain damage and death.
Brain or spinal cord injuries may cause paralysis and other disabilities. Injuries to peripheral nerves
can cause localized pain or numbness.
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Abnormal brain functions can occur for a variety of reasons. Examples include headaches, such as
migraine headaches, and epilepsy, in which seizures occur.
Nervous tissue may degenerate, or break down. Alzheimers disease is an example of this type of
disorder, as is Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or ALS. ALS is also known as Lou Gehrigs disease. It
leads to a gradual loss of higher brain functions. For a detailed video discussion of Alzheimers disease see the the visualMD.com at http://www.thevisualmd.com/health_centers/neurological_
health/what_is_alzheimer_s/what_is_alzheimer_s_disease_video.
KQED: Autism: Searching for Causes

Autism is a developmental disorder that appears in the rst three years of life, and aects the brains
normal development of social and communication skills. Autism is a broad term given to a spectrum of
disorders known as the autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). There are three types of ASDs: autistic disorder
(also called classic autism), Asperger syndrome, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise
specied (PDD-NOS; also called atypical autism).
Individuals with autistic disorder usually have signicant language delays, social and communication challenges, and unusual behaviors and interests. Many people with autistic disorder also have intellectual
disability. People with Asperger syndrome usually have some milder symptoms of autistic disorder. They
might have social challenges and unusual behaviors and interests. However, they typically do not have
problems with language or intellectual disability. People who meet some of the criteria for autistic disorder
or Asperger syndrome, but not all, may be diagnosed with PDD-NOS. People with PDD-NOS usually have
fewer and milder symptoms than those with autistic disorder. The symptoms might cause only social and
communication challenges.
Today, many tens of thousands of children receive treatment for the most severe form of autism. This
is a tremendous increase from 15 years ago, prompting oicials to call the situation a public health crisis. Autism researchers are analyzing everything from saliva samples to carpet dust in hopes of cracking
the autism mystery. See http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/autism-searching-for-causes for
additional information.
KQED: Alzheimers Disease: Is the Cure in the Genes?

By 2050, as the population ages, 15 million Americans will suer from Alzheimers disease triple todays
number. But genetic studies may provide information leading to a cure. See http://www.kqed.org/
quest/television/alzheimers-is-the-cure-in-the-genes for more information.
In April 2011, an international analysis of genes of more than 50,000 people led to the discovery of ve
new genes that make Alzheimers Disease more likely in the elderly and provide clues about what might
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start the Alzheimers disease process and fuel its progress in a persons brain. See http://www.nytimes.
com/2011/04/04/health/04alzheimer.html for additional information.
Lesson Summary
Neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous system. They consist of a cell body,
dendrites, and axon. Neurons transmit nerve impulses to other cells. Types of neurons include
sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.
A nerve impulse begins when a neuron receives a chemical stimulus. The impulse travels down the
axon membrane as an electrical action potential to the axon terminal. The axon terminal releases
neurotransmitters that carry the nerve impulse to the next cell.
The central nervous includes the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the control center of the nervous
system. It controls virtually all mental and physical processes. The spinal cord is a long, thin bundle
of nervous tissue that passes messages from the body to the brain and from the brain to the body.
The peripheral nervous system consists of all the nervous tissue that lies outside the central nervous system. It is connected to the central nervous system by nerves. It has several divisions and
subdivisions that transmit nerve impulses between the central nervous system and the rest of the
body.
Human senses include sight, hearing, balance, taste, smell, and touch. Sensory organs such as the
eyes contain cells called sensory receptors that respond to particular sensory stimuli. Sensory nerves
carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the central nervous system. The brain interprets the
nerve impulses to form a response.
Drugs are chemicals that aect the bodys structure or function. Psychoactive drugs, such as caeine
and alcohol, aect the central nervous system by inuencing the transmission of nerve impulses in
the brain. Psychoactive drugs may be abused and lead to drug addiction.
Disorders of the nervous system include blood ow problems such as stroke, infections such as meningitis, brain injuries, and degeneration of nervous tissue, as in Alzheimers disease.

Recall
1. List and describe the parts of a neuron.
2. What do motor neurons do?
3. Dene resting potential.
4. Name the organs of the central nervous system.
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5. Which part of the brain controls conscious functions such as reasoning?

6. What are the roles of the brain stem?
7. Identify the two major divisions of the peripheral nervous system.
8. List ve human senses.
9. What is a psychoactive drug? Give two examples.
10. Dene drug abuse. When does drug addiction occur?
11. Identify three nervous system disorders.
Apply Concepts
12. Tonys dad was in a car accident in which his neck was broken. He survived the injury but is now
paralyzed from the neck down. Explain why.
13. Multiple sclerosis is a disease in which the myelin sheaths of neurons in the central nervous system
break down. What symptoms might this cause? Why?
Think Critically
14. Explain how resting potential is maintained and how an action potential occurs.
15. Compare and contrast the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
Points to Consider
In this lesson, you learned that the nervous system enables electrical messages to be sent through the body
very rapidly.
Often, its not necessary for the body to respond so rapidly. Can you think of another way the
body could send messages that would travel more slowly? What about a way that makes use of the
network of blood vessels throughout the body?
Instead of electrical nerve impulses, what other way might messages be transmitted in the body? Do
you think chemical molecules could be used to carry messages? How might this work?
9.2
The Endocrine System
Lesson Objectives
List the glands of the endocrine system and their eects.

Explain how hormones work by binding to receptors of target cells.
Describe feedback mechanisms that regulate hormone secretion.
Identify three endocrine system disorders.
Vocabulary
adrenal glands
endocrine system
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gonads
hypothalamus
pancreas
parathyroid glands
pineal gland
pituitary gland
target cell
thyroid gland
Introduction
The nervous system isnt the only message-relaying system of the human body. The endocrine system also
carries messages. The endocrine system is a system of glands that release chemical messenger molecules
into the bloodstream. The messenger molecules are hormones. Hormones act slowly compared with the
rapid transmission of electrical messages by the nervous system. They must travel through the bloodstream
to the cells they aect, and this takes time. On the other hand, because endocrine hormones are released
into the bloodstream, they travel throughout the body. As a result, endocrine hormones can aect many
cells and have body-wide eects.
Glands of the Endocrine System

The major glands of the endocrine system are shown in Figure 9.25. You can access a similar, animated
endocrine system chart at the link below. http://www.abpischools.org.uk/page/modules/hormones/
horm2.cfm
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is actually part of the brain (see Figure 9.26), but it also secretes hormones. Some
of its hormones that tell the pituitary gland to either secrete or stop secreting its hormones. In this way,
the hypothalamus provides a link between the nervous and endocrine systems. The hypothalamus also
produces hormones that directly regulate body processes. These hormones travel to the pituitary gland,
which stores them until they are needed. The hormones include antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin.
Antidiuretic hormone stimulates the kidneys to conserve water by producing more concentrated urine.
Oxytocin stimulates the contractions of childbirth, among other functions.
Pituitary Gland
The pea-sized pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus by a thin stalk (see Figure 9.26). It
consists of two bulb-like lobes. The posterior (back) lobe stores hormones from the hypothalamus. The
anterior (front) lobe secretes pituitary hormones. Several pituitary hormones and their eects are listed
in Table 9.2. Most pituitary hormones control other endocrine glands. Thats why the pituitary is often
called the master gland of the endocrine system.
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Figure 9.25: The glands of the endocrine system are the same in males and females except for the testes,
which are found only in males, and ovaries, which are found only in females.
Figure 9.26: The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are located close together at the base of the brain.
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Table 9.2: Pituitary Hormones

Hormone
Adrenocorticotropic
(ACTH)
hormone
Target
Eect(s)
Adrenal glands
Stimulates the cortex of each

adrenal gland to secrete its hormones
Stimulates the thyroid gland to
secrete thyroid hormone
Stimulates body cells to synthesize proteins and grow
Stimulates the ovaries to develop mature eggs; stimulates the
testes to produce sperm
Stimulates the ovaries and testes
to secrete sex hormones; stimulates the ovaries to release eggs
Stimulates the mammary glands
to produce milk
Thyroid-stimulating
hormone
(TSH)
Growth hormone (GH)
Thyroid gland
Follicle-stimulating
(FSH)
Ovaries, testes
hormone
Body cells
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Ovaries, testes
Prolactin (PRL)
Mammary glands
Other Endocrine Glands

Other glands of the endocrine system are described below. You can refer to Figure 9.25 to see where they
are located.
The thyroid gland is a large gland in the neck. Thyroid hormones increase the rate of metabolism
in cells throughout the body. They control how quickly cells use energy and make proteins.
The two parathyroid glands are located behind the thyroid gland. Parathyroid hormone helps
keep the level of calcium in the blood within a narrow range. It stimulates bone cells to dissolve
calcium in bone matrix and release it into the blood.
The pineal gland is a tiny gland located at the base of the brain. It secretes the hormone melatonin.
This hormone controls sleep-wake cycles and several other processes.
The pancreas is located near the stomach. Its hormones include insulin and glucagon. These two
hormones work together to control the level of glucose in the blood. Insulin causes excess blood
glucose to be taken up by the liver, which stores the glucose as glycogen. Glucagon stimulates the
liver to break down glycogen into glucose and release it back into the blood. The pancreas also
secretes digestive enzymes into the digestive tract.
The two adrenal glands are located above the kidneys. Each gland has an inner and outer part.
The outer part, called the cortex, secretes hormones such as cortisol, which helps the body deal
with stress, and aldosterone, which helps regulate the balance of minerals in the body. The inner
part of each adrenal gland, called the medulla, secretes ght-or-ight hormones such as adrenaline,
which prepare the body to respond to emergencies. For example, adrenaline increases the amount of
oxygen and glucose going to the muscles. You can see an animation of this response at http://www.
abpischools.org.uk/page/modules/hormones/horm8.cfm?coSiteNavigation_allTopic=1.
The gonads secrete sex hormones. The male gonads are called testes. They secrete the male sex
hormone testosterone. The female gonads are called ovaries. They secrete the female sex hormone
estrogen. Sex hormones are involved in the changes of puberty. They also control the production of
gametes by the gonads.
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How Hormones Work

Endocrine hormones travel throughout the body in the blood. However, each hormone aects only certain
cells, called target cells. A target cell is the type of cell on which a hormone has an eect. A target cell
is aected by a particular hormone because it has receptor proteins that are specic to that hormone. A
hormone travels through the bloodstream until it nds a target cell with a matching receptor it can bind
to. When the hormone binds to a receptor, it causes a change within the cell. Exactly how this works
depends on whether the hormone is a steroid hormone or a non-steroid hormone. At the link below, you
can watch an animation that shows how both types of hormones work. http://www.wisc-online.com/
objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=AP13704
Hormones are discussed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HrMi4GikWwQ&feature=related (2:28).
Steroid Hormones
Steroid hormones are made of lipids, such as phospholipids and cholesterol. They are fat soluble, so they
can diuse across the plasma membrane of target cells and bind with receptors in the cytoplasm of the
cell (see Figure 9.27). The steroid hormone and receptor form a complex that moves into the nucleus and
inuences the expression of genes. Examples of steroid hormones include cortisol and sex hormones.
Figure 9.27: A steroid hormone crosses the plasma membrane of a target cell and binds with a receptor
inside the cell.
Non-Steroid Hormones
Non-steroid hormones are made of amino acids. They are not fat soluble, so they cannot diuse across the
plasma membrane of target cells. Instead, a non-steroid hormone binds to a receptor on the cell membrane
(see Figure 9.28). The binding of the hormone triggers an enzyme inside the cell membrane. The enzyme
activates another molecule, called the second messenger, which inuences processes inside the cell. Most
endocrine hormones are non-steroid hormones, including insulin and thyroid hormones.
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Figure 9.28: A non-steroid hormone binds with a receptor on the plasma membrane of a target cell. Then,
a secondary messenger aects cell processes.
Hormone Regulation: Feedback Mechanisms

Hormones control many cell activities, so they are very important for homeostasis. But what controls the
hormones themselves? Most hormones are regulated by feedback mechanisms. A feedback mechanism is
a loop in which a product feeds back to control its own production. Most hormone feedback mechanisms
involve negative feedback loops. Negative feedback keeps the concentration of a hormone within a narrow
range.
Negative Feedback
Negative feedback occurs when a product feeds back to decrease its own production. This type of feedback
brings things back to normal whenever they start to become too extreme. The thyroid gland is a good
example of this type of regulation. It is controlled by the negative feedback loop shown in Figure 9.29. You
can also watch an animation of this process at the link below. http://biologyinmotion.com/thyroid/
Heres how thyroid regulation works. The hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin-releasing hormone, or TRH.
TRH stimulates the pituitary gland to produce thyroid-stimulating hormone, or TSH. TSH, in turn, stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete its hormones. When the level of thyroid hormones is high enough,
the hormones feedback to stop the hypothalamus from secreting TRH and the pituitary from secreting
TSH. Without the stimulation of TSH, the thyroid gland stops secreting its hormones. Soon, the level of
thyroid hormone starts to fall too low. What do you think happens next? This process is discussed at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vae5CcaPN_8 (1:35).
Negative feedback also controls insulin secretion by the pancreas. You can interact with a feedback loop of
this process at the link below. http://www.abpischools.org.uk/page/modules/hormones/horm6.cfm?
coSiteNavigation_allTopic=1
Positive feedback
Positive feedback occurs when a product feeds back to increase its own production. This causes conditions
to become increasingly extreme. An example of positive feedback is milk production by a mother for her
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Figure 9.29: The thyroid gland is regulated by a negative feedback loop. The loop includes the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in addition to the thyroid.
baby. As the baby suckles, nerve messages from the nipple cause the pituitary gland to secrete prolactin.
Prolactin, in turn, stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk, so the baby suckles more. This causes
more prolactin to be secreted and more milk to be produced. This example is one of the few positive
feedback mechanisms in the human body. What do you think would happen if milk production by the
mammary glands was controlled by negative feedback instead?
Endocrine System Disorders

Diseases of the endocrine system are relatively common. An endocrine disease usually involves the secretion
of too much or not enough hormone. When too much hormone is secreted, it is called hypersecretion. When
not enough hormone is secreted, it is called hyposecretion.
Hypersecretion
Hypersecretion by an endocrine gland is often caused by a tumor. For example, a tumor of the pituitary
gland can cause hypersecretion of growth hormone. If this occurs in childhood, it results in very long arms
and legs and abnormally tall stature by adulthood. The condition is commonly known as gigantism (see
Figure 9.30).
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Figure 9.30: Hypersecretion of growth hormone leads to abnormal growth, often called gigantism.
Hyposecretion
Destruction of hormone-secreting cells of a gland may result in not enough of a hormone being secreted.
This occurs in Type 1 diabetes. In this case, the bodys own immune system attacks and destroys cells
of the pancreas that secrete insulin. A person with type 1 diabetes must frequently monitor the level of
glucose in the blood (see Figure 9.31). If the level of blood glucose is too high, insulin is injected to bring
it under control. If it is too low, a small amount of sugar is consumed.
Hormone Resistance
In some cases, an endocrine gland secretes a normal amount of hormone, but target cells do not respond
to the hormone. Often, this is because target cells have because resistant to the hormone. Type 2 diabetes
is an example of this type of endocrine disorder. In Type 2 diabetes, body cells do not respond to normal
amounts of insulin. As a result, cells do not take up glucose and the amount of glucose in the blood
becomes too high. This type of diabetes cannot be treated by insulin injections. Instead, it is usually
treated with medication and diet.
Lesson Summary
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. It is regulated
by a part of the brain called the hypothalamus, which also secretes hormones. The hypothalamus
controls the pituitary gland, which is called the master gland of the endocrine system because its
hormones regulate other endocrine glands. Other endocrine glands include the thyroid gland and
pancreas.
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Figure 9.31: To measure the level of glucose in the blood, a drop of blood is placed on a test strip, which
is read by a meter.
Hormones work by binding to protein receptors either inside target cells or on their plasma membranes. The binding of a steroid hormone forms a hormone-receptor complex that aects gene
expression in the nucleus of the target cell. The binding of a non-steroid hormone activates a second
messenger that aects processes within the target cell.
Most hormones are controlled by negative feedback in which the hormone feeds back to decrease
its own production. This type of feedback brings things back to normal whenever they start to
become too extreme. Positive feedback is much less common because it causes conditions to become
increasingly extreme.
Endocrine system disorders usually involve the secretion of too much or not enough hormone. For
example, a tumor of the adrenal gland may lead to excessive secretion of growth hormone, which
causes gigantism. In Type 1 diabetes, the pancreas does not secrete enough insulin, which causes
high levels of glucose in the blood.

Recall
1. Dene hormone.
2. List the major glands of the endocrine system.
3. Name three pituitary hormones, and state how they aect their targets.
4. Dene hypersecretion. Give an example of an endocrine disorder that involves hypersecretion.
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Apply Concepts
5. Tasha had a thyroid test. Her doctor gave her an injection of TSH and 15 minutes later measured
the level of thyroid hormone in her blood. What is TSH? Why do you think Tashas doctor gave her an
injection of TSH? How would this aect the level of thyroid hormone in her blood if her thyroid is normal?
6. After the thyroid test, Tashas doctor said she has an underactive thyroid. What symptoms would you
expect Tasha to have? Why?
Think Critically
7. Explain how the nervous system is linked with the endocrine system.
8. Compare and contrast how steroid and non-steroid hormones aect target cells.
9. Why are negative feedback mechanisms more common than positive feedback mechanisms in the human
body? What might happen if an endocrine hormone such as thyroid hormone was controlled by positive
instead of negative feedback?
10. Explain why a person with type 2 diabetes cannot be helped by insulin injections.
Points to Consider
In this lesson you learned that endocrine hormones can aect cells throughout the body because they travel
in the blood through the circulatory system.
Do you know what organs make up the circulatory system?
Can you explain what causes blood to move through the system?
Image Sources
(1) Dake. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Synapse_diag3.png. GNU-FDL 1.2 &
CC-BY-SA 2.5.
(2) Dhp1080. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Neuron.svg. GNU-FDL 1.2.
(3) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MartinVanBurenBates.jpeg. Public Domain.
(6) Jakov.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Schematic_diagram_of_the_human_eye_en.svg.
Public Domain.
(9) Image copyright Matthew Cole, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
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(10) Courtesy of Alzheimers Disease Education and Referral Center, a service of the National Institute
on Aging. http://www.nia.nih.gov/Alzheimers/ResearchInformation/Newsletter/V15N3.htm.
Public Domain.
(11) Dan Pickard. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HumanEar.jpg. Public Domain.
(13) Images generated by Life Science Databases(LSDB), modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hypothalamus_image.png. CC-BY-SA 2.1 Japan.
(16) Image copyright Aquatic Creature, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(17) Brain image copyright Filipp Obada, 2010, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit6_3_endo_glnds.html. Public
Domain.
(20) ArnoldReinhold. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tongue.agr.jpg. GNU-FDL 1.2.
(21) Grm wnr, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Central_nervous_system.svg#en. Public Domain.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Scheme_sodium-potassium_pump-en.svg. Public
Domain.
(23) Patrick J Lynch. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Head_olfactory_nerve.jpg.
CC-BY 2.5.
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Chapter 10
The Circulatory, Respiratory,
Digestive, and Excretory
Systems
This color-enhanced image was made with an electron microscope, so the objects it depicts are extremely
small. Do you know what they are? This incredible photo shows red blood cells leaking out of a ruptured
blood vessel.
Blood vessels are part of the circulatory system, the highway system of the human body that transports
materials to all of its cells. Red blood cells carry some of these materials, so they are a little like trucks on
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a highway. In this chapter, you will learn more about capillaries, red blood cells, and other structures of
the circulatory system.
10.1
The Circulatory System
Lesson Objectives
Explain how the heart pumps blood throughout the body.

Compare dierent types of blood vessels and their roles.
Outline pathways of the pulmonary and systemic circulations.
Dene cardiovascular disease, and list its risk factors.
Describe blood, blood components, and blood pressure.
Vocabulary
antigen
artery
atherosclerosis
blood
blood pressure
blood type
capillary
cardiovascular disease (CVD)
circulatory system
heart attack
hypertension
plasma
platelet
pulmonary circulation
red blood cell
systemic circulation
vein
white blood cell
Introduction
The circulatory system can be compared to a system of interconnected, one-way roads that range from
superhighways to back alleys. Like a network of roads, the job of the circulatory system is to allow the
transport of materials from one place to another. As described in Figure 10.1, the materials carried by the
circulatory system include hormones, oxygen, cellular wastes, and nutrients from digested food. Transport
of all these materials is necessary to maintain homeostasis of the body. The main components of the
circulatory system are the heart, blood vessels, and blood. Each of these components is described in detail
below.
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Figure 10.1: The function of the circulatory system is to move materials around the body.
The Heart
The heart is a muscular organ in the chest. It consists mainly of cardiac muscle tissue and pumps blood
through blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions. The heart has four chambers, as shown in
Figure 10.2: two upper atria (singular, atrium) and two lower ventricles. Valves between chambers keep
blood owing through the heart in just one direction. For an animation of the structures of the heart, go
to this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tEjH-xXCNe4.
Blood Flow Through the Heart

Blood ows through the heart in two separate loops, which are indicated by the arrows in Figure 10.2.
You can also watch an animation of the heart pumping blood at this link: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/
health/dci/Diseases/hhw/hhw_pumping.html.
1. Blood from the body enters the right atrium of the heart. The right atrium pumps the blood to the
right ventricle, which pumps it to the lungs. This loop is represented by the blue arrows in Figure
10.2.
2. Blood from the lungs enters the left atrium of the heart. The left atrium pumps the blood to the left
ventricle, which pumps it to the body. This loop is represented by the red arrows in Figure 10.2.
Heartbeat
Unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle contracts without stimulation by the nervous system. Instead,
specialized cardiac muscle cells send out electrical impulses that stimulate the contractions. As a result,
the atria and ventricles normally contract with just the right timing to keep blood pumping eiciently
through the heart. You can watch an animation to see how this happens at this link: http://www.nhlbi.
nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/hhw/hhw_electrical.html.
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Figure 10.2: The chambers of the heart and the valves between them are shown here.
Blood Vessels
Blood vessels form a network throughout the body to transport blood to all the body cells. There are
three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries. All three are shown in Figure 10.3 and
described below.
Arteries are muscular blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. They have thick walls that
can withstand the pressure of blood being pumped by the heart. Arteries generally carry oxygen-rich
blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which receives blood directly from the heart.
Veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. This blood is no longer under much pressure, so many veins have valves that prevent backow of blood. Veins generally carry deoxygenated
blood. The largest vein is the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the lower body to the
heart.
Capillaries are the smallest type of blood vessels. They connect very small arteries and veins. The
exchange of gases and other substances between cells and the blood takes place across the extremely
thin walls of capillaries.
Blood Vessels and Homeostasis

Blood vessels help regulate body processes by either constricting (becoming narrower) or dilating (becoming
wider). These actions occur in response to signals from the autonomic nervous system or the endocrine
system. Constriction occurs when the muscular walls of blood vessels contract. This reduces the amount
of blood that can ow through the vessels (see Figure 10.4). Dilation occurs when the walls relax. This
increases blood ows through the vessels.
Constriction and dilation allow the circulatory system to change the amount of blood owing to dierent
organs. For example, during a ght-or-ight response, dilation and constriction of blood vessels allow more
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Figure 10.3: Blood vessels include arteries, veins, and capillaries.
Figure 10.4: When a blood vessel constricts, less blood can ow through it.
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blood to ow to skeletal muscles and less to ow to digestive organs. Dilation of blood vessels in the skin
allows more blood to ow to the body surface so the body can lose heat. Constriction of these blood vessels
has the opposite eect and helps conserve body heat.
Blood Vessels and Blood Pressure

The force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels is called blood pressure. Blood
pressure is highest in arteries and lowest in veins. When you have your blood pressure checked, it is the
blood pressure in arteries that is measured. High blood pressure, or hypertension, is a serious health
risk but can often be controlled with lifestyle changes or medication. You can learn more about hypertension by watching the animation at this link: http://www.healthcentral.com/high-blood-pressure/
introduction-47-115.html.
Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations

The circulatory system actually consists of two separate systems: pulmonary circulation and systemic
circulation. You can watch animations of both systems at the following link. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/
redgold/journey/phase2_a1.html
Pulmonary Circulation
Pulmonary circulation is the part of the circulatory system that carries blood between the heart and
lungs (the term pulmonary means of the lungs). It is illustrated in Figure 10.5. Deoxygenated blood
leaves the right ventricle through pulmonary arteries, which transport it to the lungs. In the lungs, the
blood gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. The oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium
of the heart through pulmonary veins.
Figure 10.5: The pulmonary circulation carries blood between the heart and lungs.
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Systemic Circulation
Systemic circulation is the part of the circulatory system that carries blood between the heart and body.
It is illustrated in Figure 10.6. Oxygenated blood leaves the left ventricle through the aorta. The aorta
and other arteries transport the blood throughout the body, where it gives up oxygen and picks up carbon
dioxide. The deoxygenated blood then returns to the right atrium through veins.
Figure 10.6: The systemic circulation carries blood between the heart and body.
Cardiovascular Disease
Diseases of the heart and blood vessels, called cardiovascular diseases (CVD), are very common. The
leading cause of CVD is atherosclerosis.
Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is the buildup of plaque inside arteries (see Figure 10.7). Plaque consists of cell debris,
cholesterol, and other substances. Factors that contribute to plaque buildup include a high-fat diet and
smoking. As plaque builds up, it narrows the arteries and reduces blood ow. You can watch an animation
about atherosclerosis at these links: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fLonh7ZesKs and http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=qRK7-DCDKEA.
Coronary Heart Disease

Atherosclerosis of arteries that supply the heart muscle is called coronary heart disease. This disease may
or may not have symptoms such as chest pain. As the disease progresses, there is an increased risk of heart
attack. A heart attack occurs when the blood supply to part of the heart muscle is blocked and cardiac
muscle bers die. Coronary heart disease is the leading cause of death of adults in the U.S.
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Figure 10.7: The fatty material inside the artery on the right is plaque. Notice how much narrower the
artery has become. Less blood can ow through it than the normal artery.
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Preventing Cardiovascular Disease

Many factors may increase the risk of developing coronary heart disease and other CVDs. The risk of
CVDs increases with age and is greater in males than females at most ages. Having a close relative with
CVD also increases the risk. These factors cannot be controlled, but other risk factors can, including
smoking, lack of exercise, and high-fat diet. By making healthy lifestyle choices, you can reduce your risk
of developing CVD.
Blood
Blood is a uid connective tissue. It circulates throughout the body through blood vessels by the pumping
action of the heart. Blood in arteries carries oxygen and nutrients to all the bodys cells. Blood in veins
carries carbon dioxide and other wastes away from the cells to be excreted. Blood also defends the body
against infection, repairs body tissues, transports hormones, and controls the bodys pH.
Composition of Blood
The uid part of blood is called plasma. It is a watery golden-yellow liquid that contains many dissolved
substances and blood cells. Types of blood cells in plasma include red blood cells, white blood cells, and
platelets (see Figure 10.8). You can learn more about blood and its components by watching the animation What Is Blood? at this link: http://www.apan.net/meetings/busan03/materials/ws/education/
demo-los/blood-rlo/whatisblood.swf.
Figure 10.8: Cells in blood include red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
The trillions of red blood cells in blood plasma carry oxygen. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin,
a protein with iron that binds with oxygen.
White blood cells are generally larger than red blood cells but far fewer in number. They defend
the body in various ways. For example, white blood cells called phagocytes swallow and destroy
microorganisms and debris in the blood.
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Platelets are cell fragments involved in blood clotting. They stick to tears in blood vessels and
to each other, forming a plug at the site of injury. They also release chemicals that are needed for
clotting to occur.
An overview of red blood cells can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/
7A9646BC5110CF64/36/fLKOBQ6cZHA (16:30).

Hemoglobin is discussed in detail at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
38/LWtXthfG9_M (14:34).

Blood Type
Blood type is a genetic characteristic associated with the presence or absence of certain molecules, called
antigens, on the surface of red blood cells. The most commonly known blood types are the ABO and
Rhesus blood types.
ABO blood type is determined by two common antigens, often referred to simply as antigens A and
B. A person may have blood type A (only antigen A), B (only antigen B), AB (both antigens), or O
(no antigens).
Rhesus blood type is determined by one common antigen. A person may either have the antigen
(Rh+ ) or lack the antigen (Rh- ).
Blood type is important for medical reasons. A person who needs a blood transfusion must receive blood
that is the same type as his or her own. Otherwise, the transfused blood may cause a potentially lifethreatening reaction in the patients bloodstream.
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Lesson Summary
The heart contracts rhythmically to pump blood to the lungs and the rest of the body. Specialized
cardiac muscle cells trigger the contractions.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood toward the heart, and capillaries connect
arteries and veins.
The pulmonary circulation carries blood between the heart and lungs. The systemic circulation
carries blood between the heart and body.
A disease that aects the heart or blood vessels is called a cardiovascular disease (CVD). The leading
cause of CVD is atherosclerosis, or the buildup of plaque inside arteries. Healthy lifestyle choices can
reduce the risk of developing CVD.
Blood is a uid connective tissue that contains a liquid component called plasma. It also contains
dissolved substances and blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen, white blood cells defend the
body, and platelets help blood clot.
A summary of the circulatory system, blood cells and hemoglobin is available at http://www.youtube.
com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/37/QhiVnFvshZg (14:57).


Recall
1. Describe how blood ows through the heart.
2. What controls heartbeat?
3. How do arteries dier from veins?
4. What is blood pressure? What is hypertension?
5. List factors that increase the risk of cardiovascular disease.
6. Identify three types of blood cells and their functions.
Apply Concepts
7. To take your pulse, you press your ngers against an artery near the surface of the body. What are you
feeling and measuring when you take your pulse? Why cant you take your pulse by pressing your ngers
against a vein?
8. People with type O blood are called universal donors because they can donate blood to anyone else,
regardless of their ABO blood type. Explain why.
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Think Critically
9. Compare and contrast the pulmonary and systemic circulations.
10. Explain the role of blood vessels in homeostasis.
Points to Consider
An important function of the circulatory system is transporting oxygen to cells.
Do you know where blood gets the oxygen cells it needs?
How do you think blood is able to give up its oxygen to cells?
10.2
The Respiratory System
Lesson Objectives
Dene respiration, and explain how it diers from cellular respiration.

Identify the organs of the respiratory system.
Outline the processes of ventilation, gas exchange, and gas transport.
Describe the role of gas exchange in homeostasis.
Explain how the rate of breathing is regulated.
Identify diseases of the respiratory system.
Vocabulary
asthma
emphysema
larynx
lung
pharynx
pneumonia
respiration
respiratory system
trachea
ventilation
Introduction
Red blood cells are like trucks that transport cargo on a highway system. Their cargo is oxygen, and the
highways are blood vessels. Where do red blood cells pick up their cargo of oxygen? The answer is the
lungs. The lungs are organs of the respiratory system. The respiratory system is the body system that
brings air containing oxygen into the body and releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Respiration
The job of the respiratory system is the exchange of gases between the body and the outside air. This
process, called respiration, actually consists of two parts. In the rst part, oxygen in the air is drawn
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into the body and carbon dioxide is released from the body through the respiratory tract. In the second
part, the circulatory system delivers the oxygen to body cells and picks up carbon dioxide from the cells
in return. The use of the word respiration in relation to gas exchange is dierent from its use in the term
cellular respiration. Recall that cellular respiration is the metabolic process by which cells obtain energy
by burning glucose. Cellular respiration uses oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. Respiration by the
respiratory system supplies the oxygen and takes away the carbon dioxide.
An overview of breathing is shown at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
35/SPGRkexI_cs (20:33).

Organs of the Respiratory System

The organs of the respiratory system that bring air into the body are shown in Figure 10.13. Refer to
the gure as you read below about the passage of air through these organs. You can also watch a detailed
animation of the respiratory system at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HiT621PrrO0.
Figure 10.13: The organs of the respiratory system move air into and out of the body.
Journey of a Breath of Air

Take in a big breath of air through your nose. As you inhale, you may feel the air pass down your throat and
notice your chest expand. Now exhale and observe the opposite events occurring. Inhaling and exhaling
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may seem like simple actions, but they are just part of the complex process of respiration, which includes
these four steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Ventilation
Pulmonary gas exchange
Gas transport
Peripheral gas exchange
Ventilation
Respiration begins with ventilation. This is the process of moving air in and out of the lungs. The lungs
are the organs in which gas exchange takes place between blood and air.
Air enters the respiratory system through the nose. As the air passes through the nasal cavity, mucus
and hairs trap any particles in the air. The air is also warmed and moistened so it wont harm delicate
tissues of the lungs.
Next, the air passes through the pharynx, a long tube that is shared with the digestive system. A
ap of connective tissue called the epiglottis closes when food is swallowed to prevent choking.
From the pharynx, air next passes through the larynx, or voice box. The larynx contains vocal
cords, which allow us to produce vocal sounds
After the larynx, air moves into the trachea, or wind pipe. This is a long tube that leads down to
the chest.
In the chest, the trachea divides as it enters the lungs to form the right and left bronchi. The bronchi
contain cartilage, which prevents them from collapsing. Mucus in the bronchi traps any remaining
particles in air. Tiny hairs called cilia line the bronchi and sweep the particles and mucus toward the
throat so they can be expelled from the body.
Finally, air passes from the bronchi into smaller passages called bronchioles. The bronchioles end in
tiny air sacs called alveoli.
Pulmonary Gas Exchange

Pulmonary gas exchange is the exchange of gases between inhaled air and the blood. It occurs in the
alveoli of the lungs. Alveoli (singular, alveolus) are grape-like clusters surrounded by networks of thinwalled pulmonary capillaries. After you inhale, there is a greater concentration of oxygen in the alveoli
than in the blood of the pulmonary capillaries, so oxygen diuses from the alveoli into the blood across
the capillaries (see Figure 10.14). Carbon dioxide, in contrast, is more concentrated in the blood of the
pulmonary capillaries than in the alveoli, so it diuses in the opposite direction. This link has an animation
of pulmonary gas exchange: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z1h29R82mVc&NR=1.
Gas Transport
After the blood in the pulmonary capillaries becomes saturated with oxygen, it leaves the lungs and
travels to the heart. The heart pumps the oxygen-rich blood into arteries, which carry it throughout the
body. Eventually, the blood travels into capillaries that supply body tissues. These capillaries are called
peripheral capillaries.
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Figure 10.14: Alveoli are tiny sacs in the lungs where gas exchange takes place.
Peripheral Gas Exchange

The cells of the body have a much lower concentration of oxygen than does the oxygenated blood in the
peripheral capillaries. Therefore, oxygen diuses from the peripheral capillaries into body cells. Carbon
dioxide is produced by cells as a byproduct of cellular respiration, so it is more concentrated in the cells
than in the blood of the peripheral capillaries. As a result, carbon dioxide diuses in the opposite direction.
Back to the Lungs

The carbon dioxide from body cells travels in the blood from the peripheral capillaries to veins and then
to the heart. The heart pumps the blood to the lungs, where the carbon dioxide diuses into the alveoli.
Then, the carbon dioxide passes out of the body through the other structures of the respiratory system,
bringing the process of respiration full circle.
Gas Exchange and Homeostasis

Gas exchange is needed to provide cells with the oxygen they need for cellular respiration. Cells cannot
survive for long without oxygen. Gas exchange is also needed to carry away carbon dioxide waste. Some
of the carbon dioxide in the blood dissolves to form carbonic acid, which keeps blood pH within a normal
range.
Blood pH may become unbalanced if the rate of breathing is too fast or too slow. When breathing is too
fast, blood contains too little carbon dioxide and becomes too basic. When breathing is too slow, blood
contains too much carbon dioxide and becomes too acidic. Clearly, to maintain proper blood pH, the rate
of breathing must be regulated.
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Regulation of Breathing
To understand how breathing is regulated, you rst need to understand how breathing occurs.
How Breathing Occurs

Inhaling is an active movement that results from the contraction of a muscle called the diaphragm. The
diaphragm is large, sheet-like muscle below the lungs (see Figure 10.15). When the diaphragm contracts,
the ribcage expands and the contents of the abdomen move downward. This results in a larger chest
volume, which decreases air pressure inside the lungs. With lower air pressure inside than outside the
lungs, air rushes into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, the opposite events occur. The volume
of the chest cavity decreases, air pressure inside the lungs increases, and air ows out of the lungs, like
air rushing out of a balloon. You can watch an animation showing how breathing occurs at this link:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hp-gCvW8PRY&feature=related.
Figure 10.15: Breathing depends on contractions of the diaphragm.
Control of Breathing
The regular, rhythmic contractions of the diaphragm are controlled by the brain stem. It sends nerve
impulses to the diaphragm through the autonomic nervous system. The brain stem monitors the level of
carbon dioxide in the blood. If the level becomes too high, it tells the diaphragm to contract more often.
Breathing speeds up, and the excess carbon dioxide is released into the air. The opposite events occur
when the level of carbon dioxide in the blood becomes too low. In this way, breathing keeps blood pH
within a narrow range.
Diseases of the Respiratory System

When you have a cold, your nasal passages may become so congested that its hard to breathe through
your nose. Many other diseases also aect the respiratory system, most of them more serious than the
common cold. The following list includes just a sample of respiratory system diseases.
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Asthma is a disease in which the air passages of the lungs periodically become too narrow, often
with excessive mucus production. This causes diiculty breathing, coughing, and chest tightness. An
asthma attack may be triggered by allergens, strenuous exercise, stress, or other factors. You can
learn more about asthma by watching the animation at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=S04dci7NTPk&feature=reated.
Pneumonia is a disease in which some of the alveoli of the lungs ll with uid so gas exchange
cannot occur. Symptoms usually include coughing, chest pain, and diiculty breathing. Pneumonia
may be caused by an infection or injury of the lungs.
Emphysema is a lung disease in which walls of the alveoli break down so less gas can be exchanged
in the lungs (see Figure 10.16). This causes shortness of breath. The damage to the alveoli is usually
caused by smoking and is irreversible.
Figure 10.16: Pneumonia and emphysema are caused by damage to the alveoli of the lungs.
Cigarette Health Warnings

Beginning in September 2012, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration will require larger, more prominent
cigarette health warnings on all cigarette packaging and advertisements in the United States. These
warnings are a signicant advancement in communicating the dangers of smoking. These new cigarette
health warnings contains nine dierent warnings that will increase awareness of the specic health risks
associated with smoking, such as death, addiction, lung disease, cancer, stroke and heart disease. These
warnings include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
cigarettes are addictive

tobacco smoke can harm your children
cigarettes cause fatal lung disease
cigarettes cause cancer
cigarettes cause strokes and heart disease
smoking during pregnancy can harm your baby
smoking can kill you
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8. tobacco smoke causes fatal lung disease in nonsmokers

9. quitting smoking now greatly reduces serious risks to your health.
See http://www.fda.gov/TobaccoProducts/Labeling/CigaretteWarningLabels/default.htm for additional information.
Figure 10.17: Cigarette warning labels unveiled on 6/21/2011 by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
Lesson Summary
Respiration is the process in which gases are exchanged between the body and the outside air. The
lungs and other organs of the respiratory system bring oxygen into the body and release carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere.
Respiration begins with ventilation, the process of moving air into and out of the lungs. Gas exchange
in the lungs takes place in across the thin walls of pulmonary arteries in tiny air sacs called alveoli.
Oxygenated blood is transported by the circulatory system from lungs to tissues throughout the
body. Gas exchange between blood and body cells occurs across the walls of peripheral capillaries.
Gas exchange helps maintain homeostasis by supplying cells with oxygen, carrying away carbon
dioxide waste, and maintaining proper pH of the blood.
Breathing occurs due to repeated contractions of a large muscle called the diaphragm. The rate of
breathing is regulated by the brain stem. It monitors the level of carbon dioxide in the blood and
triggers faster or slower breathing as needed to keep the level within a narrow range.
Diseases of the respiratory system include asthma, pneumonia, and emphysema.
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Recall
1. What is respiration? What is ventilation?
2. How is respiration dierent from cellular respiration?
3. Outline the pathway of a breath of air from the nose to the alveoli.
4. Describe how pulmonary gas exchange occurs.
5. Identify three diseases of the respiratory system, and state what triggers or causes each disease.
Apply Concepts
6. Sometimes people who are feeling anxious breathe too fast and become lightheaded. This is called
hyperventilation. Hyperventilation can upset the pH balance of the blood, resulting in blood that is too
basic. Explain why.
Think Critically
7. Compare and contrast pulmonary and peripheral gas exchange.
8. Explain why contraction of the diaphragm causes the lungs to ll with air.
9. Explain how the rate of breathing is controlled.
Points to Consider
Oxygen is just one substance transported by the blood. The blood also transports nutrients such as glucose.
What are nutrients? What other substances do you think might be nutrients?
Where do you think nutrients enter the bloodstream? How might this occur?
10.3
The Digestive System
Lesson Objectives
Identify the organs and functions of the digestive system.

Outline the roles of the mouth, esophagus, and stomach in digestion.
Explain how digestion and absorption occur in the small intestine.
List functions of the large intestine.
Describe common diseases of the digestive system.
Identify classes of nutrients and their functions in the human body.
Explain how to use MyPyramid and food labels as tools for balanced eating.
Vocabulary
absorption
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bile
body mass index (BMI)
chemical digestion
digestion
digestive system
eating disorder
elimination
esophagus
feces
gall bladder
gastrointestinal (GI) tract
large intestine
liver
macronutrient
mechanical digestion
micronutrient
mineral
MyPlate
MyPyramid
nutrient
obesity
peristalsis
small intestine
stomach
villi
vitamin
Introduction
The respiratory and circulatory systems work together to provide cells with the oxygen they need for
cellular respiration. Cells also need glucose for cellular respiration. Glucose is a simple sugar that comes
from the food we eat. To get glucose from food, digestion must occur. This process is carried out by the
digestive system.
Overview of the Digestive System

The digestive system consists of organs that break down food and absorb nutrients such as glucose.
Organs of the digestive system are shown in Figure 10.18. Most of the organs make up the gastrointestinal
tract. The rest of the organs are called accessory organs.
The Gastrointestinal Tract

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is a long tube that connects the mouth with the anus. It is more than 9
meters (30 feet) long in adults and includes the esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines. Food
enters the mouth, passes through the other organs of the GI tract, and then leaves the body through the
anus. At the following link, you can watch an animation that shows what happens to food as it passes
through the GI tract. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QtDgQjOGPJM.
The organs of the GI tract are lined with mucous membranes that secrete digestive enzymes and absorb
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Figure 10.18: The digestive system includes organs from the mouth to the anus.
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nutrients. The organs are also covered by layers of muscle that enable peristalsis. Peristalsis is an
involuntary muscle contraction that moves rapidly along an organ like a wave (see Figure 10.19). You can
watch an animation of peristalsis at this link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Peristalsis.gif.
Figure 10.19: Peristalsis pushes food through the GI tract.
Accessory Organs of Digestion

Other organs involved in digestion include the liver, gall bladder, and pancreas. They are called accessory
organs because food does not pass through them. Instead, they secrete or store substances needed for
digestion.
Functions of the Digestive System

The digestive system has three main functions: digestion of food, absorption of nutrients, and elimination
of solid food waste. Digestion is the process of breaking down food into components the body can absorb.
It consists of two types of processes: mechanical digestion and chemical digestion.
Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of chunks of food into smaller pieces. This type
of digestion takes place mainly in the mouth and stomach.
Chemical digestion is the chemical breakdown of large, complex food molecules into smaller,
simpler nutrient molecules that can be absorbed by the blood. This type of digestion begins in the
mouth and stomach but occurs mainly in the small intestine.
After food is digested, the resulting nutrients are absorbed. Absorption is the process in which substances
pass into the bloodstream, where they can circulate throughout the body. Absorption of nutrients occurs
mainly in the small intestine. Any remaining matter from food that cannot be digested and absorbed
passes into the large intestine as waste. The waste later passes out of the body through the anus in the
process of elimination.
The Start of Digestion: Mouth to Stomach

Does the sight or aroma of your favorite food make your mouth water? When this happens, you are getting
ready for digestion.
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Mouth
The mouth is the rst digestive organ that food enters. The sight, smell, or taste of food stimulates the
release of digestive enzymes by salivary glands inside the mouth. The major salivary enzyme is amylase.
It begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates by breaking down starch into sugar.
The mouth also begins the process of mechanical digestion. Sharp teeth in the front of the mouth cut or
tear food when you bite into it (see Figure 10.20). Broad teeth in the back of the mouth grind food when
you chew. Food is easier to chew because it is moistened by saliva from the salivary glands. The tongue
helps mix the food with saliva and also helps you swallow. After you swallow, the chewed food passes into
the pharynx.
Figure 10.20: Teeth are important for mechanical digestion.
Esophagus
From the pharynx, the food moves into the esophagus. The esophagus is a long, narrow tube that passes
food from the pharynx to the stomach by peristalsis. The esophagus has no other digestive functions. At
the end of the esophagus, a muscle called a sphincter controls the entrance to the stomach. The sphincter
opens to let food into the stomach and then closes again to prevent food from passing back into the
esophagus.
Stomach
The stomach is a sac-like organ in which food is further digested both mechanically and chemically. (To
see an animation of how the stomach digests food, go to the link below.) Churning movements of the
stomachs thick, muscular walls complete the mechanical breakdown of food. The churning movements
also mix food with digestive uids secreted by the stomach. One of these uids is hydrochloric acid. It kills
bacteria in food and gives the stomach the low pH needed by digestive enzymes that work in the stomach.
The main enzyme is pepsin, which chemically digests protein. See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
URHBBE3RKEs&feature=related for additional information.
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The stomach stores the partly digested food until the small intestine is ready to receive it. When the small
intestine is empty, a sphincter opens to allow the partially digested food to enter the small intestine.
Digestion and Absorption: The Small Intestine

The small intestine is a narrow tube about 7 meters (23 feet) long in adults. It is the site of most
chemical digestion and virtually all absorption. The small intestine consists of three parts: the duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum (see Figure 10.18).
Digestion in the Small Intestine

The duodenum is the rst and shortest part of the small intestine. Most chemical digestion takes place
here, and many digestive enzymes are active in the duodenum (see Table 10.1). Some are produced by
the duodenum itself. Others are produced by the pancreas and secreted into the duodenum. To see animations about digestive enzymes in the duodenum, use these links: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
bNMsNHqxszc&feature=related (0:40) and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IxNpXO8gGFM(2:45).
Table 10.1: Digestive Enzymes Active in the Duodenum
Enzyme
What It Digests
Where It Is Made
Amylase
Trypsin
Lipase
Maltase
Peptidase
carbohydrates
proteins
lipids
carbohydrates
proteins
pancreas
pancreas
pancreas, duodenum
duodenum
duodenum
The liver is an organ of both digestion and excretion. It produces a uid called bile, which is secreted
into the duodenum. Some bile also goes to the gall bladder, a sac-like organ that stores and concentrates
bile and then secretes it into the small intestine. In the duodenum, bile breaks up large globules of lipids
into smaller globules that are easier for enzymes to break down. Bile also reduces the acidity of food
entering from the highly acidic stomach. This is important because digestive enzymes that work in the
duodenum need a neutral environment. The pancreas contributes to the neutral environment by secreting
bicarbonate, a basic substance that neutralizes acid.
Absorption in the Small Intestine

The jejunum is the second part of the small intestine, where most nutrients are absorbed into the blood. As
shown in Figure 10.21, the mucous membrane lining the jejunum is covered with millions of microscopic,
ngerlike projections called villi (singular, villus). Villi contain many capillaries, and nutrients pass from
the villi into the bloodstream through the capillaries. Because there are so many villi, they greatly increase
the surface area for absorption. In fact, they make the inner surface of the small intestine as large as
a tennis court! You can watch an animation of absorption across intestinal villi at this link: http:
//www.youtube.com/watch?v=P1sDOJM65Bc&feature=related.
The ileum is the third part of the small intestine. A few remaining nutrients are absorbed here. Like the
jejunum, the inner surface of the ileum is covered with villi that increase the surface area for absorption.
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Figure 10.21: This image shows intestinal villi greatly magnied. They are actually microscopic.
The Large Intestine and Its Functions

From the small intestine, any remaining food wastes pass into the large intestine. The large intestine is
a relatively wide tube that connects the small intestine with the anus. Like the small intestine, the large
intestine also consists of three parts: the cecum (or caecum), colon, and rectum. Follow food as it moves
through the digestive system at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uzl6M1YlU3w&feature=related
(1:37).
The digestive system song Where Will I Go can be heard at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OYWVbt6t2mw&#
38;feature=related (3:27).
Absorption of Water and Elimination of Wastes

The cecum is the rst part of the large intestine, where wastes enter from the small intestine. The wastes
are in a liquid state. As they passes through the colon, which is the second part of the large intestine,
excess water is absorbed. The remaining solid wastes are called feces. Feces accumulate in the rectum,
which is the third part of the large intestine. As the rectum lls, the feces become compacted. After a
certain amount of feces accumulate, they are eliminated from the body. A sphincter controls the anus and
opens to let feces pass through.
Bacteria in the Large Intestine

Trillions of bacteria normally live in the large intestine. Most of them are helpful. In fact, we wouldnt
be able to survive without them. Some of the bacteria produce vitamins, which are absorbed by the large
intestine. Other functions of intestinal bacteria include:
Controlling the growth of harmful bacteria.

Breaking down indigestible food components.
Producing substances that help prevent colon cancer.
Breaking down toxins before they can poison the body.
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Diseases of the Digestive System

Many diseases can aect the digestive system. Three of the most common are food allergies, ulcers, and
heartburn.
Food allergies occur when the immune system reacts to substances in food as though they were
harmful foreign invaders. Foods that are most likely to cause allergies are pictured in Figure
10.22. Symptoms of food allergies often include vomiting and diarrhea.
Ulcers are sores in the lining of the stomach or duodenum that are usually caused by bacterial
infections. Symptoms typically include abdominal pain and bleeding. You can see how stomach
ulcers develop at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4bXZRgJ-1fk.
Heartburn is a painful burning sensation in the chest caused by stomach acid backing up into the
esophagus. The stomach acid may eventually cause serious damage to the esophagus unless the
problem is corrected.
Figure 10.22: These foods are the most common causes of food allergies.
KQED: Hepatitis C: The Silent Epidemic

Hepatitis C is a virus that causes cirrhosis of the liver and liver cancer. Its the leading cause for liver
transplants in the U.S., and an estimated 4 million Americans have the disease. Current treatments are
diicult to tolerate and are often ineective, but recent breakthroughs from scientists may soon produce a
cure for the disease that claims more than 10,000 American lives each year. See http://www.kqed.org/
quest/television/hepatitis-c-the-silent-epidemic for additional information.
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Food and Nutrients

Did you ever hear the saying, You are what you eat? Its not just a saying. Its actually true. What
you eat plays an important role in your health. Eating a variety of the right types of foods promotes good
health and provides energy for growth and activity. This is because healthful foods are rich in nutrients.
Nutrients are substances the body needs for energy, building materials, and control of body processes.
There are six main classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, vitamins, and minerals.
These six classes are categorized as macronutrients or micronutrients depending on how much of them the
body needs.
Macronutrients
Nutrients the body needs in relatively large amounts are called macronutrients. They include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and water. All macronutrients except water can be used by the body for energy.
(The energy in food is measured in a unit called a Calorie.) The exact amount of each macronutrient that
an individual needs depends on many factors, including gender and age. Recommended daily intakes by
teens of three macronutrients are shown in Table 10.2. Based on your gender and age, how many grams
of proteins should you eat each day?
Table 10.2: Recommended Intakes of Macronutrients
Gender/Age
Carbohydrates (g/day)
Proteins (g/day)
Water (L/day) (includes water in food)
Males 913 years

Males 14-18 years
Females 9-13 years
Females 14-18 years
130
130
130
130
34
52
34
46
2.4
3.3
2.1
2.3
Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and ber. Sugars and starches are used by the body for
energy. One gram of carbohydrates provides 4 Calories of energy. Fiber, which is found in plant
foods, cannot be digested but is needed for good health.
Dietary proteins are broken down during digestion to provide the amino acids needed for protein
synthesis. Any extra proteins in the diet not needed for this purpose are used for energy or stored
as fat. One gram of proteins provides 4 Calories of energy.
Lipids provide the body with energy and serve other vital functions. One gram of lipids provides 9
Calories of energy. You need to eat small amounts of lipids for good health. However, large amounts
can be harmful, especially if they contain saturated fatty acids from animal foods.
Water is essential to life because biochemical reactions take place in water. Most people can survive
only a few days without water.
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Micronutrients
Nutrients the body needs in relatively small amounts are called micronutrients. They include vitamins
Table 10.3: Vitamins

Vitamin
Function
Good Food Sources
A
B12
C
D
E
K
good vision
normal nerve function
making connective tissue
healthy bones and teeth
normal cell membranes
blood clotting
carrots, spinach
meat, milk
oranges, red peppers
salmon, eggs
vegetable oils, nuts
spinach, soybeans
Minerals are chemical elements that are essential for body processes. They include calcium, which helps
form strong bones and teeth, and potassium, which is needed for normal nerve and muscle function. Good
sources of minerals include green leafy vegetables, whole grains, milk, and meats. Vitamins and minerals
do not provide energy, but they are still essential for good health. The needed amounts generally can be
met with balanced eating. However, people who do not eat enough of the right foods may need vitamin
or mineral supplements.
Balanced Eating
Balanced eating is a way of eating that promotes good health. It means eating the right balance of dierent
foods to provide the body with all the nutrients it needs. Fortunately, you dont need to measure and
record the amounts of dierent nutrients you each day in order to balance your eating. Instead, you can
use MyPlate and food labels.
MyPyramid and MyPlate

MyPyramid shows the relative amounts of foods in dierent food groups you should eat each day (see
Figure 10.24).
Each food group represented by a colored band in MyPyramid is a good source of nutrients. The key in
Figure 10.24 shows the food group each band represents. The wider the band, the more you should eat
from that food group. The white tip of MyPyramid represents foods that should be eaten only once in
awhile, such as ice cream and potato chips. They contain few nutrients and may contribute excess Calories
to the diet. The gure walking up the side of MyPyramid represents the role of physical activity in
balanced eating. Regular exercise helps you burn any extra energy that you consume in foods and provides
many other health benets. You should be active for about an hour a day most days of the week. The
more active you are, the more energy you will use.
In June 2011, the United States Department of Agriculture replaced My Pyramid with MyPlate. MyPlate
depicts the relative daily portions of various food groups. See http://www.choosemyplate.gov/ for further
information.
The following guidelines accompany MyPlate:
1. Balancing Calories
Enjoy your food, but eat less.
Avoid oversized portions.
2. Foods to Increase
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Figure 10.24: MyPyramid is a visual guideline for balanced eating.
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Figure 10.25: MyPlate is a visual guideline for balanced eating, replacing MyPyramid in 2011.
Make half your plate fruits and vegetables.
Make at least half your grains whole grains.
Switch to fat-free or low-fat (1%) milk.
3. Foods to Reduce
Compare sodium in foods like soup, bread, and frozen meals and choose the foods with lower
numbers.
Drink water instead of sugary drinks.
Food Labels
Packaged foods are required by law to carry a nutrition facts label, like the one in Figure 10.26. The
labels show the nutrient content and ingredients of foods. Reading labels can help you choose foods that
are high in nutrients you need more of (such as proteins) and low in nutrients you need less of (such as
fats).
You should also look for ingredients such as whole grains, vegetables, and fruits. Avoid foods that contain
processed ingredients, such as white our or white rice. Processing removes nutrients. As a result, processed
foods generally supply fewer nutrients than whole foods, even when they have been enriched or fortied
with added nutrients.
Weight Gain and Obesity

Any unused energy in foodwhether it comes from carbohydrates, proteins, or lipidsis stored in the
body as fat. An extra 3,500 Calories of energy results in the storage of almost half a kilogram (1 pound)
of stored body fat. People who consistently consume more food energy then they need may become obese.
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Figure 10.26: Nutrition facts labels like this one can help you make good food choices.
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Obesity occurs when the body mass index is 30.0 kg/m2 or greater. Body mass index (BMI) is an
estimate of the fat content of the body. It is calculated by dividing a persons weight (in kilograms) by
the square of the persons height (in meters). Obesity increases the risk of health problems such as type 2
diabetes and hypertension.
Eating Disorders
Some people who are obese have an eating disorder, called binge eating disorder, in which they compulsively
overeat. An eating disorder is a mental illness in which people feel compelled to eat in a way that causes
physical, mental, and emotional health problems. Other eating disorders include anorexia nervosa and
bulimia nervosa. Treatments for eating disorders include counseling and medication.
Lesson Summary
The digestive system consists of organs that break down food, absorb nutrients, and eliminate waste.
The breakdown of food occurs in the process of digestion.
Digestion consists of mechanical and chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion occurs in the mouth
and stomach. Chemical digestion occurs mainly in the small intestine. The pancreas and liver secrete
uids that aid in digestion.
Virtually all absorption of nutrients takes place in the small intestine, which has a very large inner
surface area because it is covered with millions of microscopic villi.
The absorption of water from digestive wastes and the elimination of the remaining solid wastes occur
in the large intestine. The large intestine also contains helpful bacteria.
Digestive system diseases include food allergies, ulcers, and heartburn.
Nutrients are substances that the body needs for energy, building materials, and control of body
processes. Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and water are nutrients needed in relatively large amounts.
Vitamins and minerals are nutrients needed in much smaller amounts.
Balanced eating promotes good health. MyPyramid and food labels are two tools that can help you
choose the right foods for balanced eating. Eating too much and exercising too little can lead to
weight gain and obesity. Some people who are obese have an eating disorder. Eating disorders are
mental illnesses that require treatment by health professionals.
Interactive Puzzles
Recall
1. What organs make up the gastrointestinal tract? What are the accessory organs of digestion?
2. Describe peristalsis and its role in digestion.
3. Dene mechanical and chemical digestion.
4. Describe functions of the stomach.
5. Where are most nutrients absorbed?
6. What role do villi play in absorption?
7. How do bacteria in the large intestine help keep us healthy?
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8. Describe two diseases of the digestive system.

9. What is an eating disorder? Give an example.
Apply Concepts
10. Assume that a person has a disease that prevents the pancreas from secreting digestive enzymes.
Explain how digestion might be aected.
11. Aleesha weighs 80 kg and is 1.6 m tall. What is her body mass index? Is she obese?
Think Critically
12. Compare and contrast macronutrients and micronutrients.
13. Explain how to use MyPyramid and food labels to choose foods for balanced eating.
Points to Consider
In this lesson, you learned that the large intestine eliminates solid wastes that are left after digestion occurs.
Wastes are also produced when cells break down nutrients for energy and building materials. How do
you think these wastes are removed from the body? Do you think they are eliminated by the large
intestine as well?
Might there be other ways to remove wastes from the body? What about liquid wastes and excess
water?
10.4
The Excretory System
Lesson Objectives
Dene excretion, and identify organs of the excretory system.

Explain how the urinary system lters blood and excretes wastes.
Describe the roles of the kidneys in homeostasis.
Identify kidney diseases, and describe dialysis.
Vocabulary
bladder
dialysis
excretion
excretory system
kidney failure
nephron
ureter
urethra
urinary system
urination
urine
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Introduction
If you exercise on a hot day, you are likely to lose a lot of water in sweat. Then, for the next several hours,
you may notice that you do not pass urine as often as normal and that your urine is darker than usual.
Do you know why this happens? Your body is low on water and trying to reduce the amount of water lost
in urine. The amount of water lost in urine is controlled by the kidneys, the main organs of the excretory
system.
Excretion
Excretion is the process of removing wastes and excess water from the body. It is one of the major ways
the body maintains homeostasis. Although the kidneys are the main organs of excretion, several other
organs also excrete wastes. They include the large intestine, liver, skin, and lungs. All of these organs of
excretion, along with the kidneys, make up the excretory system. This lesson focuses on the role of the
kidneys in excretion. The roles of the other excretory organs are summarized below:
The
The
The
The
large intestine eliminates solid wastes that remain after the digestion of food.
liver breaks down excess amino acids and toxins in the blood.
skin eliminates excess water and salts in sweat.
lungs exhale water vapor and carbon dioxide.
Urinary System
The kidneys are part of the urinary system, which is shown in Figure 10.27. The main function of
the urinary system is to lter waste products and excess water from the blood and excrete them from the
body.
Kidneys and Nephrons

The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs just above the waist. A cross-section of a kidney is shown
in Figure 10.28. The function of the kidney is to lter blood and form urine. Urine is the liquid waste
product of the body that is excreted by the urinary system. Nephrons are the structural and functional
units of the kidneys. A single kidney may have more than a million nephrons!
The kidney and nephron are discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
57/cc8sUv2SuaY (18:38).
Additional information about the nephron is shown at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/
c/7A9646BC5110CF64/58/czY5nyvZ7cU.
Filtering Blood and Forming Urine

As shown in Figure 10.31, each nephron is like a tiny ltering plant. It lters blood and forms urine in
the following steps:
1. Blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into capillaries. When blood
passes through capillaries of the glomerulus of a nephron, blood pressure forces some of the water
and dissolved substances in the blood to cross the capillary walls into Bowmans capsule.
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Figure 10.27: The kidneys are the chief organs of the urinary system.
Figure 10.28: Each kidney is supplied by a renal artery and renal vein.
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2. The ltered substances pass to the renal tubule of the nephron. In the renal tubule, some of the
ltered substances are reabsorbed and returned to the bloodstream. Other substances are secreted
into the uid.
3. The uid passes to a collecting duct, which reabsorbs some of the water and returns it to the
bloodstream. The uid that remains in the collecting duct is urine.
Figure 10.31: The parts of a nephron and their functions are shown in this diagram.
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Excretion of Urine
From the collecting ducts of the kidneys, urine enters the ureters, two muscular tubes that move the
urine by peristalsis to the bladder (see Figure 10.27). The bladder is a hollow, sac-like organ that stores
urine. When the bladder is about half full, it sends a nerve impulse to a sphincter to relax and let urine
ow out of the bladder and into the urethra. The urethra is a muscular tube that carries urine out of the
body. Urine leaves the body through another sphincter in the process of urination. This sphincter and
the process of urination are normally under conscious control.
Kidneys and Homeostasis

The kidneys play many vital roles in homeostasis. They lter all the blood in the body many times each
day and produce a total of about 1.5 liters of urine. The kidneys control the amount of water, ions, and
other substances in the blood by excreting more or less of them in urine. The kidneys also secrete hormones
that help maintain homeostasis. Erythropoietin, for example, is a kidney hormone that stimulates bone
marrow to produce red blood cells when more are needed. The kidneys themselves are also regulated by
hormones. For example, antidiuretic hormone from the hypothalamus stimulates the kidneys to produce
more concentrated urine when the body is low on water.
Kidney Disease and Dialysis

A person can live a normal, healthy life with just one kidney. However, at least one kidney must function
properly to maintain life. Diseases that threaten the health and functioning of the kidneys include kidney
stones, infections, and diabetes.
Kidney stones are mineral crystals that form in urine inside the kidney. They may be extremely
painful. If they block a ureter, they must be removed so urine can leave the kidney and be excreted.
Bacterial infections of the urinary tract, especially the bladder, are very common. Bladder infections
can be treated with antibiotics prescribed by a doctor. If untreated, they may lead to kidney damage.
Uncontrolled diabetes may damage capillaries of nephrons. As a result, the kidneys lose much of their
ability to lter blood. This is called kidney failure. The only cure for kidney failure is a kidney
transplant, but it can be treated with dialysis. Dialysis is a medical procedure in which blood is
ltered through a machine (see Figure 10.32).
Lesson Summary
Excretion is the process of removing wastes and excess water from the body. It is one of the major
ways the body maintains homeostasis. Organs of excretion make up the excretory system. They
include the kidneys, large intestine, liver, skin, and lungs.
The kidneys lter blood and form urine. They are part of the urinary system, which also includes
the ureters, bladder, and urethra.
Each kidney has more than a million nephrons, which are the structural and functional units of the
kidney. Each nephron is like a tiny ltering plant.
The kidneys maintain homeostasis by controlling the amount of water, ions, and other substances in
the blood. They also secrete hormones that have other homeostatic functions.
Kidney diseases include kidney stones, infections, and kidney failure due to diabetes. Kidney failure
may be treated with dialysis.
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Figure 10.32: A dialysis machine lters a patients blood.

Recall
1. What is excretion?
2. List organs of the excretory system and their functions.
3. Describe how nephrons lter blood and form urine.
4. State the functions of the ureters, bladder, and urethra.
Apply Concepts
5. Tom was seriously injured in a car crash. As a result, he had to have one of his kidneys removed. Does
Tom need dialysis? Why or why not?
Think Critically
6. Explain how the kidneys maintain homeostasis.
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Points to Consider
Infections caused by microorganisms may aect any of the organ systems described in this chapter. For
example, you have just read that bacterial infections of the bladder are common.
What defenses do you think the body has to keep out microorganisms?
Do you know if there are other defenses against microorganisms if they manage to get inside the
body?
Image Sources
(1) Brbbl, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diafragma_ademhaling.gif. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(2) Boumphreyfr, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Peristalsis.png. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_urinary_system.svg. Public Domain.
(8) Courtesy of MyPyramid.gov. http://www.mypyramid.gov/. Public Domain.
(9) Image Copyright Sebastian Kaulitzki, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license
(10) Sansculotte, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Grafik_blutkreislauf.jpg. CC-BY-SA-2.5.
(11) http://www.cnn.com/2011/HEALTH/06/21/cigarette.labels.gallery/index.html.
(13) (Milk) Janine Chedid; (Shellsh) Frank C. Mller; (Nuts) Courtesy of Alice Welch/US Department
of Agriculture; (Grains) Courtesy of Peggy Greb/Agricultural Research Service; (Egg) David
Benbennick. [(Milk) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Milk.jpg; (Shellsh)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Garnelen_im_Verkauf_fcm.jpg; (Nuts)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Peanuts.jpg; Grains)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Various_grains.jpg; (Egg)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fried_egg,_sunny_side_up.jpg ]. (Milk)
CC-BY-SA 3.0; (Shellsh) Public Domain; (Nuts) Public Domain; (Grains) Public Domain; (Egg)
Public Domain.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_conducting_passages.jpg. Public Domain.
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(15) delldot, modied by CK-12 Foundation.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fluid-filled_alveolus1.svg. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(16) Courtesy of National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse.
http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/yourkidneys/images/hemo.gif. Public
Domain.
(17) Image Copyright Zoltan Pataki, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(18) Wapcaplet, modied by Yaddah. The direction of blood ow through the heart. GNU-FDL 1.2.
(19) http://www.choosemyplate.gov/. Public Domian.
(20) Piotr Micha Jaworski. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kidney_PioM.png.
CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(21) Image Copyright Oguz Ara, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Digestive_system_simplified.svg. Public
Domain.
(24) Image copyright Alila Sao Mai, 2011. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(25) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_systemic_circuit.svg. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
Opening image copyright by Anne Weston (http://io9.com/#!373166/when-microscopic-blood-vessels-explode

and is under the Creative Commons license CC-BY-NC-ND.
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Chapter 11
The Immune System and Disease
Does this organism look like a space alien? A scary creature from a nightmare? In fact, its a 1-cm long
worm that lives in the human body and causes serious harm. It enters the body through a hair follicle of
the skin when its in a much smaller stage of its life cycle.
Like this worm, many other organisms can make us sick if they manage to enter our body. Fortunately for
us, our immune system is able to keep out most such invaders. When you read this chapter, youll learn
how your immune system keeps you safe from harmincluding from scary creatures like this!
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11.1
Nonspecic Defenses
Lesson Objectives
Describe the barriers that keep most pathogens out of the human body.
Explain how the inammatory response and nonspecic leukocytes help ght pathogens that enter
the body.
Vocabulary
inammatory response
leukocyte
mucous membrane
mucus
pathogen
phagocytosis
Introduction
The immune system protects the body from worms, germs, and other agents of harm. The immune system
is like a medieval castle. The outside of the castle was protected by a moat and high stone walls. Inside
the castle, soldiers were ready to ght o any invaders that managed to get through the outer defenses.
Like a medieval castle, the immune system has a series of defenses. In fact, it has three lines of defense.
Only pathogens that are able to get through all three lines of defense can harm the body.
The First Line of Defense

The bodys rst line of defense consists of dierent types of barriers that keep most pathogens out of
the body. Pathogens are disease-causing agents, such as bacteria and viruses. These and other types
of pathogens are described in Figure 11.1. Regardless of the type of pathogen, however, the rst line of
defense is always the same.
Mechanical Barriers
Mechanical barriers physically block pathogens from entering the body. The skin is the most important
mechanical barrier. In fact, it is the single most important defense the body has. The outer layer of the
skin is tough and very diicult for pathogens to penetrate. Mucous membranes provide a mechanical
barrier at body openings. They also line the respiratory, GI, urinary, and reproductive tracts. Mucous
membranes secrete mucus, a slimy substance that traps pathogens. The membranes also have hair-like
cilia. The cilia sweep mucus and pathogens toward body openings where they can be removed from the
body. When you sneeze or cough, pathogens are removed from the nose and throat (see Figure 11.2). Tears
wash pathogens from the eyes, and urine ushes pathogens out of the urinary tract. You can watch the
sweeping action of cilia at the following link: http://mcdb.colorado.edu/courses/2115/units/Other/
mucus%20animation.swf.
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Figure 11.1: Types of pathogens that commonly cause human diseases include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
protozoa. Which type of pathogen causes the common cold? Which type causes athletes foot?
Figure 11.2: A sneeze can expel many pathogens from the respiratory tract. Thats why you should always
cover your mouth and nose and when you sneeze.
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Chemical Barriers
Chemical barriers destroy pathogens on the outer body surface, at body openings, and on inner body
linings. Sweat, mucus, tears, and saliva all contain enzymes that kill pathogens. Urine is too acidic for
many pathogens, and semen contains zinc, which most pathogens cannot tolerate. In addition, stomach
acid kills pathogens that enter the GI tract in food or water.
Biological Barriers
Biological barriers are living organisms that help protect the body. Millions of harmless bacteria live on
the human skin. Many more live in the GI tract. The harmless bacteria use up food and space so harmful
bacteria cannot grow.
The Second Line of Defense

If you have a cut on your hand, the break in the skin provides a way for pathogens to enter your body.
Assume bacteria enter through the cut and infect the wound. These bacteria would then encounter the
bodys second line of defense.
Inammatory Response
The cut on your hand may become red, warm, and swollen. These are signs of an inammatory response.
This is the rst reaction of the body to tissue damage or infection. As explained in Figure 11.3, the response
is triggered by chemicals called cytokines and histamines, which are released when tissue is injured or
infected. The chemicals communicate with other cells and coordinate the inammatory response. You can
see an animation of the inammatory response at this link: http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/
animations/content/inflammatory.html.
The inammatory response is discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
56/FXSuEIMrPQk.
Leukocytes
The chemicals that trigger an inammatory response attract leukocytes to the site of injury or infection.
Leukocytes are white blood cells. Their role is to ght infections and get rid of debris. Leukocytes may
respond with either a nonspecic or a specic defense.
A nonspecic defense is the same no matter what type of pathogen is involved. An example of a
nonspecic defense is phagocytosis. This is the process in which leukocytes engulf and break down
pathogens and debris. It is illustrated in Figure 11.5. You can also see an animation of phagocytosis
at this link: http://www.sp.uconn.edu/~terry/Common/phago053.html.
A specic defense is tailored to a particular pathogen. Leukocytes involved in this type of defense
are described in the next lesson.
A summary of the nonspecic defenses can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#
p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/49/O1N2rENXq_Y(16:20).
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Figure 11.3: This drawing shows what happens during the inammatory response. Why are changes in
capillaries important for this response?

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Figure 11.5: In this image, leukocytes (white) are attacking pathogens (star-shaped).

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Lesson Summary
Barriers that keep out pathogens are the bodys rst line of defense. They include mechanical,
chemical, and biological barriers.
The second line of defense attacks pathogens that manage to enter the body. It includes the inammatory response and phagocytosis by nonspecic leukocytes.
Review Questions
Recall
1. Identify three types of barriers in the bodys rst line of defense. Give an example of each type of
barrier.
2. What is the bodys second life of defense? When does it take eect?
3. Identify the roles of nonspecic leukocytes in the bodys second line of defense.
4. State how phagocytosis helps defend the body from pathogens.
5. What is a nonspecic defense?
Apply Concepts
6. Jera cut her nger. The next day, the skin around the cut had become red and warm. Why are these
signs of infection?
Think Critically
7. Explain how the inammatory response helps ght an infection.
Points to Consider
The bodys rst and second lines of defense are the same regardless of the particular pathogen involved.
The bodys third line of defense is dierent. It tailors the response to the specic pathogen.
How do you think the immune system can identify specic pathogens?
How might a specic defense be dierent from a nonspecic defense? What mechanisms might be
involved?
11.2
The Immune Response
Lesson Objectives
Describe the lymphatic system and its roles in the immune response.
List the steps that occur in a humoral immune response.
Identify the roles of T cells in a cell-mediated immune response.
Dene immunity, and distinguish between active and passive immunity.
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Vocabulary
active immunity
antibody
B cell
cell-mediated immune response
humoral immune response
immune response
immunity
immunization
lymph
lymphatic system
lymph node
lymphocyte
memory cell
passive immunity
T cell
Introduction
Like the immune systems of other vertebrates, the human immune system is adaptive. If pathogens manage
to get through the bodys rst two lines of defense, the third line of defense takes over. The third line of
defense is referred to as the immune response. This defense is specic to a particular pathogen, and it
allows the immune system to remember the pathogen after the infection is over. If the pathogen tries
to invade the body again, the immune response against that pathogen will be much faster and stronger.
You can watch an overview of the immune response at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
G7rQuFZxVQQ&feature=related.
The types of immune responses is discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64

50/rp7T4IItbtM.

Lymphatic System
The immune response mainly involves the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system is a major part of
the immune system. It produces leukocytes called lymphocytes. Lymphocytes are the key cells involved
in the immune response. They recognize and help destroy particular pathogens in body uids and cells.
They also destroy certain cancer cells. You can watch an animation of the lymphatic system at this link:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qTXTDqvPnRk&feature=related.
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Structures of the Lymphatic System

Figure 11.8 shows the structures of the lymphatic system. They include organs, lymph vessels, lymph,
and lymph nodes. Organs of the lymphatic system are the bone marrow, thymus, spleen, and tonsils.
Bone marrow is found inside many bones. It produces lymphocytes.
The thymus is located in the upper chest behind the breast bone. It stores and matures lymphocytes.
The spleen is in the upper abdomen. It lters pathogens and worn out red blood cells from the blood,
and then lymphocytes in the spleen destroy them.
The tonsils are located on either side of the pharynx in the throat. They trap pathogens, which are
destroyed by lymphocytes in the tonsils.
Figure 11.8: The lymphatic system consists of organs, vessels, and lymph.
Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph

Lymphatic vessels make up a body-wide circulatory system. The uid they circulate is lymph. Lymph
is a uid that leaks out of capillaries into spaces between cells. As the lymph accumulates between cells,
it diuses into tiny lymphatic vessels. The lymph then moves through the lymphatic system from smaller
to larger vessels. It nally drains back into the bloodstream in the chest. As lymph passes through the
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lymphatic vessels, pathogens are ltered out at small structures called lymph nodes (see Figure 11.8).
The ltered pathogens are destroyed by lymphocytes.
Lymphocytes
The human body has as many as two trillion lymphocytes, and lymphocytes make up about 25% of all
leukocytes. The majority of lymphocytes are found in the lymphatic system, where they are most likely to
encounter pathogens. The rest are found in the blood. There are two major types of lymphocytes, called
B cells and T cells. These cells get their names from the organs in which they mature. B cells mature in
bone marrow, and T cells mature in the thymus. Both B and T cells recognize and respond to particular
pathogens.
Antigen Recognition
B and T cells actually recognize and respond to antigens on pathogens. Antigens are molecules that the
immune system recognizes as foreign to the body. Antigens are also found on cancer cells and the cells
of transplanted organs. They trigger the immune system to react against the cells that carry them. This
is why a transplanted organ may be rejected by the recipients immune system. How do B and T cells
recognize specic antigens? They have receptor molecules on their surface that bind only with particular
antigens. As shown in Figure 11.9 and in the animation at the link that follows, the t between an antigen
and a matching receptor molecule is like a key in a lock. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cL9KY_ECzfo
Figure 11.9: An antigen ts the matching receptor molecule like a key in a lock.
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Humoral Immune Response

There are actually two types of immune responses: humoral and cell-mediated. The latter response is
described later in this section. The humoral immune response involves mainly B cells and takes place
in blood and lymph. You can watch an animation of the humoral immune response at the link below.
http://www.cancerresearch.org/resources.aspx?id=586
B Cell Activation
B cells must be activated by an antigen before they can ght pathogens. This happens in the sequence
of events shown in Figure 11.11. First, a B cell encounters its matching antigen and engulfs it. The B
cell then displays fragments of the antigen on its surface. This attracts a helper T cell (which is further
discussed below). The helper T cell binds to the B cell at the antigen site and releases cytokines that tell
the B cell to develop into a plasma cell.
B lymphocytes are further discussed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z36dUduOk1Y (14:13).

Plasma Cells and Antibody Production

Plasma cells are activated B cells that secrete antibodies. Antibodies are large, Y-shaped proteins that
recognize and bind to antigens. Plasma cells are like antibody factories, producing many copies of a single
type of antibody. The antibodies travel throughout the body in blood and lymph. Each antibody binds
to just one kind of antigen. When it does, it forms an antigen-antibody complex (see Figure 11.12). The
complex ags the antigen-bearing cell for destruction by phagocytosis. The video at the following link
shows how this happens: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lrYlZJiuf18&feature=fvw.
Memory Cells
Most plasma cells live for just a few days, but some of them live much longer. They may even survive for the
lifetime of the individual. Long-living plasma cells are called memory cells. They retain a memory of
a specic pathogen long after an infection is over. They help launch a rapid response against the pathogen
if it invades the body again in the future.
Cell-Mediated Immune Response

The other type of immune response, the cell-mediated immune response, involves mainly T cells. It
leads to the destruction of cells that are infected with viruses. Some cancer cells are also destroyed in this
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Figure 11.11: Activation of a B cell must occur before it can respond to pathogens. What role do T cells
play in the activation process?
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Figure 11.12: An antibody matches only one type of antigen.

way. There are several dierent types of T cells involved in a cell-mediated immune response, including
helper, cytotoxic, and regulatory T cells. You can watch an animation of this type of immune response at
this link: http://www.cancerresearch.org/Resources.aspx?id=588.
T Cell Activation
All three types of T cells must be activated by an antigen before they can ght an infection or cancer.
T cell activation is illustrated in Figure 11.13. It begins when a B cell or nonspecic leukocyte engulfs
a virus and displays its antigens. When the T cell encounters the matching antigen on a leukocyte, it
becomes activated. What happens next depends on which type of T cell it is.
Helper T Cells
Helper T cells are like the managers of the immune response. They secrete cytokines, which activate or
control the activities of other lymphocytes. Most helper T cells die out once a pathogen has been cleared
from the body, but a few remain as memory cells. These memory cells are ready to produce large numbers
of antigen-specic helper T cells like themselves if they are exposed to the same antigen in the future.
Helped T cells are discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
53/uwMYpTYsNZM.
Cytotoxic T Cells
Cytotoxic T cells destroy virus-infected cells and some cancer cells. Once activated, a cytotoxic T cell
divides rapidly and produces an army of cells identical to itself. These cells travel throughout the body
searching for more cells to destroy. Figure 11.15 shows how a cytotoxic T cell destroys a body cell
infected with viruses. The T cell releases toxins that form pores in the membrane of the infected cell. This
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Figure 11.13: T cell activation requires another leukocyte to engulf a virus and display its antigen.

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causes the cell to burst, destroying both the cell and the viruses inside it. You can watch an animation of
the actions of cytotoxic T cells at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8buaiYBKl7U.
Figure 11.15: A cytotoxic T cell releases toxins that destroy an infected body cell and the viruses it
contains.
After an infection has been brought under control, most cytotoxic T cells die o. However, a few remain
as memory cells. If the same pathogen enters the body again, the memory cells mount a rapid immune
response. They quickly produce many copies of cytotoxic T cells specic to the antigen of that pathogen.
Regulatory T Cells
Regulatory T cells are responsible for ending the cell-mediated immune response after an infection has
been curbed. They also suppress T cells that mistakenly react against self antigens. What might happen
if these T cells were not suppressed?
Immunity
Memory B and T cells help protect the body from re-infection by pathogens that infected the body in the
past. Being able to resist a pathogen in this way is called immunity. Immunity can be active or passive.
Active Immunity
Active immunity results when an immune response to a pathogen produces memory cells. As long as the
memory cells survive, the pathogen will be unable to cause a serious infection in the body. Some memory
cells last for a lifetime and confer permanent immunity. Active immunity can also result from immunization.
Immunization is the deliberate exposure of a person to a pathogen in order to provoke an immune response
and the formation of memory cells specic to that pathogen. The pathogen is often injected. However, only
part of a pathogen, a weakened form of the pathogen, or a dead pathogen is typically used. This causes
an immune response without making the immunized person sick. This is how you most likely became
immune to measles, mumps, and chicken pox. You can watch an animation showing how immunization
brings about immunity at this link: http://www.biosolutions.info/2009/05/vaccination.html.
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Passive Immunity
Passive immunity results when antibodies are transferred to a person who has never been exposed to
the pathogen. Passive immunity lasts only as long as the antibodies survive in body uids. This is usually
between a few days and a few months. Passive immunity may be acquired by a fetus through its mothers
blood. It may also be acquired by an infant though the mothers breast milk. Older children and adults
can acquire passive immunity through the injection of antibodies.
Lesson Summary
The bodys third line of defense is the immune response. This involves the lymphatic system. This
system lters pathogens from lymph and produces lymphocytes.
Lymphocytes are the key cells in the immune response. They are leukocytes that become activated
by a particular antigen. There are two major type of lymphocytes: B cells and T cells.
Activated B cells produce antibodies to a particular antigen. Memory B cells remain in the body
after the immune response is over and provide immunity to pathogens bearing the antigen.
Activated T cells destroy certain cancer cells and cells infected by viruses. Memory T cells remain
in the body after the immune response and provide antigen-specic immunity to the virus.
Immunity is the ability to resist infection by a pathogen. Active immunity results from an immune
response to a pathogen and the formation of memory cells. Passive immunity results from the transfer
of antibodies to a person who has not been exposed to the pathogen.
A review of B cells and T cells is available at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
55/xaz5ftvZCyI(11:07).

Review Questions
Recall
1. List three parts of the lymphatic system and their functions.
2. What are antigens, and how do lymphocytes recognize them?
3. How do plasma cells form, and how do they help ght pathogens?
4. Describe one way that cytotoxic T cells destroy cells infected with viruses.
5. What is immunity? What role do memory cells play in immunity?
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Apply Concepts
6. If a disease destroyed a persons helper T cells, how might this aect the ability to launch an immune
response?
Think Critically
7. Compare and contrast humoral and cell-mediated immune responses.
8. How is active immunity dierent from passive immunity? Why does active immunity last longer?
9. Explain how immunization prevents a disease such as measles, which is caused by a virus.
Points to Consider
Sometimes the immune system makes mistakes and things go wrong.
What if the immune system responded to a harmless allergen as though it were a deadly pathogen?
What might happen?
What if the immune system responded to normal body cells as though they were foreign invaders?
Would the immune system destroy the body cells?
What if pathogens attacked and destroyed cells of the immune system itself? Would the immune
system still be able to defend the body?
11.3
Immune System Diseases
Lesson Objectives
Explain why allergies occur, and identify common allergens.

Describe how autoimmune diseases aect the body.
Dene immunodeciency, and list reasons for it.
Explain how HIV is transmitted and how it causes AIDS.
Vocabulary
acquired immunodeciency syndrome (AIDS)

allergen
allergy
autoimmune disease
human immunodeciency virus (HIV)
immunodeciency
Introduction
Your immune system usually protects you from pathogens and keeps you well. However, like any other
body system, the immune system itself can develop problems. Sometimes it responds to harmless foreign
substances as though they were pathogens. Sometimes it attacks the bodys own cells. Certain diseases
can also attack and damage the immune system and interfere with its ability to defend the body.
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Allergies
An allergy is a disease in which the immune system makes an inammatory response to a harmless antigen.
Any antigen that causes an allergy is called an allergen. Allergens may be inhaled or ingested, or they
may come into contact with the skin. Two common causes of allergies are shown in Figure 11.17. Inhaling
ragweed pollen may cause coughing and sneezing. Skin contact with oils in poison ivy may cause an itchy
rash.
Figure 11.17: Ragweed and poison ivy are common causes of allergies. Are you allergic to these plants?
The symptoms of allergies can range from mild to severe. Mild allergy symptoms are often treated with
antihistamines. These are drugs that reduce or eliminate the eects of the histamines that cause allergy
symptoms. The most severe allergic reaction is called anaphylaxis. This is a life-threatening response
caused by a massive release of histamines. It requires emergency medical treatment. You can watch an
animated video about how allergic reactions occur and how antihistamines can control them at this link:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y3bOgdvV-_M.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system fails to recognize the bodys own molecules as
self, or belonging to the person. Instead, it attacks body cells as though they were dangerous pathogens.
Some relatively common autoimmune diseases are listed in Table 11.1. These diseases cannot be cured,
although they can be treated to relieve symptoms and prevent some of the long-term damage they cause.
Table 11.1: Autoimmune Diseases
Name of Disease
Tissues Attacked by Immune

System
Results of Immune System Attack
Rheumatoid arthritis
Type 1 diabetes
tissues inside joints

insulin-producing cells of the
pancreas
myelin sheaths of central nervous
system neurons
joints, heart, other organs
joint damage and pain

inability to produce insulin, high
blood sugar
muscle weakness, pain, fatigue
Multiple sclerosis
Systemic lupus erythematosus
joint and organ damage and pain
Why does the immune system attack body cells? In some cases, its because of exposure to pathogens
that have antigens similar to the bodys own molecules. When this happens, the immune system not only
attacks the pathogens. It also attacks body cells with the similar molecules.
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Immunodeciency
Immunodeciency occurs when the immune system is not working properly. As a result, it cannot ght
o pathogens that a normal immune system would be able to resist. Rarely, the problem is caused by a
defective gene. More often, it is acquired during a persons lifetime. Immunodeciency may occur for a
variety of reasons:
The immune system naturally becomes less eective as people get older. This is why older people
are generally more susceptible to disease.
The immune system may be damaged by other disorders, such as obesity or drug abuse.
Certain medications can suppress the immune system. This is an intended eect of drugs given to
people with transplanted organs. In many cases, however, it is an unwanted side eect of drugs used
to treat other diseases.
Some pathogens attack and destroy cells of the immune system. An example is the virus known as
HIV. It is the most common cause of immunodeciency in the world today. Compromised immune
systems are discussed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=usRofaZEteY (2:36).
HIV and AIDS

Human immunodeciency virus (HIV) is a virus that attacks the immune system. An example of
HIV is shown in Figure 11.18. Many people infected with HIV eventually develop acquired immune
deciency syndrome (AIDS). This may not occur until many years after the virus rst enters the body.
Figure 11.18: HIV is a virus that attacks cells of the immune system.
HIV Transmission
HIV is transmitted, or spread, through direct contact of mucous membranes or body uids such as blood,
semen, or breast milk. As shown in Figure 11.19, transmission of the virus can occur through sexual
contact or the use of contaminated hypodermic needles. It can also be transmitted through an infected
mothers blood to her baby during late pregnancy or birth or through breast milk after birth. In the past,
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HIV was also transmitted through blood transfusions. Because donated blood is now screened for HIV,
the virus is no longer transmitted this way.
Figure 11.19: HIV may be transmitted in all of the ways shown here. Based on how HIV is transmitted,
what can people do to protect themselves from becoming infected? What choices can they make to prevent
infection?
HIV and the Immune System

HIV infects and destroys helper T cells. As shown in Figure 11.20, the virus injects its own DNA into
a helper T cell and uses the T cells machinery to make copies of itself. In the process the T cell is
destroyed, and the virus copies go on to infect other helper T cells. You can watch an animation showing
how HIV infects T cells at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9leO28ydyfU.
Figure 11.20: This diagram shows how HIV infects and destroys T cells.
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HIV is able to evade the immune system and keep destroying T cells. This occurs in two ways:
The virus frequently mutates and changes its surface antigens. This prevents antigen-specic lymphocytes from developing that could destroy cells infected with the virus.
The virus uses the plasma membranes of host cells to hide its own antigens. This prevents the hosts
immune system from detecting the antigens and destroying infected cells.
As time passes, the number of HIV copies keeps increasing, while the number of helper T cells keeps
decreasing. The graph in Figure 11.21 shows how the number of T cells typically declines over a period of
many years following the initial HIV infection. As the number of T cells decreases, so does the ability of
the immune system to defend the body. As a result, an HIV-infected person develops frequent infections.
Medicines can slow down the virus but not get rid of it, so there is no cure at present for HIV infections
or AIDS. There also is no vaccine to immunize people against HIV infection, but scientists are working to
develop one.
Figure 11.21: It typically takes several years after infection with HIV for the drop in T cells to cripple
the immune system. What do you think explains the brief spike in T cells that occurs early in the HIV
infection shown here?
AIDS
AIDS is not a single disease but a set of diseases. It results from years of damage to the immune
system by HIV. It occurs when helper T cells fall to a very low level and opportunistic diseases occur (see Figure 11.21). Opportunistic diseases are infections and tumors that are rare except in people with immunodeciency. The diseases take advantage of the opportunity presented by people whose
immune systems cant ght back. Opportunistic diseases are usually the direct cause of death of people with AIDS. You can watch a video showing when an HIV infection becomes AIDS at this link:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=68I7JlVhuhY. AIDS and HIV were rst identied in 1981. Scientists think that the virus originally infected monkeys but then jumped to human populations, probably
sometime during the early to mid-1900s. This most likely occurred in West Africa, but the virus soon
spread around the world (see Figure 11.22). Since then, HIV has killed more than 25 million people
worldwide. The hardest hit countries are in Africa, where medicines to slow down the virus are least
available. The worldwide economic toll of HIV and AIDS has also been enormous.
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Figure 11.22: This map shows the number of people in dierent countries with HIV infections and AIDS in
2008. The rate of spread of the infection is higher Africa than in the U.S., yet the U.S. has a relatively large
number of people with HIV infections and AIDS. Why might there be more survivors with HIV infections
and AIDS in the U.S. than in Africa?
KQED: HIV Research: Beyond the Vaccine

Over the past 15 years, the number of people who die of AIDS each year in the United States has dropped
by 70 percent. But AIDS remains a serious public health crisis among low-income African-Americans,
particularly women. And in sub-Saharan Africa, the virus killed more than 1.6 million people in 2007.
Innovative research approaches could lead to new treatments and possibly a cure for AIDS. HIV/AIDS has
been described as a disease of poverty. Individuals with poor access to health care are less likely to see a
doctor early on in their HIV infection, and thus they may be more likely to transmit the infection. HIV is
now the leading cause of death for African American women between 24 and 35 years old.
For patients who have access to drugs, infection with the virus ceased to be a death sentence in 1995, when
combinations of drugs called highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) were developed. For some
patients, drugs can reduce the amount of virus to undetectable levels. But some amount of virus always
hides in the bodys immune cells and attacks again if the patient stops taking their medication. Researchers
are working on developing a drug to wipe out this hidden virus, which could mean the end of AIDS. See
http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/hiv-research-beyond-the-vaccine for further information.
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Lesson Summary
Allergies occur when the immune system makes an inammatory response to a harmless antigen. An
antigen that causes an allergy is called an allergen.
Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system fails to distinguish self from non-self. As a
result, the immune system attacks the bodys own cells.
In an immunodeciency disease, the immune system does not work normally. As a consequence, it
cannot defend the body.
HIV is a virus that attacks cells of the immune system and eventually causes AIDS. It is the chief
cause of immunodeciency in the world today.
Review Questions
Recall
1. What is an allergen? Give two examples.
2. Dene anaphylaxis. What causes the symptoms of anaphylaxis?
3. What is an autoimmune disease? Name an example.
4. List three possible reasons for acquired immunodeciency.
5. Identify two ways that HIV can be transmitted.
Apply Concepts
6. Rheumatic fever is caused by a virus that has antigens similar to molecules in human heart tissues.
When the immune system attacks the virus, it may also attack the heart. What type of immune system
disease is rheumatic fever? Explain your answer.
7. Draw a graph to show the progression of an untreated HIV infection. Include a line that shows how the
number of HIV copies changes through time. Include another line that shows how the number of helper T
cells changes through time.
Think Critically
8. Sometimes people with an allergy get allergy shots. They are injected with tiny amounts of the allergen
that triggers the allergic reaction. The shots are repeated at regular intervals, and the amount of allergen
that is injected each time gradually increases. How do you think this might help an allergy? Do you think
this approach just treats allergy symptoms or might it cure the allergy?
9. Explain why opportunistic diseases are a sign of immunodeciency.
Points to Consider
Pathogens such as HIV are not the only cause of human disease. Many other things in our environment
can also make us sick.
Can you think of other environmental factors that negatively aect human health? What about
pollutants in the environment? What are their possible health eects?
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Viruses cause some types of cancer, but cancer is more often caused by other environmental dangers.
What environmental factors might increase the risk of cancer? Do you know what causes skin cancer,
for example, or lung cancer?
11.4
Environmental Problems and Human Health
Lesson Objectives
Describe how carcinogens cause cancer and how cancer can be treated or prevented.
Identify causes of air pollution and its eects on human health.
Explain how bioterrorism threatens human health.
Vocabulary
Air Quality Index (AQI)
bioterrorism
carcinogen
Introduction
Besides pathogens, many other dangers in the environment may negatively aect human health. For example, air pollution can cause lung cancer. It can also make asthma and other diseases worse. Bioterrorism
is another potential threat in the environment. It may poison large numbers of people or cause epidemics
of deadly diseases.
Carcinogens and Cancer

A carcinogen is anything that can cause cancer. Cancer is a disease in which cells divide out of control.
Most carcinogens cause cancer by producing mutations in DNA.
Types of Carcinogens
There are several dierent types of carcinogens. They include pathogens, radiation, and chemicals. Some
carcinogens occur naturally. Others are produced by human actions.
Viruses cause about 15 percent of all human cancers. For example, the virus called hepatitis B causes
liver cancer.
UV radiation is the leading cause of skin cancer. The radioactive gas known as radon causes lung
cancer.
Tobacco smoke contains dozens of carcinogens, including nicotine and formaldehyde. Exposure to
tobacco smoke is the leading cause of lung cancer.
Some chemicals that were previously added to foods, such as certain dyes, are now known to cause
cancer. Cooking foods at very high temperatures also causes carcinogens to form (see Figure 11.24).
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Figure 11.24: Barbecued foods are cooked at very high temperatures. This may cause carcinogens to form.
How Cancer Occurs

Mutations that lead to cancer usually occur in genes that control the cell cycle. These include tumorsuppressor genes and proto-oncogenes.
Tumor-suppressor genes normally prevent cells with damaged DNA from dividing. Mutations in these
genes prevent them from functioning normally. As a result, cells with damaged DNA are allowed to
divide.
Proto-oncogenes normally help control cell division. Mutations in these genes turn them into oncogenes. Oncogenes promote the division of cells with damaged DNA.
Cells that divide uncontrollably may form a tumor, or abnormal mass of cells. Tumors may be benign
or malignant. Benign tumors remain localized and generally do not harm health. Malignant tumors are
cancerous. There are no limits to their growth, so they can invade and damage neighboring tissues. Cells
from malignant tumors may also break away from the tumor and enter the bloodstream. They are carried
to other parts of the body, where new tumors may form. The most common and the most deadly cancers
for U.S. adults are listed in Table 11.2.
Table 11.2: Cancers in U.S. Adults
Gender
Most Common Types of

Cancer after Skin Cancer (%
of all cancers)
Most Common Causes of

Cancer Deaths (% of all cancer deaths)
Males
prostate cancer (33%), lung cancer (13%)

breast cancer (32%), lung cancer
(12%)
lung cancer (31%), prostate cancer (10%)

lung cancer (27%), breast cancer
(15%)
Females
More cancer deaths in adult males and females are 382

due to lung cancer than any other type of cancer. Lung
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cancer is most often caused by exposure to tobacco smoke. What might explain why lung cancer causes
the most cancer deaths when it isnt the most common type of cancer?
Having one or more warning signs does not mean you have cancer, but you should see a doctor to be
sure. Getting routine tests for particular cancers can also help detect cancers early, when chances of a cure
are greatest. For example, getting the skin checked regularly by a dermatologist is important for early
detection of skin cancer (see Figure 11.25).
Figure 11.25: Regular checkups with a dermatologist can detect skin cancers early. Why is early detection
important?
You can take steps to reduce your own risk of cancer. For example, you can avoid exposure to carcinogens
such as tobacco smoke and UV light. You can also follow a healthy lifestyle. Being active, eating a low-fat
diet, and maintaining a normal weight can help reduce your risk of cancer.
Air Pollution and Illness

Almost 5 million people die each year because of air pollution. In fact, polluted air causes more deaths
than traic accidents. Air pollution harms the respiratory and circulatory systems. Both outdoor and
indoor air can be polluted.
Outdoor Air Pollution

The Air Quality Index (AQI) is an assessment of the pollutants in the outdoor air based on their human
health eects. The health risks associated with dierent values of AQI are shown in Figure 11.26. When
AQI is high, you should limit the time you spend outdoors. Avoiding exposure to air pollution can help
limit its impact on your health. People with certain health problems, including asthma, are very sensitive
to the eects of air pollution. They need to be especially careful to avoid it.
AQI generally refers to the levels of ground-level ozone and particulates. Ozone is a gas that forms close
to the ground when air pollutants are heated by sunlight. It is one of the main components of smog
(see Figure 11.27). Smog also contains particulates. Particulates are tiny particles of solids or liquids
suspended in the air. They are produced mainly by the burning of fossil fuels. The particles settle in
airways and the lungs, where they cause damage.
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Figure 11.26: Air quality is especially important for sensitive people. They include people with asthma,
other respiratory illnesses, and cardiovascular diseases.
Figure 11.27: Smog clouds the city of Los Angeles, California. Visible air pollution in the form of smog is
a sign that the air is unhealthy.
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Indoor Air Pollution

Indoor air may be even more polluted than outdoor air. It may contain harmful substances such as mold,
bacteria, and radon. It may also contain carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is a gas produced by furnaces
and other devices that burn fuel. If it is inhaled, it replaces oxygen in the blood and quickly leads to death.
Carbon monoxide is colorless and odorless, but it can be detected with a carbon monoxide detector like
the one in Figure 11.28.
Figure 11.28: A carbon monoxide detector warns you if the level of the gas is too high.
Bioterrorism
Bioterrorism is the intentional release or spread of agents of disease. The agents may be viruses, bacteria,
or toxins produced by bacteria. The agents may spread through the air, food, or water; or they may come
into direct contact with the skin. Two of the best known bioterrorism incidents in the U.S. occurred early
in this century:
1. In 2001, letters containing anthrax spores were mailed to several news oices and two U.S. Senate
oices. A total of 22 people were infected, and 5 of them died of anthrax.
2. In 2003, a deadly toxin called ricin was detected in a letter addressed to the White House. The letter
was intercepted at a mail-handling facility o White House grounds. Fortunately, the ricin toxin did
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not cause any illnesses or deaths.
Lesson Summary
A carcinogen is anything that causes cancer. Most carcinogens produce mutations in genes that
control the cell cycle.
Both outdoor and indoor air may contain pollutants that can cause human illness and death.
Bioterrorism is the intentional release or spread of agents of disease.
Review Questions
Recall
1. What is a carcinogen?
2. How do most carcinogens cause cancer?
3. Identify three ways cancer can be treated.
4. List four warning signs of cancer.
5. Dene bioterrorism.
Apply Concepts
6. How can you use the Air Quality Index to protect your health?
Think Critically
7. Explain why ground-level ozone is usually a worse problem in the summer than in the winter in North
America.
8. Compare and contrast pollutants in outdoor and indoor air, including their eects on human health.
Points to Consider
High levels of certain hormones can increase the risk of some types of cancer. For example, high levels of
estrogen can increase the risk of breast cancer. Estrogen is a sex hormone.
What are sex hormones? How do sex hormones normally aect the body?
Do you think sex hormones might dier in males and females? Why?
Image Sources
(1) (E coli) Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH; (Herpes simplex) CDC/Dr. Erskine Palmer;
(Death cap) Archenzo; (Giarda lamblia) CDC/Janice Carr. [(E coli)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EscherichiaColi_NIAID.jpg; (Herpes simplex)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Herpes_simplex_virus_TEM_B82-0474_lores.jpg;
(Death cap) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amanita_phalloides_1.JPG; (Giarda
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lamblia) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Giardia_lamblia_SEM_8698_lores.jpg ]. (E
coli) Public Domain; (Herpes simplex) Public Domain; (Death cap) GNU-FDL 1.2; (Giarda lamblia)
Public Domain.
(2) Image Copyright n.n, 2010, modied by CK-12 Foundation. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used
under license from Shutterstock.com.
(3) Courtesy of the National Institutes of Health and DO11.10.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Antigen_presentation.jpg. Public Domain.
(4) Image Copyright Sebastian Kaulitzki, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license
(5) Image Copyright mikeledray, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(6) Courtesy of EPA. http://www.epa.gov/oar/airtrends/2007/graphics/AQI_textbox.gif. Public
Domain.
(7) The Emirr. Human lymphatic system.. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(8) SineWave. Home carbon monoxide detector. Public Domain.
from Shtuterstock.com.
(10) Roke.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:People_living_with_HIV_AIDS_world_map.PNG.
GNU-FDL 1.2.
(11) Image courtesy of Blaj Gabriel, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
shutterstock.com.
(13) Courtesy of the National Institutes of Health and DO11.10..
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cytotoxic_T_cell.jpg. Public Domain.
(14) James Gathany/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sneeze.JPG. Public Domain.
(16) Image copyright Robert Anthony, 2010. . Used under license under Shutterstock.com.
(18) (Ragweed) Frank Mayeld; (Poison ivy) John J. Mosesso/National Biological Information
Infrastructure. [(Ragweed) http://www.flickr.com/photos/33397993@N05/3121278444; (Poison
ivy) http://life.nbii.gov/dml/mediadetail.do?id=703&pt=l2Search&navbar=
page1_view1_title_asc_15 ]. (Ragweed) CC-BY-SA 2.0; (Poison ivy) Public Domain.
(19) Courtesy of the National Institutes of Health and DO11.10.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:B_cell_activation.png. Public Domain.
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(21) Fvasconcellos. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Antibody.svg. Public Domain.

Opening image courtesy of Bruce Wetzel/Harry Schaefer/National Cancer Institute (http://visualsonline.
cancer.gov/details.cfm?imageid=1762), colorized by Sam McCabe, and is in the public domain.
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Chapter 12
Reproduction and Human
Development
This image depicts a true wonder of nature. This tiny human sperm is penetrating a much larger egg.
These two cells will unite to become a brand new human being. The process in which they unite is called
fertilization. Do you know how sperm and egg cells are produced? When and where do they form? Do you
know what will happen to the egg and sperm after they unite? How will the fertilized egg develop into a
complete and very complex human being? Youll nd answers to all of these questions when you read this
chapter.
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12.1
Male Reproductive System
Lesson Objectives
Identify male reproductive structures and their functions.
Explain how the male reproductive system develops.
Describe how sperm are produced.
Vocabulary
adolescent growth spurt

ejaculation
epididymis
luteinizing hormone (LH)
penis
puberty
reproductive system
semen
sex hormone
spermatogenesis
testis
testosterone
Introduction
The reproductive system in both males and females consists of structures that produce reproductive
cells, or gametes, and secrete sex hormones. A gamete is a haploid cell that combines with another haploid
gamete during fertilization. Sex hormones are chemical messengers that control sexual development and
reproduction. The male reproductive system consists of structures that produce male gametes called sperm
and secrete the male sex hormone testosterone.
Male Reproductive Structures

The main structures of the male reproductive system are shown in Figure 12.1. Locate them in the gure
as you read about them below. You can also watch an animation about male reproductive structures at
this link: http://www.medindia.net/animation/male_reproductive_system.asp.
Penis
The penis is an external genital organ with a long shaft and enlarged tip called the glans penis. The shaft
of the penis contains erectile tissues that can ll with blood and cause an erection. When this occurs, the
penis gets bigger and stier. The urethra passes through the penis. Sperm pass out of the body through
the urethra. (During urination, the urethra carries urine from the bladder.)
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Figure 12.1: Male Reproductive Structures. Organs of the male reproductive system include the penis,
testes, and epididymis. Several ducts and glands are also part of the system. Do you know the reproductive
functions of any of these structures?
Testes
The two testes (singular, testis) are located below the penis. They hang between the thighs in a sac of
skin called the scrotum. Each testis contains more than 30 meters (90 feet) of tiny, tightly packed tubules
called seminiferous tubules. These tubules are the functional units of the testes. They produce sperm and
secrete testosterone.
Epididymis
The seminiferous tubules within each testis join to form the epididymis. The epididymis (plural, epididymes) is a coiled tube about 6 meters (20 feet) long lying atop the testis inside the scrotum. The
functions of the epididymis are to mature and store mature sperm until they leave the body.
Ducts and Glands

In addition to these organs, the male reproductive system consists of a series of ducts and glands. Ducts
include the vas deferens and ejaculatory ducts. They transport sperm from the epididymes to the urethra
in the penis. Glands include the seminal vesicles and prostate gland. They secrete substances that become
part of semen.
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Semen
Semen is the uid that carries sperm through the urethra and out of the body. In addition to sperm,
it contains secretions from the glands. The secretions control pH and provide sperm with nutrients for
energy.
Sexual Development in Males

The only obvious dierence between boys and girls at birth is their reproductive organs. However, even
the reproductive organs start out the same in both sexes.
Development Before Birth

In the rst several weeks after fertilization, males and females are essentially the same except for their
chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes (XX), and males have an X and a Y chromosome (XY).
Then, during the second month after fertilization, genes on the Y chromosome of males cause the secretion
of testosterone. Testosterone stimulates the reproductive organs to develop into male organs. (Without
testosterone, the reproductive organs always develop into female organs.) Although boys have male reproductive organs at birth, the organs are immature and not yet able to produce sperm or secrete testosterone.
Puberty and Its Changes

The reproductive organs grow very slowly during childhood and do not mature until puberty. Puberty
is the period during which humans become sexually mature. In the U.S., boys generally begin puberty at
about age 12 and complete it at about age 18. What causes puberty to begin? The hypothalamus in the
brain tells the pituitary gland to secrete hormones that target the testes. The main pituitary hormone
involved is luteinizing hormone (LH). It stimulates the testes to secrete testosterone. Testosterone, in
turn, promotes protein synthesis and growth. It brings about most of the physical changes of puberty, some
of which are shown in Figure 12.2. You can watch an animation of these and other changes that occur
in boys during puberty at this link: http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/interactives/
lifecycle/teenagers/.
Adolescent Growth Spurt

Another obvious change that occurs during puberty is rapid growth. This is called the adolescent growth
spurt. In boys, it is controlled by testosterone. The rate of growth usually starts to increase relatively
early in puberty. At its peak rate, growth in height is about 10 centimeters (almost 4 inches) per year in
the average male. Growth generally remains rapid for several years. Growth and development of muscles
occur toward the end of the growth spurt in height. Muscles may continue to develop and gain strength
after growth in height is nished.
Production and Delivery of Sperm

A sexually mature male produces an astounding number of spermtypically, hundreds of millions each
day! Sperm production usually continues uninterrupted until death, although the number and quality of
sperm decline during later adulthood.
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Figure 12.2: Some of the changes that occur in boys during puberty are shown in this gure. Pubic hair
grows, and the penis and testes both become larger.
Spermatogenesis
The process of producing mature sperm is called spermatogenesis. Sperm are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes and become mature in the epididymis. The entire process takes about 9 to 10
weeks. You can watch an animation of spermatogenesis at this link: http://wps.aw.com/bc_martini_
eap_4/40/10469/2680298.cw/content/index.html. If you look inside the seminiferous tubule drawing
shown in Figure 12.3, you can see cells in various stages of spermatogenesis. The tubule is lined with
spermatogonia, which are diploid, sperm-producing cells. Surrounding the spermatogonia are other cells.
Some of these other cells secrete substances to nourish sperm, and some secrete testosterone, which is
needed for sperm production.
Spermatogonia lining the seminiferous tubule undergo mitosis to form primary spermatocytes, which are
also diploid. The primary spermatocytes undergo the rst meiotic division to form secondary spermatocytes, which are haploid. Spermatocytes make up the next layer of cells inside the seminiferous tubule.
Finally, the secondary spermatocytes complete meiosis to form spermatids. Spermatids make up a third
layer of cells in the tubule.
Sperm Maturation
After spermatids form, they move into the epididymis to mature into sperm, like the one shown in Figure
12.4. The spermatids grow a tail and lose excess cytoplasm from the head. When a sperm is mature, the
tail can rotate like a propeller, so the sperm can propel itself forward. Mitochondria in the connecting piece
produce the energy needed for movement. The head of the mature sperm consists mainly of the nucleus,
which carries copies of the fathers chromosomes. The part of the head called the acrosome produces
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Figure 12.3: Seminiferous Tubule. This drawing shows an enlarged cross section of a seminiferous tubule.
enzymes that help the head penetrate an egg.
Figure 12.4: Mature Sperm Cell. A mature sperm cell has several structures that help it reach and
penetrate an egg. These structures include the tail, mitochondria, and acrosome. How does each structure
contribute to the sperms function?
Ejaculation
Sperm are released from the body during ejaculation. Ejaculation occurs when muscle contractions propel
sperm from the epididymes. The sperm are forced through the ducts and out of the body through the
urethra. As sperm travel through the ducts, they mix with uids from the glands to form semen. Hundreds
of millions of sperm are released with each ejaculation.
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Lesson Summary
The male reproductive system consists of structures that produce sperm and secrete testosterone.
They include the penis, testes, and epididymes.
The male reproductive system forms before birth but does not become capable of reproduction until it
matures during puberty. Puberty lasts from about ages 12 to 18 years and is controlled by hormones.
Sperm are produced in the testes in the process of spermatogenesis. They mature in the epididymes
before being ejaculated from the body through the penis.

Recall
1. What are the two major roles of the male reproductive system?
2. Name two male reproductive organs and identify their functions.
3. List three physical changes that occur in males during puberty.
4. Outline the process of spermatogenesis. What cells are involved in the process?
5. Where do sperm mature and how do they leave the body?
Apply Concepts
6. Sexual dimorphism refers to dierences between males and females of the same species. Applying what
you read in this lesson, describe how human sexual dimorphism changes from fertilization to adulthood.
Think Critically
7. Explain how and why boys change so much during puberty.
8. If a man did not have functioning epididymes, predict how his sperm would be aected. How would
this inuence his ability to reproduce?
Points to Consider
By the time they nish puberty, males have developed the traits of mature adults of their own sex. Adult
males dier from adult females in many ways. Many of the dierences come about because females and
males develop dierently during puberty.
How do you think females change during puberty?
Do you know when females begin puberty? Do you think its the same age as males?
What hormones do you think control puberty in females?
12.2
Female Reproductive System
Lesson Objectives
Identify female reproductive structures and their functions.
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Explain how the female reproductive system develops.

Describe how eggs are produced.
Outline the phases of the menstrual cycle.
Vocabulary
estrogen
fallopian tube
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
menarche
menopause
menstrual cycle
menstruation
oogenesis
ovulation
vulva
Introduction
The female reproductive system consists of structures that produce female gametes called eggs and secrete
the female sex hormone estrogen. The female reproductive system has several other functions as well:
1.
2.
3.
4.
It
It
It
It
receives sperm during sexual intercourse.

supports the development of a fetus.
delivers a baby during birth.
breast-feeds a baby after birth.
Female Reproductive Structures

The main structures of the female reproductive system are shown in Figure 12.5. Most of the structures
are inside the pelvic region of the body. Locate the structures in the gure as you read about them below.
To watch an animation of the female reproductive system, go to this link: http://www.medindia.net/
animation/female_reproductive_system.asp.
External Structures
The external female reproductive structures are referred to collectively as the vulva. They include the
labia (singular, labium), which are the lips of the vulva. The labia protect the vagina and urethra, both
of which have openings in the vulva.
Vagina
The vagina is a tube-like structure about 9 centimeters (3.5 inches) long. It begins at the vulva and extends
upward to the uterus. It has muscular walls lined with mucous membranes. The vagina has two major
reproductive functions. It receives sperm during sexual intercourse, and it provides a passageway for a
baby to leave the mothers body during birth.
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Figure 12.5: Female Reproductive Structures. Organs of the female reproductive system include the vagina,
uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes.
Uterus
The uterus is a muscular organ shaped like an upside-down pear. It has a thick lining of tissues called the
endometrium. The lower, narrower end of the uterus is known as the cervix. The uterus is where a fetus
grows and develops until birth. During pregnancy, the uterus can expand greatly to make room for the
baby as it grows. During birth, contractions of the muscular walls of the uterus push the baby through
the cervix and out of the body.
Ovaries
The two ovaries are small, egg-shaped organs that lie on either side of the uterus. They produce eggs and
secrete estrogen. Each egg is located inside a structure called a follicle. Cells in the follicle protect the egg
and help it mature.
Fallopian Tubes
Extending from the upper corners of the uterus are the two fallopian tubes. Each tube reaches (but is
not attached to) one of the ovaries. The ovary end of the tube has a fringelike structure that moves in
waves. The motion sweeps eggs from the ovary into the tube.
Breasts
The breasts are not directly involved in reproduction, but they nourish a baby after birth. Each breast
contains mammary glands, which secrete milk. The milk drains into ducts leading to the nipple. A suckling
baby squeezes the milk out of the ducts and through the nipple.
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Sexual Development in Females

Female reproductive organs form before birth. However, as in males, the organs do not mature until
puberty.
Development Before Birth

Unlike males, females are not inuenced by the male sex hormone testosterone during embryonic development. This is because they lack a Y chromosome. As a result, females do not develop male reproductive
organs. By the third month of fetal development, most of the internal female organs have formed. Immature eggs also form in the ovary before birth. Whereas a mature male produces sperm throughout his life,
a female produces all the eggs she will ever make before birth.
Changes of Puberty
Like baby boys, baby girls are born with all their reproductive organs present but immature and unable
to function. Female reproductive organs also grow very little until puberty. Girls begin puberty a year
or two earlier than boys, at an average age of 10 years. Girls also complete puberty sooner than boys, in
about 4 years instead of 6. Puberty in girls starts when the hypothalamus tells the pituitary gland to
secrete hormones that target the ovaries. Two pituitary hormones are involved: luteinizing hormone (LH)
and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). These hormones stimulate the ovary to produce estrogen.
Estrogen, in turn, promotes growth and other physical changes of puberty. It stimulates growth and
development of the internal reproductive organs, breasts, and pubic hair (see Figure 12.6). You can
watch an animation of these and other changes that girls experience during puberty at this link: http:
//www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/interactives/lifecycle/teenagers/.
Figure 12.6: Changes in Females During Puberty. Two obvious changes of puberty in girls are growth and
development of the breasts and pubic hair. The stages begin around age 10 and are completed by about
age 14.
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Adolescent Growth Spurt

Like boys, girls also go through an adolescent growth spurt. However, girls typically start their growth
spurt a year or two earlier than boys (and therefore a couple of centimeters shorter, on average). Girls
also have a shorter growth spurt. For example, they typically reach their adult height by about age 15. In
addition, girls generally do not grow as fast as boys do during the growth spurt, even at their peak rate of
growth. As a result, females are about 10 centimeters (about 4 inches) shorter, on average, than males by
the time they reach their nal height.
Menarche
One of the most signicant changes in females during puberty is menarche. Menarche is the beginning
of menstruation, or monthly periods. In U.S. girls, the average age of menarche is 12.5 years, although
there is a lot of variation in this age. The variation may be due to a combination of genetic factors and
environmental factors, such as diet.
Egg Production
At birth, a females ovaries contain all the eggs she will ever produce. However, the eggs do not start to
mature until she enters puberty. After menarche, one egg typically matures each month until a woman
reaches middle adulthood.
Oogenesis
The process of producing eggs in the ovary is called oogenesis. Eggs, like sperm, are haploid cells, and
their production occurs in several steps that involve dierent types of cells, as shown in Figure 12.7. You
can follow the process of oogenesis in the gure as you read about it below.
Oogenesis begins long before birth when an oogonium with the diploid number of chromosomes undergoes
mitosis. It produces a diploid daughter cell called a primary oocyte. The primary oocyte, in turn, starts to
go through the rst cell division of meiosis (meiosis I). However, it does not complete meiosis until much
later. The primary oocyte remains in a resting state, nestled in a tiny, immature follicle until puberty.
Maturation of a Follicle
Beginning in puberty, each month one of the follicles and its primary oocyte starts to mature (also see
Figure 12.8). The primary oocyte resumes meiosis and divides to form a secondary oocyte and a smaller
cell, called a polar body. Both the secondary oocyte and polar body are haploid cells. The secondary
oocyte has most of the cytoplasm from the original cell and is much larger than the polar body.
Ovulation and Fertilization

After 1214 days, when the follicle is mature, it bursts open, releasing the secondary oocyte from the
ovary. This event is called ovulation (see Figure 12.8). The follicle, now called a corpus luteum, starts
to degenerate, or break down. After the secondary oocyte leaves the ovary, it is swept into the nearby
fallopian tube by the waving, fringelike end (see Figure 12.9).
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Figure 12.7: Oogenesis. Oogenesis begins before birth but is not nished until after puberty. A mature
egg forms only if a secondary oocyte is fertilized by a sperm.
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Figure 12.8: Maturation of a Follicle and Ovulation. A follicle matures and its primary oocyte (follicle)
resumes meiosis to form a secondary oocyte in the secondary follicle. The follicle ruptures and the oocyte
leaves the ovary during ovulation. What happens to the ruptured follicle then?
Figure 12.9: Egg Entering Fallopian Tube. After ovulation, the fringelike end of the fallopian tube sweeps
the oocyte inside of the tube, where it begins its journey to the uterus.
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If the secondary oocyte is fertilized by a sperm as it is passing through the fallopian tube, it completes
meiosis and forms a mature egg and another polar body. (The polar bodies break down and disappear.) If
the secondary oocyte is not fertilized, it passes into the uterus as an immature egg and soon disintegrates.
You can watch an animation of all these events and the hormones that control them at the link below.
http://health.howstuffworks.com/adam-200017.htm
Menstrual Cycle
Ovulation is part of the menstrual cycle, which typically occurs each month in a sexually mature female
unless she is pregnant. Another part of the cycle is the monthly period, or menstruation. Menstruation
is the process in which the endometrium of the uterus is shed from the body. The menstrual cycle is
controlled by hormones from the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and ovaries. For an interactive animation
of the menstrual cycle, you can go this link: http://health.howstuffworks.com/adam-200132.htm
Phases of the Menstrual Cycle

As shown in Figure 12.10, the menstrual cycle occurs in several phases. The cycle begins with menstruation. During menstruation, arteries that supply the endometrium of the uterus constrict. As a result, the
endometrium breaks down and detaches from the uterus. It passes out of the body through the vagina
over a period of several days.
After menstruation, the endometrium begins to build up again. At the same time, a follicle starts maturing
in an ovary. Ovulation occurs around day 14 of the cycle. After it occurs, the endometrium continues to
build up in preparation for a fertilized egg. What happens next depends on whether the egg is fertilized.
If the egg is fertilized, the endometrium will be maintained and help nourish the egg. The ruptured follicle,
now called the corpus luteum, will secrete the hormone progesterone. This hormone keeps the endometrium
from breaking down. If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum will break down and disappear. Without
progesterone, the endometrium will also break down and be shed. A new menstrual cycle thus begins.
Menopause
For most women, menstrual cycles continue until their mid- to late forties. Then women go through
menopause, a period during which their menstrual cycles slow down and eventually stop, generally by
their early fties. After menopause, women can no longer reproduce naturally because their ovaries no
longer produce eggs.
Lesson Summary
The female reproductive system consists of structures that produce eggs and secrete female sex
hormones. They also provide a site for fertilization and enable the development and birth of a fetus.
They include the vagina, uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes.
Female reproductive organs form before birth. However, they do not mature until puberty.
Immature eggs form in the ovaries before birth. Each month, starting in puberty, one egg matures
and is released from the ovary. Release of an egg is called ovulation.
The menstrual cycle includes events that take place in the ovary, such as ovulation. It also includes
changes in the uterus, including menstruation. Menopause occurs when menstruation stops occurring,
usually in middle adulthood.
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Figure 12.10: Phases of the Menstrual Cycle. The menstrual cycle occurs in the phases shown here.

Recall
1. List three general functions of the female reproductive system.
2. Describe the uterus, and state its role in reproduction.
3. State two ways that puberty diers in girls and boys.
4. Describe ovulation.
5. Dene menstruation. What is the rst menstrual period called?
6. What is menopause? When does it occur?
Apply Concepts
7. Create a ow chart showing the steps in which an oogonium develops into a mature egg.
8. Make a cycle diagram to represent the main events of the menstrual cycle in both the ovaries and the
uterus, including the days when they occur.
Think Critically
9. Predict how blockage of both fallopian tubes would aect a womans ability to reproduce naturally.
Explain your answer.
10. Males and females are quite similar in height when they begin the adolescent growth spurt. Why are
females about 10 centimeters shorter than males by adulthood?
11. Compare and contrast what happens in the menstrual cycle when the egg is fertilized with what
happens when the egg is not fertilized.
Points to Consider
If an egg is fertilized by a sperm and implants in the uterus, the endometrium helps nourish it. However, as
the new organism grows, it soon needs more nutrients than the endometrium can provide. These nutrients
are provided by the mothers bloodstream.
How do you think the fetus is able to obtain nutrients from the mothers blood? What structures
and processes might be involved?
The fetus also produces wastes. How do you think the wastes are excreted?
12.3
From Fertilization to Old Age
Lesson Objectives
Outline the events that occur between fertilization and the embryonic stage.
Explain how the embryo forms specialized cells and organs.
Identify major events in the growth and development of the fetus.
Explain the role of the placenta during fetal development.
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Describe pregnancy and childbirth.

List milestones in growth and development from birth to adulthood.
Describe the stages of adulthood, and explain why aging occurs.
Vocabulary
adolescence
amniotic sac
blastocyst
dierentiation
embryo
fetus
implantation
infancy
pregnancy
Introduction
A day or two after an ovary releases an egg, the egg may unite with a sperm. Sperm are deposited in the
vagina during sexual intercourse. They propel themselves through the uterus and enter a fallopian tube.
This is where fertilization usually takes place.
Cleavage and Implantation

When a sperm penetrates the egg, it triggers the egg to complete meiosis. The sperm also undergoes
changes. Its tail falls o, and its nucleus fuses with the nucleus of the egg. The resulting cell, called a
zygote, contains all the chromosomes needed for a new human organism. Half the chromosomes come from
the egg and half from the sperm.
Morula and Blastocyst Stages

The zygote spends the next few days traveling down the fallopian tube toward the uterus, where it will
take up residence. As it travels, it divides by mitosis several times to form a ball of cells called a morula.
The cell divisions are called cleavage. They increase the number of cells but not the overall size of the new
organism. As more cell divisions occur, a uid-lled cavity forms inside the ball of cells. At this stage,
the ball of cells is called a blastocyst. The cells of the blastocyst form an inner cell mass and an outer
cell layer, as shown in Figure 12.11. The inner cell mass is called the embryoblast. These cells will soon
develop into an embryo. The outer cell layer is called the trophoblast. These cells will develop into other
structures needed to support and nourish the embryo.
Implantation
The blastocyst continues down the fallopian tube and reaches the uterus about 4 or 5 days after fertilization.
When the outer cells of the blastocyst contact cells of the endometrium lining the uterus, the blastocyst
embeds in the endometrium. The process of embedding is called implantation. It generally occurs
about a week after fertilization. You can watch an animation of a blastocyst implanting at this link:
http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/notes/week2_3.htm
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Figure 12.11: Blastocyst. The blastocyst consists of an outer layer of cells called the trophoblast and an
inner cell mass called the embryoblast.
Growth and Development of the Embryo

After implantation occurs, the blastocyst is called an embryo. The embryonic stage lasts through the
eighth week following fertilization. During this time, the embryo grows in size and becomes more complex.
It develops specialized cells and tissues and starts to form most organs. For an interactive animation of
embryonic development, go to this link: http://health.howstuffworks.com/adam-200129.htm.
Formation of Cell Layers

During the second week after fertilization, cells in the embryo migrate to form three distinct cell layers,
called the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Each layer will soon develop into dierent types of cells
and tissues, as shown in Figure 12.12.
Dierentiation of Cells
A zygote is a single cell. How does a single cell develop into many dierent types of cells? During the
third week after fertilization, the embryo begins to undergo cellular dierentiation. Dierentiation is
the process by which unspecialized cells become specialized. As illustrated in Figure 12.13, dierentiation occurs as certain genes are expressed while other genes are switched o. Because of this process,
cells develop unique structures and abilities that suit them for their specialized functions. You can explore cell dierentiation by watching the video at this link: http://videos.howstuffworks.com/hsw/
10313-the-cell-cell-differentiation-video.htm.
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Figure 12.12: Cell Layers of the Embryo. The migration of cells into three layers occurs in the 2-week-old
embryo. What organs eventually develop from the ectoderm cell layer? Which cell layer develops into
muscle tissues?
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Figure 12.13: Cellular dierentiation occurs in the 3-week-old embryo.
Organ Formation
After cells dierentiate, all the major organs begin to form during the remaining weeks of embryonic
development. A few of the developments that occur in the embryo during weeks 4 through 8 are listed
in Figure 12.14. As the embryo develops, it also grows in size. By the eighth week of development, the
embryo is about 30 millimeters (just over 1 inch) in length. It may also have begun to move.
Growth and Development of the Fetus

From the end of the eighth week until birth, the developing organism is referred to as a fetus. Birth
typically occurs at about 38 weeks after fertilization, so the fetal period generally lasts about 30 weeks.
During this time, as outlined in Figure 12.15, the organs complete their development. The fetus also
grows rapidly in length and weight. For detailed videos of growth and development of the fetus birth, go
to these links: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aR-Qa_LD2m4&feature=related and http:
//www.youtube.com/watch?v=RS1ti23SUSw&feature=related.
By the 38th week, the fetus is fully developed and ready to be born (see Figure 12.16). A 38-week
fetus normally ranges from 36 to 51 centimeters (1420 inches) in length and weighs between 2.7 and 4.6
kilograms (about 610 pounds).
Placenta and Related Structures

The fetus could not grow and develop without oxygen and nutrients from the mother. Wastes from the
fetus must also be removed in order for it to survive. The exchange of these substances between the mother
and fetus occurs through the placenta.
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Figure 12.14: Embryonic Development (Weeks 48). Most organs develop in the embryo during weeks 4
through 8. If the embryo is exposed to toxins during this period, the eects are likely to be very damaging.
Can you explain why? (Note: the drawings of the embryos are not to scale.)
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Figure 12.15: Fetal Development (Weeks 938). Organ development is completed and body size increases
dramatically during weeks 938.
Figure 12.16: A 38-week-old fetus has completed development and will soon be born.
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Placenta
The placenta is a temporary organ that begins to form from the trophoblast layer of cells shortly after
implantation. (For an animation showing how the placenta forms, go to link below.) The placenta continues
to develop and grow to meet the needs of the growing fetus. A fully developed placenta, like the one in
Figure 12.16, is made up of a large mass of blood vessels from both the mother and fetus. The maternal
and fetal vessels are close together but separated by tiny spaces. This allows the mothers and fetuss blood
to exchange substances across their capillary walls without the blood actually mixing.
http://health.howstuffworks.com/adam-200122.htm
The fetus is connected to the placenta through the umbilical cord, a tube that contains two arteries and a
vein. Blood from the fetus enters the placenta through the umbilical arteries, exchanges gases and other
substances with the mothers blood, and travels back to the fetus through the umbilical vein.
Amniotic Sac and Fluid

Attached to the placenta is the amniotic sac, an enclosed membrane that surrounds and protects the
fetus (see Figure 12.16). It contains amniotic uid, which consists of water and dissolved substances. The
uid allows the fetus to move freely until it grows to ll most of the available space. The uid also cushions
the fetus and helps protect it from injury.
Pregnancy and Childbirth

Pregnancy is the carrying of one or more ospring from fertilization until birth. It is the development of
an embryo and fetus from the expectant mothers point of view.
The Mothers Role

The pregnant mother plays a critical role in the development of the embryo and fetus. She must avoid
toxic substances such as alcohol, which can damage the developing ospring. She must also provide all the
nutrients and other substances needed for normal growth and development. Most nutrients are needed in
greater amounts by a pregnant woman, but some are especially important, including folic acid (vitamin
B9), calcium, iron, and omega-3 fatty acids.
Childbirth
Near the time of birth, the amniotic sac breaks in a gush of uid. Labor usually begins within a day
of this event. Labor involves contractions of the muscular walls of the uterus, which cause the cervix to
dilate. With the mothers help, the contractions eventually push the fetus out of the uterus and through
the vagina. Within seconds of birth, the umbilical cord is cut. Without this connection to the placenta,
the baby cannot exchange gases, so carbon dioxide quickly builds up in the babys blood. This stimulates
the brain to trigger breathing, and the newborn takes its rst breath.
From Birth to Adulthood

For the rst year after birth, a baby is called an infant. Childhood begins at age two and continues until
adolescence. Adolescence is the last stage of life before adulthood.
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Infancy
Infancy is the rst year of life after birth. Infants are born with a surprising range of abilities. For
example, they have well-developed senses of touch, hearing, and smell. They can also communicate their
needs by crying. During their rst year, they develop many other abilities, including those described below.
For a video of major milestones in the rst year of life, go to this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=5_Ao_3hTS6I&feature=channel.
By 6 weeks after birth, infants typically start smiling (see Figure 12.17) and making vocal sounds. By
6 months, infants are babbling. They have also learned to sit and are starting to crawl. The deciduous
(baby) teeth have started to come in. By 12 months, infants may be saying their rst words. They usually
can stand with help and may even have started to walk.
Figure 12.17: A babys rst smile is an early milestone in infant development.

Infancy is the period of most rapid growth after birth. Growth is even faster during infancy that it is
during puberty. By the end of the rst year, the average baby is twice as long as it was at birth and three
times as heavy.
Childhood
A toddler is a child aged 1 to 3 years. Children of this age are learning to walk, or toddle. Growth is
still relatively rapid during the toddler years but it has begun to slow down. During the next three years,
children achieve many more milestones.
By age 4, most children can run, climb stairs, and scribble with a crayon. They know many words
and use simple sentences. The majority are also toilet trained.
By age ve, children are able to carry on conversations, recognize letters and words, and use a pencil
to trace letters. They can usually tie their own shoelaces and may be learning to ride a bicycle, swing
a bat, kick a ball and play other games (Figure 12.18).
By age 6, most children begin losing their deciduous teeth, and their permanent teeth start coming
in. They speak uently and are learning to read and write. They spend more time with peers and
develop friendships.
Older children continue to grow slowly until they start the adolescent growth spurt during puberty. They
also continue to develop mentally, emotionally, and socially. Think about all the ways you have changed
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Figure 12.18: Five year olds can usually play various games.
since you were as young as the child in Figure 12.18. What milestones of development did you achieve
during these childhood years?
Adolescence
Adolescence is the period of transition between the beginning of puberty and adulthood. You learned
about the physical changes of puberty earlier in this chapter. Adolescence is also a time of signicant
mental, emotional, and social changes. For example:
Adolescents
Adolescents
Adolescents
Adolescents
Adolescents
generally develop the ability to think abstractly.

may have mood swings because of surging hormones.
usually try to be more independent from their parents.
typically spend much of their time with peers.
may start to develop intimate relationships.
Adulthood and Aging

Adulthood does not have a denite starting point. A person may be physically mature by age 16 or 17 but
not dened as an adult by law until older ages. In the U.S., you cant join the armed forces or vote until
age 18. You cant buy or use alcohol or take on many legal and nancial responsibilities until age 21.
Early Adulthood
Early adulthood coincides with the 20s and early 30s. During early adulthood, people generally form
intimate relationships, both in friendship and love. Many people become engaged or marry during this
time. Often they are completing their education and becoming established in a career. Health problems in
young adults tend to be minor. The most common causes of death are homicides, car crashes, and suicides.
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Middle Adulthood
Middle adulthood lasts from the mid-30s to the mid-60s. During this stage of life, many people raise a
family and strive to attain career goals. They start showing physical signs of aging, such as wrinkles and
gray hair. Typically, vision, strength, and reaction time start declining. Diseases such as type 2 diabetes,
cardiovascular disease, and cancer are often diagnosed during this stage of life. These diseases are also the
chief causes of death in middle adulthood.
Old Age
Old age begins in the mid-60s and lasts until the end of life. Most people over 65 have retired from work,
freeing up their time for hobbies, grandchildren, and other interests. Stamina, strength, reex time, and
the senses all decline during old age, and the number of brain cells decreases as well. The immune system
becomes less eicient, increasing the risk of serious illnesses such as cancer and pneumonia. Diseases such
as Alzheimers disease that cause loss of mental function also become more common.
Causes of Aging
Why do we decline in all these ways as we age? Generally, its because cells stop dividing and die. There
are at least two reasons why cells stop dividing:
1. Cells are programmed to divide only a set number of times.
2. Mutations accumulate in DNA, and cells with damaged DNA may not divide.
KQED: Embryonic Stem Cell Research

As we have seen in this lesson, you begin life as a single cell. By the time you were born, that cell had
gone through millions of divisions. By adulthood, youre made up of approximately 100 trillion individual
cells. There are about 200 dierent types of cells that make these 100 trillion cells, all all these cells work
together to allow you to live. Each cell, or group of cells, has a specic task or specialty. Those specialties
allow an organism to function.
During early development, embryonic stem cells are present. These are undierentiated cells that have the
potential to turn into any type of cell. This potential is what makes these cells very good candidates for
medical treatments, such as treating individuals with heart disease. To learn more about stem cells, see
http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/stem-cell-gold-rush.
Lesson Summary
Fertilization is the union of a sperm and egg, resulting in the formation of a zygote. The zygote
undergoes many cell divisions before it implants in the lining of the uterus.
The embryonic stage begins with implantation. An embryo forms three distinct cell layers, and each
layer develops into dierent types of cells and organs.
The fetal stage begins about two months after fertilization and continues until birth. During this
stage, organs continue to develop, and the fetus grows in size.
The placenta allows nutrients and wastes to be exchanged between the mother and fetus. The fetus
is connected to the placenta through the umbilical cord.
A pregnant woman should avoid toxins and take in adequate nutrients for normal fetal growth and
development. During childbirth, contractions of the uterus push the child out of the body.
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Growth and development are most rapid during infancy and slower throughout the rest of childhood
until adolescence. Adolescence involves mental, emotional, and social changes in addition to the
physical changes of puberty.
During early adulthood, people form intimate relationships and start careers. Serious health problems
start showing up in middle adulthood and old age. Aging occurs as cells lose their ability to divide.

Recall
1. What happens during fertilization? Where does it usually take place?
2. What is implantation? When does it occur?
3. Describe the role of the placenta in fetal development.
4. What causes the fetus to be pushed out of the uterus during birth?
5. When does adulthood begin?
6. Aging is associated with the death of cells. Give two reasons why cells die.
Apply Concepts
7. Make a ow chart of embryonic and fetal development.
8. Create a time line of milestones of growth and development from birth to adulthood.
Think Critically
9. Explain how the embryo forms specialized cells.
10. Why would an embryo be more susceptible than a fetus to damage by toxins?
11. Why is the umbilical cord cut before a newborn has started to breathe on its own?
12. Compare and contrast adolescence and puberty.
Points to Consider
Most diseases become more common as people grow older, but sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are
much more common in teens and young adults. These diseases are now usually called sexually transmitted
infections (STIs).
Can you name any STIs? Do you know how STIs spread?
What might explain why STIs are so common in young people?
12.4
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Lesson Objectives
Explain what causes STIs and how they can be prevented.
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Identify and describe three common bacterial STIs.

Identify and describe three common viral STIs.
Vocabulary
chlamydia
genital herpes
genital warts
gonorrhea
hepatitis B
human papilloma virus (HPV)
sexually transmitted infection (STI)
syphilis
trichomoniasis
Introduction
A shocking statistic made headlines in 2008. A recent study had found that one in four teen girls in
the U.S. had a sexually transmitted infection. A sexually transmitted infection (STI) (also known
as a sexually transmitted disease, or STD) is an infection caused by a pathogen that spreads mainly
through sexual contact. Worldwide, a million people a day become infected with STIs. The majority
of them are under the age of 25. For a video about sexually transmitted infections, go to this link:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bazh6p5rOFM.
Understanding Sexually Transmitted Infections

To be considered an STI, an infection must have only a small chance of spreading naturally in ways other
than sexual contact. Some infections that can spread through sexual contact, such as the common cold,
spread more commonly by other means. These infections are not considered STIs.
Pathogens that Cause STIs

STIs may be caused by several dierent types of pathogens, including protozoa, insects, bacteria, and
viruses. For example: Protozoa cause an STI called trichomoniasis. The pathogen infects the vagina
in females and the urethra in males, causing symptoms such as burning and itching. Trichomoniasis is
common in young people. Pubic lice, like the one in Figure 12.19, are insect parasites that are transmitted
sexually. They suck the blood of their host and irritate the skin in the pubic area.
Most STIs are caused by bacteria or viruses. Several of them are described below. Bacterial STIs can be
cured with antibiotics. Viral STIs cannot be cured. Once you are infected with a viral STI, you are likely
to be infected for life.
How STIs Spread

Most of the pathogens that cause STIs enter the body through mucous membranes of the reproductive
organs. All sexual behaviors that involve contact between mucous membranes put a person at risk for
infection. This includes vaginal, anal, and oral sexual behaviors. Many STIs can also be transmitted
through body uids such as blood, semen, and breast milk. Therefore, behaviors such as sharing injection
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Figure 12.19: Pubic Louse. Pubic lice like this one are only about as big as the head of a pin.
or tattoo needles is another way these STIs can spread. Why are STIs common in young people? One
reason is that young people often take risks. They may think, It cant happen to me. They also may not
know how STIs are spread, so they dont know how to protect themselves. In addition, young people may
have multiple sexual partners.
Preventing STIs
The only completely eective way to prevent infection with STIs is to avoid sexual contact and other risky
behaviors. Using condoms can lower the risk of becoming infected with STIs during some types of sexual
activity. However, condoms are not foolproof. Pathogens may be present on areas of the body not covered
by condoms. Condoms can also break or be used incorrectly.
Bacterial STIs
Many STIs are caused by bacteria. Some of the most common bacterial STIs are chlamydia, gonorrhea,
and syphilis.
Chlamydia
Chlamydia is the most common STI in the U.S. As shown in the graph in Figure 12.20, females are much
more likely than males to develop chlamydia. Like most STIs, rates of chlamydia are highest in teens and
young adults.
Symptoms of chlamydia may include a burning sensation during urination and a discharge from the vagina
or penis. Chlamydia can be cured with antibiotics, but often there are no symptoms, so people do not
seek treatment. Untreated chlamydia can lead to more serious problems, such as pelvic inammatory
disease (PID). This is an infection of the uterus, fallopian tubes, and/or ovaries. It can scar a womans
reproductive organs and make it diicult for her to become pregnant. To learn more about chlamydia,
watch the video at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qaazmU8YU7E&feature=fvw.
Gonorrhea
Gonorrhea is another common STI. Symptoms of gonorrhea may include painful urination and discharge
from the vagina or penis. Gonorrhea usually can be cured with antibiotics, although the bacteria have
developed resistance to many of the drugs. Gonorrhea infections may not cause symptoms, especially in
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Figure 12.20: This graph shows the number of cases of chlamydia per 100,000 people in the U.S. in 2004.
Which age group had the highest rates? How much higher were the rates for females aged 1519 than for
males in the same age group?
females, so they often go untreated. Untreated gonorrhea can lead to PID in females. It can lead to
inammation of the reproductive organs in males as well.
Syphilis
Syphilis is less common than chlamydia or gonorrhea but more serious if untreated. Early symptoms of
syphilis infection include a small sore on or near the genitals. The sore is painless and heals on its own,
so it may go unnoticed. If treated early, most cases of syphilis can be cured with antibiotics. Untreated
syphilis can cause serious damage to the heart, brain, and other organs. It may eventually lead to death.
Viral STIs
STIs caused by viruses include genital herpes, hepatitis B, genital warts, and HIV/AIDS, which is described
in Chapter 24.
Genital Herpes
Genital herpes is an STI caused by a herpes virus. In the U.S., as many as one in four people are infected
with the virus. Symptoms of genital herpes include painful blisters on the genitals (see Figure 12.21).
The blisters usually go away on their own, but the virus remains in the body, causing periodic outbreaks
of blisters throughout life. Outbreaks may be triggered by stress, illness, or other factors. A person
with genital herpes is most likely to transmit the virus during an outbreak. To learn more about genital
herpes, watch the video at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eXK6GKe1kOw&feature=
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PlayList&p=1386BB276DFC6837&playnext_from=PL.
Figure 12.21: Genital Herpes Blisters. Blisters like these on the genitals are a sign of genital herpes.
Hepatitis B
Hepatitis B is inammation of the liver caused by infection with the hepatitis B virus. In many people,
the immune system quickly eliminates the virus from the body. However, in a small percentage of people,
the virus remains in the body and continues to cause illness. It may eventually damage the liver and
increase the risk of liver cancer, which is usually fatal.
Genital Warts and Cervical Cancer

Infections with the human papillomavirus (HPV) are very common. HPV may cause genital warts,
which are small, rough growths on the genitals. It may also cause cancer of the cervix in females. A
simple test, called a PAP test, can detect cervical cancer. If the cancer is detected early, it usually can be
cured with surgery. There is also a vaccine to prevent infection with HPV. The vaccine is recommended
for females aged 11 to 26 years.
Lesson Summary
STIs are diseases caused by pathogens that spread through sexual contact. Abstinence from sexual
activity and other risk behaviors is the only completely eective way to prevent the spread of STIs.
Bacterial STIs include chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. These diseases usually can be cured with
antibiotics.
Viral STIs include genital herpes, hepatitis B, genital warts, and cervical cancer. These diseases
cannot be cured, but some of them can be prevented with vaccines.
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Recall
1. Describe how STIs spread.
2. What is the only completely eective way to prevent a sexually transmitted infection?
3. Identify three common STIs that are caused by bacteria.
4. Name and describe an STI caused by a virus.
Apply Concepts
5. Assume you are preparing a public service announcement (PSA) to explain to teens how and why to
avoid STIs. List three facts you think it would be important to include for an informative and persuasive
PSA.
Think Critically
6. Often, STIs do not cause symptoms. Why is it important to detect and treat STIs even when they do
not cause symptoms?
7. Explain how a lack of symptoms might contribute to the spread of STIs.
8. Compare and contrast bacterial and viral STIs with regard to their treatment, cure, and prevention.
Points to Consider
From fertilization to old age, the human body is like a fantastic machine. It controls its own growth and
development, protects itself from dangers in the outside world, and has amazing abilities to act, think, and
feel. Like all living things, human beings are marvels of nature.
What have you learned about human beings and other organisms by reading this book?
Has studying biology given you a greater understanding and appreciation of the living world?
Image Sources
(1) Tsaitgaist. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Female_anatomy_with_g-spot-en.svg.
(2) Image copyright GRei, 2011. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(3) J McHardy. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Tanner_scale-male.png.
CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(4) Fetus image courtesy of Melchior Meijer/3dpregnancy.com; composite created by CK-12
Foundation. Fetus at 18 weeks after fertilization.. CC-BY-SA 2.5.
(5) Image copyright GRei, 2011. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
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(6) Micha Komorniczak. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tanner_scale-female.svg.

CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(7) Image copyright Alexandru Cristian Ciobanu, 2011. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under
(8) Mysid. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray5.svg. Public Domain.
(9) Tsaitgaist. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Male_anatomy_en.svg. GNU-FDL 1.2.
(10) Image copyright S.Borisov, 2011. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
SHutterstock.com.
(11) Courtesy of SOA-AIDS Amsterdam.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SOA-Herpes-genitalis-female.jpg. GNU-FDL
1.2.
(12) Mike Jones. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stem_cells_diagram.png. CC-BY-SA 2.5.
(13) Image copyright scvit, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(14) Courtesy of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pthius_pubis_-_crab_louse.jpg. Public Domain.
(15) Cyhborg. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26914/. Public Domain.
(16) Two fetus images courtesy of Melchior Meijer/3DPregnancy.com; composite created by CK-12
Foundation. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:10_weeks_pregnant.png. CC-BY-SA
2.5.
(17) Shazz. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Order_of_changes_in_ovary.svg.
GNU-FDL 1.2.
(18) =g b r=. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blastocyst.png. GNU-FDL 1.2.
(19) Courtesy of the National Center for Biotechnology Information.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cell_differentiation.gif. Public Domain.
(20) Image copyright Andre Blais, 2011. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(21) CK-12 Foundation, based on data from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. .
CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0.
Opening image copyright by BioMedical, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
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Chapter 13
Cellular Structure and
Function
What is this incredible object? Would it surprise you to learn that it is a human cell? The image represents
a cell, similar to one that may be produced by a type of modern microscope called an electron microscope.
Without this technology, we wouldnt be able to see the structures inside cells. Cells may be small in size,
but they are extremely important to life. Like all other living things, you are made of cells. Cells are the
basis of life, and without cells, life as we know it would not exist. You will learn more about these amazing
building blocks of life when you read this chapter.
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13.1
Introduction to Cells
Lesson Objectives
State the cell theory, and list the discoveries that led to it.
Describe the diversity of cell shapes, and explain why cells are so small.
Identify the parts that all cells have in common.
Contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Vocabulary
cytoplasm
eukaryote
eukaryotic cell
nucleus
organelle
plasma membrane
prokaryote
prokaryotic cell
ribosome
virus
Introduction
If you look at living matter with a microscopeeven a simple light microscopeyou will see that it consists
of cells. Cells are the basic units of the structure and function of living things. They are the smallest units
that can carry out the processes of life. All organisms are made up of one or more cells, and all cells have
many of the same structures and carry out the same basic life processes. Knowing the structures of cells
and the processes they carry out is necessary to understanding life itself.
Discovery of Cells
The rst time the word cell was used to refer to these tiny units of life was in 1665 by a British scientist
named Robert Hooke. Hooke was one of the earliest scientists to study living things under a microscope.
The microscopes of his day were not very strong, but Hooke was still able to make an important discovery.
When he looked at a thin slice of cork under his microscope, he was surprised to see what looked like a
honeycomb. Hooke made the drawing in Figure 13.1 to show what he saw. As you can see, the cork was
made up of many tiny units, which Hooke called cells.
Leeuwenhoeks Discoveries
Soon after Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, Anton van Leeuwenhoek in Holland made other important
discoveries using a microscope. Leeuwenhoek made his own microscope lenses, and he was so good at it that
his microscope was more powerful than other microscopes of his day. In fact, Leeuwenhoeks microscope
was almost as strong as modern light microscopes. Using his microscope, Leeuwenhoek discovered tiny
animals such as rotifers. The magnied image of a rotifer in Figure 13.2 is similar to what Leeuwenhoek
observed. Leeuwenhoek also discovered human blood cells. He even scraped plaque from his own teeth
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Figure 13.1: Cork Cells. This is what Robert Hooke saw when he looked at a thin slice of cork under his
microscope. What type of material is cork? Do you know where cork comes from?
and observed it under the microscope. What do you think Leeuwenhoek saw in the plaque? He saw tiny
living things with a single cell that he named animalcules (tiny animals). Today, we call Leeuwenhoeks
animalcules bacteria.
Figure 13.2: Microscopic Rotifer. Rotifers like this one were rst observed by Aton van Leeuwenhoek. This
tiny animal is too small to be seen without a microscope.
The Cell Theory

By the early 1800s, scientists had observed the cells of many dierent organisms. These observations led
two German scientists, named Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden, to propose that cells are
the basic building blocks of all living things. Around 1850, a German doctor named Rudolf Virchow was
studying cells under a microscope when he happened to see them dividing and forming new cells. He
realized that living cells produce new cells through division. Based on this realization, Virchow proposed
that living cells arise only from other living cells. The ideas of all three scientistsSchwann, Schleiden,
and Virchowled to the cell theory, which is one of the fundamental theories of biology. The cell theory
states that:
All organisms are made of one or more cells.
All the life functions of organisms occur within cells.
All cells come from already existing cells.
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Microscopes
Starting with Robert Hooke in the 1600s, the microscope opened up an amazing new worldthe world
of life at the level of the cell. As microscopes continued to improve, more discoveries were made about
the cells of living things. However, by the late 1800s, light microscopes had reached their limit. Objects
much smaller than cells, including the structures inside cells, were too small to be seen with even the
strongest light microscope. Then, in the 1950s, a new type of microscope was invented. Called the electron
microscope, it used a beam of electrons instead of light to observe extremely small objects. With an
electron microscope, scientists could nally see the tiny structures inside cells. In fact, they could even
see individual molecules and atoms. The electron microscope had a huge impact on biology. It allowed
scientists to study organisms at the level of their molecules and led to the emergence of the eld of molecular
biology. With the electron microscope, many more cell discoveries were made. Figure 13.3 shows how the
cell structures called organelles appear when scanned by an electron microscope.
Figure 13.3: Electron Microscope Image of Organelles. An electron microscope produced this image of a
cell.
KQED: The Worlds Most Powerful Microscope

Lawrence Berkeley National labs uses a $27 million electron microscope to make images to a resolution
of half the width of a hydrogen atom. This makes it the worlds most powerful microscope. See http:
//www.kqed.org/quest/television/the-worlds-most-powerful-microscope and http://www.kqed.
org/quest/slideshow/web-extra-images-from-the-worlds-most-powerful-microscope for more information.

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KQED: Confocal Microscopy

Cutting-edge microscopes, called confocal microscopes, at the University of California, San Francisco are
helping scientists create three-dimensional images of cells, and may help lead to new medical breakthroughs, including a treatment for Type 1 diabetes. See http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/
super-microscope for a description of this work.
Diversity of Cells
Today, we know that all living cells have certain things in common. For example, all cells share functions
such as obtaining and using energy, responding to the environment, and reproducing. We also know that
dierent types of cellseven within the same organismmay have their own unique functions as well.
Cells with dierent functions generally have dierent shapes that suit them for their particular job. Cells
vary in size as well as shape, but all cells are very small. In fact, most cells are much smaller than the
period at the end of this sentence. If cells have such an important role in living organisms, why are they
so small? Even the largest organisms have microscopic cells. What limits cell size?
Cell Size
The answer to these questions is clear once you know how a cell functions. To carry out life processes, a
cell must be able to quickly pass substances into and out of the cell. For example, it must be able to pass
nutrients and oxygen into the cell and waste products out of the cell. Anything that enters or leaves a cell
must cross its outer surface. It is this need to pass substances across the surface that limits how large a
cell can be. Look at the two cubes in Figure 13.5. As this gure shows, a larger cube has less surface
area relative to its volume than a smaller cube. This relationship also applies to cells; a larger cell has
less surface area relative to its volume than a smaller cell. A cell with a larger volume also needs more
nutrients and oxygen and produces more wastes. Because all of these substances must pass through the
surface of the cell, a cell with a large volume will not have enough surface area to allow it to meet its needs.
The larger the cell is, the smaller its ratio of surface area to volume, and the harder it will be for the cell
to get rid of its wastes and take in necessary substances. This is what limits the size of the cell.
Cell Shape
Cells with dierent functions often have dierent shapes. The cells pictured in Figure 13.6 are just a few
examples of the many dierent shapes that cells may have. Each type of cell in the gure has a shape that
helps it do its job. For example, the job of the nerve cell is to carry messages to other cells. The nerve cell
has many long extensions that reach out in all directions, allowing it to pass messages to many other cells
at once. Do you see the tail-like projections on the algae cells? Algae live in water, and their tails help
them swim. Pollen grains have spikes that help them stick to insects such as bees. How do you think the
spikes help the pollen grains do their job? (Hint: Insects pollinate owers.)
Parts of a Cell
Although cells are diverse, all cells have certain parts in common. The parts include a plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA.
1. The plasma membrane (also called the cell membrane) is a thin coat of lipids that surrounds a
cell. It forms the physical boundary between the cell and its environment, so you can think of it as
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Figure 13.5: Surface Area to Volume Comparison. A larger cube has a smaller surface area (SA) to volume
(V) ratio than a smaller cube. This also holds true for cells and limits how large they can be.
Figure 13.6: As these pictures show, cells come in many dierent shapes. Clockwise from the upper left
photo are a nerve cell, red blood cells, bacteria, pollen grains, and algae. How are the shapes of these cells
related to their functions?
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the skin of the cell.

2. Cytoplasm refers to all of the cellular material inside the plasma membrane. Cytoplasm is made
up of a watery substance called cytosol and contains other cell structures such as ribosomes.
3. Ribosomes are structures in the cytoplasm where proteins are made.
4. DNA is a nucleic acid found in cells. It contains the genetic instructions that cells need to make
proteins.
These parts are common to all cells, from organisms as dierent as bacteria and human beings. How did
all known organisms come to have such similar cells? The similarities show that all life on Earth has a
common evolutionary history.
A nice introduction to the cell is available at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
33/Hmwvj9X4GNY (21:03).

Two Types of Cells

There is another basic cell structure that is present in many but not all living cells: the nucleus. The
nucleus of a cell is a structure in the cytoplasm that is surrounded by a membrane (the nuclear membrane)
and contains DNA. Based on whether they have a nucleus, there are two basic types of cells: prokaryotic
cells and eukaryotic cells. You can watch animations of both types of cells at the link below. http:
//www.learnerstv.com/animation/animation.php?ani=162&cat=biology
Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cells are cells without a nucleus. The DNA in prokaryotic cells is in the cytoplasm rather
than enclosed within a nuclear membrane. Prokaryotic cells are found in single-celled organisms, such as
bacteria, like the one shown in Figure 13.8. Organisms with prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes.
They were the rst type of organisms to evolve and are still the most common organisms today.
Bacteria are described in the following video http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
16/TDoGrbpJJ14 (18:26).
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus. A typical eukaryotic cell is shown in Figure 13.10.
Eukaryotic cells are usually larger than prokaryotic cells, and they are found mainly in multicellular
organisms. Organisms with eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes, and they range from fungi to people.
Eukaryotic cells also contain other organelles besides the nucleus. An organelle is a structure within the
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Figure 13.8: Prokaryotic Cell. This diagram shows the structure of a typical prokaryotic cell, a bacterium.
Like other prokaryotic cells, this bacterial cell lacks a nucleus but has other cell parts, including a plasma
membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA. Identify each of these parts in the diagram.

cytoplasm that performs a specic job in the cell. Organelles called mitochondria, for example, provide
energy to the cell, and organelles called vacuoles store substances in the cell. Organelles allow eukaryotic
cells to carry out more functions than prokaryotic cells can.
Viruses: Prokaryotes or Eukaryotes?

Viruses, like the one depicted in Figure 13.11, are tiny particles that may cause disease. Human diseases
caused by viruses include the common cold and u. Do you think viruses are prokaryotes or eukaryotes?
The answer may surprise you. Viruses are not cells at all, so they are neither prokaryotes nor eukaryotes.
Viruses contain DNA but not much else. They lack the other parts shared by all cells, including a plasma
membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. Therefore, viruses are not cells, but are they alive? All living
things not only have cells; they are also capable of reproduction. Viruses cannot reproduce by themselves.
Instead, they infect living hosts, and use the hosts cells to make copies of their own DNA. For these
reasons, most scientists do not consider viruses to be living things.
An overview of viruses can be seen at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
17/0h5Jd7sgQWY (23:17).
Lesson Summary
Discoveries about cells using the microscope led to the development of the cell theory. This theory
states that all organisms are made of one or more cells, all the life functions of organisms occur within
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Figure 13.10: Eukaryotic Cell. Compare and contrast the eukaryotic cell shown here with the prokaryotic
cell. What similarities and dierences do you see?
Figure 13.11: Cartoon of a u virus. The u virus is a tiny particle that may cause illness in humans.
What is a virus? Is it a cell? Is it even alive?
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cells, and all cells come from already existing cells.
All cells are very small because they need to pass substances across their surface. Their small size
gives them a relatively large ratio of surface area to volume, facilitating the transfer of substances.
The shapes of cells may vary, and a cells shape generally suits its function.
Cells are diverse, but all cells contain a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA.
Prokaryotic cells are cells without a nucleus. They are found in single-celled organisms. Eukaryotic
cells are cells with a nucleus and other organelles. They are found mainly in multicellular organisms.
Review Questions
Recall
1. What did Hooke and Leeuwenhoek discover about cells by using a microscope?
2. What does the cell theory state? Name the three scientists mainly responsible for developing the cell
theory.
3. List the four parts that are found in all living cells.
Apply Concepts
4. One of the cells pictured below is a human brain cell. The other cell is found in human blood. Which
cell came from the brain? Explain your answer.
Think Critically
5. Why are all cells very small? Explain what limits the size of cells.
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6. Compare and contrast prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

7. Explain why viruses are not considered to be living.
Points to Consider
Cells have many dierent structures that carry out the processes of life.
Beside the cell parts described in this lesson, what other structures do you think cells might have?
What life processes might these other structures carry out?
Do you think plant and animal cells are just alike? Or do they dier in some way? How might they
dier?
13.2
Cell Structures
Lesson Objectives
Describe the structure and function of the plasma membrane.

Identify the roles of the cytoplasm and cytoskeleton.
Outline the form and function of the nucleus and other organelles.
List special structures of plant cells, and state what they do.
Explain how cells are organized in living things.
Vocabulary
ATP
cell wall
central vacuole
chloroplast
cytoskeleton
endoplasmic reticulum
endosymbiotic theory
Golgi apparatus
mitochondria
phospholipid bilayer
vacuole
vesicle
Introduction
Your body is made up of trillions of cells, but all of them perform the same basic life functions. They
all obtain and use energy, respond to the environment, and reproduce. How do your cells carry out these
basic functions and keep themselvesand youalive? To answer these questions, you need to know more
about the structures that make up cells.
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Overview of Cell Structures

In some ways, a cell resembles a plastic bag full of Jell-O. Its basic structure is a plasma membrane lled with
cytoplasm. Like Jell-O containing mixed fruit, the cytoplasm of the cell also contains various structures,
such as a nucleus and other organelles. Figure 13.13 shows the structures inside a typical eukaryotic cell,
in this case the cell of an animal. Refer to the gure as you read about the structures below. You can
also explore the structures of an interactive animal cell at this link: http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/
cell_model.htm.
Figure 13.13: Animal Cell. This animal cell consists of cytoplasm enclosed within a plasma membrane.
The cytoplasm contains many dierent organelles.
The Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane forms a barrier between the cytoplasm inside the cell and the environment outside
the cell. It protects and supports the cell and also controls everything that enters and leaves the cell.
It allows only certain substances to pass through, while keeping others in or out. The ability to allow
only certain molecules in or out of the cell is referred to as selective permeability or semipermeability. To
understand how the plasma membrane controls what crosses into or out of the cell, you need to know its
composition.
The plasma membrane is discussed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-aSfoB8Cmic (6:16). The cell
wall (see below) is also discussed in this video.
The Phospholipid Bilayer

The plasma membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, which consist of fatty acids and alcohol. The
phospholipids in the plasma membrane are arranged in two layers, called a phospholipid bilayer. As
shown in Figure 13.14, each phospholipid molecule has a head and two tails. The head loves water
(hydrophilic) and the tails hate water (hydrophobic). The water-hating tails are on the interior of the
membrane, whereas the water-loving heads point outwards, toward either the cytoplasm or the uid that
surrounds the cell. Molecules that are hydrophobic can easily pass through the plasma membrane, if
they are small enough, because they are water-hating like the interior of the membrane. Molecules that
are hydrophilic, on the other hand, cannot pass through the plasma membraneat least not without
helpbecause they are water-loving like the exterior of the membrane.
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Figure 13.14: Phospholipid Bilayer. The phospholipid bilayer consists of two layers of phospholipids
(left), with a hydrophobic, or water-hating, interior and a hydrophilic, or water-loving, exterior. A single
phospholipid molecule is depicted on the right.
Other Molecules in the Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane also contains other molecules, primarily other lipids and proteins. The green
molecules in Figure 13.14, for example, are the lipid cholesterol. Molecules of cholesterol help the plasma
membrane keep its shape. Many of the proteins in the plasma membrane assist other substances in crossing
the membrane.
Extensions of the Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane may have extensions, such as whip-like agella or brush-like cilia. In single-celled
organisms, like those shown in Figure 13.15 and Figure 13.16, the membrane extensions may help the
organisms move. In multicellular organisms, the extensions have other functions. For example, the cilia
on human lung cells sweep foreign particles and mucus toward the mouth and nose.
Figure 13.15: Flagella
Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton

The cytoplasm consists of everything inside the plasma membrane of the cell. It includes the watery,
gel-like material called cytosol, as well as various structures. The water in the cytoplasm makes up about
two thirds of the cells weight and gives the cell many of its properties.
Functions of the Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm has several important functions, including
1. suspending cell organelles
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Figure 13.16: Cilia. Cilia and agella are extensions of the plasma membrane of many cells.
2. pushing against the plasma membrane to help the cell keep its shape
3. providing a site for many of the biochemical reactions of the cell
Cytoskeleton
Crisscrossing the cytoplasm is a structure called the cytoskeleton, which consists of thread-like laments
and tubules. You can see these laments and tubules in the cells in Figure 13.17. As its name suggests, the
cytoskeleton is like a cellular skeleton. It helps the cell maintain its shape and also holds cell organelles
in place within the cytoplasm.
Figure 13.17: Cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton gives the cell an internal structure, like the frame of a house.
In this photograph, laments and tubules of the cytoskeleton are green and red, respectively. The blue
dots are cell nuclei.
The cytoskeleton is discussed in the following video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5rqbmLiSkpk&#
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The Nucleus and Other Organelles

Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and several other types of organelles. These structures are involved in
many vital cell functions.
The Nucleus
The nucleus is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell and is often considered to be the cells control
center. This is because the nucleus controls which proteins the cell makes. The nucleus of a eukaryotic cell
contains most of the cells DNA, which makes up chromosomes and is encoded with genetic instructions
for making proteins.
Mitochondria
The mitochondrion (plural, mitochondria) is an organelle that makes energy available to the cell. This
is why mitochondria are sometimes referred to as the power plants of the cell. They use energy from
organic compounds such as glucose to make molecules of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), an energy-carrying
molecule that is used almost universally inside cells for energy. Scientists think that mitochondria were once
free-living organisms because they contain their own DNA. They theorize that ancient prokaryotes infected
(or were engulfed by) larger prokaryotic cells, and the two organisms evolved a symbiotic relationship that
beneted both of them. The larger cells provided the smaller prokaryotes with a place to live. In return, the
larger cells got extra energy from the smaller prokaryotes. Eventually, the prokaryotes became permanent
guests of the larger cells, as organelles inside them. This theory is called the endosymbiotic theory, and
it is widely accepted by biologists today
Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle that helps make and transport proteins and lipids.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). Both types are shown in Figure 13.18.
RER looks rough because it is studded with ribosomes. It provides a framework for the ribosomes,
which make proteins.
SER looks smooth because it does not have ribosomes. Bits of its membrane pinch o to form tiny
sacs called vesicles, which carry proteins away from the ER. SER also makes lipids, stores substances,
and plays other roles.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are small organelles where proteins are made. They contain the nucleic acid RNA, which
assembles and joins amino acids to make proteins. Ribosomes can be found alone or in groups within the
cytoplasm as well as on the RER.
Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus is a large organelle that processes proteins and prepares them for use both inside and
outside the cell. It is shown in Figure 13.18. The Golgi apparatus is somewhat like a post oice. It receives
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items (proteins from the ER), packages and labels them, and then sends them on to their destinations (to
dierent parts of the cell or to the cell membrane for transport out of the cell). The Golgi apparatus is
also involved in the transport of lipids around the cell. At the link below, you can watch an animation
showing how the Golgi apparatus does all these jobs. http://www.johnkyrk.com/golgiAlone.html
Figure 13.18: This drawing includes the nucleus, RER, SER, and Golgi apparatus. From the drawing, you
can see how all these organelles work together to make and transport proteins.
Vesicles and Vacuoles

Both vesicles and vacuoles are sac-like organelles that store and transport materials in the cell. Vesicles
are much smaller than vacuoles and have a variety of functions. The vesicles that pinch o from the
membranes of the ER and Golgi apparatus (see Figure 13.18) store and transport protein and lipid
molecules. Some vesicles are used as chambers for biochemical reactions. Other vesicles include:
Lysosomes, which use enzymes to break down foreign matter and dead cells.
Peroxisomes, which use oxygen to break down poisons.
Centrioles
Centrioles are organelles involved in cell division. They help organize the chromosomes before cell division
so that each daughter cell has the correct number of chromosomes after the cell divides. Centrioles are
found only in animal cells and are located near the nucleus (see Figure 13.13).
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Special Structures in Plant Cells

Plant cells have several structures that are not found in animal cells, including a cell wall, a large central
vacuole, and organelles called plastids. You can see each of these structures in Figure 13.19. You can
also view them in an interactive plant cell at the link below. http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/cell_
model.htm
Figure 13.19: Plant Cell. In addition to the organelles and other structures found inside animal cells, plant
cells also have a cell wall, a large central vacuole, and plastids such as chloroplasts. Can you nd each of
these structures in the gure?
Cell Wall
The cell wall is a rigid layer that surrounds the plasma membrane of a plant cell. It supports and protects
the cell. Tiny holes, or pores, in the cell wall allow water, nutrients, and other substances to move into
and out of the cell. The cell wall is made up mainly of complex carbohydrates, including cellulose.
Central Vacuole
Most mature plant cells have a large central vacuole. This vacuole can make up as much as 90% of the
cells volume. The central vacuole has a number of functions, including storing substances such as water,
enzymes, and salts. It also helps plant tissues, such as stems and leaves, stay rigid and hold their shape.
It even helps give owers, like the ones in Figure 13.20, their beautiful colors.
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Figure 13.20: These owers are red because of red pigment molecules in the central vacuoles of their
cells. The bright colors are an important adaptation. They help the owers attract pollinators such as
hummingbirds so the plants can reproduce.
Plastids
Plastids are organelles in plant cells that carry out a variety of dierent functions. The main types of
plastids and their functions are described below.
Chloroplasts are plastids that contain the green pigment chlorophyll. They capture light energy
from the sun and use it to make food. A chloroplast is shown in Figure 13.19.
Chromoplasts are plastids that make and store other pigments. The red pigment that colors the
ower petals in Figure 13.20 was made by chromoplasts.
Leucoplasts are plastids that store substances such as starch or make small molecules such as amino
acids.
Like mitochondria, plastids contain their own DNA. Therefore, according to endosymbiotic theory, plastids
may also have evolved from ancient, free-living prokaryotes that invaded larger prokaryotic cells. If so,
they allowed early eukaryotes to make food and produce oxygen.
Organization of Cells
Cells can exist as individual cells or as groups of cells. Cells in groups can be organized at several levels.
From One Cell to Many

The simplest level of cell organization is a single-celled organism, and the most complex level is a multicellular organism. In between these two levels are biolms and colonies.
A single-celled organism oats freely and lives independently. Its single cell is able to carry out all
the processes of life without any help from other cells.
A biolm is a thin layer of bacteria that sticks to a surface. Cells in a biolm are all alike, but they
may play dierent roles, such as taking in nutrients or making the glue that sticks the biolm to
the surface. The sticky plaque that forms on teeth is a biolm of bacterial cells.
Some single-celled organisms, such as algae, live in colonies. A colony is an organized structure
composed of many cells, like the Volvox sphere in Figure 13.21. Volvox are algae that live in
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colonies of hundreds of cells. All of the cells in the colony live and work cooperatively. For example,
they can coordinate the movement of their agella, allowing them to swim together through the water
as though they were part of a single organism.
A multicellular organism consists of many cells and has dierent types of cells that are specialized
for various functions. All the cells work together and depend on each other to carry out the life
processes of the organism. Individual cells are unable to survive on their own.
Figure 13.21: Volvox Colony. Volvox cells live in a colony shaped like a hollow ball. The cells of the colony
may be connected by strands of cytoplasm and can function together. For example, the whole colony can
swim from one place to another as one.
Levels of Organization in Multicellular Organisms

Scientists think that multicellular organisms evolved when many single-celled organisms of the same species
started to work together and beneted from the relationship. The oldest known multicellular organisms
are algae that lived 1.2 billion years ago. As multicellular organisms continued to evolve, they developed
increasingly complex levels of organization. Today there are multicellular organisms at all levels of organization, from the simplest, cell level of organization to the most complex, organ-system level of organization.
Consider these examples:
Sponges have cell-level organization, in which dierent cells are specialized for dierent functions, but
each cell works alone. For example, some cells digest food, while other cells let water pass through
the sponge.
Jellysh have tissue-level organization, in which groups of cells of the same kind that do the same job
form tissues. For example, jellysh have some tissues that digest food and other tissues that sense
the environment.
Roundworms have organ-level organization, in which two or more types of tissues work together to
perform a particular function as an organ. For example, a roundworm has a primitive brain that
controls how the organism responds to the environment.
Human beings have organ system-level organization, in which groups of organs work together to do
a certain job, with each organ doing part of the overall task. An example is the human digestive
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system. Each digestive system organfrom the mouth to the small intestinedoes part of the overall
task of breaking down food and absorbing nutrients.
Lesson Summary
The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that supports and protects a cell and controls what
enters and leaves it.
The cytoplasm consists of everything inside the plasma membrane, including watery cytosol and
organelles. The cytoplasm suspends the organelles and does other jobs. The cytoskeleton crisscrosses
the cytoplasm and gives the cell an internal framework.
The nucleus is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell and contains most of the cells DNA. Other
organelles in eukaryotic cells include the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, vacuoles, and centrioles (in animal cells only). Each type of organelle has important
functions in the cell.
Plant cells have special structures that are not found in animal cells, including a cell wall, a large
central vacuole, and organelles called plastids.
Cells can exist independently as single-celled organisms or with other cells as multicellular organisms.
Cells of a multicellular organism can be organized at the level of cells, tissues, organs, and organ
systems.

Recall
1. Describe the composition of the plasma membrane.
2. List functions of the cytoplasm and cytoskeleton.
3. What is the role of the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell?
4. List three structures that are found in plant cells but not in animal cells.
5. Outline the levels of organization of cells in living things, starting with the simplest level, that of
single-celled organisms.
Apply Concepts
6. Create a diagram to show how the cells of multicellular organisms may be organized at dierent levels,
from the level of the cell to the level of the organ system. Give an example of a multicellular organism at
each level of organization.
Think Critically
7. Explain why hydrophobic (water-hating) molecules can easily cross the plasma membrane, while
hydrophilic (water-loving) molecules cannot.
8. What is endosymbiotic theory? How does it explain the presence of certain organelles in eukaryotic
cells?
9. Explain how the following organelles ensure that a cell has the proteins it needs: nucleus, rough and
smooth ER, vesicles, and Golgi apparatus.
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Points to Consider
Cells carry out all the functions of life, and they use nutrients and oxygen and produce wastes. These
substances must cross the plasma membrane.
How do you think substances cross the plasma membrane to enter or leave the cell? Does the
membrane have tiny holes in it like a sieve?
What if the substances are large? Protein molecules, for example, are very large. How do they enter
or leave the cell?
13.3
Cell Transport and Homeostasis
Lesson Objectives
Describe dierent types of passive transport.
Explain how dierent types of active transport occur.
Outline the role of cell transport in homeostasis.
Vocabulary
active transport
diusion
endocytosis
exocytosis
facilitated diusion
osmosis
passive transport
sodium-potassium pump
transport protein
vesicle transport
Introduction
Imagine living in a house that has walls without any windows or doors. Nothing could enter or leave the
house. Now imagine living in a house with holes in the walls instead of windows and doors. Things could
enter or leave the house, but you wouldnt be able to control what came in or went out. Only if a house
has walls with windows and doors that can be opened or closed can you control what enters or leaves. For
example, windows and doors allow you to let the dog in and keep the bugs out.
Transport Across Membranes

If a cell were a house, the plasma membrane would be walls with windows and doors. Moving things in and
out of the cell is an important role of the plasma membrane. It controls everything that enters and leaves
the cell. There are two basic ways that substances can cross the plasma membrane: passive transport and
active transport.
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Passive Transport
Passive transport occurs when substances cross the plasma membrane without any input of energy from
the cell. No energy is needed because the substances are moving from an area where they have a higher
concentration to an area where they have a lower concentration. Concentration refers to the number of
particles of a substance per unit of volume. The more particles of a substance in a given volume, the higher
the concentration. A substance always moves from an area where it is more concentrated to an area where
it is less concentrated. Its a little like a ball rolling down a hill. It goes by itself without any input of
extra energy.
There are several dierent types of passive transport, including simple diusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diusion. Each type is described below. You can also watch an animation of each type at this link:
http://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/BIOLOGY1111/animations/passive1.swf.
Simple Diusion
Diusion is the movement of a substance across a membrane, due to a dierence in concentration, without
any help from other molecules. The substance simply moves from the side of the membrane where it is
more concentrated to the side where it is less concentrated. Figure 13.22 shows how diusion works.
Substances that can squeeze between the lipid molecules in the plasma membrane by simple diusion are
generally very small, hydrophobic molecules, such as molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Figure 13.22: Diusion Across a Cell Membrane. Molecules diuse across a membrane from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration until the concentration is the same on both sides of
the membrane.
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Osmosis
Osmosis is a special type of diusion the diusion of water molecules across a membrane. Like other
molecules, water moves from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Water
moves in or out of a cell until its concentration is the same on both sides of the plasma membrane.
Diusion and osmosis are discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
34/aubZU0iWtgI.

Facilitated Diusion
Water and many other substances cannot simply diuse across a membrane. Hydrophilic molecules, charged
ions, and relatively large molecules such as glucose all need help with diusion. The help comes from special
proteins in the membrane known as transport proteins. Diusion with the help of transport proteins
is called facilitated diusion. There are several types of transport proteins, including channel proteins
and carrier proteins. Both are shown in Figure 13.24.
Channel proteins form pores, or tiny holes, in the membrane. This allows water molecules and small
ions to pass through the membrane without coming into contact with the hydrophobic tails of the
lipid molecules in the interior of the membrane.
Carrier proteins bind with specic ions or molecules, and in doing so, they change shape. As carrier
proteins change shape, they carry the ions or molecules across the membrane.
Active Transport
Active transport occurs when energy is needed for a substance to move across a plasma membrane.
Energy is needed because the substance is moving from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher
concentration. This is a little like moving a ball uphill; it cant be done without adding energy. The energy
for active transport comes from the energy-carrying molecule called ATP. Like passive transport, active
transport may also involve transport proteins. You can watch an animation of active transport at the link
below. http://www.northland.cc.mn.us/biology/BIOLOGY1111/animations/active1.swf
Sodium-Potassium Pump
An example of active transport is the sodium-potassium pump. When this pump is in operation,
sodium ions are pumped out of the cell, and potassium ions are pumped into the cell. Both ions move
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Figure 13.24: Facilitated Diusion Across a Cell Membrane. Channel proteins and carrier proteins help
substances diuse across a cell membrane. In this diagram, the channel and carrier proteins are helping
substances move into the cell (from the extracellular space to the intracellular space).
Figure 13.25: The sodium-potassium pump. The sodium-potassium pump moves sodium ions (Na+) out
of the cell and potassium ions (K+) into the cell. First, three sodium ions bind with a carrier protein in
the cell membrane. Then, the carrier protein receives a phosphate group from ATP. When ATP loses a
phosphate group, energy is released. The carrier protein changes shape, and as it does, it pumps the three
sodium ions out of the cell. At that point, two potassium ions bind to the carrier protein. The process is
reversed, and the potassium ions are pumped into the cell.
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from areas of lower to higher concentration, so ATP is needed to provide energy for this uphill process.
Figure 13.25 explains in more detail how this type of active transport occurs.
A more detailed look at the sodium-potassium pump is available at http://www.youtube.com/user/
khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/40/C_H-ONQFjpQ and http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#
p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/41/ye3rTjLCvAU.


Vesicle Transport
Some molecules, such as proteins, are too large to pass through the plasma membrane, regardless of their
concentration inside and outside the cell. Very large molecules cross the plasma membrane with a dierent
sort of help, called vesicle transport. Vesicle transport requires energy, so it is also a form of active
transport. There are two types of vesicle transport: endocytosis and exocytosis. Both types are shown in
Figure 13.28 and described below.
Endocytosis is the type of vesicle transport that moves a substance into the cell. The plasma
membrane completely engulfs the substance, a vesicle pinches o from the membrane, and the vesicle
carries the substance into the cell. When an entire cell is engulfed, the process is called phagocytosis.
When uid is engulfed, the process is called pinocytosis.
Exocytosis is the type of vesicle transport that moves a substance out of the cell. A vesicle containing
the substance moves through the cytoplasm to the cell membrane. Then, the vesicle membrane fuses
with the cell membrane, and the substance is released outside the cell. You can watch an animation
of exocytosis at the link below.
http://www.stanford.edu/group/Urchin/GIFS/exocyt.gif
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Figure 13.28: Endocytosis and exocytosis are types of vesicle transport that carry very large molecules
across the cell membrane.
Homeostasis and Cell Function

For a cell to function normally, a stable state must be maintained inside the cell. For example, the
concentration of salts, nutrients, and other substances must be kept within a certain range. The process
of maintaining stable conditions inside a cell (or an entire organism) is homeostasis. Homeostasis requires
constant adjustments, because conditions are always changing both inside and outside the cell. The
processes described in this lesson play important roles in homeostasis. By moving substances into and out
of cells, they keep conditions within normal ranges inside the cells and the organism as a whole.
Lesson Summary
A major role of the plasma membrane is transporting substances into and out of the cell. There are
two major types of cell transport: passive transport and active transport.
Passive transport requires no energy. It occurs when substances move from areas of higher to lower
concentration. Types of passive transport include simple diusion, osmosis, and facilitated diusion.
Active transport requires energy from the cell. It occurs when substances move from areas of lower to
higher concentration or when very large molecules are transported. Types of active transport include
ion pumps, such as the sodium-potassium pump, and vesicle transport, which includes endocytosis
and exocytosis.
Cell transport helps cells maintain homeostasis by keeping conditions within normal ranges inside all
of an organisms cells.
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Recall
1. What is osmosis? What type of transport is it?
2. Describe the roles of transport proteins in cell transport.
3. What is the sodium-potassium pump?
4. Name two types of vesicle transport. Which type moves substances out of the cell?
Apply Concepts
5. Assume a molecule must cross the plasma membrane into a cell. The molecule is a very large protein.
How will it be transported into the cell? Explain your answer.
6. The drawing below shows the uid inside and outside a cell. The dots represent molecules of a substance
needed by the cell. The molecules are very small and hydrophobic. What type of transport will move the
molecules into the cell?
Think Critically
7. Compare and contrast simple diusion and facilitated diusion. For each type of diusion, give an
example of a molecule that is transported that way.
8. Explain how cell transport helps an organism maintain homeostasis.
Points to Consider
All cells share some of the same structures and basic functions, but cells also vary.
Plant cells have structures that animal cells lack. What important process takes place in plant cells
but not in animal cells that might explain their dierences?
All cells, including both plant and animal cells, need energy for processes such as active transport.
How do cells obtain the energy they need?
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Image Sources
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plant_cell_structure_svg.svg. Public Domain.
(2) Magnus Manske, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg. Public Domain.
(3) Robert Hooke, Micrographia,1665; tree branch image copyright Nataly-Nete, 2010. [(Cork cell)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:RobertHookeMicrographia1665.jpg; (Tree
branch) http://www.shutterstock.com ]. Public Domain; tree branch image used under license
(4) Charles Daghlian.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bronchiolar_epithelium_3_-_SEM.jpg. Public Domain.
(5) stellarr. http://www.flickr.com/photos/21187899@N03/2058985902/. CC-BY 2.0.
(7) Image copyright KannonImages, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(10) Mariana Ruiz Villarreal. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Scheme_simple_diffusion_in_cell_membrane-en.svg. Public Domain.
(11) (Nerve cell) WA Lee et al.; (Blood cell) Courtesy of National Institute of Health; (Bacteria) TJ
Kirn, MJ Laerty, CMP Sandoe, and RK Taylor; (Algae) EF Smith and PA Lefebvre; (Pollen) L
Howard and C Daghlian. [(Nerve cell) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GFPneuron.png;
(Blood cell) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Redbloodcells.jpg; (Bacteria)
http://remf.dartmouth.edu/images/bacteriaSEM/source/1.html; (Algae)
http://remf.dartmouth.edu/images/algaeSEM/source/1.html; (Pollen)
http://remf.dartmouth.edu/images/botanicalPollenSEM/source/10.html ]. (Nerve cell)
CC-BY 2.5; (Blood cell) Public Domain; (Bacteria) Public Domain; (Algae) Public Domain;
(Pollen) Public Domain.
(12) Dartmouth Electron Microscope Facility.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chlamydomonas_TEM_07.jpg. Public Domain.
(13) jbsut. http://www.flickr.com/photos/22616984@N07/3403951330/. CC-BY 2.0.
(14) Mariana Ruiz Villarreal. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Scheme_facilitated_diffusion_in_cell_membrane-en.svg. Public Domain.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Scheme_sodium-potassium_pump-en.svg. Public
Domain.
(16) Courtesy of Dr. Stan Erlandsen/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Image #11643).
http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/home.asp. Public Domain.
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(17) Mariana Ruiz Villarreal, modied by CK-12 Foundation.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Animal_cell_structure_en.svg. Public Domain.
(18) Mariana Ruiz Villarreal, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Prokaryote_cell_diagram.svg. Public Domain.
(19) Adaifotis. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FluorescentCells.jpg. Public Domain.
(20) Image copyright alxhar, 2012. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(21) Pensive glance. http://www.flickr.com/photos/ellie-yannis/5197837117/. CC-BY-NC-SA 2.0.
For Introduction to Cells Review Question 4, the white blood cell image (left) and the nerve cell image
(right) are copyrighted by Sebastian Kaulitzki, 2010, used under license from Shutterstock.com.
For Cell Transport and Homeostasis Review Question 6, the diusion image is created by CK-12 Foundation and is under the Creative Commons license CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0.
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Chapter 14
Plant Biology
This lush green landscape is thickly carpeted with trees and a myriad of other plants. Much of Earths land
is dominated by plants. Yet compared to our active existence as animals, plants areliterallyrooted
to the ground. Their sedentary lives may seem less interesting than the active lives of animals, but
plants are very busy doing extremely important work. All plants are chemical factories. Each year, they
transform huge amounts of carbon (from carbon dioxide) into food for themselves and virtually all other
land organisms.
Plants are complex organisms that carry out complex tasks. But unlike animals, they dont have nerves,
bones, or muscles to do their work. How do plants do it? Read on to nd out.
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14.1
Plant Tissues and Growth
Lesson Objectives
Describe plant cell structures, and list types of plant cells.
Compare and contrast dierent types of plant tissues.
Explain how plants grow.
Vocabulary
cuticle
dermal tissue
ground tissue
meristem
Introduction
Like animals, plants have organs that are specialized to carry out complex functions. An organ is a
structure composed of more than one type of tissue. A tissue, in turn, is a group of cells of the same kind
that do the same job. In this lesson, you will read about the tissues that do the important work of plants.
The cells that make up plant tissues are described rst.
Plant Cells
Plant cells resemble other eukaryotic cells in many ways. For example, they are enclosed by a plasma
membrane and have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. A typical plant cell is represented
by the diagram in Figure 14.1.
Figure 14.1: Plant cells have all the same structures as animal cells, plus some additional structures. Can
you identify the unique plant structures in the diagram?
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Plant Cell Structures

Structures found in plant cells but not animal cells include a large central vacuole, cell wall, and plastids
such as chloroplasts.
The large central vacuole is surrounded by its own membrane and contains water and dissolved
substances. Its primary role is to maintain pressure against the inside of the cell wall, giving the cell
shape and helping to support the plant.
The cell wall is located outside the cell membrane. It consists mainly of cellulose and may also contain
lignin, which makes it more rigid. The cell wall shapes, supports, and protects the cell. It prevents
the cell from absorbing too much water and bursting. It also keeps large, damaging molecules out of
the cell.
Plastids are membrane-bound organelles with their own DNA. Examples are chloroplasts and chromoplasts. Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis. Chromoplasts make and store other pigments. They give ower petals their bright colors.
Types of Plant Cells

There are three basic types of cells in most plants. The three types are described in Table 14.1. The
dierent types of plant cells have dierent structures and functions.
Table 14.1: Types of Plant Cells
Type of Cell
Structure
Functions
Example
Parenchymal
cube-shaped
loosely packed
thin-walled
relatively unspecialized
contain chloroplasts
photosynthesis
cellular respiration
storage
food storage tissues of

potatoes
Collenchymal
elongated
irregularly
walls
support
wind resistance
strings running through

a stalk of celery
thickened
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Type of Cell
Structure
Functions
Example
Sclerenchymal
very thick cell walls containing lignin
support
strength
tough bers in jute

(used to make rope)
Plant Tissues
All three types of plant cells are found in most plant tissues. Three major types of plant tissues are dermal,
ground, and vascular tissues.
Dermal Tissue
Dermal tissue covers the outside of a plant in a single layer of cells called the epidermis. You can think of
the epidermis as the plants skin. It mediates most of the interactions between a plant and its environment.
Epidermal cells secrete a waxy substance called cuticle, which coats, waterproofs, and protects the aboveground parts of plants. Cuticle helps prevent water loss, abrasions, infections, and damage from toxins.
Ground Tissue
Ground tissue makes up much of the interior of a plant and carries out basic metabolic functions. Ground
tissue in stems provides support and may store food or water. Ground tissues in roots may also store food.
Vascular Tissue
Vascular tissue runs through the ground tissue inside a plant. It consists of xylem and phloem, which
transport uids. Xylem and phloem are packaged together in bundles, as shown in Figure 14.2.
Growth of Plants
Most plants continue to grow throughout their lives. Like other multicellular organisms, plants grow
through a combination of cell growth and cell division. Cell growth increases cell size, while cell division
(mitosis) increases the number of cells. As plant cells grow, they also become specialized into dierent cell
types through cellular dierentiation. Once cells dierentiate, they can no longer divide. How do plants
grow or replace damaged cells after that?
The key to continued growth and repair of plant cells is meristem. Meristem is a type of plant tissue
consisting of undierentiated cells that can continue to divide and dierentiate. Meristem at the tips of
roots and stems allows them to grow in length. This is called primary growth. Meristem within and around
vascular tissues allows growth in width. This is called secondary growth.
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Figure 14.2: Bundles of xylem and phloem run through the ground tissue inside this stalk of celery. What
function do these tissues serve?
Lesson Summary
Plants have eukaryotic cells with large central vacuoles, cell walls containing cellulose, and plastids
such as chloroplasts and chromoplasts. Dierent types of plant cells include parenchymal, collenchymal, and sclerenchymal cells. The three types dier in structure and function.
The three types of plant cells are found in each of the major types of plant tissues: dermal, ground,
and vascular tissues. Dermal tissue covers the outside of a plant in a single layer of cells called the
epidermis. It mediates most of the interactions between a plant and its environment. Ground tissue
makes up most of the interior of a plant. It carries out basic metabolic functions and stores food and
water. Vascular tissue runs through the ground tissue inside a plant. It consists of bundles of xylem
and phloem, which transport uids throughout the plant.
Most plants continue to grow as long as they live. They grow through a combination of cell growth
and cell division (mitosis). The key to plant growth is meristem, a type of plant tissue consisting of
undierentiated cells that can continue to divide and dierentiate. Meristem allows plant stems and
roots to grow longer (primary growth) and wider (secondary growth).

Recall
1. Identify three structures found in plant cells but not animal cells. What is the function of each structure?
2. Describe parenchymal plant cells and state their functions.
3. What is cuticle? What is its role?
4. Dene meristem.
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Apply Concepts
5. An important concept in biology is that form follows function. In other words, the structure of an
organism, or part of an organism, depends on its function. Apply this concept to plants, and explain why
plants have dierent types of cells and tissues.
Think Critically
6. Compare and contrast dermal, ground, and vascular tissues of plants.
7. Explain why plants need special tissues for growth.
Points to Consider
Plants are complex organisms with tissues organized into organs.
What organs do you think plants might have?
Think about human organs, such as the heart, stomach, lungs, and kidneys. What are their functions?
Do you think plants might have organs with similar functions as these human organs?
14.2
Plant Organs: Roots, Stems, and Leaves
Lesson Objectives
Outline the structure, function, and growth of roots.
Give an overview of stem diversity and how stems function and grow.
Describe leaf variation, and explain how leaves make food and change seasonally.
Vocabulary
bark
deciduous plant
evergreen plant
brous root
mesophyll
root hair
root system
stomata (singular, stoma)
taproot
Introduction
Plants have specialized organs that help them survive and reproduce in a great diversity of habitats. Major
organs of most plants include roots, stems, and leaves.
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Roots
Roots are important organs in all vascular plants. Most vascular plants have two types of roots: primary
roots that grow downward and secondary roots that branch out to the side. Together, all the roots of a
plant make up a root system.
Root Systems
There are two basic types of root systems in plants: taproot systems and brous root systems. Both are
illustrated in Figure 14.3.
Taproot systems feature a single, thick primary root, called the taproot, with smaller secondary
roots growing out from the sides. The taproot may penetrate as many as 60 meters (almost 200 feet)
below the ground surface. It can plumb very deep water sources and store a lot of food to help the
plant survive drought and other environmental extremes. The taproot also anchors the plant very
securely in the ground.
Fibrous root systems have many small branching roots, called brous roots, but no large primary
root. The huge number of threadlike roots increases the surface area for absorption of water and
minerals, but brous roots anchor the plant less securely.
Figure 14.3: Dandelions have taproot systems; grasses have brous root systems.
Root Structures and Functions

As shown in Figure 14.4, the tip of a root is called the root cap. It consists of specialized cells that help
regulate primary growth of the root at the tip. Above the root cap is primary meristem, where growth in
length occurs.
Above the meristem, the rest of the root is covered with a single layer of epidermal cells. These cells may
have root hairs that increase the surface area for the absorption of water and minerals from the soil.
Beneath the epidermis is ground tissue, which may be lled with stored starch. Bundles of vascular tissues
form the center of the root. Waxy layers waterproof the vascular tissues so they dont leak, making them
more eicient at carrying uids. Secondary meristem is located within and around the vascular tissues.
This is where growth in thickness occurs.
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Figure 14.4: A root is a complex organ consisting of several types of tissue. What is the function of each
tissue type?
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The structure of roots helps them perform their primary functions. What do roots do? They have three
major jobs: absorbing water and minerals, anchoring and supporting the plant, and storing food.
Absorbing water and minerals: Thin-walled epidermal cells and root hairs are well suited to absorb
water and dissolved minerals from the soil. The roots of many plants also have a mycorrhizal
relationship with fungi for greater absorption.
Anchoring and supporting the plant: Root systems help anchor plants to the ground, allowing plants
to grow tall without toppling over. A tough covering may replace the epidermis in older roots, making
them ropelike and even stronger. As shown in Figure 14.5, some roots have unusual specializations
for anchoring plants.
Storing food: In many plants, ground tissues in roots store food produced by the leaves during
photosynthesis. The bloodroot shown in Figure 14.5 stores food in its roots over the winter.
Figure 14.5: Mangrove roots are like stilts, allowing mangrove trees to rise high above the water. The
trunk and leaves are above water even at high tide. A bloodroot plant uses food stored over the winter to
grow owers in the early spring.
Root Growth
Roots have primary and secondary meristems for growth in length and width. As roots grow longer, they
always grow down into the ground. Even if you turn a plant upside down, its roots will try to grow
downward. How do roots know which way to grow? How can they tell down from up? Specialized cells
in root caps are able to detect gravity. The cells direct meristem in the tips of roots to grow downward
toward the center of Earth. This is generally adaptive for land plants. Can you explain why?
As roots grow thicker, they cant absorb water and minerals as well. However, they may be even better at
transporting uids, anchoring the plant, and storing food (see Figure 14.6).
Stems
In vascular plants, stems are the organs that hold plants upright so they can get the sunlight and air
they need. Stems also bear leaves, owers, cones, and secondary stems. These structures grow at points
called nodes (shown in Figure 14.7). At each node, there is a bud of meristem tissue that can divide and
specialize to form a particular structure.
Another vital function of stems is transporting water and minerals from roots to leaves and carrying food
from leaves to the rest of the plant. Without this connection between roots and leaves, plants could not
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Figure 14.6: Secondary growth of sweet potato roots provides more space to store food. Roots store sugar
from photosynthesis as starch. What other starchy roots do people eat?
Figure 14.7: The stem of a vascular plant has nodes where leaves and other structures may grow.
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survive high above ground in the air. In many plants, stems also store food or water during cold or dry
seasons.
Stem Diversity
Stems show variation because many stems are specialized. Figure 14.8 shows examples of stem specialization. With specialized stems, plants can exploit a diversity of niches in virtually all terrestrial ecosystems.
Figure 14.8: Stem specializations such as these let plants grow in many dierent habitats.
Stem Tissues and Functions

Like roots, the stems of vascular plants are made of dermal, vascular, and ground tissues.
A single-celled layer of epidermis protects and waterproofs the stem and controls gas exchange.
In trees, some of the epidermal tissue is replaced by bark. Bark is a combination of tissues that
provides a tough, woody external covering on the stems of trees. The inner part of bark is alive and
growing; the outer part is dead and provides strength, support, and protection.
Ground tissue forms the interior of the stem. The large central vacuoles of ground tissue cells ll
with water to support the plant. The cells may also store food.
Bundles of vascular tissue run through the ground tissue of a stem and transport uids. Plants may
vary in how these bundles are arranged.
Stem Growth
The stems of all vascular plants get longer through primary growth. This occurs in primary meristem
at the tips and nodes of the stems. Most stems also grow in thickness through secondary growth. This
occurs in secondary meristem, which is located in and around the vascular tissues. Secondary growth forms
secondary vascular tissues and bark. In many trees, the yearly growth of new vascular tissues results in an
annual growth ring like the one in Figure 14.9. When a tree is cut down, the rings in the trunk can be
counted to estimate the trees age.
Leaves
Leaves are the keys not only to plant life but to all terrestrial life. The primary role of leaves is to collect
sunlight and make food by photosynthesis. Despite the fundamental importance of the work they do, there
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Figure 14.9: The number of rings in this cross-section of tree trunk show how many years the tree lived.
What does each ring represent?
is great diversity in the leaves of plants. However, given the diversity of habitats in which plants live, its
not surprising that there is no single best way to collect solar energy for photosynthesis.
Leaf Variation
Leaves may vary in size, shape, and their arrangement on stems. Nonowering vascular plants have three
basic types of leaves: microphylls (tiny leaves), fronds, and needles. Figure 14.10 describes each type.
Flowering vascular plants also have diverse leaves. However, the leaves of all owering plants have two
basic parts in common: the blade and petiole (see Figure 14.7). The blade of the leaf is the relatively
wide, at part of the leaf that gathers sunlight and undergoes photosynthesis. The petiole is the part that
attaches the leaf to a stem of the plant. This occurs at a node.
Flowering plant leaves vary in how the leaves are arranged on the stem and how the blade is divided. This
is illustrated in Figure 14.11. Generally, the form and arrangement of leaves maximizes light exposure
while conserving water, reducing wind resistance, or beneting the plant in some other way in its particular
habitat.
Leaves arranged in whorls encircle upright stems at intervals. They collect sunlight from all directions.
Leaves arranged in basal rosettes take advantage of warm temperatures near the ground.
Leaves arranged in alternate or opposing pairs collect light from above. They are typically found on
plants with a single, upright stem.
The blades of simple leaves are not divided. This provides the maximum surface area for collecting
sunlight.
The blades of compound leaves are divided into many smaller leaets. This reduces wind resistance
and water loss.
Factories for Photosynthesis

You can think of a single leaf as a photosynthesis factory. A factory has specialized machines to produce
a product. Its also connected to a transportation system that supplies it with raw materials and carries
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Figure 14.10: Leaf variation in nonowering plants reects their evolutionary origins. Can you explain
how?
Figure 14.11: Leaf variation in owering plants may include variations in the arrangement of leaves and
the divisions of the blade.
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away the nished product. In all these ways, a leaf resembles a factory. The cross section of a leaf in
Figure 14.12 lets you look inside a leaf factory.
Figure 14.12: Theres more to a leaf than meets the eye. Can you identify the functions of each of the
labeled structures in the diagram?
A leaf consists of several dierent kinds of specialized tissues that work together to make food by photosynthesis. The major tissues are mesophyll, veins, and epidermis.
Mesophyll makes up most of the leafs interior. This is where photosynthesis occurs. Mesophyll
consists mainly of parenchymal cells with chloroplasts.
Veins are made primarily of xylem and phloem. They transport water and minerals to the cells of
leaves and carry away dissolved sugar.
The epidermis of the leaf consists of a single layer of tightly-packed dermal cells. They secrete waxy
cuticle to prevent evaporation of water from the leaf. The epidermis has tiny pores called stomata
(singular, stoma) that control transpiration and gas exchange with the air. Figure 14.13 explains
how stomata carry out this vital function.
Figure 14.13: For photosynthesis, stomata must control the transpiration of water vapor and the exchange
of carbon dioxide and oxygen. Stomata are anked by guard cells that swell or shrink by taking in or
losing water through osmosis. When they do, they open or close the stomata.
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Seasonal Changes in Leaves

Even if you dont live in a place where leaves turn color in the fall, no doubt youve seen photos of their
fall colors (see Figure 14.14). The leaves of many plants turn from green to other, glorious colors during
autumn each year. The change is triggered by shorter days and cooler temperatures. Leaves respond
to these environmental stimuli by producing less chlorophyll. This allows other leaf pigmentssuch as
oranges and yellowsto be seen.
Figure 14.14: A deciduous tree goes through dramatic seasonal changes each year. Can you identify the
seasons in the photo?
After leaves turn color in the fall, they may all fall o the plant for the winter. Plants that shed their
leaves seasonally each year are called deciduous plants. Shedding leaves is a strategy for reducing water
loss during seasons of extreme dryness. On the downside, the plant must grow new leaves in the spring,
and that takes a lot of energy and matter. Some plants may bank energy over the winter by storing
food. That way, they are ready to grow new leaves as soon as spring arrives.
Evergreen plants have a dierent strategy for adapting to seasonal dryness. They dont waste energy and
matter growing new leaves each year. Instead, they keep their leaves and stay green year-round. However,
to reduce water loss, they have needle-like leaves with very thick cuticle. On the downside, needle-like
leaves reduce the surface area for collecting sunlight. This is one reason that needles may be especially rich
in chlorophyll, as you can see from the dark green pine needles in Figure 14.15. This is also an important
adaptation for low levels of sunlight, allowing evergreens to live far from the equator.
Lesson Summary
Roots absorb water and minerals and transport them to stems. They also anchor and support a
plant, and store food. A root system consists of primary and secondary roots. Each root is made of
dermal, ground, and vascular tissues. Roots grow in length and width from primary and secondary
meristem.
Stems hold plants upright, bear leaves and other structures, and transport uids between roots and
leaves. Like roots, stems contain dermal, ground, and vascular tissues. Trees have woody stems
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Figure 14.15: Compare the color of the evergreen needles and the deciduous leaf. Why is the darker color
of the needles adaptive?
covered with bark.

The primary function of leaves is to collect sunlight and make food by photosynthesis. Specialized
tissues in leaves work together to perform this function. In a deciduous plant, leaves seasonally turn
color and fall o the plant. They are replaced with new leaves later in the year. An evergreen plant
keeps its green leaves year-round. It may have needle-like leaves to reduce water loss.

Recall
1. What are root hairs? What is their role?
2. Identify three major functions of roots.
3. Describe two types of specialized stems. What is each type of stem specialized for?
4. What is bark? What purposes does it serve?
5. Name the two main parts of an angiosperm leaf. What is the function of each part?
6. Identify strategies used by deciduous and evergreen plants to adapt to seasonal dryness.
Apply Concepts
7. Apply lesson concepts to predict how the stem of a desert plant might be specialized for its environment.
8. Devise a model to demonstrate the concept that simple and compound leaves dier in the amount of
light they absorb.
Think Critically
9. Contrast a taproot system with a brous root system.
10. Explain how roots know which way to grow.
11. Relate leaf variation to environmental variation.
12. Explain how a leaf is like a factory.
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Points to Consider
In this lesson you read about the diversity of roots, stems, and leaves. The life cycles of plants are also
diverse.
What do you already know about the life cycle of plants? What type of life cycle do plants have?
Predict how the life cycles of dierent plants might vary. For example, how might the life cycle of
seed plants dier from the life cycle of seedless vascular plants?
14.3
Variation in Plant Life Cycles
Lesson Objectives
Describe a general plant life cycle.

Outline the life cycle of nonvascular plants.
Describe the life cycle of seedless vascular plants.
Summarize the gymnosperm life cycle.
Describe the angiosperm life cycle.
Vocabulary
antheridia (singular, antheridium)
archegonia (singular, archegonium)
sporangium (plural, sporangia)
Introduction
The life cycle of all plants is complex because it is characterized by alternation of generations. Plants alternate between diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte generations, and between sexual and asexual
reproduction. The ability to reproduce both sexually and asexually gives plants the exibility to adapt to
changing environments. Their complex life cycle allows for great variation.
General Plant Life Cycle

A general plant life cycle is represented by the diagram in Figure 14.16. From the gure, you can see that
the diploid sporophyte has a structure called a sporangium (plural, sporangia) that undergoes meiosis
to form haploid spores. A spore develops into a haploid gametophyte. The gametophyte has male or
female reproductive organs that undergo mitosis to form haploid gametes (sperm or eggs). Fertilization
of gametes produces a diploid zygote. The zygote grows and develops into a mature sporophyte, and the
cycle repeats.
One of the two generations of a plants life cycle is typically dominant to the other generation. Whether
its the sporophyte or gametophyte generation, individuals in the dominant generation live longer and grow
larger. They are the green, photosynthetic structures that you would recognize as a fern, tree, or other
plant (see Figure 14.17). Individuals in the nondominant generation, in contrast, may be very small and
rarely seen. They may live in or on the dominant plant.
The dominant generation in nonvascular plants is the gametophyte; in vascular plants, its the sporophyte.
Why is a dominant sporophyte generation an advantage on land?
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Figure 14.16: This diagram represents the life cycle that generally characterizes plants.
Figure 14.17: All of these photos show plants of the dominant generation in their life cycle.
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Life Cycle of Nonvascular Plants

Nonvascular plants include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. They are the only plants with a life cycle
in which the gametophyte generation is dominant. Figure 14.18 shows the life cycle of moss. The
familiar, green, photosynthetic moss plants are gametophytes. The sporophyte generation is very small
and dependent on the gametophyte plant.
Figure 14.18: Like other bryophytes, moss plants spend most of their life cycle as gametophytes. Find the
sporophyte in the diagram. Do you see how it is growing on the gametophyte plant?
The gametophytes of nonvascular plants have distinct male or female reproductive organs (see Figure
14.19). Male reproductive organs, called antheridia (singular, antheridium), produce motile sperm with
two agella. Female reproductive organs, called archegonia (singular, archegonium), produce eggs.
In order for fertilization to occur, sperm must swim in a drop of water from an antheridium to an egg in
an archegonium. If fertilization takes place, it results in a zygote that develops into a tiny sporophyte on
the parent gametophyte plant. The sporophyte produces haploid spores, and these develop into the next
generation of gametophyte plants. Then the cycle repeats.
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Figure 14.19: The reproductive organs of bryophytes like this liverwort are male antheridia and female
archegonia.
Life Cycle of Seedless Vascular Plants

Unlike nonvascular plants, all vascular plantsincluding seedless vascular plantshave a dominant sporophyte generation. Seedless vascular plants include clubmosses and ferns. Figure 14.20 shows a typical
fern life cycle.
Figure 14.20: In the life cycle of a fern, the sporophyte generation is dominant.
A mature sporophyte fern has the familiar leafy fronds. The undersides of the leaves are dotted with clusters
of sporangia. Sporangia produce spores that develop into tiny, heart-shaped gametophytes. Gametophytes
have antheridia and archegonia. Antheridia produce sperm with many cilia; archegonia produce eggs.
Fertilization occurs when sperm swim to an egg inside an archegonium. The resulting zygote develops into
an embryo that becomes a new sporophyte plant. Then the cycle repeats.
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Life Cycle of Gymnosperms

Gymnosperms are vascular plants that produce seeds in cones. Examples include conifers such as pine and
spruce trees. The gymnosperm life cycle has a very dominant sporophyte generation. Both gametophytes
and the next generations new sporophytes develop on the sporophyte parent plant. Figure 14.21 is a
diagram of a gymnosperm life cycle.
Figure 14.21: The gymnosperm life cycle follows the general plant life cycle, but with some new adaptations.
Can you identify them?
Cones form on a mature sporophyte plant. Inside male cones, male spores develop into male gametophytes.
Each male gametophyte consists of several cells enclosed within a grain of pollen. Inside female cones, female
spores develop into female gametophytes. Each female gametophyte produces an egg inside an ovule.
Pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from a male to female cone. If sperm then travel from the
pollen to an egg so fertilization can occur, a diploid zygote results. The zygote develops into an embryo
within a seed, which forms from the ovule inside the female cone. If the seed germinates, it may grow into
a mature sporophyte tree, which repeats the cycle.
Life Cycle of Angiosperms

Angiosperms, or owering plants, are the most abundant and diverse plants on Earth. Angiosperms evolved
several reproductive adaptations that have contributed to their success. Like all vascular plants, their life
cycle is dominated by the sporophyte generation. A typical angiosperm life cycle is shown in Figure 14.22.
The ower in Figure 14.22 is obviously an innovation in the angiosperm life cycle. Flowers form on
the dominant sporophyte plant. They consist of highly specialized male and female reproductive organs.
Flowers produce spores that develop into gametophytes. Male gametophytes consist of just a few cells
within a pollen grain and produce sperm. Female gametophytes produce eggs inside the ovaries of owers.
Flowers also attract animal pollinators.
If pollination and fertilization occur, a diploid zygote forms within an ovule in the ovary. The zygote
develops into an embryo inside a seed, which forms from the ovule and also contains food to nourish the
embryo. The ovary surrounding the seed may develop into a fruit. Fruits attract animals that may disperse
the seeds they contain. If a seed germinates, it may grow into a mature sporophyte plant and repeat the
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Figure 14.22: Life cycle of an angiosperm
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cycle.
Lesson Summary
All plants have a life cycle with alternation of generations. Plants alternate between diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte generations, and between sexual reproduction with gametes and
asexual reproduction with spores.
In nonvascular plants, the gametophyte generation is dominant. The tiny sporophyte grows on the
gametophyte plant.
In vascular plants, the sporophyte generation is dominant. In seedless vascular plants such as ferns,
the sporophyte releases spores from the undersides of leaves. The spores develop into tiny, separate
gametophytes, from which the next generation of sporophyte plants grows.
In seed plants, the gametophyte generation takes place in a cone or ower, which forms on the mature
sporophyte plant. Each male gametophyte is just a few cells inside a grain of pollen. Each female
gametophyte produces an egg inside an ovule. Pollination must occur for fertilization to take place.
Zygotes develop into embryos inside seeds, from which the next sporophyte generation grows.

Recall
1. Outline the general life cycle of plants.
2. What are sporangia? What do they do?
3. Describe antheridia and archegonia and their functions.
4. What role do leaves play in the reproduction of ferns?
5. Describe how gymnosperms use cones to reproduce.
6. State the functions of owers and fruits in angiosperm reproduction.
Apply Concepts
7. Create your own cycle diagram to represent the life cycle of a daisy.
Think Critically
8. Relate the concept of alternation of generations to the ability of plants to adapt to a diversity of habitats.
9. Compare and contrast gymnosperm and angiosperm life cycles.
Points to Consider
In this lesson, you read about many of the reproductive adaptations of plants.
What are some other plant adaptations? For example, how have desert plants adapted to very dry
conditions?
Besides deserts, what other extreme habitats do plants occupy? What special adaptations might
plants require to live in these other habitats?
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14.4
Plant Adaptations and Responses
Lesson Objectives
Explain how plants have adapted to a diversity of environments.
Identify types of plant responses to environmental stimuli.
Vocabulary
epiphyte
tropism
xerophyte
Introduction
Plants live just about everywhere on Earth. To live in so many dierent habitats, they have evolved
adaptations that allow them to survive and reproduce under a diversity of conditions.
Plant Adaptations
All plants are adapted to live on land. Or are they? All living plants today have terrestrial ancestors, but
some plants now live in the water. They have had to evolve new adaptations for their watery habitat.
Adaptations to Water
Aquatic plants are plants that live in water. Living in water has certain advantages for plants. One
advantage is, well, the water. Theres plenty of it and its all around. Therefore, most aquatic plants do
not need adaptations for absorbing, transporting, and conserving water. They can save energy and matter
by not growing extensive root systems, vascular tissues, or thick cuticles on leaves. Support is also less of
a problem because of the buoyancy of water. As a result, adaptations such as strong woody stems and
deep anchoring roots are not necessary for most aquatic plants.
Living in water does present challenges to plants, however. For one thing, pollination by wind or animals
isnt feasible under water, so aquatic plants may have adaptations that help them keep their owers above
water. For instance, water lilies have bowl-shaped owers and broad, at leaves that oat. This allows the
lilies to collect the maximum amount of sunlight, which does not penetrate very deeply below the surface.
Plants that live in moving water, such as streams and rivers, may have dierent adaptations. For example,
cattails have narrow, strap-like leaves that reduce their resistance to the moving water (see Figure 14.23).
Adaptations to Extreme Dryness

Plants that live in extremely dry environments have the opposite problem: how to get and keep water.
Plants that are adapted to very dry environments are called xerophytes. Their adaptations may help
them increase water intake, decrease water loss, or store water when it is available.
The saguaro cactus pictured in Figure 14.24 has adapted in all three ways. When it was still a very small
plant, just a few inches high, its shallow roots already reached out as much as 2 meters (7 feet) from the
base of the stem. By now, its root system is much more widespread. It allows the cactus to gather as much
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Figure 14.23: Water lilies and cattails have dierent adaptations for life in the water. Compare the leaves
of the two kinds of plants. How do the leaves help the plants adapt to their watery habitats?
moisture as possible from rare rainfalls. The saguaro doesnt have any leaves to lose water by transpiration.
It also has a large, barrel-shaped stem that can store a lot of water. Thorns protect the stem from thirsty
animals that might try to get at the water inside.
Figure 14.24: The saguaro cactus has many adaptations for extreme dryness. How does it store water?
Adaptations to Air
Plants called epiphytes grow on other plants. They obtain moisture from the air and make food by
photosynthesis. Most epiphytes are ferns or orchids that live in tropical or temperate rainforests (see
Figure 14.25). Host trees provide support, allowing epiphyte plants to obtain air and sunlight high above
the forest oor. Being elevated above the ground lets epiphytes get out of the shadows on the forest oor
so they can get enough sunlight for photosynthesis. Being elevated may also reduce the risk of being eaten
by herbivores and increase the chance of pollination by wind.
Epiphytes dont grow in soil, so they may not have roots. However, they still need water for photosynthesis.
Rainforests are humid, so the plants may be able to absorb the water they need from the air. However,
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Figure 14.25: This elkhorn fern is growing on a rainforest tree as an epiphyte.

many epiphytes have evolved modied leaves or other structures for collecting rainwater, fog, or dew. The
leaves of the bromeliad shown in Figure 14.26 are rolled into funnel shapes to collect rainwater. The
base of the leaves forms a tank that can hold more than 8 liters (2 gallons) of water. Some insects and
amphibians may spend their whole life cycle in the pool of water in the tank, adding minerals to the water
with their wastes. The tissues at the base of the leaf are absorbent, so they can take in both water and
minerals from the tank.
Figure 14.26: The leaves of this bromeliad are specialized to collect, store, and absorb rainwater.
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Plant Responses
Like all organisms, plants detect and respond to stimuli in their environment. Unlike animals, plants cant
run, y, or swim toward food or away from danger. They are usually rooted to the soil. Instead, a plants
primary means of response is to change how it is growing. Plants also dont have a nervous system to
control their responses. Instead, their responses are generally controlled by hormones, which are chemical
messenger molecules.
Plant Tropisms
As you read earlier in this chapter, plant roots always grow downward because specialized cells in root
caps detect and respond to gravity. This is an example of a tropism. A tropism is a turning toward or
away from a stimulus in the environment. Growing toward gravity is called geotropism. Plants also exhibit
phototropism, or growing toward a light source. This response is controlled by a plant growth hormone
called auxin. As shown in Figure 14.27, auxin stimulates cells on the dark side of a plant to grow longer.
This causes the plant to bend toward the light.
Figure 14.27: Phototropism is controlled by the growth hormone auxin.
Daily and Seasonal Responses

Plants also detect and respond to the daily cycle of light and darkness. For example, some plants open
their leaves during the day to collect sunlight and then close their leaves at night to prevent water loss.
Environmental stimuli that indicate changing seasons trigger other responses. Many plants respond to the
days growing shorter in the fall by going dormant. They suspend growth and development in order to
survive the extreme cold and dryness of winter. Dormancy ensures that seeds will germinate and plants
will grow only when conditions are favorable.
Responses to Disease
Plants dont have immune systems, but they do respond to disease. Typically, their rst line of defense
is the death of cells surrounding infected tissue. This prevents the infection from spreading. Many plants
also produce hormones and toxins to ght pathogens. For example, willow trees produce salicylic acid
to kill bacteria. The same compound is used in many acne products for the same reason. Exciting new
research suggests that plants may even produce chemicals that warn other plants of threats to their health,
allowing the plants to prepare for their own defense. As these and other responses show, plants may be
rooted in place, but they are far from helpless.
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KQED: Plant Plague: Sudden Oak Death

Devastating over one million oak trees across Northern California in the past ten years, Sudden Oak
Death is a killer with no cure. But biologists now are looking to the trees genetics for a solution. See
http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/plant-plague-sudden-oak-death for more information.
Lesson Summary
Plants live just about everywhere on Earth, so they have evolved adaptations that allow them to
survive and reproduce under a diversity of conditions. Various plants have evolved adaptations to
live in the water, in very dry environments, or in the air as epiphytes.
Like all organisms, plants detect and respond to stimuli in their environment. Their main response
is to change how they grow. Their responses are controlled by hormones. Some plant responses are
tropisms. Plants also respond to daily and seasonal cycles and to disease.

Recall
1. List special challenges that aquatic plants face.
2. What are xerophytes? Give an example.
3. Identify three general ways that plants can adapt to extreme dryness.
4. Describe how epiphytes can absorb moisture without growing roots in soil.
5. What is the primary way that plants respond to environmental stimuli? What controls their responses?
6. Dene tropism. Name one example in plants.
7. State ways that plants respond to disease.
Apply Concepts
8. Apply the concept of symbiosis to epiphytes and their host plants. Do you think they have a symbiotic
relationship? If so, which type of symbiotic relationship do you think they have? Explain your answer.
Think Critically
9. Why are epiphytes found mainly in rainforest ecosystems?
10. Why is it adaptive for plants to detect and respond to daily and seasonal changes?
EOL Research
11. Bromeliads are some of the most common epiphytes. Research bromeliads at EOL and discuss the
evolution of these species. See the Communities and Populations chapter for information about EOL.
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Points to Consider
In this chapter you read about the cells, tissues, and organs that make up plants. You also read about
plant life cycles. Like plants, animals are complex organisms with tissues and organs. Animals also have
life cycles.
How do the cells of animals dier from those of plants? What tissues and organs might be found in
animals?
What is the general animal life cycle? How does it dier from the general life cycle of plants?
Image Sources
(1) Image copyright Smit, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(2) Nova and MesserWoland.
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http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Li%C5%9Bcie_z%C5%82o%C5%BCone.png. GNU-FDL
1.2.
(3) Courtesy of APS. http://sharon-taxonomy2009-p2.wikispaces.com/Gymnosperms. CC-BY-SA
3.0.
(4) JF Gaard. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marchantia.jpg. GNU-FDL 1.2.
(5) Top: Cehagenmerak; Bottom: JoJan; modied by CK-12 Foundation. [Top:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Racine3.jpg; Bottom:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Root%28cross_section%29.jpg ]. Top: GNU-FDL
1.2; Bottom: GNU-FDL 1.2..
(7) H McKenna, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leaf_anatomy.svg. CC-BY-SA-2.5.
(8) Image copyright Dr. Morley Read, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(9) Evergreen needles image copyright g215, 2010 and deciduous leaf image copyright rozhenyuk, 2010.
(10) Jrn Napp. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Old-Saguaros-inside-the-Saguaro-National-Park-Arizona.jpg. Public Domain.
(11) Mangrove: Cesar Paes Barreto; Bloodroot: William Curtis. [Mangrove:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roots_by_cesarpb.jpg; Bloodroot: http:
//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bloodwort_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_19123.jpg ].
Mangrove: The copyright holder of this work allows anyone to use it for any purpose including
unrestricted redistribution, commercial use, and modication; Bloodroot: Public Domain.
(12) From left to right: courtesy of National Park Service; Whinging Pom; Arria Belli; Jon Sullivan;
image copyright dabjola, 2010; Luis Fernndez Garca;. [From left to right:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coastal_redwood.jpg;
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http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Boab_Prison_Tree.jpg;
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vine_on_palm_branch.jpg;
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vine.jpg; http://www.shutterstock.com;
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gleditschia-triacanthos-espinas.jpg ]. From
left to right: Public Domain; CC-BY-SA 2.0; GNU-FDL 1.2; Public Domain; used under license
from Shutterstock.com; CC-BY-SA 2.1 Spain;.
(13) Pearson Scott Foresman. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Axil_%28PSF%29.png.
Public Domain.
(16) Fir0002/Flagstaoto, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celery_cross_section.jpg. GNU-FDL 1.2.
(18) Fir0002/Flagstaoto.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Platycerium_bifurcatum.jpg. GNU-FDL 1.2.
(19) Microphylls: Miika Silfverberg; Fronds (left): Andr Karwath; Fronds (right): Karora; Needles:
MPF. [Microphylls: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clubmoss_1127100195.jpg;
Fronds (left):
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Polypodium_vulgare_-_close-up_%28aka%29.jpg;
Fronds (right):
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tree_fern_frond_at_Akatarawa.jpg; Needles:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Abgragra-top.jpg ]. Microphylls: CC-BY-SA 2.0;
Fronds (left); CC-BY-SA 2.5; Fronds (right): Public Domain; Needles: GNU-FDL 1.2.
(21) LadyofHats (Mariana Ruiz Villarreal).
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lifecycle_moss_svg_diagram.svg. Public Domain.
(22) Miya. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ipomoea_batatasL_ja01.jpg. GNU-FDL 1.2.
(23) Courtesy of kirsbrat, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://i694.photobucket.com/albums/vv304/kirsbrat/plantcell.png. Public Domain.
(24) Lilies: Nova; Cattails: Derek Jensen. [Lilies:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Grzybien002.jpg; Cattails:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Typha-cattails-in-indiana.jpg ]. Lilies:
GNU-FDL 1.2; Cattails: Public Domain.
(25) Taproot: Rasbak; Fibrous: Tobias Geberth. [Taproot:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Paardenbloem_%28Taraxacum_officinale%29.jpg;
Fibrous: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Grass.jpg ]. Taproot: GNU-FDL; Fibrous:
CC-BY-SA 2.5.
(26) MPF. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Taxus_wood.jpg. GNU-FDL 1.2.
(27) Moss image copyright JFunk, 2010; fern image copyright Lee Prince, 2010; pine tree image copyright
Igor Sokolov (breeze), 2010; apple tree image copyright Wildheart. http://www.shutterstock.com.
All images used under licenses from Shutterstock.com.
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Opening image copyright Dudarev Mikhail, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
Image copyright oksix, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
Daniel/ydhsu. http://www.flickr.com/photos/ydhsu/482275251/. CC-BY-NC 2.0.
Ryj. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hanfstengel.jpg. Public Domain.
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Chapter 15
Photosynthesis and Cellular
Respiration
This caterpillar is busily munching its way through leaf after leaf. In fact, caterpillars do little more than
eat, day and night. Like all living things, they need food to provide their cells with energy. The caterpillar
will soon go through an amazing transformation to become a beautiful buttery. These changes require a
lot of energy. Like this caterpillar and all other living things, you need energy to power everything you do.
Whether its running a race or blinking an eye, it takes energy. In fact, every cell of your body constantly
needs energy to carry out life processes. You probably know that you get energy from the food you eat,
but where does food come from? How does it come to contain energy, and how do your cells get the energy
from food? When you read this chapter, you will learn the answers to these questions.
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15.1
Energy for Life
Lesson Objectives
State why living things need energy.

Describe how autotrophs and heterotrophs obtain energy.
Compare and contrast glucose and ATP.
Outline how living things make and use food.
Vocabulary
autotroph
cellular respiration
consumer
energy
food
glucose
heterotroph
photosynthesis
producer
Introduction
All living things need energy, which is dened as the ability to do work. You can often see energy at
work in living thingsa bird ies through the air, a rey glows in the dark, a dog wags its tail. These
are obvious ways that living things use energy, but living things constantly use energy in less obvious ways
as well.
Why Living Things Need Energy

Inside every cell of all living things, energy is needed to carry out life processes. Energy is required to
break down and build up molecules and to transport molecules across plasma membranes. All lifes work
needs energy. A lot of energy is also simply lost to the environment as heat. The story of life is a story of
energy owits capture, its change of form, its use for work, and its loss as heat. Energy, unlike matter,
cannot be recycled, so organisms require a constant input of energy. Life runs on chemical energy. Where
do living organisms get this chemical energy?
How Organisms Get Energy: Autotrophs and Heterotrophs

The chemical energy that organisms need comes from food. Food consists of organic molecules that store
energy in their chemical bonds. In terms of obtaining food for energy, there are two types of organisms:
autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Autotrophs
Autotrophs are organisms that make their own food. Most autotrophs use the energy in sunlight to
make food in a process called photosynthesis. Only three types of organismsplants, algae, and some
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bacteriacan make food through photosynthesis. Examples of each type of photosynthetic organism are
shown in Figure 15.1.
Figure 15.1: Photosynthetic autotrophs, which make food using the energy in sunlight, include (a) plants,
(b) algae, and (c) certain bacteria.
Autotrophs are also called producers. They produce food not only for themselves but for all other living
things as well (which are known as consumers). This is why autotrophs form the basis of food chains, such
as the food chain shown in Figure 15.2.
Figure 15.2: A food chain shows how energy and matter ow from producers to consumers. Matter is
recycled, but energy must keep owing into the system. Where does this energy come from?
Heterotrophs
Heterotrophs are living things that cannot make their own food. Instead, they get their food by consuming other organisms, which is why they are also called consumers. They may consume autotrophs
or other heterotrophs. Heterotrophs include all animals and fungi and many single-celled organisms. In
Figure 15.2, all of the organisms are consumers except for the grass. What do you think would happen
to consumers if all producers were to vanish from Earth?
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Energy Molecules: Glucose and ATP

Organisms mainly use two types of molecules for chemical energy: glucose and ATP. Both molecules
are used as fuels throughout the living world. Both molecules are also key players in the process of
photosynthesis.
Glucose
Glucose is a simple carbohydrate with the chemical formula C6 H12 O6 . It stores chemical energy in a
concentrated, stable form. In your body, glucose is the form of energy that is carried in your blood and
taken up by each of your trillions of cells. Glucose is the end product of photosynthesis, and it is the nearly
universal food for life.
ATP
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the energy-carrying molecule that cells use for energy. ATP is made
during the rst half of photosynthesis and then used for energy during the second half of photosynthesis,
when glucose is made. It is also used for energy by cells for most other cellular processes. ATP releases
energy when it gives up one of its three phosphate groups and changes to ADP (adenosine diphosphate
[two phosphates]).
Why Organisms Need Both Glucose and ATP

Why do living things need glucose if ATP is the molecule that cells use for energy? Why dont autotrophs
just make ATP and be done with it? The answer is in the packaging. A molecule of glucose contains
more chemical energy in a smaller package than a molecule of ATP. Glucose is also more stable than
ATP. Therefore, glucose is better for storing and transporting energy. However, glucose is too powerful
for cells to use. ATP, on the other hand, contains just the right amount of energy to power life processes
within cells. For these reasons, both glucose and ATP are needed by living things.
A explanation of ATP as biological energy is found at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/
c/7A9646BC5110CF64/18/YQfWiDlFEcA.

Making and Using Food

The ow of energy through living organisms begins with photosynthesis. This process stores energy from
sunlight in the chemical bonds of glucose. By breaking the chemical bonds in glucose, cells release the
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stored energy and make the ATP they need. The process in which glucose is broken down and ATP is made
is called cellular respiration. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are like two sides of the same coin.
This is apparent from Figure 15.4. The products of one process are the reactants of the other. Together,
the two processes store and release energy in living organisms. The two processes also work together to
recycle oxygen in Earths atmosphere.
Figure 15.4: This diagram compares and contrasts photosynthesis and cellular respiration. It also shows
how the two processes are related.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is often considered to be the single most important life process on Earth. It changes light
energy into chemical energy and also releases oxygen. Without photosynthesis, there would be no oxygen
in the atmosphere. Photosynthesis involves many chemical reactions, but they can be summed up in a
single chemical equation:
6CO2 + 6H2 O + Light Energy C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 .
Photosynthetic autotrophs capture light energy from the sun and absorb carbon dioxide and water from
their environment. Using the light energy, they combine the reactants to produce glucose and oxygen,
which is a waste product. They store the glucose, usually as starch, and they release the oxygen into the
atmosphere.
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Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration actually burns glucose for energy. However, it doesnt produce light or intense heat
as some other types of burning do. This is because it releases the energy in glucose slowly, in many small
steps. It uses the energy that is released to form molecules of ATP. Cellular respiration involves many
chemical reactions, which can be summed up with this chemical equation:
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2 O + Chemical Energy (in ATP)
Cellular respiration occurs in the cells of all living things. It takes place in the cells of both autotrophs
and heterotrophs. All of them burn glucose to form ATP.
Lesson Summary
Living things need energy to carry out all life processes. They get energy from food.
Autotrophs make their own food. Heterotrophs get food by eating other living things.
Glucose and ATP are used for energy by nearly all living things. Glucose is used to store and
transport energy, and ATP is used to power life processes inside cells.
Many autotrophs make food through the process of photosynthesis, in which light energy from the
sun is changed to chemical energy that is stored in glucose. All organisms use cellular respiration to
break down glucose, release its energy, and make ATP.

Recall
1. Dene energy, and state where living things get the energy they need.
2. What is an autotroph? Give an example.
3. How does photosynthesis change energy?
4. How do heterotrophs obtain food?
Apply Concepts
5. ATP and glucose are both molecules that organisms use for energy. They are like the tank of a tanker
truck that delivers gas to a gas station and the gas tank that holds the fuel for a car. Which molecule is
like the tank of the delivery truck, and which is like the gas tank of the car? Explain your answer.
Think Critically
6. Compare and contrast photosynthesis and cellular respiration. Why are the processes like two sides of
the same coin?
7. Explain why living things need both glucose and ATP.
8. Explain how living things recycle oxygen in Earths atmosphere.
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Points to Consider
Living things must have chemical energy from food to power life processes. Most of the chemical energy
in food comes ultimately from the energy in sunlight.
Do you know how the energy in sunlight is captured by plants and other photosynthetic autotrophs?
How do you think light energy changes to chemical energy during the process of photosynthesis?
Some producers live in places that do not receive sunlight. How do you think they make food?
15.2
Photosynthesis: Sugar as Food
Lesson Objectives
Outline the stages of photosynthesis.

Describe the chloroplast and its role in photosynthesis.
List the steps of the light reactions.
Describe the Calvin cycle.
Dene chemosynthesis.
Vocabulary
Calvin cycle
chemosynthesis
chlorophyll
electron transport chain
grana
light reactions
photosystem
stroma
thylakoid membrane
Introduction
Plants and other autotrophs make food out of thin airat least, they use carbon dioxide from the air to
make food. Most food is made in the process of photosynthesis. This process provides more than 99% of
the energy used by living things on Earth. Photosynthesis also supplies Earths atmosphere with oxygen.
An overview of photosynthesis is available at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/

26/-rsYk4eCKnA (13:37).
Stages of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages, which are shown in Figure 15.6.
1. Stage I is called the light reactions. This stage uses water and changes light energy from the sun
into chemical energy stored in ATP and NADPH (another energy-carrying molecule). This stage also
releases oxygen as a waste product.
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2. Stage II is called the Calvin cycle. This stage combines carbon from carbon dioxide in the air and
uses the chemical energy in ATP and NADPH to make glucose.
Figure 15.6: The two stages of photosynthesis are the light reactions and the Calvin cycle. Do you see how
the two stages are related?
Before you read about these two stages of photosynthesis in greater detail, you need to know more about
the chloroplast, where the two stages take place.
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The Chloroplast: Theater for Photosynthesis

The theater where both stages of photosynthesis take place is the chloroplast. Chloroplasts are organelles
that are found in the cells of plants and algae. (Photosynthetic bacteria do not have chloroplasts, but they
contain structures similar to chloroplasts and produce food in the same way.) Look at the Figure 15.7.
The gure is a high power microscopic photo of the upper part of a Winter Jasmine leaf. If you could look
at a single leaf of this plant under a microscope, you would see small green ovals, like those shown. These
small green ovals are chloroplasts.
Figure 15.7: High power microscopic photo of the upper part of a Winter Jasmine leaf. Viewed under a
microscope many green chloroplasts are visible.
Figure 15.8 shows the components of a chloroplast. Each chloroplast contains neat stacks called grana
(singular, granum). The grana consist of sac-like membranes, known as thylakoid membranes. These
membranes contain photosystems, which are groups of molecules that include chlorophyll, a green
pigment. The light reactions of photosynthesis occur in the thylakoid membranes. The stroma is the
space outside the thylakoid membranes. This is where the reactions of the Calvin cycle take place.
Figure 15.8: A chloroplast consists of thylakoid membranes surrounded by stroma. The thylakoid membranes contain molecules of the green pigment chlorophyll.
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Photosynthesis Stage I: The Light Reactions

The rst stage of photosynthesis is called the light reactions. During this stage, light is absorbed and
transformed to chemical energy in the bonds of NADPH and ATP. You can follow the process in the gure
as you read about it below.
Steps of the Light Reactions

The light reactions occur in several steps, all of which take place in the thylakoid membrane, as shown in
Figure 15.9.
Step 1: Units of sunlight, called photons, strike a molecule of chlorophyll in photosystem II of the
thylakoid membrane. The light energy is absorbed by two electrons (2 e- ) in the chlorophyll molecule,
giving them enough energy to leave the molecule.
Step 2: At the same time, enzymes in the thylakoid membrane use light energy to split apart a water
molecule. This produces:
1. two electrons (2 e- ). These electrons replace the two electrons that were lost from the chlorophyll
molecule in Step 1.
2. an atom of oxygen (O). This atom combines with another oxygen atom to produce a molecule of
oxygen gas (O2 ), which is released as a waste product.
3. two hydrogen ions (2 H+ ). The hydrogen ions, which are positively charged, are released inside the
membrane in the thylakoid interior space.
Step 3: The two excited electrons from Step 1 contain a great deal of energy, so, like hot potatoes, they
need something to carry them. They are carried by a series of electron-transport molecules, which
make up an electron transport chain. The two electrons are passed from molecule to molecule
down the chain. As this happens, their energy is captured and used to pump more hydrogen ions
into the thylakoid interior space.
Step 4: When the two electrons reach photosystem I, they are no longer excited. Their energy has
been captured and used, and they need more energy. They get energy from light, which is absorbed
by chlorophyll in photosystem I. Then, the two re-energized electrons pass down another electron
transport chain.
Step 5: Enzymes in the thylakoid membrane transfer the newly re-energized electrons to a compound
called NADP+ . Along with a hydrogen ion, this produces the energy-carrying molecule NADPH.
This molecule is needed to make glucose in the Calvin cycle.
Step 6: By now, there is a greater concentration of hydrogen ionsand positive chargein the thylakoid interior space. This dierence in concentration and charge creates what is called a chemiosmotic gradient. It causes hydrogen ions to ow back across the thylakoid membrane to the stroma,
where their concentration is lower. Like water owing through a hole in a dam, the hydrogen ions
have energy as they ow down the chemiosmotic gradient. The enzyme ATP synthase acts as a
channel protein and helps the ions cross the membrane. ATP synthase also uses their energy to add
a phosphate group (Pi) to a molecule of ADP, producing a molecule of ATP. The energy in ATP is
needed for the Calvin cycle.
Summary of Stage I
By the time Step 6 is nished, energy from sunlight has been stored in chemical bonds of NADPH and
ATP. Thus, light energy has been changed to chemical energy, and the rst stage of photosynthesis is now
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Figure 15.9: This gure shows the light reactions of photosynthesis. This stage of photosynthesis begins
with photosystem II (so named because it was discovered after photosystem I). Find the two electrons
(2 e-) in photosystem II, and then follow them through the electron transport chain to the formation of
NADPH in Step 5. In Step 6, where do the hydrogen ions (H+) come from that help make ATP?
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complete.
For a more detailed discussion see http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
27/GR2GA7chA_c (20:16) and http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/28/
yfR36PMWegg (18:51).


Photosynthesis Stage II: The Calvin Cycle

The second stage of photosynthesis takes place in the stroma surrounding the thylakoid membranes of
the chloroplast. The reactions of this stage can occur without light, so they are sometimes called lightindependent or dark reactions. This stage of photosynthesis is also known as the Calvin cycle because
its reactions were discovered by a scientist named Melvin Calvin. He won a Nobel Prize in 1961 for this
important discovery. In the Calvin cycle, chemical energy in NADPH and ATP from the light reactions
is used to make glucose. You can follow the Calvin cycle in Figure 15.12 as you read about it in this
section. You can also watch an animation of the Calvin cycle at this link: http://www.science.smith.
edu/departments/Biology/Bio231/calvin.html.
Steps of the Calvin Cycle

The Calvin cycle has three major steps: carbon xation, reduction, and regeneration. All three steps take
place in the stroma of a chloroplast.
Step 1: Carbon Fixation. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere combines with a simple, ve-carbon
compound called RuBP. This reaction occurs with the help of an enzyme named RuBisCo and
produces molecules known as 3PG (a three-carbon compound, 3-Phosphoglyceric acid).
Step 2: Reduction. Molecules of 3PG (from Step 1) gain energy from ATP and NADPH (from the
light reactions) and re-arrange themselves to form G3P (glycerate 3-phosphate). This molecule also
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Figure 15.12: The Calvin cycle begins with a molecule named RuBP (a ve-carbon sugar, Ribulose-1,5bisphosphate) and uses the energy in ATP and NADPH from the light reactions. Follow the cycle to see
what happens to all three of these molecules. Two turns of the cycle produce one molecule of glucose
(called sucrose in the gure). In this diagram, each black dot represents a carbon atom. Keep track of
what happens to the carbon atoms as the cycle proceeds.
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has three carbon atoms, but it has more energy than 3PG. One of the G3P molecules goes on to
form glucose, while the rest of the G3P molecules go on to Step 3.
Step 3: Regeneration. The remaining G3P molecules use energy from ATP to form RuBP, the
ve-carbon molecule that started the Calvin cycle. This allows the cycle to repeat.
Summary of Stage II
The Calvin cycle takes over where the light reactions end. It uses chemical energy stored in ATP and
NADPH (from the light reactions) and carbon dioxide from the air to produce glucose, the molecule that
virtually all organisms use for food.
The Calvin Cycle is discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
29/slm6D2VEXYs (13:28).

Chemosynthesis
Most autotrophs make food by photosynthesis, but this isnt the only way that autotrophs produce food.
Some bacteria make food by another process, which uses chemical energy instead of light energy. This
process is called chemosynthesis. Some chemosynthetic bacteria live around deep-ocean vents known as
black smokers. Compounds such as hydrogen sulde, which ow out of the vents from Earths interior,
are used by the bacteria for energy to make food. Consumers that depend on these bacteria to produce
food for them include giant tubeworms, like these pictured in Figure 15.14. Why do bacteria that live
deep below the oceans surface rely on chemical compounds instead of sunlight for energy to make food?
Figure 15.14: Tubeworms deep in the Gulf of Mexico get their energy from chemosynthetic bacteria. The
bacteria actually live inside the worms.
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Lesson Summary
Most autotrophs make food using photosynthesis. This process occurs in two stages: the light
reactions and the Calvin cycle.
Both stages of photosynthesis take place in chloroplasts. The light reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes, and the Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma.
The light reactions capture energy from sunlight, which they change to chemical energy that is stored
in molecules of NADPH and ATP. The light reactions also release oxygen gas as a waste product.
The reactions of the Calvin cycle add carbon (from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere) to a simple
ve-carbon molecule called RuBP. These reactions use chemical energy from NADPH and ATP that
were produced in the light reactions. The nal product of the Calvin cycle is glucose.
Some bacterial autotrophs make food using chemosynthesis. This process uses chemical energy
instead of light energy to produce food.

Recall
1. What are the stages of photosynthesis? Which stage occurs rst?
2. Describe the chloroplast and its role in photosynthesis.
3. Summarize what happens during the light reactions of photosynthesis.
4. What happens during the carbon xation step of the Calvin cycle?
5. During which stage of photosynthesis is glucose made?
Apply Concepts
6. The rst living things appeared on Earth at least a billion years before photosynthetic organisms
appeared. How might the earliest organisms have obtained energy before photosynthesis evolved? What
process could they have used to make food?
Think Critically
7. Explain the role of the rst electron transport chain in the formation of ATP during the light reactions
of photosynthesis.
8. Explain what might happen if the third step of the Calvin cycle did not occur.
9. Plants release oxygen during the day but not during the night. Explain why.
Points to Consider
All living things need to break down glucose to make ATP for energy. Cellular respiration is the process
in which this occurs.
How do you think cellular respiration occurs? What steps do you think might be involved?
How many molecules of ATP do you think cells get from a single molecule of glucose?
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15.3
Powering the Cell: Cellular Respiration
Lesson Objectives
Name the three stages of cellular respiration.

Give an overview of glycolysis.
Explain why glycolysis probably evolved before the other stages of aerobic respiration.
Describe the mitochondrion and its role in aerobic respiration.
List the steps of the Krebs cycle, and identify its products.
Explain how electron transport results in many molecules of ATP.
State the possible number of ATP molecules that can result from aerobic respiration.
Vocabulary
aerobic respiration
anaerobic respiration
glycolysis
Krebs cycle
Introduction
You have just read how photosynthesis stores energy in glucose. How do living things make use of this
stored energy? The answer is cellular respiration. This process releases the energy in glucose to make ATP,
the molecule that powers all the work of cells.
An introduction to cellular respiration can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#
p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/19/2f7YwCtHcgk (14:19).

Stages of Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration involves many chemical reactions. As you saw earlier, the reactions can be summed
up in this equation:
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2 O + Chemical Energy (in ATP)
The reactions of cellular respiration can be grouped into three stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle (also
called the citric acid cycle), and electron transport. Figure 15.16 gives an overview of these three stages,
which are also described below.
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Figure 15.16: Cellular respiration takes place in the stages shown here. The process begins with a molecule
of glucose, which has six carbon atoms. What happens to each of these atoms of carbon?
Cellular Respiration Stage I: Glycolysis

The rst stage of cellular respiration is glycolysis. It takes place in the cytosol of the cytoplasm.
Splitting Glucose
The word glycolysis means glucose splitting, which is exactly what happens in this stage. Enzymes split
a molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (also known as pyruvic acid). This occurs in several
steps, as shown in Figure 15.17. You can watch an animation of the steps of glycolysis at the following
link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6JGXayUyNVw.
Results of Glycolysis
Energy is needed at the start of glycolysis to split the glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules. These
two molecules go on to stage II of cellular respiration. The energy to split glucose is provided by two
molecules of ATP. As glycolysis proceeds, energy is released, and the energy is used to make four molecules
of ATP. As a result, there is a net gain of two ATP molecules during glycolysis. During this stage, highenergy electrons are also transferred to molecules of NAD+ to produce two molecules of NADH, another
energy-carrying molecule. NADH is used in stage III of cellular respiration to make more ATP.
A summary of glycolysis can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
22/FE2jfTXAJHg.
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Figure 15.17: In glycolysis, glucose (C6) is split into two 3-carbon (C3) pyruvate molecules. This releases
energy, which is transferred to ATP. How many ATP molecules are made during this stage of cellular
respiration?

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Anaerobic and Aerobic Respiration

Scientists think that glycolysis evolved before the other stages of cellular respiration. This is because the
other stages need oxygen, whereas glycolysis does not, and there was no oxygen in Earths atmosphere
when life rst evolved about 3.5 to 4 billion years ago. Cellular respiration that proceeds without oxygen
is called anaerobic respiration. Then, about 2 or 3 billion years ago, oxygen was gradually added to
the atmosphere by early photosynthetic bacteria. After that, living things could use oxygen to break down
glucose and make ATP. Today, most organisms make ATP with oxygen. They follow glycolysis with the
Krebs cycle and electron transport to make more ATP than by glycolysis alone. Cellular respiration that
proceeds in the presence of oxygen is called aerobic respiration.
Structure of the Mitochondrion: Key to Aerobic Respiration

Before you read about the last two stages of aerobic respiration, you need to know more about the mitochondrion, where these two stages take place. A diagram of a mitochondrion is shown in Figure 15.19.
Figure 15.19: The structure of a mitochondrion is dened by an inner and outer membrane. This structure
plays an important role in aerobic respiration.
As you can see from Figure 15.19, a mitochondrion has an inner and outer membrane. The space between the inner and outer membrane is called the intermembrane space. The space enclosed by the inner
membrane is called the matrix. The second stage of cellular respiration, the Krebs cycle, takes place in
the matrix. The third stage, electron transport, takes place on the inner membrane.
Cellular Respiration Stage II: The Krebs Cycle

Recall that glycolysis produces two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid). These molecules enter the matrix
of a mitochondrion, where they start the Krebs cycle. The reactions that occur next are shown in
Figure 15.20. You can watch an animated version at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
p-k0biO1DT8&feature=related.
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Figure 15.20: The Krebs cycle starts with pyruvic acid from glycolysis. Each small circle in the diagram
represents one carbon atom. For example, citric acid is a six carbon molecule, and OAA (oxaloacetate)
is a four carbon molecule. Follow what happens to the carbon atoms as the cycle proceeds. In one turn
through the cycle, how many molecules are produced of ATP? How many molecules of NADH and FADH2
are produced?
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Before the Krebs cycle begins, pyruvic acid, which has three carbon atoms, is split apart and combined
with an enzyme known as CoA, which stands for coenzyme A. The product of this reaction is a two-carbon
molecule called acetyl-CoA. The third carbon from pyruvic acid combines with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide, which is released as a waste product. High-energy electrons are also released and captured in
NADH.
Steps of the Krebs Cycle

The Krebs cycle itself actually begins when acetyl-CoA combines with a four-carbon molecule called OAA
(oxaloacetate) (see Figure 15.20). This produces citric acid, which has six carbon atoms. This is why
the Krebs cycle is also called the citric acid cycle. After citric acid forms, it goes through a series of
reactions that release energy. The energy is captured in molecules of NADH, ATP, and FADH2 , another
energy-carrying compound. Carbon dioxide is also released as a waste product of these reactions. The
nal step of the Krebs cycle regenerates OAA, the molecule that began the Krebs cycle. This molecule
is needed for the next turn through the cycle. Two turns are needed because glycolysis produces two
pyruvic acid molecules when it splits glucose. Watch the OSU band present the Krebs cycle: http:
//www.youtube.com/watch?v=FgXnH087JIk&feature=related.
Results of the Krebs Cycle

After the second turn through the Krebs cycle, the original glucose molecule has been broken down completely. All six of its carbon atoms have combined with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The energy from
its chemical bonds has been stored in a total of 16 energy-carrier molecules. These molecules are:
4 ATP (including 2 from glycolysis)
10 NADH (including 2 from glycolysis)
2 FADH2
The Krebs cycle is reviewed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
23/juM2ROSLWfw.

Cellular Respiration Stage III: Electron Transport

Electron transport is the nal stage of aerobic respiration. In this stage, energy from NADH and FADH2 ,
which result from the Krebs cycle, is transferred to ATP. Can you predict how this happens? (Hint: How
does electron transport occur in photosynthesis?)
See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1engJR_XWVU&feature=related for an overview of the electron transport chain.
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Transporting Electrons
High-energy electrons are released from NADH and FADH2 , and they move along electron transport
chains, like those used in photosynthesis. The electron transport chains are on the inner membrane of
the mitochondrion. As the high-energy electrons are transported along the chains, some of their energy is
captured. This energy is used to pump hydrogen ions (from NADH and FADH2 ) across the inner membrane,
from the matrix into the intermembrane space. Electron transport in a mitochondrion is shown in Figure
15.22.
Figure 15.22: Electron-transport chains on the inner membrane of the mitochondrion carry out the last
stage of cellular respiration.
Making ATP
The pumping of hydrogen ions across the inner membrane creates a greater concentration of the ions in the
intermembrane space than in the matrix. This chemiosmotic gradient causes the ions to ow back across
the membrane into the matrix, where their concentration is lower. ATP synthase acts as a channel protein,
helping the hydrogen ions cross the membrane. It also acts as an enzyme, forming ATP from ADP and
inorganic phosphate. After passing through the electron-transport chain, the spent electrons combine
with oxygen to form water. This is why oxygen is needed; in the absence of oxygen, this process cannot
occur. You can see how all these events occur at the following link: http://www.sp.uconn.edu/~terry/
images/anim/ATPmito.html.
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A summary of this process can be seen at the following sites: http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#

p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/24/mfgCcFXUZRk (17:16) and http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/
c/7A9646BC5110CF64/25/W_Q17tqw_7A (4:59).


How Much ATP?

You have seen how the three stages of aerobic respiration use the energy in glucose to make ATP. How
much ATP is produced in all three stages? Glycolysis produces 2 ATP molecules, and the Krebs cycle
produces 2 more. Electron transport begins with several molecules of NADH and FADH2 from the Krebs
cycle and transfers their energy into as many as 34 more ATP molecules. All told, then, up to 38 molecules
of ATP can be produced from just one molecule of glucose in the process of aerobic respiration.
Lesson Summary
Cellular respiration uses energy in glucose to make ATP. Aerobic (oxygen-using) respiration occurs
in three stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transport.
In glycolysis, glucose is split into two molecules of pyruvate. This results in a net gain of two ATP
molecules.
Life rst evolved in the absence of oxygen, and glycolysis does not require oxygen. Therefore, glycolysis was probably the earliest way of making ATP from glucose.
The Krebs cycle and electron transport occur in the mitochondria. The Krebs cycle takes place in
the matrix, and electron transport takes place on the inner membrane.
During the Krebs cycle, pyruvate undergoes a series of reactions to produce two more molecules of
ATP and also several molecules of NADH and FADH2 .
During electron transport, energy from NADH and FADH2 is used to make many more molecules of
ATP.
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In all three stages of aerobic respiration, up to 38 molecules of ATP may be produced from a single
molecule of glucose.

Recall
1. List the stages of aerobic respiration in the order in which they occur.
2. Describe what happens during glycolysis. How many ATP molecules are gained during this stage?
3. Dene aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
4. What role do mitochondria play in cellular respiration?
5. What are the products of the Krebs cycle?
6. What is the maximum number of ATP molecules that can be produced during the electron transport
stage of aerobic respiration?
Apply Concepts
7. When you exhale onto a cold window pane, water vapor in your breath condenses on the glass. Where
does the water vapor come from?
8. Assume that a new species of organism has been discovered. Scientists have observed its cells under
a microscope and determined that they lack mitochondria. What type of cellular respiration would you
predict that the new species uses? Explain your prediction.
Think Critically
9. Why do scientists think that glycolysis evolved before the other stages of cellular respiration?
10. Explain why two turns of the Krebs cycle are needed for each molecule of glucose.
Points to Consider
The last two stages of aerobic respiration require oxygen. However, not all organisms live in places where
there is a plentiful supply of oxygen.
How do you think organisms get energy from glucose to make ATP if they cannot use oxygen?
Do they just use glycolysis, which produces only two ATP molecules? Or do you think there might
be other steps involved?
15.4
Anaerobic Respiration
Lesson Objectives
Dene fermentation.
Describe lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation.
Compare the advantages of aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
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Vocabulary
alcoholic fermentation
fermentation
lactic acid fermentation
Introduction
Today, most living things use oxygen to make ATP from glucose. However, many living things can also
make ATP without oxygen. This is true of some plants and fungi and also of many bacteria. These
organisms use aerobic respiration when oxygen is present, but when oxygen is in short supply, they use
anaerobic respiration instead. Certain bacteria can only use anaerobic respiration. In fact, they may not
be able to survive at all in the presence of oxygen.
Fermentation
An important way of making ATP without oxygen is called fermentation. It involves glycolysis but not
the other two stages of aerobic respiration. Many bacteria and yeasts carry out fermentation. People use
these organisms to make yogurt, bread, wine, and biofuels. Human muscle cells also use fermentation.
This occurs when muscle cells cannot get oxygen fast enough to meet their energy needs through aerobic
respiration. There are two types of fermentation: lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation.
Both types of fermentation are described below. You can also watch animations of both types at this link:
http://www.cst.cmich.edu/users/schul1te/animations/fermentation.swf.
Lactic Acid Fermentation

In lactic acid fermentation, pyruvic acid from glycolysis changes to lactic acid. This is shown in Figure
15.25. In the process, NAD+ forms from NADH. NAD+ , in turn, lets glycolysis continue. This results in
additional molecules of ATP. This type of fermentation is carried out by the bacteria in yogurt. It is also
used by your own muscle cells when you work them hard and fast.
Figure 15.25: Lactic acid fermentation produces lactic acid and NAD+. The NAD+ cycles back to allow
glycolysis to continue so more ATP is made. Each circle represents a carbon atom.
Did you ever run a race and notice that your muscles feel tired and sore afterward? This is because your
muscle cells used lactic acid fermentation for energy. This causes lactic acid to build up in the muscles. It
is the buildup of lactic acid that makes the muscles feel tired and sore.
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Alcoholic Fermentation
In alcoholic fermentation, pyruvic acid changes to alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is shown in Figure 15.26. NAD+ also forms from NADH, allowing glycolysis to continue making ATP. This type of
fermentation is carried out by yeasts and some bacteria. It is used to make bread, wine, and biofuels.
Figure 15.26: Alcoholic fermentation produces ethanol and NAD+. The NAD+ allows glycolysis to continue making ATP.
Have your parents ever put corn in the gas tank of their car? They did if they used gas containing
ethanol. Ethanol is produced by alcoholic fermentation of the glucose in corn or other plants. This type of
fermentation also explains why bread dough rises. Yeasts in bread dough use alcoholic fermentation and
produce carbon dioxide gas. The gas forms bubbles in the dough, which cause the dough to expand. The
bubbles also leave small holes in the bread after it bakes, making the bread light and uy. Do you see
the small holes in the slice of bread in Figure 15.27?
Figure 15.27: The small holes in bread are formed by bubbles of carbon dioxide gas. The gas was produced
by alcoholic fermentation carried out by yeast.
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration: A Comparison

Aerobic respiration evolved after oxygen was added to Earths atmosphere. This type of respiration is
useful today because the atmosphere is now 21% oxygen. However, some anaerobic organisms that evolved
before the atmosphere contained oxygen have survived to the present. Therefore, anaerobic respiration
must also have advantages.
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Advantages of Aerobic Respiration

A major advantage of aerobic respiration is the amount of energy it releases. Without oxygen, organisms
can just split glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. This releases only enough energy to make two
ATP molecules. With oxygen, organisms can break down glucose all the way to carbon dioxide. This
releases enough energy to produce up to 38 ATP molecules. Thus, aerobic respiration releases much more
energy than anaerobic respiration. The amount of energy produced by aerobic respiration may explain
why aerobic organisms came to dominate life on Earth. It may also explain how organisms were able to
become multicellular and increase in size.
Advantages of Anaerobic Respiration

One advantage of anaerobic respiration is obvious. It lets organisms live in places where there is little or
no oxygen. Such places include deep water, soil, and the digestive tracts of animals such as humans (see
Figure 15.28).
Figure 15.28: E. coli bacteria are anaerobic bacteria that live in the human digestive tract.
Another advantage of anaerobic respiration is its speed. It produces ATP very quickly. For example, it
lets your muscles get the energy they need for short bursts of intense activity (see Figure 15.29). Aerobic
respiration, on the other hand, produces ATP more slowly.
Lesson Summary
Fermentation is a way of making ATP from glucose without oxygen. There are two types of fermentation: lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation.
Lactic acid fermentation changes pyruvic acid to lactic acid and forms NAD+ . The NAD+ allows
glycolysis to continue so it can make more ATP.
Alcohol fermentation changes pyruvic acid to ethanol and carbon dioxide and forms NAD+ . Again,
the NAD+ allows glycolysis to keep making ATP.
Aerobic respiration produces much more ATP than anaerobic respiration. However, anaerobic respiration occurs more quickly.
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Figure 15.29: The muscles of these hurdlers need to use anaerobic respiration for energy. It gives them the
energy they need for the short-term, intense activity of this sport.

Recall
1. What is fermentation?
2. Name two types of fermentation.
3. What is the main advantage of aerobic respiration? Of anaerobic respiration?
4. What process produces fuel for motor vehicles from living plant products? What is the waste product
of this process?
Apply Concepts
5. Tanya is on the high school track team and runs the 100-meter sprint. Marissa is on the cross-country
team and runs 5-kilometer races. Explain which type of respiration the muscle cells in each runners legs
use.
Think Critically
6. Compare and contrast lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation. Include examples of organisms that use each type of fermentation.
7. Explain why bread dough rises when it is set aside in a warm place.
Points to Consider
Two important functions of cells are making food and using it for energy. Photosynthesis and cellular
respiration are the processes that carry out these functions. Other important functions of cells are growing
and dividing.
Do you know how cells grow? What do you think controls the growth of cells?
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How do you think cells divide? Do all cells divide in the same way?
Image Sources
(2) Rozzychan.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Mitochondrial_electron_transport_chain.png.
CC-BY-SA 2.5.
(5) Image copyright 4designersart, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(6) Images copyrighted by: (a) Tom Grill, (b) imageZebra, and (c) Sebastian Kaulitzki, 2010.
http://www.shutterstock.com/. All three images used under license from Shutterstock.com.
(7) Mike Jones. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Calvin-cycle4.svg. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(13) Image copyright John A. Anderson, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com/. Used under license
(15) Image copyright Pete Niesen, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com/. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(18) Image copyright Tischenko Irina, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(19) Image copyright Jubal Harshaw, 2011. http://www.shutterstock.com. Image used under license
Opening image copyright by Derek Ramsey and used under the GNU-FDL 1.2 license.
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Chapter 16
Molecular Genetics: From DNA
to Proteins
The spiral structure in the picture is a large organic molecule. Can you guess what it is? Heres a
hint: molecules like this one determine who you are. They contain genetic information that controls
your characteristics. They determine your eye color, facial features, and other physical attributes. What
molecule is it?
You probably answered DNA. Today, it is commonly known that DNA is the genetic material. For a
long time, scientists knew such molecules existed. They were aware that genetic information was contained
within organic molecules. However, they didnt know which type of molecules play this role. In fact, for
many decades, scientists thought that proteins were the molecules that carry genetic information. In this
chapter, you will learn how scientists discovered that DNA carries the code of life.
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16.1
DNA and RNA
Lesson Objectives
State the central dogma of molecular biology.
Outline discoveries that led to knowledge of DNAs structure and function.
Describe the structure of RNA, and identify the three main types of RNA.
Vocabulary
central dogma of molecular biology

Chargas rules
messenger RNA (mRNA)
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
transfer RNA (tRNA)
Introduction
Your DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, contains the genes that determine who you are. How can this organic
molecule control your characteristics? DNA contains instructions for all the proteins your body makes.
Proteins, in turn, determine the structure and function of all your cells. What determines a proteins
structure? It begins with the sequence of amino acids that make up the protein. Instructions for making
proteins with the correct sequence of amino acids are encoded in DNA.
The vocabulary of DNA: chromosomes, chromatids, chromatin, transcription, translation, and replication is
discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/6/s9HPNwXd9fk (18:23).

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

DNA is found in chromosomes. In eukaryotic cells, chromosomes always remain in the nucleus, but proteins
are made at ribosomes in the cytoplasm. How do the instructions in DNA get to the site of protein synthesis
outside the nucleus? Another type of nucleic acid is responsible. This nucleic acid is RNA, or ribonucleic
acid. RNA is a small molecule that can squeeze through pores in the nuclear membrane. It carries the
information from DNA in the nucleus to a ribosome in the cytoplasm and then helps assemble the protein.
In short:
DNA RNA Protein
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Discovering this sequence of events was a major milestone in molecular biology. It is called the central
dogma of molecular biology. You can watch a video about the central dogma and other concepts in
this lesson at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZjRCmU0_dhY&feature=fvw (8:07). An
overview of protein synthesis can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ygpqVr7_xs&
feature=related (10:46).
DNA
DNA is the genetic material in your cells. It was passed on to you from your parents and determines
your characteristics. The discovery that DNA is the genetic material was another important milestone in
molecular biology.
Griith Searches for the Genetic Material

Many scientists contributed to the identication of DNA as the genetic material. In the 1920s, Frederick
Griith made an important discovery. He was studying two dierent strains of a bacterium, called R
(rough) strain and S (smooth) strain. He injected the two strains into mice. The S strain killed (virulent)
the mice, but the R strain did not (nonvirulent) (see Figure 16.2). Griith also injected mice with S-strain
bacteria that had been killed by heat. As expected, the killed bacteria did not harm the mice. However,
when the dead S-strain bacteria were mixed with live R-strain bacteria and injected, the mice died.
Figure 16.2: Griiths Experimental Results. Griith showed that a substance could be transferred to
harmless bacteria and make them deadly.
Based on his observations, Griith deduced that something in the killed S-strain was transferred to the
previously harmless R-strain, making the R-strain deadly. What was that something? What type of
substance could change the characteristics of the organism that received it?
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Averys Team Makes a Major Contribution

In the early 1940s, a team of scientists led by Oswald Avery tried to answer the question raised by Griiths
results. They inactivated various substances in the S-strain bacteria. They then killed the S-strain bacteria
and mixed the remains with live R-strain bacteria. (Keep in mind, the R-strain bacteria usually did not
harm the mice.) When they inactivated proteins, the R-strain was deadly to the injected mice. This
ruled out proteins as the genetic material. Why? Even without the S-strain proteins, the R-strain was
changed, or transformed, into the deadly strain. However, when the researchers inactivated DNA in the
S-strain, the R-strain remained harmless. This led to the conclusion that DNA is the substance that
controls the characteristics of organisms. In other words, DNA is the genetic material. You can watch
an animation about the research of both Griith and Avery at this link: http://www.dnalc.org/view/
16375-Animation-17-A-gene-is-made-of-DNA-.html.
Hershey and Chase Seal the Deal

The conclusion that DNA is the genetic material was not widely accepted at rst. It had to be conrmed
by other research. In the 1950s, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase did experiments with viruses and
bacteria. Viruses are not cells. They are basically DNA inside a protein coat. To reproduce, a virus must
insert its own genetic material into a cell (such as a bacterium). Then it uses the cells machinery to make
more viruses. The researchers used dierent radioactive elements to label the DNA and proteins in viruses.
This allowed them to identify which molecule the viruses inserted into bacteria. DNA was the molecule
they identied. This conrmed that DNA is the genetic material.
Charga Writes the Rules

Other important discoveries about DNA were made in the mid-1900s by Erwin Charga. He studied
DNA from many dierent species. He was especially interested in the four dierent nitrogen bases of
DNA: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) (see Figure 16.3). Charga found that
concentrations of the four bases diered from one species to another. However, within each species, the
concentration of adenine was always about the same as the concentration of thymine. The same was true
of the concentrations of guanine and cytosine. These observations came to be known as Chargas rules.
The signicance of the rules would not be revealed until the structure of DNA was discovered.
Figure 16.3: Nitrogen Bases in DNA. The DNA of all species has the same four nitrogen bases.
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The Double Helix

After DNA was found to be the genetic material, scientists wanted to learn more about it. James Watson
and Francis Crick are usually given credit for discovering that DNA has a double helix shape, like a spiral
staircase (see Figure 16.4). The discovery was based on the prior work of Rosalind Franklin and other
scientists, who had used X rays to learn more about DNAs structure. Franklin and these other scientists
have not always been given credit for their contributions. You can learn more about Franklins work by
watching the video at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s3whouvZYG8 (7:47).
Figure 16.4: The DNA molecule has a double helix shape. This is the same basic shape as a spiral staircase.
Do you see the resemblance? Which parts of the DNA molecule are like the steps of the spiral staircase?
The double helix shape of DNA, together with Chargas rules, led to a better understanding of DNA.
DNA, as a nucleic acid, is made from nucleotide monomers, and the DNA double helix consists of two
polynucleotide chains. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogencontaining base (A, C, G, or T). The sugar-phosphate backbone of the double helix was discussed in the
Chemistry of Life chapter.
Scientists concluded that bonds (hydrogen bonds) between complementary bases hold together the two
polynucleotide chains of DNA. Adenine always bonds with its complementary base, thymine. Cytosine
always bonds with its complementary base, guanine. If you look at the nitrogen bases in Figure 16.3,
you will see why. Adenine and guanine have a two-ring structure. Cytosine and thymine have just one
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ring. If adenine were to bind with guanine and cytosine with thymine, the distance between the two DNA
chains would be variable. However, when a one-ring molecule binds with a two-ring molecule, the distance
between the two chains is kept constant. This maintains the uniform shape of the DNA double helix.
These base pairs (A-T or G-C) stick into the middle of the double helix, forming, in essence, the steps of
the spiral staircase.
DNA Replication
Knowledge of DNAs structure helped scientists understand how DNA replicates. DNA replication is the
process in which DNA is copied. It occurs during the synthesis (S) phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle. DNA
replication begins when an enzyme breaks the bonds between complementary bases in DNA (see Figure
16.5). This exposes the bases inside the molecule so they can be read by another enzyme and used
to build two new DNA strands with complementary bases. The two daughter molecules that result each
contain one strand from the parent molecule and one new strand that is complementary to it. As a result,
the two daughter molecules are both identical to the parent molecule. The process of DNA replication is
actually much more complex than this simple summary. You can see a detailed animation of the process
at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-mtLXpgjHL0&NR=1 (2:05).
RNA
DNA alone cannot tell your cells how to make proteins. It needs the help of RNA, the other main
player in the central dogma of molecular biology. Remember, DNA lives in the nucleus, but proteins are
made on the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. How does the genetic information get from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm? RNA is the answer.
RNA vs. DNA

RNA, like DNA, is a nucleic acid. However, RNA diers from DNA in several ways. In addition to being
smaller than DNA, RNA also
consists of one nucleotide chain instead of two,
contains the nitrogen base uracil (U) instead of thymine,
contains the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose.
Types of RNA
There are three main types of RNA, all of which are involved in making proteins.
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies the genetic instructions from DNA in the nucleus, and carries
them to the cytoplasm.
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) helps form ribosomes, where proteins are assembled.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to ribosomes, where they are joined together to form
proteins.
In the next lesson, you can read in detail how these three types of RNA help cells make proteins.
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Figure 16.5: DNA Replication. DNA replication is a semi-conservative process. Half of the parent DNA
molecule is conserved in each of the two daughter DNA molecules.
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Lesson Summary
The central dogma of molecular biology states that DNA contains instructions for making a protein,
which are copied by RNA. RNA then uses the instructions to make a protein. In short: DNA
RNA Protein.
The work of several researchers led to the discovery that DNA is the genetic material. Other researchers discovered that DNA has a double helix shape, consisting of two polynucleotide chains held
together by bonds between complementary bases.
RNA diers from DNA in several ways. There three main types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA),
ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). Each type plays a dierent in role in making
proteins.

Recall
1. State the central dogma of molecular biology.
2. Outline research that determined that DNA is the genetic material.
3. What are Chargas rules?
4. Identify the structure of the DNA molecule.
5. Why is DNA replication said to be semi-conservative?
Apply Concepts
6. Create a diagram that shows how DNA replication occurs.
Think Critically
7. Explain why complementary base pairing is necessary to maintain the double helix shape of the DNA
molecule.
8. Compare and contrast DNA and RNA.
Points to Consider
All three types of RNA are needed by cells to make proteins.
Can you develop a model in which the three types of RNA interact to make a protein?
How do you think mRNA copies the genetic instructions in DNA? How are these instructions encoded
in the DNA molecule?
16.2
Protein Synthesis
Lesson Objectives
Give an overview of transcription.
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Describe the genetic code.

Explain how translation occurs.
Vocabulary
codon
genetic code
promoter
protein synthesis
transcription
translation
Introduction
The process in which cells make proteins is called protein synthesis. It actually consists of two processes:
transcription and translation. Transcription takes place in the nucleus. It uses DNA as a template to make
an RNA molecule. RNA then leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome in the cytoplasm, where translation
occurs. Translation reads the genetic code in mRNA and makes a protein.
Transcription
Transcription is the rst part of the central dogma of molecular biology: DNA RNA. It is the
transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to mRNA. During transcription, a strand of mRNA is made that
is complementary to a strand of DNA. Figure 16.6 shows how this occurs. You can watch an animation
of the process at this link: http://www.biostudio.com/d_%20Transcription.htm.
A detailed video about transcription is available at this link: http://vcell.ndsu.edu/animations/
transcription/movie-flash.htm.
Steps of Transcription
Transcription takes place in three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. The steps are illustrated
in Figure 16.7.
1. Initiation is the beginning of transcription. It occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a
region of a gene called the promoter. This signals the DNA to unwind so the enzyme can read
the bases in one of the DNA strands. The enzyme is ready to make a strand of mRNA with a
complementary sequence of bases.
2. Elongation is the addition of nucleotides to the mRNA strand.
3. Termination is the ending of transcription. The mRNA strand is complete, and it detaches from
DNA.
Processing mRNA
In eukaryotes, the new mRNA is not yet ready for translation. It must go through more processing before
it leaves the nucleus. This may include splicing, editing, and polyadenylation. These processes modify the
mRNA in various ways. Such modications allow a single gene to be used to make more than one protein.
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Figure 16.6: Overview of Transcription. Transcription uses the sequence of bases in a strand of DNA to
make a complementary strand of mRNA. Triplets are groups of three successive nucleotide bases in DNA.
Codons are complementary groups of bases in mRNA.
Figure 16.7: Steps of Transcription. Transcription occurs in the three steps - initiation, elongation, and
termination - shown here.
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Splicing removes introns from mRNA (see Figure 16.8). Introns are regions that do not code for
proteins. The remaining mRNA consists only of regions that do code for proteins, which are called
exons. You can watch a video showing splicing in more detail at this link: http://vcell.ndsu.edu/
animations/mrnasplicing/movie-flash.htm.
Editing changes some of the nucleotides in mRNA. For example, the human protein called APOB,
which helps transport lipids in the blood, has two dierent forms because of editing. One form is
smaller than the other because editing adds a premature stop signal in mRNA.
Polyadenylation adds a tail to the mRNA. The tail consists of a string of As (adenine bases). It
signals the end of mRNA. It is also involved in exporting mRNA from the nucleus. In addition, the
tail protects mRNA from enzymes that might break it down.
Figure 16.8: Splicing. Splicing removes introns from mRNA. UTR is an untranslated region of the mRNA.
The Genetic Code

How is the information in a gene encoded? The answer is the genetic code. The genetic code consists of
the sequence of nitrogen basesA, C, G, T (or U)in a polynucleotide chain. The four bases make up
the letters of the genetic code. The letters are combined in groups of three to form code words, called
codons. Each codon stands for (encodes) one amino acid, unless it codes for a start or stop signal. There
are 20 common amino acids in proteins. There are 64 possible codons, more than enough to code for the 20
amino acids. The genetic code is shown in Figure 16.9. To see how scientists cracked the genetic code, go to
this link: http://www.dnalc.org/view/16494-Animation-22-DNA-words-are-three-letters-long-.
html.
Reading the Genetic Code

As shown in Figure 16.9, the codon AUG codes for the amino acid methionine. This codon is also the
start codon that begins translation. The start codon establishes the reading frame of mRNA. The reading
frame is the way the letters are divided into codons. After the AUG start codon, the next three letters are
read as the second codon. The next three letters after that are read as the third codon, and so on. This is
illustrated in Figure 16.10. The mRNA molecule is read, codon by codon, until a stop codon is reached.
UAG, UGA, and UAA are all stop codons. They do not code for any amino acids.
Characteristics of the Genetic Code

The genetic code has a number of important characteristics.
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Figure 16.9: The Genetic Code. To nd the amino acid for a particular codon, nd the cell in the table
for the rst and second bases of the codon. Then, within that cell, nd the codon with the correct third
base. For example CUG codes for leucine, AAG codes for lysine, and GGG codes for glycine.
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Figure 16.10: Reading the Genetic Code. The genetic code is read three bases at a time. Codons are the
code words of the genetic code. Which amino acid does codon 2 in the drawing stand for?
The genetic code is universal. All known living things have the same genetic code. This shows that
all organisms share a common evolutionary history.
The genetic code is unambiguous. Each codon codes for just one amino acid (or start or stop). What
might happen if codons encoded more than one amino acid?
The genetic code is redundant. Most amino acids are encoded by more than one codon. In Figure
16.9, how many codons code for the amino acid threonine? What might be an advantage of having
more than one codon for the same amino acid?
Translation
Translation is the second part of the central dogma of molecular biology: RNA Protein. It is the
process in which the genetic code in mRNA is read to make a protein. Figure 16.11 shows how this happens.
After mRNA leaves the nucleus, it moves to a ribosome, which consists of rRNA and proteins. The ribosome
reads the sequence of codons in mRNA. Molecules of tRNA bring amino acids to the ribosome in the correct
sequence. To understand the role of tRNA, you need to know more about its structure. Each tRNA
molecule has an anticodon for the amino acid it carries. An anticodon is complementary to the codon for
an amino acid. For example, the amino acid lysine has the codon AAG, so the anticodon is UUC. Therefore,
lysine would be carried by a tRNA molecule with the anticodon UUC. Wherever the codon AAG appears
in mRNA, a UUC anticodon of tRNA temporarily binds. While bound to mRNA, tRNA gives up its amino
acid. Bonds form between the amino acids as they are brought one by one to the ribosome, forming a
polypeptide chain. The chain of amino acids keeps growing until a stop codon is reached. To see how this
happens, go the link below. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B6O6uRb1D38&feature=related
(1:29)
After a polypeptide chain is synthesized, it may undergo additional processes. For example, it may assume
a folded shape due to interactions among its amino acids. It may also bind with other polypeptides or with
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Figure 16.11: Translation. Translation of the codons in mRNA to a chain of amino acids occurs at a
ribosome. Find the dierent types of RNA in the diagram. What are their roles in translation?
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dierent types of molecules, such as lipids or carbohydrates. Many proteins travel to the Golgi apparatus
to be modied for the specic job they will do. You can see how this occurs by watching the animation at
this link: http://vcell.ndsu.edu/animations/proteinmodification/movie-flash.htm.
Lesson Summary
Transcription is the DNA RNA part of the central dogma of molecular biology. It occurs in the
nucleus. During transcription, a copy of mRNA is made that is complementary to a strand of DNA.
In eukaryotes, mRNA may be modied before it leaves the nucleus.
The genetic code consists of the sequence of bases in DNA or RNA. Groups of three bases form
codons, and each codon stands for one amino acid (or start or stop). The codons are read in sequence
following the start codon until a stop codon is reached. The genetic code is universal, unambiguous,
and redundant.
Translation is the RNA protein part of the central dogma. It occurs at a ribosome. During
translation, a protein is synthesized using the codons in mRNA as a guide. All three types of RNA
play a role in translation.

Recall
1. Describe transcription.
2. How may mRNA be modied before it leaves the nucleus?
3. What is the genetic code? What are codons?
4. Outline the steps of translation.
Apply Concepts
5. Use the genetic code in Figure 16.9 to translate the following segment of RNA into a sequence of ve
amino acids:
GUC-GCG-CAU-AGC-AAG
Think Critically
6. The genetic code is universal, unambiguous, and redundant. Explain what this means and why it is
important.
7. How are transcription and translation related to the central dogma of molecular biology?
Points to Consider
When DNA is replicated or transcribed, accidents can happen, leading to a change in the base sequence.
What do you think could cause such accidents to occur?
How might the changes aect the reading frame? How might the encoded protein be aected?
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16.3
Mutation
Lesson Objectives
Identify causes of mutation.
Compare and contrast types of mutations.
Explain how mutations may aect the organisms in which they occur.
Vocabulary
chromosomal alteration
frameshift mutation
genetic disorder
germline mutation
mutagen
mutation
point mutation
somatic mutation
Introduction
A change in the sequence of bases in DNA or RNA is called a mutation. Does the word mutation make
you think of science ction and bug-eyed monsters? Think again. Everyone has mutations. In fact, most
people have dozens or even hundreds of mutations in their DNA. Mutations are essential for evolution to
occur. They are the ultimate source of all new genetic material in a species. Although most mutations have
no eect on the organisms in which they occur, some mutations are benecial. Even harmful mutations
rarely cause drastic changes in organisms.
Causes of Mutation
Mutations have many possible causes. Some mutations seem to happen spontaneously without any outside
inuence. They occur when mistakes are made during DNA replication or transcription. Other mutations
are caused by environmental factors. Anything in the environment that can cause a mutation is known as
a mutagen. Examples of mutagens are pictured in Figure 16.12. For a video about mutagens, go the
link below. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0wrNxCGKCws&feature=related (0:36)
Types of Mutations
There are a variety of types of mutations. Two major categories of mutations are germline mutations and
somatic mutations.
Germline mutations occur in gametes. These mutations are especially signicant because they
can be transmitted to ospring and every cell in the ospring will have the mutation.
Somatic mutations occur in other cells of the body. These mutations may have little eect on the
organism because they are conned to just one cell and its daughter cells. Somatic mutations cannot
be passed on to ospring.
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Figure 16.12: Examples of Mutagens. Types of mutagens include radiation, chemicals, and infectious
agents. Do you know of other examples of each type of mutagen shown here?
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Mutations also dier in the way that the genetic material is changed. Mutations may change the structure
of a chromosome or just change a single nucleotide.
Chromosomal Alterations
Chromosomal alterations are mutations that change chromosome structure. They occur when a section
of a chromosome breaks o and rejoins incorrectly or does not rejoin at all. Possible ways these mutations
can occur are illustrated in Figure 16.13. Go to this link for a video about chromosomal alterations:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OrXRSqa_3lU&feature=related (2:18).
Figure 16.13: Chromosomal Alterations. Chromosomal alterations are major changes in the genetic material.
Chromosomal alterations are very serious. They often result in the death of the organism in which they
occur. If the organism survives, it may be aected in multiple ways. An example of a human chromosomal alteration is the mutation that causes Down Syndrome. It is a duplication mutation that leads to
developmental delays and other abnormalities.
Point Mutations
A point mutation is a change in a single nucleotide in DNA. This type of mutation is usually less serious
than a chromosomal alteration. An example of a point mutation is a mutation that changes the codon UUU
to the codon UCU. Point mutations can be silent, missense, or nonsense mutations, as shown in Table 16.1.
The eects of point mutations depend on how they change the genetic code. You can watch an animation
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about nonsense mutations at this link: http://www.biostudio.com/d_%20Nonsense%20Suppression%

20I%20Nonsense%20Mutation.htm.
Table 16.1: Point Mutations and Their Eects
Type
Description
Example
Eect
Silent
mutated codon codes for

the same amino acid
mutated codon codes for
a dierent amino acid
mutated codon is a premature stop codon
CAA (glutamine)
CAG (glutamine)
CAA (glutamine)
CCA (proline)
CAA (glutamine)
UAA (stop) usually
none
Missense
Nonsense
variable
serious
Frameshift Mutations
A frameshift mutation is a deletion or insertion of one or more nucleotides that changes the reading
frame of the base sequence. Deletions remove nucleotides, and insertions add nucleotides. Consider the
following sequence of bases in RNA:
AUG-AAU-ACG-GCU = start-asparagine-threonine-alanine
Now, assume an insertion occurs in this sequence. Lets say an A nucleotide is inserted after the start
codon AUG:
AUG-AAA-UAC-GGC-U = start-lysine-tyrosine-glycine
Even though the rest of the sequence is unchanged, this insertion changes the reading frame and thus all
of the codons that follow it. As this example shows, a frameshift mutation can dramatically change how
the codons in mRNA are read. This can have a drastic eect on the protein product.
Eects of Mutations
The majority of mutations have neither negative nor positive eects on the organism in which they occur.
These mutations are called neutral mutations. Examples include silent point mutations. They are neutral
because they do not change the amino acids in the proteins they encode. Many other mutations have
no eect on the organism because they are repaired before protein synthesis occurs. Cells have multiple
repair mechanisms to x mutations in DNA. One way DNA can be repaired is illustrated in Figure 16.14.
If a cells DNA is permanently damaged and cannot be repaired, the cell is likely to be prevented from
dividing.
Benecial Mutations
Some mutations have a positive eect on the organism in which they occur. They are called benecial
mutations. They lead to new versions of proteins that help organisms adapt to changes in their environment.
Benecial mutations are essential for evolution to occur. They increase an organisms changes of surviving
or reproducing, so they are likely to become more common over time. There are several well-known
examples of benecial mutations. Here are just two:
1. Mutations in many bacteria that allow them to survive in the presence of antibiotic drugs. The
mutations lead to antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria.
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Figure 16.14: DNA Repair Pathway. This ow chart shows one way that damaged DNA is repaired in E.
coli bacteria.
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2. A unique mutation is found in people in a small town in Italy. The mutation protects them from
developing atherosclerosis, which is the dangerous buildup of fatty materials in blood vessels. The
individual in which the mutation rst appeared has even been identied.
Harmful Mutations
Imagine making a random change in a complicated machine such as a car engine. The chance that the
random change would improve the functioning of the car is very small. The change is far more likely to
result in a car that does not run well or perhaps does not run at all. By the same token, any random
change in a genes DNA is likely to result in a protein that does not function normally or may not function
at all. Such mutations are likely to be harmful. Harmful mutations may cause genetic disorders or cancer.
A genetic disorder is a disease caused by a mutation in one or a few genes. A human example
is cystic brosis. A mutation in a single gene causes the body to produce thick, sticky mucus that
clogs the lungs and blocks ducts in digestive organs. You can watch a video about cystic brosis and other genetic disorders at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8s4he3wLgkM&
feature=PlayList&p=397710758E9BCB24&playnext_from=PL&playnext=1&index=
17 (9:31).
Cancer is a disease in which cells grow out of control and form abnormal masses of cells. It is
generally caused by mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle. Because of the mutations, cells
with damaged DNA are allowed to divide without limits. Cancer genes can be inherited. You
can learn more about hereditary cancer by watching the video at the following link: http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=LWk5FplsKwM (4:29)
Lesson Summary
Mutations are caused by environmental factors known as mutagens. Types of mutagens include
radiation, chemicals, and infectious agents.
Germline mutations occur in gametes. Somatic mutations occur in other body cells. Chromosomal alterations are mutations that change chromosome structure. Point mutations change a single
nucleotide. Frameshift mutations are additions or deletions of nucleotides that cause a shift in the
reading frame.
Mutations are essential for evolution to occur because they increase genetic variation and the potential
for individuals to dier. The majority of mutations are neutral in their eects on the organisms
in which they occur. Benecial mutations may become more common through natural selection.
Harmful mutations may cause genetic disorders or cancer.

Recall
1. Dene mutation and mutagen.
2. List three examples of mutagens.
3. Identify three types of chromosomal alterations.
4. Distinguish among silent, missense, and nonsense point mutations.
5. What is a frameshift mutation? What causes this type of mutation?
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Apply Concepts
6. Assume that a point mutation changes the codon AUU to AUC. Why is this a neutral mutation?
7. Look at the mutation shown below. The base A was inserted following the start codon AUG. Describe
how this mutation aects the encoded amino acid sequence.
AUG-GUC-CCU-AAA AUG-AGU-CCC-UAA-A
Think Critically
8. Compare and contrast germline mutations and somatic mutations.
9. Why are mutations essential for evolution to occur?
Points to Consider
Sometimes even drastic mutations do not aect the proteins produced by a particular type of cell. The
reason? The genes aected by the mutations are not normally used to make proteins in that type of cell.
In all cells, some genes are turned o - they are not transcribed - while other genes are turned on.
How do cells control which genes are turned on and used to make proteins?
Can you think of a mechanism that might prevent transcription of a gene?
16.4
Regulation of Gene Expression
Lesson Objectives
Identify general mechanisms that regulate gene expression.
Describe how gene regulation occurs in prokaryotes.
Give an overview of gene regulation in eukaryotes.
Vocabulary
gene expression
homeobox gene
operator
operon
regulatory element
regulatory protein
TATA box
Introduction
Each of your cells has at least 20,000 genes. In fact, all of your cells have the same genes. Do all of your cells
make the same proteins? Obviously not. If they did, then all your cells would be alike. Instead, you have
cells with dierent structures and functions. This is because dierent cells make dierent proteins. They
do this by using, or expressing, dierent genes. Using a gene to make a protein is called gene expression.
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How Gene Expression is Regulated

Gene expression is regulated to ensure that the correct proteins are made when and where they are
needed. Regulation may occur at any point in the expression of a gene, from the start of transcription to
the processing of a protein after translation. The focus in this lesson is the regulation of transcription. As
shown in Figure 16.15, transcription is controlled by regulatory proteins. The proteins bind to regions
of DNA, called regulatory elements, which are located near promoters. After regulatory proteins bind
to regulatory elements, they can interact with RNA polymerase, the enzyme that transcribes DNA to
mRNA. Regulatory proteins are typically either activators or repressors.
Activators promote transcription by enhancing the interaction of RNA polymerase with the promoter.
Repressors prevent transcription by impeding the progress of RNA polymerase along the DNA strand.
Other factors may also be involved in the regulation of transcription, but these are typically the key players.
Figure 16.15: Regulation of Transcription. Regulatory proteins bind to regulatory elements to control
transcription. The regulatory elements are embedded within the DNA.
Prokaryotic Gene Regulation

Transcription is regulated dierently in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In general, prokaryotic regulation is
simpler than eukaryotic regulation.
The Role of Operons

Regulation of transcription in prokaryotes typically involves operons. An operon is a region of DNA that
consists of one or more genes that encode the proteins needed for a specic function. The operon also
includes a promoter and an operator. The operator is a region of the operon where regulatory proteins
bind. It is located near the promoter and helps regulate transcription of the operon genes.
The Lac Operon

A well-known example of operon regulation involves the lac operon in E. coli bacteria (see Figure 16.16
and the video at the link below). The lac operon consists of a promoter, an operator, and three genes
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that encode the enzymes needed to digest lactose, the sugar found in milk. The lac operon is regulated by
lactose in the environment. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oBwtxdI1zvk
When lactose is absent, a repressor protein binds to the operator. The protein blocks the binding of
RNA polymerase to the promoter. As a result, the lac genes are not expressed.
When lactose is present, the repressor protein does not bind to the operator. This allows RNA
polymerase to bind to the promoter and begin transcription. As a result, the lac genes are expressed,
and lactose is digested.
Why might it be benecial to express genes only when they are needed? (Hint: synthesizing proteins
requires energy and materials.)
Figure 16.16: The three genes of the lac operon are lacZ, lacY, and lacA. They encode proteins needed to
digest lactose. The genes are expressed only in the presence of lactose.
Eukaryotic Gene Regulation

In eukaryotic cells, the start of transcription is one of the most complicated parts of gene regulation. There
may be many regulatory proteins and regulatory elements involved. Regulation may also involve enhancers.
Enhancers are distant regions of DNA that can loop back to interact with a genes promoter.
The TATA Box

Dierent types of cells have unique patterns of regulatory elements that result in only the necessary genes
being transcribed. Thats why a skin cell and nerve cell, for example, are so dierent from each other.
However, some patterns of regulatory elements are common to all genes, regardless of the cells in which
they occur. An example is the TATA box. This is a regulatory element that is part of the promoter
of most eukaryotic genes. A number of regulatory proteins bind to the TATA box, forming a multiprotein complex. It is only when all of the appropriate proteins are bound to the TATA box that RNA
polymerase recognizes the complex and binds to the promoter. Once RNA polymerase binds, transcription
begins. To see a video showing the role of the TATA box in the initiation of transcription, go to this link:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6tqPsI-9aQA&feature=related.
Regulation During Development

The regulation of gene expression is extremely important during the development of an organism. Regulatory proteins must turn on certain genes in particular cells at just the right time so the organism develops
normal organs and organ systems. Homeobox genes are an example of genes that regulate development.
They code for regulatory proteins that switch on whole series of major developmental genes. In insects,
homeobox genes called hox genes ensure that body parts such as limbs develop in the correct place. Figure
16.17 shows how a mutation in a hox gene can aect an insects development. You can learn more about
homeobox genes at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LFG-aLidT8s.
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Figure 16.17: Eect of Hox Gene Mutation. Scientists caused a mutation in a hox gene of this fruit y.
As a result of the mutation, a leg grew out of its head where an antenna should have developed.
Gene Expression and Cancer

The mutations that cause cancer generally occur in two types of regulatory genes: tumor-suppressor genes
and proto-oncogenes (see Figure 16.18). These genes produce regulatory proteins that control the cell
cycle. When the genes mutate, cells with mutations divide rapidly and without limits.
Lesson Summary
Gene transcription is controlled by regulatory proteins that bind to regulatory elements on DNA.
The proteins usually either activate or repress transcription.
Regulation of transcription in prokaryotes typically involves an operon, such as the lac operon in E.
coli. The lac operon is regulated by proteins that behave dierently depending on whether lactose is
present.
Regulation of transcription in eukaryotes is generally more complex. It involves unique regulatory
elements in dierent cells as well as common regulatory elements such as the TATA box. Regulation
is especially important during development. It may involve regulatory genes such as homeobox genes
that switch other regulatory genes on or o. Mutations in regulatory genes that normally control
the cell cycle cause cancer.

Recall
1. What is gene expression?
2. Describe how regulatory proteins regulate gene expression.
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Figure 16.18: How Cancer Develops. This ow chart shows how a series of mutations in tumor-suppressor
genes and proto-oncogenes leads to cancer.
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3. Identify the TATA box and its function in transcription.

4. What is a homeobox gene?
Apply Concepts
5. Draw a diagram to show how the lac operon is regulated.
6. Sketch how an insect with a mutated hox gene might look. Explain your sketch.
Think Critically
7. Why is gene regulation especially important during development?
Points to Consider
Scientists know more about human chromosomes and genes than they know about the genetic material
of most other species. In fact, scientists have identied all of the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes in
human DNA.
What do you know about human chromosomes and genes? For example, do you know how many
chromosomes humans normally have?
Do you know how human characteristics are inherited? Can you identify characteristics that are
controlled by a single gene?
Image Sources
(2) Courtesy of National Human Genome Research Institute.
http://www.genome.gov/Glossary/index.cfm?id=200. Public Domain.
(3) Madeleine Price Ball. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DNA_replication_split.svg.
CC-BY-SA 2.5.
(4) toony. http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivo:Antennapedia2.jpg. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(6) A) Beach Image Copyright Alexander Sabilin, 2010; B) X-ray Image Copyright VALIK-NOVIK,
2010; C) Cigarette Image Copyright robertosch, 2010; D) BBQ Image Copyright valeriya_gold,
2010; E) Facial Cream Image Copyright Lena Rozova, 2010; F) HPV Image Copyright Sebastian
Kaulitzki, 2010; G) H. pylori Image Copyright 3drenderings, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com.
All images used under licenses from Shutterstock.com.
(9) DNA image by Michael Strck; staircase image copyright 3drendering, 2010; composite created by
CK-12 Foundation. [DNA: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DNA_Overview.png; staircase:
http://www.shutterstock.com ]. DNA image under GNU-FDL 1.2; staircase image used under
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(13) Dietzel65. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Insertion-genetics.png. Public
Domain.
(17) TransControl. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:RNA-codons.png. GNU-FDL 1.2.
Opening image copyright by 4designerart, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
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Chapter 17
Gregor Mendel and Genetics
These purple-owered plants are not just pretty to look at. Plants like these led to a huge leap forward in
biology. The plants are common garden peas, and they were studied in the mid-1800s by an Austrian monk
named Gregor Mendel. With his careful experiments, Mendel uncovered the secrets of heredity, or how
parents pass characteristics to their ospring. You may not care much about heredity in pea plants, but
you probably care about your own heredity. Mendels discoveries apply to you as well as to peasand to
all other living things that reproduce sexually. In this chapter, you will read about Mendels experiments
and the secrets of heredity that he discovered.
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17.1
Mendels Investigations
Lesson Objectives
Explain why and how Mendel studied pea plants.

Describe the results of Mendels experiments.
State Mendels laws of segregation and independent assortment.
Outline the genetics of inheritance.
Vocabulary
allele
dominant allele
genetics
genotype
heterozygote
homozygote
hybrid
law of independent assortment
law of segregation
locus
phenotype
pollen
pollination
recessive allele
Introduction
People have long known that the characteristics of living things are similar in parents and their ospring.
Whether its the ower color in pea plants or nose shape in people, it is obvious that ospring resemble
their parents. However, it wasnt until the experiments of Gregor Mendel that scientists understood how
characteristics are inherited. Mendels discoveries formed the basis of genetics, the science of heredity.
Thats why Mendel is often called the father of genetics. Its not common for a single researcher to have
such an important impact on science. The importance of Mendels work was due to three things: a curious
mind, sound scientic methods, and good luck. Youll see why when you read about Mendels experiments.
An introduction to heredity can be seen at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
12/eEUvRrhmcxM (17:27).

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Mendel and His Pea Plants

Gregor Mendel was born in 1822 and grew up on his parents farm in Austria. He did well in school
and became a monk. He also went to the University of Vienna, where he studied science and math. His
professors encouraged him to learn science through experimentation and to use math to make sense of his
results. Mendel is best known for his experiments with the pea plant Pisum sativum (see Figure 17.2). You
can watch a video about Mendel and his research at the following link: http://www.metacafe.com/watch/
hl-19246625/milestones_in_science_engineering_gregor_mendel_and_classical_genetics/.
Figure 17.2: Gregor Mendel. The Austrian monk Gregor Mendel experimented with pea plants. He did
all of his research in the garden of the monastery where he lived.
Blending Theory of Inheritance

During Mendels time, the blending theory of inheritance was popular. This is the theory that ospring
have a blend, or mix, of the characteristics of their parents. Mendel noticed plants in his own garden
that werent a blend of the parents. For example, a tall plant and a short plant had ospring that
were either tall or short but not medium in height. Observations such as these led Mendel to question
the blending theory. He wondered if there was a dierent underlying principle that could explain how
characteristics are inherited. He decided to experiment with pea plants to nd out. In fact, Mendel
experimented with almost 30,000 pea plants over the next several years! At the following link, you can
watch an animation in which Mendel explains how he arrived at his decision to study inheritance in pea
plants: http://www.dnalc.org/view/16170-Animation-3-Gene-s-don-t-blend-.html.
Why Study Pea Plants?

Why did Mendel choose common, garden-variety pea plants for his experiments? Pea plants are a good
choice because they are fast growing and easy to raise. They also have several visible characteristics that
may vary. These characteristics, which are shown in Figure 17.3, include seed form and color, ower color,
pod form and color, placement of pods and owers on stems, and stem length. Each characteristic has
two common values. For example, seed form may be round or wrinkled, and ower color may be white or
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purple (violet).
Figure 17.3: Mendel investigated seven dierent characteristics in pea plants. In this chart, cotyledons
refer to the tiny leaves inside seeds. Axial pods are located along the stems. Terminal pods are located at
the ends of the stems.
Controlling Pollination
To research how characteristics are passed from parents to ospring, Mendel needed to control pollination.
Pollination is the fertilization step in the sexual reproduction of plants. Pollen consists of tiny grains
that are the male gametes of plants. They are produced by a male ower part called the anther (see Figure
17.4). Pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from the anther to the stigma of the same or another
ower. The stigma is a female part of a ower. It passes the pollen grains to female gametes in the ovary.
Figure 17.4: Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants. Each pea plant ower has both male and
female parts. The anther is part of the stamen, the male structure that produces male gametes (pollen).
The stigma is part of the pistil, the female structure that produces female gametes and guides the pollen
grains to them. The stigma receives the pollen grains and passes them to the ovary, which contains female
gametes.
Pea plants are naturally self-pollinating. In self-pollination, pollen grains from anthers on one plant are
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transferred to stigmas of owers on the same plant. Mendel was interested in the ospring of two dierent
parent plants, so he had to prevent self-pollination. He removed the anthers from the owers of some of
the plants in his experiments. Then he pollinated them by hand with pollen from other parent plants of his
choice. When pollen from one plant fertilizes another plant of the same species, it is called cross-pollination.
The ospring that result from such a cross are called hybrids.
Mendels First Set of Experiments

At rst, Mendel experimented with just one characteristic at a time. He began with ower color. As shown
in Figure 17.5, Mendel cross-pollinated purple- and white-owered parent plants. The parent plants in
the experiments are referred to as the P (for parent) generation. You can explore an interactive animation
of Mendels rst set of experiments at this link: http://www2.edc.org/weblabs/Mendel/mendel.html.
Figure 17.5: This diagram shows Mendels rst experiment with pea plants. The F1 generation results from
cross-pollination of two parent (P) plants. The F2 generation results from self-pollination of F1 plants.
F1 and F2 Generations
The ospring of the P generation are called the F1 (for lial, or ospring) generation. As you can see
from Figure 17.5, all of the plants in the F1 generation had purple owers. None of them had white owers.
Mendel wondered what had happened to the white-ower characteristic. He assumed some type of inherited
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factor produces white owers and some other inherited factor produces purple owers. Did the white-ower
factor just disappear in the F1 generation? If so, then the ospring of the F1 generationcalled the F2
generationshould all have purple owers like their parents. To test this prediction, Mendel allowed the
F1 generation plants to self-pollinate. He was surprised by the results. Some of the F2 generation plants
had white owers. He studied hundreds of F2 generation plants, and for every three purple-owered plants,
there was an average of one white-owered plant.
Law of Segregation
Mendel did the same experiment for all seven characteristics. In each case, one value of the characteristic
disappeared in the F1 plants and then showed up again in the F2 plants. And in each case, 75 percent of F2
plants had one value of the characteristic and 25 percent had the other value. Based on these observations,
Mendel formulated his rst law of inheritance. This law is called the law of segregation. It states that
there are two factors controlling a given characteristic, one of which dominates the other, and these factors
separate and go to dierent gametes when a parent reproduces.
Mendels Second Set of Experiments

Mendel wondered whether dierent characteristics are inherited together. For example, are purple owers
and tall stems always inherited together? Or do these two characteristics show up in dierent combinations
in ospring? To answer these questions, Mendel next investigated two characteristics at a time. For
example, he crossed plants with yellow round seeds and plants with green wrinkled seeds. The results of
this cross are shown in Figure 17.6.
F1 and F2 Generations
In this set of experiments, Mendel observed that plants in the F1 generation were all alike. All of them
had yellow and round seeds like one of the two parents. When the F1 generation plants self-pollinated,
however, their ospringthe F2 generationshowed all possible combinations of the two characteristics.
Some had green round seeds, for example, and some had yellow wrinkled seeds. These combinations of
characteristics were not present in the F1 or P generations.
Law of Independent Assortment

Mendel repeated this experiment with other combinations of characteristics, such as ower color and stem
length. Each time, the results were the same as those in Figure 17.6. The results of Mendels second set
of experiments led to his second law. This is the law of independent assortment. It states that factors
controlling dierent characteristics are inherited independently of each other.
Mendels Laws and Genetics

You might think that Mendels discoveries would have made a big impact on science as soon as he made
them. But you would be wrong. Why? Mendel never published his work. Charles Darwin published his
landmark book on evolution in 1869, not long after Mendel had discovered his laws, but Darwin knew
nothing of Mendels discoveries. As a result, Darwin didnt understand heredity. This made his arguments
about evolution less convincing to many people. This example shows why it is important for scientists to
communicate the results of their investigations.
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Figure 17.6: This chart represents Mendels second set of experiments. It shows the outcome of a cross
between plants that dier in seed color (yellow or green) and seed form (shown here with a smooth round
appearance or wrinkled appearance). The letters R, r, Y, and y represent genes for the characteristics
Mendel was studying. Mendel didnt know about genes, however. Genes would not be discovered until
several decades later. This experiment demonstrates that 9/16 were round yellow, 3/16 were wrinkled
yellow, 3/16 were round green, and 1/16 were wrinkled green.
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Rediscovering Mendels Work

Mendels work was virtually unknown until 1900. Then, in that year, three dierent European scientistsnamed DeVries, Correns, and Tschermakindependently arrived at Mendels laws. All three had
done experiments similar to Mendels. They came to the same conclusions that he had drawn almost
half a century earlier. Only then was Mendels actual work rediscovered. As scientists learned more
about heredity over the next few decades, they were able to describe Mendels ideas about inheritance in
terms of genes. In this way, the eld of genetics was born. At the link that follows, you can watch an
animation of Mendel explaining his laws of inheritance in genetic terms. http://www.dnalc.org/view/
16182-Animation-4-Some-genes-are-dominant-.html
Genetics of Inheritance
Today, we known that characteristics of organisms are controlled by genes on chromosomes (see Figure
17.7). The position of a gene on a chromosome is called its locus. In sexually reproducing organisms, each
individual has two copies of the same gene. One copy comes from each parent. The gene for a characteristic
may have dierent versions. The dierent versions are called alleles. For example, in pea plants, there is
a purple-ower allele (B) and a white-ower allele (b). Dierent alleles account for much of the variation
in the characteristics of organisms.
Figure 17.7: Chromosome, Gene, Locus, and Allele. This diagram shows how the concepts of chromosome,
gene, locus, and allele are related. What is the dierent between a gene and a locus? Between a gene and
an allele?
During meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate and go to dierent gametes. Thus, the two alleles for
each gene also go to dierent gametes. At the same time, dierent chromosomes assort independently.
As a result, alleles for dierent genes assort independently as well. In these ways, alleles are shued and
recombined in each parents gametes.
Genotype and Phenotype

When gametes unite during fertilization, the resulting zygote inherits two alleles for each gene. One allele
comes from each parent. The alleles an individual inherits make up the individuals genotype. The two
alleles may be the same or dierent. As shown in Table 17.1, an organism with two alleles of the same type
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(BB or bb) is called a homozygote. An organism with two dierent alleles (Bb) is called a heterozygote.
Table 17.1: Genetics of Flower Color in Pea Plants
Alleles
Genotypes
Phenotypes
B (purple)
b (white)
BB (homozygote)
Bb (heterozygote)
bb (homozygote)
purple owers
purple owers
white owers
Table 6.2 There are two alleles, B and b, that control ower color in pea plants. This results in three
possible genotypes. Why are there only two phenotypes?
The expression of an organisms genotype produces its phenotype. The phenotype refers to the organisms
characteristics, such as purple or white owers. As you can see from Table 17.1, dierent genotypes may
produce the same phenotype. For example, BB and Bb genotypes both produce plants with purple owers.
Why does this happen? In a Bb heterozygote, only the B allele is expressed, so the b allele doesnt inuence
the phenotype. In general, when only one of two alleles is expressed in the phenotype, the expressed allele
is called the dominant allele. The allele that isnt expressed is called the recessive allele.
Lesson Summary
Gregor Mendel experimented with pea plants to learn how characteristics are passed from parents to
ospring.
First, Mendel researched one characteristic at a time. This led to his law of segregation. This law
states that each characteristic is controlled by two factors, which separate and go to dierent gametes
when an organism reproduces.
Then Mendel researched two characteristics at a time. This led to his law of independent assortment.
This law states that the factors controlling dierent characteristics are inherited independently of
each other.
Mendels work was rediscovered in 1900. Soon after that, genes and alleles were discovered. This
allowed Mendels laws to be stated in terms of the inheritance of alleles.
Gregor Mendel - From the Garden to the Genome can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=6OPJnO9W_rQ (30.23).

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Recall
1. What is the blending theory of inheritance? Why did Mendel question this theory?
2. List the seven characteristics that Mendel investigated in pea plants.
3. How did Mendel control pollination in pea plants?
4. Describe in general terms Mendels rst set of experiments.
5. What was Mendel investigating with his second set of experiments? What was the outcome?
6. State Mendels two laws.
Apply Concepts
7. Assume you are investigating the inheritance of stem length in pea plants. You cross-pollinate a shortstemmed plant with a long-stemmed plant. All of the ospring have long stems. Then, you let the ospring
self-pollinate. Describe the stem lengths you would expect to nd in the second generation of ospring.
8. If a purple-owered, short-stemmed plant is crossed with a white-owered, long-stemmed plant, would
all of the purple-owered ospring also have short stems? Why or why not?
Think Critically
9. If Darwin knew of Mendels work, how might it have inuenced his theory of evolution? Do you think
this would have aected how well Darwins work was accepted?
10. Explain Mendels laws in genetic terms, that is, in terms of chromosomes, genes, and alleles.
11. Explain the relationship between genotype and phenotype. How can one phenotype result from more
than one genotype?
Points to Consider
With his rst set of experiments, Mendel found that characteristics appear to skip generations. With
his second set of experiments, he found that dierent characteristics are inherited independently of one
another.
Why would this information be useful? Can you think of a practical application of Mendels laws?
Could Mendels laws be used to predict the characteristics of the ospring of a given set of parents?
How do you think this might be done?
17.2
Mendelian Inheritance
Lesson Objectives
Dene probability.
Explain how probability is related to inheritance.
Describe how to use a Punnett square.
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Explain how Mendel interpreted the results of his experiments.

Describe complex patterns of inheritance.
Vocabulary
codominance
incomplete dominance
polygenic characteristic
probability
Punnett square
Introduction
Assume you are a plant breeder trying to develop a new variety of plant that is more useful to humans. You
plan to cross-pollinate an insect-resistant plant with a plant that grows rapidly. Your goal is to produce
a variety of plant that is both insect resistant and fast growing. What percent of the ospring would you
expect to have both characteristics? Mendels laws can be used to nd out. However, to understand how
Mendels laws can be used in this way, you rst need to know about probability.
Probability
Probability is the likelihood, or chance, that a certain event will occur. The easiest way to understand
probability is with coin tosses (see Figure 17.9). When you toss a coin, the chance of a head turning up is
50 percent. This is because a coin has only two sides, so there is an equal chance of a head or tail turning
up on any given toss.
Figure 17.9: Tossing a Coin. Competitions often begin with the toss of a coin. Why is this a fair way to
decide who goes rst? If you choose heads, what is the chance that the toss will go your way?
If you toss a coin twice, you might expect to get one head and one tail. But each time you toss the coin,
the chance of a head is still 50 percent. Therefore, its quite likely that you will get two or even several
heads (or tails) in a row. What if you tossed a coin ten times? You would probably get more or less than
the expected ve heads. For example, you might get seven heads (70 percent) and three tails (30 percent).
The more times you toss the coin, however, the closer you will get to 50 percent heads. For example, if
you tossed a coin 1000 times, you might get 510 heads and 490 tails.
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Probability and Inheritance

The same rules of probability in coin tossing apply to the main events that determine the genotypes of
ospring. These events are the formation of gametes during meiosis and the union of gametes during
fertilization.
Probability and Gamete Formation

How is gamete formation like tossing a coin? Consider Mendels purple-owered pea plants again. Assume
that a plant is heterozygous for the ower-color allele, so it has the genotype Bb (see Figure 17.10). During
meiosis, homologous chromosomesand the alleles they carrysegregate and go to dierent gametes.
Therefore, when the Bb pea plant forms gametes, the B and b alleles segregate and go to dierent gametes.
As a result, half the gametes produced by the Bb parent will have the B allele and half will have the b
allele. Based on the rules of probability, any given gamete of this parent has a 50 percent chance of having
the B allele and a 50 percent chance of having the b allele.
Figure 17.10: Formation of Gametes. Paired alleles always separate and go to dierent gametes during
meiosis.
Probability and Fertilization

Which of these gametes joins in fertilization with the gamete of another parent plant? This is a matter of
chance, like tossing a coin. Thus, we can assume that either type of gameteone with the B allele or one
with the b allelehas an equal chance of uniting with any of the gametes produced by the other parent.
Now assume that the other parent is also Bb. If gametes of two Bb parents unite, what is the chance of
the ospring having one of each allele like the parents (Bb)? What is the chance of them having a dierent
combination of alleles than the parents (either BB or bb)? To answer these questions, geneticists use a
simple tool called a Punnett square.
Using a Punnett Square

A Punnett square is a chart that allows you to easily determine the expected percents of dierent
genotypes in the ospring of two parents. An example of a Punnett square for pea plants is shown in Figure
17.12. In this example, both parents are heterozygous for ower color (Bb). The gametes produced by the
male parent are at the top of the chart, and the gametes produced by the female parent are along the side.
The dierent possible combinations of alleles in their ospring are determined by lling in the cells of the
Punnett square with the correct letters (alleles). At the link below, you can watch an animation in which
Reginald Punnett, inventor of the Punnett square, explains the purpose of his invention and how to use
it. http://www.dnalc.org/view/16192-Animation-5-Genetic-inheritance-follows-rules-.html
An explanation of Punnett squares can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/
7A9646BC5110CF64/13/D5ymMYcLtv0 (25:16).
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Figure 17.12: Punnett Square. This Punnett square shows a cross between two heterozygotes. Do you
know where each letter (allele) in all four cells comes from?
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An example of the use of a Punnett square can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nsHZbgOmVwg&#

Predicting Ospring Genotypes

In the cross shown in Figure 17.12, you can see that one out of four ospring (25 percent) has the genotype
BB, one out of four (25 percent) has the genotype bb, and two out of four (50 percent) have the genotype
Bb. These percents of genotypes are what you would expect in any cross between two heterozygous parents.
Of course, when just four ospring are produced, the actual percents of genotypes may vary by chance from
the expected percents. However, if you considered hundreds of such crosses and thousands of ospring,
you would get very close to the expected resultsjust like tossing a coin.
Predicting Ospring Phenotypes

You can predict the percents of phenotypes in the ospring of this cross from their genotypes. B is dominant
to b, so ospring with either the BB or Bb genotype will have the purple-ower phenotype. Only ospring
with the bb genotype will have the white-ower phenotype. Therefore, in this cross, you would expect
three out of four (75 percent) of the ospring to have purple owers and one out of four (25 percent) to
have white owers. These are the same percents that Mendel got in his rst experiment.
Determining Missing Genotypes

A Punnett square can also be used to determine a missing genotype based on the other genotypes involved
in a cross. Suppose you have a parent plant with purple owers and a parent plant with white owers.
Because the b allele is recessive, you know that the white-owered parent must have the genotype bb. The
purple-owered parent, on the other hand, could have either the BB or the Bb genotype. The Punnett
square in Figure 17.13 shows this cross. The question marks (?) in the chart could be either B or b alleles.
Figure 17.13: Punnett Square: Cross Between White-Flowered and Purple-Flowered Pea Plants. This
Punnett square shows a cross between a white-owered pea plant and a purple-owered pea plant. Can
you ll in the missing alleles? What do you need to know about the ospring to complete their genotypes?
Can you tell what the genotype of the purple-owered parent is from the information in the Punnett
square? No; you also need to know the genotypes of the ospring in row 2. What if you found out that
two of the four ospring have white owers? Now you know that the ospring in the second row must have
the bb genotype. One of their b alleles obviously comes from the white-owered (bb) parent, because thats
the only allele this parent has. The other b allele must come from the purple-owered parent. Therefore,
the parent with purple owers must have the genotype Bb.
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Punnett Square for Two Characteristics

When you consider more than one characteristic at a time, using a Punnett square is more complicated.
This is because many more combinations of alleles are possible. For example, with two genes each having
two alleles, an individual has four alleles, and these four alleles can occur in 16 dierent combinations.
This is illustrated for pea plants in Figure 17.14. In this cross, both parents are heterozygous for pod
color (Gg) and seed color (Yy).
Figure 17.14: Punnett Square for Two Characteristics. This Punnett square represents a cross between
two pea plants that are heterozygous for two characteristics. G represents the dominant allele for green
pod color, and g represents the recessive allele for yellow pod color. Y represents the dominant allele for
yellow seed color, and y represents the recessive allele for green seed color.
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How Mendel Worked Backward to Get Ahead

Mendel used hundreds or even thousands of pea plants in each experiment he did. Therefore, his results
were very close to those you would expect based on the rules of probability. For example, in one of his rst
experiments with ower color, there were 929 plants in the F2 generation. Of these, 705 (76 percent) had
purple owers and 224 (24 percent) had white owers. Thus, Mendels results were very close to the 75
percent purple and 25 percent white you would expect by the laws of probability for this type of cross. Of
course, Mendel had only phenotypes to work with. He knew nothing about genes and genotypes. Instead,
he had to work backward from phenotypes and their percents in ospring to understand inheritance. From
the results of his rst set of experiments, Mendel realized that there must be two factors controlling each of
the characteristics he studied, with one of the factors being dominant to the other. He also realized that the
two factors separate and go to dierent gametes and later recombine in the ospring. This is an example
of Mendels good luck. All of the characteristics he studied happened to be inherited in this way. Mendel
also was lucky when he did his second set of experiments. He happened to pick characteristics that are
inherited independently of one another. We now know that these characteristics are controlled by genes on
nonhomologous chromosomes. What if Mendel had studied characteristics controlled by genes on homologous chromosomes? Would they be inherited together? If so, how do you think this would have aected
Mendels conclusions? Would he have been able to develop his second law of inheritance? To better understand how Mendel interpreted his ndings and developed his laws of inheritance, you can visit the following
link. It provides an animation in which Mendel explains how he came to understand heredity from his
experimental results. http://www.dnalc.org/view/16154-Animation-2-Genes-Come-in-Pairs.html
Non-Mendelian Inheritance
The inheritance of characteristics is not always as simple as it is for the characteristics that Mendel studied
in pea plants. Each characteristic Mendel investigated was controlled by one gene that had two possible
alleles, one of which was completely dominant to the other. This resulted in just two possible phenotypes
for each characteristic. Each characteristic Mendel studied was also controlled by a gene on a dierent
(nonhomologous) chromosome. As a result, each characteristic was inherited independently of the other
characteristics. Geneticists now know that inheritance is often more complex than this.
Codominance and Incomplete Dominance

A characteristic may be controlled by one gene with two alleles, but the two alleles may have a dierent
relationship than the simple dominant-recessive relationship that you have read about so far. For example,
the two alleles may have a codominant or incompletely dominant relationship. The former is illustrated
by the ower in Figure 17.15, and the latter in Figure 17.16.
Codominance
Codominance occurs when both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the heterozygote. The
red and white ower in the gure has codominant alleles for red petals and white petals.
Incomplete Dominance
Incomplete dominance occurs when the dominant allele is not completely dominant. Expression of the
dominant allele is inuenced by the recessive allele, and an intermediate phenotype results. The pink ower
in the gure has an incompletely dominant allele for red petals and a recessive allele for white petals.
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Figure 17.15: Codominance. The ower has red and white petals because of codominance of red-petal and
white-petal alleles.
Figure 17.16: Incomplete Dominance. The ower has pink petals because of incomplete dominance of a
red-petal allele and a recessive white-petal allele.
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Multiple Alleles
Many genes have multiple (more than two) alleles. An example is ABO blood type in humans. There are
three common alleles for the gene that controls this characteristic. The allele for type A is codominant
with the allele for type B, and both alleles are dominant to the allele for type O. Therefore, the possible
phenotypes are type A, B, AB, and O. Do you know what genotypes produce these phenotypes?
Polygenic Characteristics
Polygenic characteristics are controlled by more than one gene, and each gene may have two or more
alleles. The genes may be on the same chromosome or on nonhomologous chromosomes.
If the genes are located close together on the same chromosome, they are likely to be inherited
together. However, it is possible that they will be separated by crossing-over during meiosis, in
which case they may be inherited independently of one another.
If the genes are on nonhomologous chromosomes, they may be recombined in various ways because
of independent assortment.
For these reasons, the inheritance of polygenic characteristics is very complicated. Such characteristics
may have many possible phenotypes. Skin color and adult height are examples of polygenic characteristics
in humans. Do you have any idea how many phenotypes each characteristic has?
Eects of Environment on Phenotype

Genes play an important role in determining an organisms characteristics. However, for many characteristics, the individuals phenotype is inuenced by other factors as well. Environmental factors, such as
sunlight and food availability, can aect how genes are expressed in the phenotype of individuals. Here
are just two examples:
Genes play an important part in determining our adult height. However, factors such as poor nutrition
can prevent us from achieving our full genetic potential.
Genes are a major determinant of human skin color. However, exposure to ultraviolet radiation can
increase the amount of pigment in the skin and make it appear darker.
Lesson Summary
Probability is the chance that a certain event will occur. For example, the probability of a head
turning up on any given coin toss is 50 percent.
Probability can be used to predict the chance of gametes and ospring having certain alleles.
A Punnett square is a chart for determining the expected percents of dierent genotypes and phenotypes in the ospring of two parents.
Mendel used the percents of phenotypes in ospring to understand how characteristics are inherited.
Many characteristics have more complex inheritance patterns than those studied by Mendel. They
are complicated by factors such as codominance, incomplete dominance, multiple alleles, and environmental inuences.
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Recall
1. Dene probability. Apply the term to a coin toss.
2. How is gamete formation like tossing a coin?
3. What is a Punnett square? How is it used?
4. What information must you know to determine the phenotypes of dierent genotypes for a gene with
two alleles?
5. Based on the results of his experiments, what did Mendel conclude about the factors that control
characteristics such as ower color?
Apply Concepts
6. Draw a Punnett square of an Ss x ss cross. The S allele codes for long stems in pea plants and the s
allele codes for short stems. If S is dominant to s, what percent of ospring would you expect to have each
phenotype?
7. What letter should replace the question marks (?) in this Punnett square? Explain how you know.
Think Critically
8. Explain how Mendel used math and probability to understand the results of his experiments.
9. Compare and contrast codominance and incomplete dominance.
10. Mendel investigated stem length, or height, in pea plants. What if he had investigated human height
instead? Why would his results have been harder to interpret?
Points to Consider
Like most of the characteristics of living things, the characteristics Mendel studied in pea plants are
controlled by genes. All the cells of an organism contain the same genes, because all organisms begin as a
single cell. Most of the genes code for proteins.
How is the information encoded in a gene translated into a protein? Where does this occur, and
what processes are involved?
If cells have the same genes, how do you think dierent cells arise in an organism? For example, how
did you come to have dierent skin, bone, and blood cells if all of your cells contain the same genes?
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Image Sources
(1) http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/cm1504/Image215.gif. Public Domain.
(3) CK-12 Foundation. . CC-BY-SA-NC 3.0.
(6) Noah Elhardt. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Englishtitles2-1.jpg. Public
Domain.
(8) Darwin Cruz. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg.
CC-BY 2.0.
(10) Magnus Forrester-Barker. http://www.flickr.com/photos/magnuscanis/355327700/.
CC-BY-NC-SA 2.0.
(13) Image copyright Anyka, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com..
Opening image courtesy of Rasbak (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blauwschokker_Kapucijner_
rijserwt_bloem_Pisum_sativum.jpg) and used under the license of GNU-FDL 1.2.
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Chapter 18
Human Genetics and
Biotechnology
Biotechnology. Gene Therapy. Reality or ction? During your lifetime, gene therapy may be mainstream
medicine. Here we see a representation of the insertion of DNA into the nucleus of a cell. Is this possible?
Yes. In this chapter, you will learn how human chromosomes and genes are inherited and how they control
the traits that make each of us unique, how they can cause disease, and how those diseases can be treated.
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18.1
Human Chromosomes and Genes
Lesson Objective
Dene the human genome.
Describe human chromosomes and genes.
Explain linkage and linkage maps.
Vocabulary
autosome
human genome
Human Genome Project
linkage map
linked genes
sex chromosome
sex-linked gene
X-linked gene
Introduction
Nobody else in the world is exactly like you. What makes you dierent from everyone else? Genes have a
lot to do with it. Unless you have an identical twin, no one else on Earth has exactly the same genes as
you. What about identical twins? Are they identical in every way? They develop from the same fertilized
egg, so they have all same genes, but even they are not completely identical. Why? The environment also
inuences human characteristics, and no two people have exactly the same environment.
The Human Genome

All the DNA of the human species makes up the human genome. This DNA consists of about 3 billion
base pairs and is divided into thousands of genes on 23 pairs of chromosomes. The human genome also
includes noncoding sequences of DNA, as shown in Figure 18.1.
Thanks to the Human Genome Project, scientists now know the DNA sequence of the entire human
genome. The Human Genome Project is an international project that includes scientists from around the
world. It began in 1990, and by 2003, scientists had sequenced all 3 billion base pairs of human DNA. Now
they are trying to identify all the genes in the sequence.
You can watch a video about the Human Genome Project and how it cracked the code of life at this link:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/genome/program.html.
Our Molecular Selves video discusses the human genome, and is available at http://www.genome.gov/
25520211 or http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XuUpnAz5y1g&feature=related.
Chromosomes and Genes

Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes. The human species is characterized by 23 pairs
of chromosomes, as shown in Figure 18.3 and Figure 18.4. You can watch a short animation about human
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Figure 18.1: Human Genome, Chromosomes, and Genes. Each chromosome of the human genome contains
many genes as well as noncoding intergenic (between genes) regions. Each pair of chromosomes is shown
here in a dierent color.

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chromosomes at this link: http://www.dnalc.org/view/15520-DNA-is-organized-into-46-chromosomes-includi

html.
Figure 18.3: Human Chromosomes. Human chromosomes are shown here arranged by size. Chromosome
1 is the largest, and chromosome 22 is the smallest. All normal human cells (except gametes) have two of
each chromosome, for a total of 46 chromosomes per cell. Only one of each pair is shown here.
Autosomes
Of the 23 pairs of human chromosomes, 22 pairs are autosomes (numbers 122 in Figure 18.4). Autosomes are chromosomes that contain genes for characteristics that are unrelated to sex. These chromosomes are the same in males and females. The great majority of human genes are located on autosomes. At the link below, you can click on any human chromosome to see which traits its genes control.
http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/posters/chromosome/chooser.shtml
Sex Chromosomes
The remaining pair of human chromosomes consists of the sex chromosomes, X and Y. Females have
two X chromosomes, and males have one X and one Y chromosome. In females, one of the X chromosomes
in each cell is inactivated and known as a Barr body. This ensures that females, like males, have only one
functioning copy of the X chromosome in each cell. As you can see from Figure 18.3 and Figure 18.4,
the X chromosome is much larger than the Y chromosome. The X chromosome has about 2,000 genes,
whereas the Y chromosome has fewer than 100, none of which are essential to survival. Virtually all of
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Figure 18.4: Human Chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Pairs 1-22 are autosomes.
Females have two X chromosomes, and males have an X and a Y chromosome.
the X chromosome genes are unrelated to sex. Only the Y chromosome contains genes that determine sex.
A single Y chromosome gene, called SRY (which stands for sex-determining region Y gene), triggers an
embryo to develop into a male. Without a Y chromosome, an individual develops into a female, so you can
think of female as the default sex of the human species. Can you think of a reason why the Y chromosome
is so much smaller than the X chromosome? At the link that follows, you can watch an animation that
explains why: http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/gender/Y_evolution.html.
Human Genes
Humans have an estimated 20,000 to 22,000 genes. This may sound like a lot, but it really isnt. Far simpler
species have almost as many genes as humans. However, human cells use splicing and other processes to
make multiple proteins from the instructions encoded in a single gene. Of the 3 billion base pairs in the
human genome, only about 25 percent make up genes and their regulatory elements. The functions of
many of the other base pairs are still unclear. To learn more about the coding and noncoding sequences
of human DNA, watch the animation at this link: http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/dna/DNAi_
coding_sequences.html.
The majority of human genes have two or more possible alleles. Dierences in alleles account for the considerable genetic variation among people. In fact, most human genetic variation is the result of dierences
in individual DNA bases within alleles.
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Linkage
Genes that are located on the same chromosome are called linked genes. Alleles for these genes tend to
segregate together during meiosis, unless they are separated by crossing-over. Crossing-over occurs when
two homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material during meiosis I. The closer together two genes are
on a chromosome, the less likely their alleles will be separated by crossing-over. At the following link, you
can watch an animation showing how genes on the same chromosome may be separated by crossing-over:
http://www.biostudio.com/d_%20Meiotic%20Recombination%20Between%20Linked%20Genes.htm.
Linkage explains why certain characteristics are frequently inherited together. For example, genes for hair
color and eye color are linked, so certain hair and eye colors tend to be inherited together, such as blonde
hair with blue eyes and brown hair with brown eyes. What other human traits seem to occur together?
Do you think they might be controlled by linked genes?
Sex-Linked Genes
Genes located on the sex chromosomes are called sex-linked genes. Most sex-linked genes are on the
X chromosome, because the Y chromosome has relatively few genes. Strictly speaking, genes on the X
chromosome are X-linked genes, but the term sex-linked is often used to refer to them.
Sex-linked traits are discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
15/-ROhfKyxgCo (14:19).

Mapping Linkage
Linkage can be assessed by determining how often crossing-over occurs between two genes on the same
chromosome. Genes on dierent (nonhomologous) chromosomes are not linked. They assort independently
during meiosis, so they have a 50 percent chance of ending up in dierent gametes. If genes show up in
dierent gametes less than 50 percent of the time (that is, they tend to be inherited together), they are
assumed to be on the same (homologous) chromosome. They may be separated by crossing-over, but this
is likely to occur less than 50 percent of the time. The lower the frequency of crossing-over, the closer
together on the same chromosome the genes are presumed to be. Frequencies of crossing-over can be used
to construct a linkage map like the one in Figure 18.6. A linkage map shows the locations of genes on
a chromosome.
Lesson Summary
The human genome consists of about 3 billion base pairs of DNA. In 2003, the Human Genome
Project nished sequencing all 3 billion base pairs.
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Figure 18.6: Linkage Map for the Human X Chromosome. This linkage map shows the locations of several
genes on the X chromosome. Some of the genes code for normal proteins. Others code for abnormal
proteins that lead to genetic disorders. Which pair of genes would you expect to have a lower frequency
of crossing-over: the genes that code for hemophilia A and G6PD deciency, or the genes that code for
protan and Xm?
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Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Of these, 22 pairs are autosomes. The X and Y chromosomes
are the sex chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes, and males have one X and one Y. Human
chromosomes contain a total of 20,000 to 22,000 genes, the majority of which have two or more alleles.
Linked genes are located on the same chromosome. Sex-linked genes are located on a sex chromosome,
and X-linked genes are located on the X chromosome. The frequency of crossing-over between genes
is used to construct linkage maps that show the locations of genes on chromosomes.

Recall
1. Describe the human genome.
2. What has the Human Genome Project achieved?
3. What are linked genes?
4. Describe human genetic variation.
Apply Concepts
5. Explain how you would construct a linkage map for a human chromosome. What data would you need?
Think Critically
6. Compare and contrast human autosomes and sex chromosomes.
7. People with red hair usually have very light skin. What might be a genetic explanation for this
observation?
Points to Consider
You read in this lesson about the chromosomes and genes that control human traits. Most traits are
controlled by genes on autosomes, but many are controlled by genes on the X chromosome.
Do you think it matters whether a gene is on an autosome or the X chromosome when it comes to
how it is inherited?
How do mothers and fathers pass their sex chromosomes to their sons and daughters? Their autosomes?
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18.2
Human Inheritance
Lesson Objectives
Describe inheritance in humans for autosomal and X-linked traits.
Identify complex modes of human inheritance.
Describe genetic disorders caused by mutations or abnormal numbers of chromosomes.
Vocabulary
epistasis
gene therapy
genetic trait
multiple allele trait
nondisjunction
pedigree
pleiotropy
sex-linked trait
X-linked trait
Introduction
Characteristics that are encoded in DNA are called genetic traits. Dierent types of human traits are
inherited in dierent ways. Some human traits have simple inheritance patterns like the traits that Gregor
Mendel studied in pea plants. Other human traits have more complex inheritance patterns.
Mendelian Inheritance in Humans

Mendelian inheritance refers to the inheritance of traits controlled by a single gene with two alleles, one
of which may be dominant to the other. Not many human traits are controlled by a single gene with two
alleles, but they are a good starting point for understanding human heredity. How Mendelian traits are
inherited depends on whether the traits are controlled by genes on autosomes or the X chromosome.
Autosomal Traits
Autosomal traits are controlled by genes on one of the 22 human autosomes. Consider earlobe attachment.
A single autosomal gene with two alleles determines whether you have attached earlobes or free-hanging
earlobes. The allele for free-hanging earlobes (F) is dominant to the allele for attached earlobes (f). Other
single-gene autosomal traits include widows peak and hitchhikers thumb. The dominant and recessive
forms of these traits are shown in Figure 18.7. Which form of these traits do you have? What are your
possible genotypes for the traits? The chart in Figure 18.7 is called a pedigree. It shows how the earlobe
trait was passed from generation to generation within a family. Pedigrees are useful tools for studying
inheritance patterns.
You can watch a video explaining how pedigrees are used and what they reveal at this link: http:
//www.youtube.com/watch?v=HbIHjsn5cHo.
Other single-gene autosomal traits include widows peak and hitchhikers thumb. The dominant and
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Figure 18.7: Having free-hanging earlobes is an autosomal dominant trait. This gure shows the trait and
how it was inherited in a family over three generations. Shading indicates people who have the recessive
form of the trait. Look at (or feel) your own earlobes. Which form of the trait do you have? Can you tell
which genotype you have?
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recessive forms of these traits are shown in Figure 18.8. Which form of these traits do you have? What
are your possible genotypes for the traits?
Figure 18.8: Widows peak and hitchhikers thumb are dominant traits controlled by a single autosomal
gene.
Sex-Linked Traits
Traits controlled by genes on the sex chromosomes are called sex-linked traits, or X-linked traits in the
case of the X chromosome. Single-gene X-linked traits have a dierent pattern of inheritance than singlegene autosomal traits. Do you know why? Its because males have just one X chromosome. In addition,
they always inherit their X chromosome from their mother, and they pass it on to all their daughters but
none of their sons. This is illustrated in Figure 18.9.
Figure 18.9: Inheritance of Sex Chromosomes. Mothers pass only X chromosomes to their children. Fathers
always pass their X chromosome to their daughters and their Y chromosome to their sons. Can you explain
why fathers always determine the sex of the ospring?
Because males have just one X chromosome, they have only one allele for any X-linked trait. Therefore,
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a recessive X-linked allele is always expressed in males. Because females have two X chromosomes, they
have two alleles for any X-linked trait. Therefore, they must inherit two copies of the recessive allele
to express the recessive trait. This explains why X-linked recessive traits are less common in females
than males. An example of a recessive X-linked trait is red-green color blindness. People with this trait
cannot distinguish between the colors red and green. More than one recessive gene on the X chromosome
codes for this trait, which is fairly common in males but relatively rare in females (Figure 18.10). At
the link below, you can watch an animation about another X-linked recessive trait called hemophilia A.
http://www.dnalc.org/view/16315-Animation-13-Mendelian-laws-apply-to-human-beings-.html
Figure 18.10: Pedigree for Color Blindness. Color blindness is an X-linked recessive trait. Mothers pass
the recessive allele for the trait to their sons, who pass it to their daughters.
Non-Mendelian Inheritance
Most human traits have more complex modes of inheritance than simple Mendelian inheritance. For
example, the traits may be controlled by multiple alleles or multiple genes.
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Multiple Allele Traits

The majority of human genes are thought to have more than two alleles. Traits controlled by a single gene
with more than two alleles are called multiple allele traits. An example is ABO blood type. There
are three common alleles for this trait, which can be represented by the letters A, B, and O. As shown in
Table 18.1, there are six possible ABO genotypes but only four phenotypes. This is because alleles A and
B are codominant to each other and both are dominant to O. You can learn more about ABO blood type
by watching the video at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oz4Ctau8mC8 (13:15).
Table 18.1: ABO Blood Type
Genotype
Phenotype
AA
AO
AB
BB
BO
OO
A
A
AB
B
B
O
Polygenic Traits
Many human traits are controlled by more than one gene. These traits are called polygenic traits (or
characteristics). The alleles of each gene have a minor additive eect on the phenotype. There are many
possible combinations of alleles, especially if each gene has multiple alleles. Therefore, a whole continuum
of phenotypes is possible. An example of a human polygenic trait is adult height. Several genes, each with
more than one allele, contribute to this trait, so there are many possible adult heights. For example, one
adults height might be 1.655 m (5.430 feet), and another adults height might be 1.656 m (5.433 feet)
tall. Adult height ranges from less than 5 feet to more than 6 feet, but the majority of people fall near the
middle of the range, as shown in Figure 18.11.
Figure 18.11: Human Adult Height. Like many other polygenic traits, adult height has a bell-shaped
distribution.
Many polygenic traits are aected by the environment. For example, adult height might be negatively
impacted by poor diet or illness during childhood. Skin color is another polygenic trait. There is a wide
range of skin colors in people worldwide. In addition to dierences in skin color genes, dierences in
exposure to UV light explain most of the variation. As shown in Figure 18.12, exposure to UV light
darkens the skin.
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Figure 18.12: Eects of UV Light on Skin Color. This picture shows clearly how exposure to UV light can
aect skin color. UV light causes skin cells to produce more of a brown pigment called melanin, which
makes skin darker.
Pleiotropy
Sometimes a single gene may aect more than one trait. This is called pleiotropy. An example is the
gene that codes for the main protein in collagen, a substance that helps form bones. The gene for this
protein also aects the ears and eyes. This was discovered from mutations in the gene. They result in
problems not only in bones but also in these sensory organs.
Epistasis
In other cases, one gene aects the expression of another gene. This is called epistasis. Epistasis is similar
to dominance, except that it occurs between dierent genes rather than between dierent alleles for the
same gene. An example is the gene coding for widows peak. A gene that codes for baldness would hide
the widows peak trait if it occurred in the same person.
Genetic Disorders
Many genetic disorders are caused by mutations in one or a few genes. Other genetic disorders are caused
by abnormal numbers of chromosomes.
Genetic Disorders Caused by Mutations

Table 18.2 lists several genetic disorders caused by mutations in just one gene. Some of the disorders are
caused by mutations in autosomal genes, others by mutations in X-linked genes. Which disorder would
you expect to be more common in males than females? You can watch a video about genetic disorders
caused by mutations at this link: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/programs/ht/rv/2809_03.html.
You can click on any human chromosome at this link to see the genetic disorders associated with it:
http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/posters/chromosome/chooser.shtml.
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Table 18.2: Genetic Disorders Caused by Mutations

Genetic Disorder
Direct Eect of Mutation
Signs and Symptoms

of the Disorder
Mode of Inheritance
Marfan syndrome
defective protein in connective tissue
autosomal dominant
Sickle cell anemia
abnormal hemoglobin
protein in red blood
cells
Vitamin
rickets
lack of a substance
needed for bones to
absorb minerals
heart and bone defects and unusually

long, slender limbs and
ngers
sickle-shaped red blood
cells that clog tiny blood
vessels, causing pain
and damaging organs
and joints
soft bones that easily
become deformed, leading to bowed legs and
other skeletal deformities
internal and external
bleeding that occurs
easily and is diicult to
control
D-resistant
Hemophilia A
reduced activity of a
protein needed for blood
clotting
autosomal recessive
X-linked dominant
X-linked recessive
Few genetic disorders are controlled by dominant alleles. A mutant dominant allele is expressed in every
individual who inherits even one copy of it. If it causes a serious disorder, aected people may die
young and fail to reproduce. Therefore, the mutant dominant allele is likely to die out of the population.
A mutant recessive allele, such as the allele that causes sickle cell anemia (see Figure 18.13 and the
link that follows), is not expressed in people who inherit just one copy of it. These people are called
carriers. They do not have the disorder themselves, but they carry the mutant allele and can pass it to
their ospring. Thus, the allele is likely to pass on to the next generation rather than die out. http:
//www.dnalc.org/resources/3d/17-sickle-cell.html
Cystic Fibrosis and Tay-Sachs disease are two additional severe genetic disorders. They are discussed in the
following video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8s4he3wLgkM&feature=related (9:31). TaySachs is further discussed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1RO0LOgHbIo&feature=channel
(3:13) and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6zNj5LdDuTA (2:01).
Chromosomal Disorders
Mistakes may occur during meiosis that result in nondisjunction. This is the failure of replicated chromosomes to separate during meiosis (the animation at the link below shows how this happens). Some
of the resulting gametes will be missing a chromosome, while others will have an extra copy of the
chromosome. If such gametes are fertilized and form zygotes, they usually do not survive. If they do
survive, the individuals are likely to have serious genetic disorders. Table 18.3 lists several genetic disorders that are caused by abnormal numbers of chromosomes. Most chromosomal disorders involve the
X chromosome. Look back at the X and Y chromosomes and you will see why. The X and Y chromosomes are very dierent in size, so nondisjunction of the sex chromosomes occurs relatively often.
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/traits/predictdisorder/index.html
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Figure 18.13: Sickle-Shaped and Normal Red Blood Cells. Sickle cell anemia is an autosomal recessive
disorder. The mutation that causes the disorder aects just one amino acid in a single protein, but it has
serious consequences for the aected person. This photo shows the sickle shape of red blood cells in people
with sickle cell anemia.
Table 18.3: Genetic Disorders Caused by Abnormal Numbers of Chromosomes
Genetic Disorder
Genotype
Phenotypic Eects
Down syndrome
extra copy (complete or partial)

of chromosome 21 (see Figure
18.14)
one X chromosome but no other
sex chromosome (XO)
three X chromosomes (XXX)
developmental delays, distinctive

facial appearance, and other abnormalities (see Figure 18.15)
female with short height and infertility (inability to reproduce)
female with mild developmental
delays and menstrual irregularities
male with problems in sexual development and reduced levels of
the male hormone testosterone
Turners syndrome
Triple X syndrome
Klinefelters syndrome
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one Y chromosome and two

or more X chromosomes (XXY,
XXXY)
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Figure 18.15: Child with Down syndrome, exhibiting characteristic facial appearance.
abnormalities. One method of prenatal testing is amniocentesis. In this procedure, a few fetal cells are
extracted from the uid surrounding the fetus, and the fetal chromosomes are examined.
KQED: Treating Genetic Disorders

The symptoms of genetic disorders can sometimes be treated, but cures for genetic disorders are still in
the early stages of development. One potential cure that has already been used with some success is gene
therapy. This involves inserting normal genes into cells with mutant genes. At the following link, you can
watch the video Sickle Cell Anemia: Hope from Gene Therapy, to learn how scientists are trying to cure
sickle-cell anemia with gene therapy. http://www.pubinfo.vcu.edu/secretsofthesequence/playlist_
frame.asp
If you could learn your risk of getting cancer or another genetic disease, would you? Though this is
a personal decision, it is a possibility. A San Francisco company now makes it easy to order medical
genetic tests through the Web. See Genetic Testing through the Web at http://www.kqed.org/quest/
television/genetic-testing-through-the-web.
Lesson Summary
A minority of human traits are controlled by single genes with two alleles. They have dierent
inheritance patterns depending on whether they are controlled by autosomal or X-linked genes.
Most human traits have complex modes of inheritance. They may be controlled by one gene with
multiple alleles or by multiple genes. More complexity may be introduced by pleiotropy (one gene,
multiple eect) and epistasis (gene-gene interactions).
Many genetic disorders are caused by mutations in one or a few genes. Other genetic disorders are
caused by abnormal numbers of chromosomes.
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Recall
1. Describe the inheritance pattern for a single-gene autosomal dominant trait, such as free-hanging
earlobes.
2. Give an example of a multiple allele trait and a polygenic trait.
3. Identify factors that inuence human skin color.
4. Describe a genetic disorder caused by a mutation in a single gene.
5. What causes Down syndrome?
6. What is gene therapy?
Apply Concepts
7. Draw a pedigree for hitchhikers thumb. Your pedigree should cover at least two generations and include
both dominant and recessive forms of the trait. Label the pedigree with genotypes, using the letter H to
represent the dominant allele for the trait and the letter h to represent the recessive allele.
Think Critically
8. How might red-green color blindness aect the health of a person with this trait?
9. Compare and contrast dominance and epistasis.
10. Explain why genetic disorders caused by abnormal numbers of chromosomes most often involve the X
chromosome.
Points to Consider
Technology has been developed to cure some genetic disorders with gene therapy. This involves inserting
normal genes into cells with mutations. Scientists use genetic technology for other purposes as well.
What other genetic problems might scientists try to solve with genetic technology? What about
problems in agriculture?
Why might scientists want to alter the genes of other organisms? How might this be done?
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18.3
Biotechnology
Lesson Objectives
Describe gene cloning and the polymerase chain reaction.
Explain how DNA technology is applied in medicine and agriculture.
Identify some of the ethical, legal, and social issues raised by biotechnology.
Vocabulary
biotechnology
gene cloning
genetic engineering
pharmacogenomics
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
recombinant DNA
synthetic biology
transgenic crop
Introduction
Biotechnology is the use of technology to change the genetic makeup of living things for human purposes.
Generally, the purpose of biotechnology is to create organisms that are useful to humans or to cure genetic
disorders. For example, biotechnology may be used to create crops that resist insect pests or yield more
food, or to create new treatments for human diseases.
Biotechnology: The Invisible Revolution can be seen at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OcG9q9cPqm4.
What does biotechnology have to do with me? is discussed in the following video: http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=rrT5BT_7HdI&feature=related(10:01).
Biotechnology Methods
Biotechnology uses a variety of techniques to achieve its aims. Two commonly used techniques are gene
cloning and the polymerase chain reaction.
Gene Cloning
Gene cloning is the process of isolating and making copies of a gene. This is useful for many purposes.
For example, gene cloning might be used to isolate and make copies of a normal gene for gene therapy.
Gene cloning involves four steps: isolation, ligation, transformation, and selection. You can watch an
interactive animation about gene cloning at this link: http://www.teachersdomain.org/asset/biot09_
int_geneclone/.
1. In isolation, an enzyme is used to break DNA at a specic base sequence. This is done to isolate a
gene.
2. During ligation, the enzyme DNA ligase combines the isolated gene with plasmid DNA from bacteria.
(Plasmid DNA is circular DNA that is not part of a chromosome and can replicate independently.)
Ligation is illustrated in Figure 18.16. The DNA that results is called recombinant DNA.
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3. In transformation, the recombinant DNA is inserted into a living cell, usually a bacterial cell. Changing an organism in this way is also called genetic engineering.
4. Selection involves growing transformed bacteria to make sure they have the recombinant DNA. This
is a necessary step because transformation is not always successful. Only bacteria that contain the
recombinant DNA are selected for further use.
Figure 18.16: Ligation. DNA ligase joins together an isolated gene and plasmid DNA. This produces
recombinant DNA.
Recombinant DNA technology is discussed in the following videos and animations: http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=x2jUMG2E-ic (4.36), http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jy15BWVxTC0 (0.50), http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=sjwNtQYLKeU&feature=related (7.20), http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
Fi63VjfhsfI (3:59).
Polymerase Chain Reaction

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) makes many copies of a gene or other DNA segment. This
might be done in order to make large quantities of a gene for genetic testing. PCR involves three steps:
denaturing, annealing, and extension. The three steps are illustrated in Figure 18.17. They are repeated
many times in a cycle to make large quantities of the gene. You can watch animations of PCR at these
links:
http://www.dnalc.org/resources/3d/19-polymerase-chain-reaction.html
http://www.teachersdomain.org/asset/biot09_int_pcr/.
1. Denaturing involves heating DNA to break the bonds holding together the two DNA strands. This
yields two single strands of DNA.
2. Annealing involves cooling the single strands of DNA and mixing them with short DNA segments
called primers. Primers have base sequences that are complementary to segments of the single DNA
strands. As a result, bonds form between the DNA strands and primers.
3. Extension occurs when an enzyme (Taq polymerase or Taq DNA polymerase) adds nucleotides to the
primers. This produces new DNA molecules, each incorporating one of the original DNA strands.
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Figure 18.17: The Polymerase Chain Reaction. The polymerase chain reaction involves three steps. High
temperatures are needed for the process to work. The enzyme Taq polymerase is used in step 3 because it
can withstand high temperatures.
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Applications of Biotechnology
Methods of biotechnology can be used for many practical purposes. They are used widely in both
medicine and agriculture. To see how biotechnology can be used to solve crimes, watch the video Justice
DNAFreeing the Innocent at the following link: http://www.pubinfo.vcu.edu/secretsofthesequence/
playlist_frame.asp.
Applications in Medicine
In addition to gene therapy for genetic disorders, biotechnology can be used to transform bacteria so they
are able to make human proteins. Figure 18.18 shows how this is done. Proteins made by the bacteria
are injected into people who cannot produce them because of mutations.
Figure 18.18: Genetically Engineering Bacteria to Produce a Human Protein. Bacteria can be genetically
engineered to produce a human protein, such as a cytokine. A cytokine is a small protein that helps ght
infections.
Insulin was the rst human protein to be produced in this way. Insulin helps cells take up glucose from the
blood. People with type 1 diabetes have a mutation in the gene that normally codes for insulin. Without
insulin, their blood glucose rises to harmfully high levels. At present, the only treatment for type 1 diabetes
is the injection of insulin from outside sources. Until recently, there was no known way to make insulin
outside the human body. The problem was solved by gene cloning. The human insulin gene was cloned
and used to transform bacterial cells, which could then produce large quantities of human insulin.
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KQED: Pharmacogenomics
As we have learned, we know that, thanks to our DNA, each of us is a little bit dierent. Some of
those dierences are obvious, like eye and hair color, but others are not so obvious, like how our bodies
react to medication. Researchers are beginning to look at how to tailor medical treatments to our genetic
proles, in a relatively new eld called Pharmacogenomics. Some of the biggest breakthroughs have been
in cancer treatment. For additional information on this personalized medicine, listen to http://www.
kqed.org/quest/radio/personalized-medicine and see http://www.kqed.org/quest/blog/2009/09/
11/reporters-notes-personalized-medicine/.
KQED: Synthetic Biology
Imagine living cells acting as memory devices; biofuels brewing from yeast, or a light receptor taken from
algae that makes photographs on a plate of bacteria. The new eld of Synthetic Biology is making biology easier to engineer so that new functions can be derived from living systems. Find out the tools that
synthetic biologists are using and the exciting things they are building at http://www.kqed.org/quest/
television/decoding-synthetic-biology and http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/web-extra-synthetic-
Applications in Agriculture
Biotechnology has been used to create transgenic crops. Transgenic crops are genetically modied with
new genes that code for traits useful to humans. The diagram in Figure 18.20 shows how a transgenic crop
is created. You can learn more about how scientists create transgenic crops with the interactive animation
Engineer a CropTransgenic Manipulation at this link: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/harvest/engineer/
transgen.html.
Transgenic crops have been created with a variety of dierent traits, such as yielding more food, tasting better, surviving drought, and resisting insect pests. Scientists have even created a transgenic purple tomato
that contains a cancer-ghting compound (see Figure 18.21). To learn how scientists have used biotechnology to create plants that can grow in salty soil, watch the video Salt of the EarthEngineering Salt-Tolerant
Plants at this link: http://www.pubinfo.vcu.edu/secretsofthesequence/playlist_frame.asp.
Biotechnology in agriculture is discussed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IY3mfgbe-0c (6:40).
Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues

The use of biotechnology has raised a number of ethical, legal, and social issues. Here are just a few:
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Figure 18.20: Creating a Transgenic Crop. A transgenic crop is genetically modied to be more useful to
humans.
Figure 18.21: Transgenic Purple Tomato. A purple tomato is genetically modied to contain a cancerghting compound. A gene for the compound was transferred into normal red tomatoes.
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Who owns genetically modied organisms such as bacteria? Can such organisms be patented like
inventions?
Are genetically modied foods safe to eat? Might they have unknown harmful eects on the people
who consume them?
Are genetically engineered crops safe for the environment? Might they harm other organisms or even
entire ecosystems?
Who controls a persons genetic information? What safeguards ensure that the information is kept
private?
How far should we go to ensure that children are free of mutations? Should a pregnancy be ended if
the fetus has a mutation for a serious genetic disorder?
Addressing such issues is beyond the scope of this FlexBook. The following example shows how complex
the issues may be:
A strain of corn has been created with a gene that encodes a natural pesticide. On the positive side, the
transgenic corn is not eaten by insects, so there is more corn for people to eat. The corn also doesnt need
to be sprayed with chemical pesticides, which can harm people and other living things. On the negative
side, the transgenic corn has been shown to cross-pollinate nearby milkweed plants. Ospring of the crosspollinated milkweed plants are now known to be toxic to monarch buttery caterpillars that depend on
them for food. Scientists are concerned that this may threaten the monarch species as well as other species
that normally eat monarchs.
As this example shows, the pros of biotechnology may be obvious, but the cons may not be known until
it is too late. Unforeseen harm may be done to people, other species, and entire ecosystems. No doubt
the ethical, legal, and social issues raised by biotechnology will be debated for decades to come. For a
recent debate about the ethics of applying biotechnology to humans, watch the video at the link below. In
the video, a Harvard University professor of government and a Princeton University professor of bioethics
debate the science of perfecting humans. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-BPna-fSNOE
Lesson Summary
Gene cloning is the process of isolating and making copies of a DNA segment such as a gene. The
polymerase chain reaction makes many copies of a gene or other DNA segment.
Biotechnology can be used to transform bacteria so they are able to make human proteins, such as
insulin. It can also be used to create transgenic crops, such as crops that yield more food or resist
insect pests.
Biotechnology has raised a number of ethical, legal, and social issues. For example, are genetically
modied foods safe to eat, and who controls a persons genetic information?

Recall
1. Dene biotechnology.
2. What is recombinant DNA?
3. Identify the steps of gene cloning.
4. What is the purpose of the polymerase chain reaction?
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Apply Concepts
5. Make a ow chart outlining the steps involved in creating a transgenic crop.
Think Critically
6. Explain how bacteria can be genetically engineered to produce a human protein.
7. Identify an ethical, legal, or social issue raised by biotechnology. State your view on the issue, and
develop a logical argument to support your view.
Points to Consider
In this lesson, you read that bacteria can be transformed with human genes so they are able to make
human proteins. This is possible because the genetic code is universal. Genetic information is encoded
and read in the same way in all known species. This demonstrates that all life on Earth has a common
evolutionary history, beginning with the earliest living things.
How did the rst living things on Earth arise? How and when might this have happened?
What do you think the rst living things were like?
Image Sources
(2) Purple tomato: Dave; Red tomato: spisharam. [Purple tomato:
http://authors.ck12.org/wiki/index.php/File:Cherokee.purple.jpg; Red tomato:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/spisharam/2742433355/ ]. Purple tomato: GNU-FDL 1.2; Red
tomato: CC-BY-SA 2.0.
(3) Image copyright Sebastian Kaulitzk, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license
http://www.genome.gov/Glossary/index.cfm?id=181. Public Domain.
(5) Plociam. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Human_genome_to_genes.png. CC-BY 2.0.
(6) Madeleine Price Ball, modied by CK-12 Foundation. . CC-BY-SA 2.5.
(13) quinn.anya. http://www.flickr.com/photos/quinnanya/3760162521/sizes/l/. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
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(14) Erin Ryan. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Brushfield_eyes.jpg. Public Domain.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Down_Syndrome_Karyotype.png. Public Domain.
(16) From left to right, image copyright Alberto Zornetta, 2011; image copyright IKO, 2011; image
copyright Elder, 2010; Vaikunda Raja. [From left to right, the rst three images are from:
http://www.shutterstock.com; rightmost image from:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Thumbs-up_position.jpg ]. From left to right,
the rst three images are used under licenses from Shutterstock.com; rightmost image under
CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(17) (Recessive ear) Image Copyright Antonio Jorge Nunes, 2010; (Dominant ear) Image Copyright
Hywit Dimyadi, 2010; Composite created by CK-12 Foundation. http://www.shutterstock.com.
Ear images used under license from Shutterstock.com.
(18) Image copyright Blamb, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
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Chapter 19
The Theory of Evolution
The Grand Canyon, shown here, is an American icon and one of the wonders of the natural world. Its also
a record of the past. Look at the rock layers in the picture. If you were to walk down a trail to the bottom
of the canyon, with each step down you would be taking a step back in time. Thats because lower layers
of rock represent the more distant past. The rock layers and the fossils they contain show the history of
Earth and its organisms over a 2-billion-year time span. Although Charles Darwin never visited the Grand
Canyon, he saw rock layers and fossils in other parts of the world. They were one inspiration for his theory
of evolution. Darwins theory rocked the scientic world. In this chapter, you will read why.
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19.1
Darwin and the Theory of Evolution
Lesson Objectives
State Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection.

Describe observations Darwin made on the voyage of the Beagle.
Identify inuences on Darwins development of evolutionary theory.
Explain how a species can evolve through natural selection.
Vocabulary
articial selection
tness
Galpagos Islands
inheritance of acquired characteristics
Introduction
The Englishman Charles Darwin is one of the most famous scientists who ever lived. His place in the history
of science is well deserved. Darwins theory of evolution represents a giant leap in human understanding.
It explains and unies all of biology.
An overview of evolution can be seen at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
0/GcjgWov7mTM (17:39).

Darwins Theory at a Glance

Darwins theory of evolution actually contains two major ideas:
1. One idea is that evolution occurs. In other words, organisms change over time. Life on Earth has
changed as descendants diverged from common ancestors in the past.
2. The other idea is that evolution occurs by natural selection. Natural selection is the process in which
living things with benecial traits produce more ospring than others do. This results in changes in
the traits of living things over time.
In Darwins day, most people believed that all species were created at the same time and remained unchanged thereafter. They also believed that Earth was only 6,000 years old. Therefore, Darwins ideas
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revolutionized biology. How did Darwin come up with these important ideas? It all started when he went
on a voyage.
The Voyage of the Beagle

In 1831, when Darwin was just 22 years old, he set sail on a scientic expedition on a ship called the
HMS Beagle. He was the naturalist on the voyage. As a naturalist, it was his job to observe and collect
specimens of plants, animals, rocks, and fossils wherever the expedition went ashore. The route the ship
took and the stops they made are shown in Figure 19.2. You can learn more about Darwins voyage at
this link: http://www.aboutdarwin.com/voyage/voyage03.html.
Figure 19.2: Voyage of the Beagle. This map shows the route of Darwins 5-year voyage on the HMS
Beagle. Each stop along the way is labeled. Darwin and the others on board eventually circled the globe.
Darwin was fascinated by nature, so he loved his job on the Beagle. He spent more than 3 years of the 5-year
trip exploring nature on distant continents and islands. While he was away, a former teacher published
Darwins accounts of his observations. By the time Darwin nally returned to England, he had become
famous as a naturalist.
Darwins Observations
During the long voyage, Darwin made many observations that helped him form his theory of evolution.
For example:
He visited tropical rainforests and other new habitats where he saw many plants and animals he had
never seen before (see Figure 19.3). This impressed him with the great diversity of life.
He experienced an earthquake that lifted the ocean oor 2.7 meters (9 feet) above sea level. He
also found rocks containing fossil sea shells in mountains high above sea level. These observations
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suggested that continents and oceans had changed dramatically over time and continue to change in
dramatic ways.
He visited rock ledges that had clearly once been beaches that had gradually built up over time. This
suggested that slow, steady processes also change Earths surface.
He dug up fossils of gigantic extinct mammals, such as the ground sloth (see Figure 19.3). This was
hard evidence that organisms looked very dierent in the past. It suggested that living thingslike
Earths surfacechange over time.
Figure 19.3: On his voyage, Darwin saw giant marine iguanas and blue-footed boobies. He also dug up the
fossil skeleton of a giant ground sloth like the one shown here. From left: Giant Marine Iguana, Blue-Footed
Boobies, and Fossil Skeleton of a Giant Ground Sloth
The Galpagos Islands

Darwins most important observations were made on the Galpagos Islands (see map in Figure 19.4).
This is a group of 16 small volcanic islands 966 kilometers (600 miles) o the west coast of South America.
Individual Galpagos islands dier from one another in important ways. Some are rocky and dry. Others
have better soil and more rainfall. Darwin noticed that the plants and animals on the dierent islands also
diered. For example, the giant tortoises on one island had saddle-shaped shells, while those on another
island had dome-shaped shells (see Figure 19.5). People who lived on the islands could even tell the island
a turtle came from by its shell. This started Darwin thinking about the origin of species. He wondered
how each island came to have its own type of tortoise.
Inuences on Darwin
Science, like evolution, always builds on the past. Darwin didnt develop his theory completely on his own.
He was inuenced by the ideas of earlier thinkers.
Earlier Thinkers Who Inuenced Darwin

1. Jean Baptiste Lamarck (17441829) was an important French naturalist. He was one of the rst
scientists to propose that species change over time. However, Lamarck was wrong about how species
change. His idea of the inheritance of acquired characteristics is incorrect. Traits an organism
develops during its own life time cannot be passed on to ospring, as Lamarck believed.
2. Charles Lyell (17971875) was a well-known English geologist. Darwin took his book, Principles of
Geology, with him on the Beagle. In the book, Lyell argued that gradual geological processes have
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Figure 19.4: Galpagos Islands. This map shows the location of the Galpagos Islands that Darwin visited
on his voyage.
Figure 19.5: Galpagos Tortoises. Galpagos tortoises have dierently shaped shells depending on which
island they inhabit. Tortoises with saddle-shaped shells can reach up to eat plant leaves above their head.
Tortoises with dome-shaped shells cannot reach up in this way. These two types of tortoises live on islands
with dierent environments and food sources. How might this explain the dierences in their shells?
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gradually shaped Earths surface. From this, Lyell inferred that Earth must be far older than most
people believed.
3. Thomas Malthus (17661834) was an English economist. He wrote an essay titled On Population. In
the essay, Malthus argued that human populations grow faster than the resources they depend on.
When populations become too large, famine and disease break out. In the end, this keeps populations
in check by killing o the weakest members.
Articial Selection
These werent the only inuences on Darwin. He was also aware that humans could breed plants and
animals to have useful traits. By selecting which animals were allowed to reproduce, they could change an
organisms traits. The pigeons in Figure 19.6 are good examples. Darwin called this type of change in
organisms articial selection. He used the word articial to distinguish it from natural selection.
Figure 19.6: Articial Selection in Pigeons. Pigeon hobbyists breed pigeons to have certain characteristics.
All three of the pigeons in the bottom row were bred from the common rock pigeon.
Wallaces Theory
Did you ever hear the saying that great minds think alike? It certainly applies to Charles Darwin and
another English naturalist named Alfred Russel Wallace. Wallace lived at about the same time as Darwin.
He also traveled to distant places to study nature. Wallace wasnt as famous as Darwin. However, he
developed basically the same theory of evolution. While working in distant lands, Wallace sent Darwin
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a paper he had written. In the paper, Wallace explained his evolutionary theory. This served to conrm
what Darwin already thought.
Darwins Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

Darwin spent many years thinking about the work of Lamarck, Lyell, and Malthus, what he had seen on
his voyage, and articial selection. What did all this mean? How did it all t together? It ts together in
Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. Its easy to see how all of these inuences helped shape
Darwins ideas.
For a discussion of the underlying causes of natural selection and evolution see http://www.youtube.com/
user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/5/DuArVnT1i-E (19:51).

Evolution of Darwins Theory

It took Darwin years to form his theory of evolution by natural selection. His reasoning went like this:
1. Like Lamarck, Darwin assumed that species can change over time. The fossils he found helped
convince him of that.
2. From Lyell, Darwin saw that Earth and its life were very old. Thus, there had been enough time for
evolution to produce the great diversity of life Darwin had observed.
3. From Malthus, Darwin knew that populations could grow faster than their resources. This overproduction of ospring led to a struggle for existence, in Darwins words.
4. From articial selection, Darwin knew that some ospring have chance variations that can be inherited. In nature, ospring with certain variations might be more likely to survive the struggle for
existence and reproduce. If so, they would pass their favorable variations to their ospring.
5. Darwin coined the term tness to refer to an organisms relative ability to survive and produce
fertile ospring. Nature selects the variations that are most useful. Therefore, he called this type of
selection natural selection.
6. Darwin knew articial selection could change domestic species over time. He inferred that natural
selection could also change species over time. In fact, he thought that if a species changed enough,
it might evolve into a new species.
Wallaces paper not only conrmed Darwins ideas. They pushed him to nish his book, On the Origin
of Species. Published in 1859, this book changed science forever. It clearly spelled out Darwins theory of
evolution by natural selection and provided convincing arguments and evidence to support it.
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Applying Darwins Theory

The following example applies Darwins theory. It explains how giraes came to have such long necks (see
Figure 19.8).
In the past, giraes had short necks. But there was chance variation in neck length. Some giraes
had necks a little longer than the average.
Then, as now, giraes fed on tree leaves. Perhaps the environment changed, and leaves became
scarcer. There would be more giraes than the trees could support. Thus, there would be a struggle
for existence.
Giraes with longer necks had an advantage. They could reach leaves other giraes could not.
Therefore, the long-necked giraes were more likely to survive and reproduce. They had greater
tness.
These giraes passed the long-neck trait to their ospring. Each generation, the population contained
more long-necked giraes. Eventually, all giraes had long necks.
Figure 19.8: African Giraes. Giraes feed on leaves high in trees. Their long necks allow them to reach
leaves that other ground animals cannot.
As this example shows, chance variations may help a species survive if the environment changes. Variation
among species helps ensure that at least one will be able to survive environmental change.
A summary of Darwins ideas are presented in the Natural Selection and the Owl Buttery video: http:
//www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/3/dR_BFmDMRaI (13:29).
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KQED: Chasing Beetles, Finding Darwin

Its been over 150 years since Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species. Yet his ideas remain as
central to scientic exploration as ever, and has been called the unifying concept of all biology. Is evolution
continuing today? Of course it is.
QUEST follows researchers who are still unlocking the mysteries of evolution, including entomologist
David Kavanaugh of the California Academy of Sciences, who predicted that a new beetle species would
be found on the Trinity Alps of Northern California. See http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/
chasing-beetles-finding-darwin2 for more information.
Its rare for a biologist to predict the discovery of a new species even for someone like Kavanaugh, who
has discovered many new species. For his prediction, Kavanaugh drew inspiration from Darwins own 1862
prediction. When Darwin observed an orchid from Madagascar with a foot-long nectare, he predicted that
a pollinator would be found with a tongue long enough to reach the nectar inside the orchids very thin,
elongated nectar pouch, though he had never seen such a bird or insect. Darwins prediction was based
on his nding that all species are related to each other and that some of them evolve together, developing
similar adaptations. His prediction came true in 1903, when a moth was discovered in Madagascar with a
long, thin proboscis, which it uncurls to reach the nectar in the orchids nectare. In the process of feeding
from the orchid, the moth serves as its pollinator. The moth was given the scientic name Xanthopan
morganii praedicta, in honor of Darwins prediction.
KQED: The California Academy of Sciences

Founded in 1853 as the rst scientic institution in the western United States, the California Academy of
Sciences mission is to explore, explain, and protect the natural world. The California Academy of Sciences
has the largest collection of biological reference materials west of the Mississippi River. Dating back over
100 years, the collection provides a treasure trove of biological information for scientists and researchers
studying the natural world http://www.calacademy.org/.
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Norman Penny, collections manager of the entomology department of the California Academy of Sciences, gives QUEST viewers a peek at the California Academy of Sciences vast buttery collection,
and discusses the evolutionary importance of butteries. See http://science.kqed.org/quest/video/
science-on-the-spot-cal-academy-butterfly-collection/ for additional information.
KQED: The Farallon Islands: Californias Galapagos

As one of 552 designated National Wildlife Refuges, the Farallon Islands are virtually uninhabited by
humans. These islands are home to the largest seabird breeding colony in the contiguous United States.
The Farallon Islands also have a rich diversity of marine life. They are the spawning grounds for numerous
sh and invertebrate species, and at least 36 species of marine mammals have been observed in surrounding
waters. This unique and fragile ecosystem has informally earned these islands the name the Galapagos of
California.
Lying just 28 miles o the coast of California, the Farallon Islands sits amid one of the most productive
marine food webs on the planet. Ventures out for a visit to learn what life is like on the islands and meet
the scientists who call this incredibly wild place home at http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/
the-farallon-islands--californias-galapagos.
Lesson Summary
Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection states that living things with benecial traits
produce more ospring than others do. This produces changes in the traits of living things over time.
During his voyage on the Beagle, Darwin made many observations that helped him develop his theory
of evolution. His most important observations were made on the Galpagos Islands.
Darwin was inuenced by other early thinkers, including Lamarck, Lyell, and Malthus. He was also
inuenced by his knowledge of articial selection.
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Wallaces paper on evolution conrmed Darwins ideas. It also pushed him to publish his book, On
the Origin of Species. The book clearly spells out his theory. It also provides evidence and logic to
support it.

Recall
1. State Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection.
2. Describe two observations Darwin made on his voyage on the Beagle that helped him develop his theory
of evolution.
3. What is the inheritance of acquired characteristics? What scientist developed this mistaken idea?
4. What is articial selection? How does it work?
5. How did Alfred Russel Wallace inuence Darwin?
Apply Concepts
6. Apply Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection to a specic case. For example, explain how
Galpagos tortoises could have evolved saddle-shaped shells.
Think Critically
7. Why did Darwins observations of Galpagos tortoises cause him to wonder how species originate?
8. Explain how the writings of Charles Lyell and Thomas Malthus helped Darwin develop his theory of
evolution by natural selection.
Points to Consider
Darwins book On the Origin of Species is a major milestone in science. It introduced biologys most
important theory. It also provided an excellent example of how to think like a scientist. A scientist uses
evidence and logic to understand the natural world. In this lesson, you read about some of the evidence
Darwin used. This evidence included fossils and articial selection.
What other evidence might be used to show that evolution occurs? What about evidence based on
molecules?
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Do you think its possible to see evolution occurring? How might that happen?
19.2
Evidence for Evolution
Lesson Objectives
Describe how fossils help us understand the past.
Explain how evidence from living species gives clues about evolution.
State how biogeography relates to evolutionary change.
Vocabulary
adaptive radiation
analogous structure
biogeography
comparative anatomy
comparative embryology
homologous structure
paleontologist
vestigial structure
Introduction
In his book On the Origin of Species, Darwin included a lot of evidence to show that evolution had taken
place. He also made logical arguments to support his theory that evolution occurs by natural selection.
Since Darwins time, much more evidence has been gathered. The evidence includes a huge number of
fossils. It also includes more detailed knowledge of living things, right down to their DNA.
Fossil Evidence
Fossils are a window into the past. They provide clear evidence that evolution has occurred. Scientists
who nd and study fossils are called paleontologists. How do they use fossils to understand the past?
Consider the example of the horse, shown in Figure 19.14. The fossil record shows how the horse evolved.
The oldest horse fossils show what the earliest horses were like. They were about the size of a fox, and
they had four long toes. Other evidence shows they lived in wooded marshlands, where they probably ate
soft leaves. Through time, the climate became drier, and grasslands slowly replaced the marshes. Later
fossils show that horses changed as well.
They became taller, which would help them see predators while they fed in tall grasses.
They evolved a single large toe that eventually became a hoof. This would help them run swiftly
and escape predators.
Their molars (back teeth) became longer and covered with cement. This would allow them to grind
tough grasses and grass seeds without wearing out their teeth.
Similar fossil evidence demonstrates the evolution of the whale, moving from the land into the sea. An
animation of this process can be viewed at http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/exhibitions/whales/
Segment.aspx?irn=161.
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Figure 19.14: Evolution of the Horse. The fossil record reveals how horses evolved.
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Does The Fossil Record Support Evolution? This video can be seen at http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=QWVoXZPOCGk (9:20).
Evidence from Living Species

Just as Darwin did, todays scientists study living species to learn about evolution. They compare the
anatomy, embryos, and DNA of modern organisms to understand how they evolved.
Comparative Anatomy
Comparative anatomy is the study of the similarities and dierences in the structures of dierent species.
Similar body parts may be homologies or analogies. Both provide evidence for evolution.
Homologous structures are structures that are similar in related organisms because they were inherited
from a common ancestor. These structures may or may not have the same function in the descendants.
Figure 19.15 shows the hands of several dierent mammals. They all have the same basic pattern of
bones. They inherited this pattern from a common ancestor. However, their forelimbs now have dierent
functions.
Figure 19.15: Hands of Dierent Mammals. The forelimbs of all mammals have the same basic bone
structure.
Analogous structures are structures that are similar in unrelated organisms. The structures are similar
because they evolved to do the same job, not because they were inherited from a common ancestor. For
example, the wings of bats and birds, shown in Figure 19.16, look similar on the outside. They also have
the same function. However, wings evolved independently in the two groups of animals. This is apparent
when you compare the pattern of bones inside the wings.
Comparative Embryology
Comparative embryology is the study of the similarities and dierences in the embryos of dierent
species. Similarities in embryos are evidence of common ancestry. All vertebrate embryos, for example,
have gill slits and tails. All of the animals in the gure, except for sh, lose their gill slits by adulthood.
Some of them also lose their tail. In humans, the tail is reduced to the tail bone. Thus, similarities
organisms share as embryos may be gone by adulthood. This is why it is valuable to compare organisms in
the embryonic stage. See http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/04/2/pdf/l_042_03.pdf for
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Figure 19.16: Wings of Bats and Birds. Wings of bats and birds serve the same function. Look closely at
the bones inside the wings. The dierences show they developed from dierent ancestors.
additional information and a nice comparative diagram of human, monkey, pig, chicken and salamander
embryos.
Vestigial Structures
Structures like the human tail bone are called vestigial structures. Evolution has reduced their size
because the structures are no longer used. The human appendix is another example of a vestigial structure.
It is a tiny remnant of a once-larger organ. In a distant ancestor, it was needed to digest food. It serves
no purpose in humans today. Why do you think structures that are no longer used shrink in size? Why
might a full-sized, unused structure reduce an organisms tness?
Comparing DNA
Darwin could compare only the anatomy and embryos of living things. Today, scientists can compare their
DNA. Similar DNA sequences are the strongest evidence for evolution from a common ancestor. Look at
the cladogram in Figure 19.17. It shows how humans and apes are related based on their DNA sequences.
Evolution and molecules are discussed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nvJFI3ChOUU (3:52).
Using various types of information to understand evolutionary relationships is discussed in the following videos: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aZc1t2Os6UU (3:38), http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=6IRz85QNjz0 (6:45), http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JgyTVT3dqGY&feature=related (10:51).
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Figure 19.17: Cladogram of Humans and Apes. This cladogram is based on DNA comparisons. It shows
how humans are related to apes by descent from common ancestors.
KQED: The Reverse Evolution Machine

In search of the common ancestor of all mammals, University of California Santa Cruz scientist David Haussler is pulling a complete reversal. Instead of studying fossils, hes comparing the genomes of living mammals to construct a map of our common ancestors DNA. His technique holds promise for providing a better
picture of how life evolved. See http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/the-reverse-evolution-machine
for more information.
Evidence from Biogeography

Biogeography is the study of how and why plants and animals live where they do. It provides more
evidence for evolution. Lets consider the camel family as an example.
Biogeography of Camels: An Example

Today, the camel family includes dierent types of camels. They are shown in Figure 19.18. All of todays
camels are descended from the same camel ancestors. These ancestors lived in North America about a
million years ago.
Early North American camels migrated to other places. Some went to East Asia. They crossed a land
bridge during the last ice age. A few of them made it all the way to Africa. Others went to South
America. They crossed the Isthmus of Panama. Once camels reached these dierent places, they evolved
independently. They evolved adaptations that suited them for the particular environment where they
lived. Through natural selection, descendants of the original camel ancestors evolved the diversity they
have today.
Island Biogeography
The biogeography of islands yields some of the best evidence for evolution. Consider the birds called nches
that Darwin studied on the Galpagos Islands (see Figure 19.19). All of the nches probably descended
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Figure 19.18: Camel Migrations and Present-Day Variation. Members of the camel family now live in
dierent parts of the world. They dier from one another in a number of traits. However, they share basic
similarities. This is because they all evolved from a common ancestor. What dierences and similarities
do you see?
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from one bird that arrived on the islands from South America. Until the rst bird arrived, there had never
been birds on the islands. The rst bird was a seed eater. It evolved into many nch species. Each species
was adapted for a dierent type of food. This is an example of adaptive radiation. This is the process
by which a single species evolves into many new species to ll available niches.
Figure 19.19: Galpagos nches dier in beak size and shape, depending on the type of food they eat.
Eyewitness to Evolution
In the 1970s, biologists Peter and Rosemary Grant went to the Galpagos Islands. They wanted to re-study
Darwins nches. They spent more than 30 years on the project. Their eorts paid o. They were able to
observe evolution by natural selection actually taking place. While the Grants were on the Galpagos, a
drought occurred. As a result, fewer seeds were available for nches to eat. Birds with smaller beaks could
crack open and eat only the smaller seeds. Birds with bigger beaks could crack and eat seeds of all sizes.
As a result, many of the small-beaked birds died in the drought. Birds with bigger beaks survived and
reproduced (see Figure 19.20). Within 2 years, the average beak size in the nch population increased.
Evolution by natural selection had occurred.
Lesson Summary
Fossils provide a window into the past. They are evidence for evolution. Scientists who nd and
study fossils are called paleontologists.
Scientists compare the anatomy, embryos, and DNA of living things to understand how they evolved.
Evidence for evolution is provided by homologous structures. These are structures shared by related
organisms that were inherited from a common ancestor. Other evidence is provided by analogous
structures. These are structures that unrelated organisms share because they evolved to do the same
job.
Biogeography is the study of how and why plants and animals live where they do. It also provides
evidence for evolution. On island chains, such as the Galpagos, one species may evolve into many
new species to ll available niches. This is called adaptive radiation.
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Figure 19.20: Evolution of Beak Size in Galpagos Finches. The top graph shows the beak sizes of the
entire nch population studied by the Grants in 1976. The bottom graph shows the beak sizes of the
survivors in 1978. In just 2 years, beak size increased.

Recall
1. How do paleontologists learn about evolution?
2. Describe what fossils reveal about the evolution of the horse.
3. What are vestigial structures? Give an example.
4. Dene biogeography.
5. Describe an example of island biogeography that provides evidence of evolution.
Apply Concepts
6. Humans and apes have ve ngers they can use to grasp objects. Do you think these are analogous or
homologous structures? Explain.
Think Critically
7. Compare and contrast homologous and analogous structures. What do they reveal about evolution?
8. Why does comparative embryology show similarities between organisms that do not appear to be similar
as adults?
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Points to Consider
The Grants saw evolution occurring from one generation to the next in a population of nches.
What factors caused the short-term evolution the Grants witnessed? How did the Grants know that
evolution had occurred?
What other factors do you think might cause evolution to occur so quickly within a population?
19.3
Microevolution and the Genetics of Populations
Lesson Objectives
Distinguish between microevolution and macroevolution.

Dene gene pool, and explain how to calculate allele frequencies.
State the Hardy-Weinberg theorem
Identify the four forces of evolution.
Vocabulary
allele frequency
directional selection
disruptive selection
gene ow
gene pool
genetic drift
Hardy-Weinberg theorem
macroevolution
microevolution
population genetics
sexual dimorphism
stabilizing selection
Introduction
Darwin knew that heritable variations are needed for evolution to occur. However, he knew nothing about
Mendels laws of genetics. Mendels laws were rediscovered in the early 1900s. Only then could scientists
fully understand the process of evolution.
The Scale of Evolution

We now know that variations of traits are heritable. These variations are determined by dierent alleles.
We also know that evolution is due to a change in alleles over time. How long a time? That depends on
the scale of evolution.
Microevolution occurs over a relatively short period of time within a population or species. The
Grants observed this level of evolution in Darwins nches.
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Macroevolution occurs over geologic time above the level of the species. The fossil record reects
this level of evolution. It results from microevolution taking place over many generations.
Genes in Populations
Individuals do not evolve. Their genes do not change over time. The unit of evolution is the population.
A population consists of organisms of the same species that live in the same area. In terms of evolution,
the population is assumed to be a relatively closed group. This means that most mating takes place within
the population. The science that focuses on evolution within populations is population genetics. It is a
combination of evolutionary theory and Mendelian genetics.
Gene Pool
The genetic makeup of an individual is the individuals genotype. A population consists of many genotypes.
Altogether, they make up the populations gene pool. The gene pool consists of all the genes of all the
members of the population. For each gene, the gene pool includes all the dierent alleles for the gene that
exist in the population. For a given gene, the population is characterized by the frequency of the dierent
alleles in the gene pool.
Allele Frequencies
Allele frequency is how often an allele occurs in a gene pool relative to the other alleles for that gene. Look
at the example in Table 19.1. The population in the table has 100 members. In a sexually reproducing
species, each member of the population has two copies of each gene. Therefore, the total number of copies
of each gene in the gene pool is 200. The gene in the example exists in the gene pool in two forms, alleles
A and a. Knowing the genotypes of each population member, we can count the number of alleles of each
type in the gene pool. The table shows how this is done.
Table 19.1: Number of Alleles in a Gene Pool (for one gene with two Alleles, A and a)
Genotype
Number of Individuals in the Population

with that Genotype
Number of Allele A
Contributed to the
Gene Pool by that
Genotype
Number of Allele a
Contributed to the
Gene Pool by that
Genotype
AA
Aa
aa
Totals
50
40
10
100
50 2 = 100
40 1 = 40
10 0 = 0
140
50 0 = 0
40 1 = 40
10 2 = 20
60
Let the letter p stand for the frequency of allele A. Let the letter q stand for the frequency of allele a. We
can calculate p and q as follows:
p = number of A alleles/total number of alleles = 140/200 = 0.7
q = number of a alleles/total number of alleles = 60/200 = 0.3
Notice that p + q = 1.
Evolution occurs in a population when allele frequencies change over time. What causes allele frequencies
to change? That question was answered by Godfrey Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg in 1908.
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The Hardy-Weinberg Theorem

Hardy was an English mathematician. Weinberg was a German doctor. Each worked alone to come up
with the founding principle of population genetics. Today, that principle is called the Hardy-Weinberg
theorem. It shows that allele frequencies do not change in a population if certain conditions are met.
Such a population is said to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The conditions for equilibrium are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
No new mutations are occurring. Therefore, no new alleles are being created.
There is no migration. In other words, no one is moving into or out of the population.
The population is very large.
Mating is at random in the population. This means that individuals do not choose mates based on
genotype.
5. There is no natural selection. Thus, all members of the population have an equal chance of reproducing and passing their genes to the next generation.
When all these conditions are met, allele frequencies stay the same. Genotype frequencies also remain
constant. In addition, genotype frequencies can be expressed in terms of allele frequencies, as Table 19.2
shows. For a further explanation of this theorem, see http://khanexercises.appspot.com/video?v=
4Kbruik_LOo.
Table 19.2: Genotype Frequencies in a Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Population (for one gene
with two alleles, A and a)
Genotype
Genotype Frequency
AA
Aa
aa
p2
2pq
q2
Hardy and Weinberg used mathematics to describe an equilibrium population (p = frequency of A, q =

frequency of a): p2 + 2pq + q 2 = 1. In Table 19.2, if p = 0.4, what is the frequency of the AA genotype?
A video explanation of the Hardy-Weinberg model can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/user/
khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/14/4Kbruik_LOo (14:57).

Forces of Evolution
The conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are unlikely to be met in real populations. The HardyWeinberg theorem also describes populations in which allele frequencies are not changing. By denition,
such populations are not evolving. How does the theorem help us understand evolution in the real world?
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From the theorem, we can infer factors that cause allele frequencies to change. These factors are the forces
of evolution. There are four such forces: mutation, gene ow, genetic drift, and natural selection.
Mutation
Mutation creates new genetic variation in a gene pool. It is how all new alleles rst arise. In sexually
reproducing species, the mutations that matter for evolution are those that occur in gametes. Only these
mutations can be passed to ospring. For any given gene, the chance of a mutation occurring in a given
gamete is very low. Thus, mutations alone do not have much eect on allele frequencies. However,
mutations provide the genetic variation needed for other forces of evolution to act.
Gene Flow
Gene ow occurs when individuals move into or out of a population. If the rate of migration is high, this
can have a signicant eect on allele frequencies. Both the population they leave and the population they
enter may change.
During the Vietnam War in the 1960s and 1970s, many American servicemen had children with Vietnamese
women. Most of the servicemen returned to the United States after the war. However, they left copies of
their genes behind in their ospring. In this way, they changed the allele frequencies in the Vietnamese
gene pool. Was the gene pool of the American population also aected? Why or why not?
Genetic Drift
Genetic drift is a random change in allele frequencies that occurs in a small population. When a small
number of parents produce just a few ospring, allele frequencies in the ospring may dier, by chance,
from allele frequencies in the parents. This is like tossing a coin. If you toss a coin just a few times, you
may, by chance, get more or less than the expected 50 percent heads or tails. In a small population, you
may also, by chance, get dierent allele frequencies than expected in the next generation. In this way,
allele frequencies may drift over time. There are two special conditions under which genetic drift occurs.
They are called bottleneck eect and founder eect.
1. Bottleneck eect occurs when a population suddenly gets much smaller. This might happen because
of a natural disaster such as a forest re. By chance, allele frequencies of the survivors may be
dierent from those of the original population.
2. Founder eect occurs when a few individuals start, or found, a new population. By chance, allele
frequencies of the founders may be dierent from allele frequencies of the population they left. An
example is described in Figure 19.22.
Natural Selection
Natural selection occurs when there are dierences in tness among members of a population. As a result,
some individuals pass more genes to the next generation. This causes allele frequencies to change. The
example of sickle-cell anemia is described in Figure 19.23 and Table 19.3. It shows how natural selection
can keep a harmful allele in a gene pool. You can also watch a video about natural selection and sickle-cell
anemia at this link: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/2/l_012_02.html.
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Figure 19.22: Founder Eect in the Amish Population. The Amish population in the U.S. and Canada
had a small number of founders. How has this aected the Amish gene pool?
Figure 19.23: Sickle Cell and Natural Selection.
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Table 19.3: Sickle Cell and Natural Selection

Genotype
Phenotype
Fitness
AA
100% normal hemoglobin
AS
Enough normal hemoglobin to

prevent sickle-cell anemia
100% abnormal hemoglobin,
causing sickle-cell anemia
Somewhat reduced tness because of no resistance to malaria

Highest tness because of resistance to malaria
Greatly reduced tness because
of sickle-cell anemia
SS
Heres how natural selection can keep a harmful allele in a gene pool:
The allele (S) for sickle-cell anemia is a harmful autosomal recessive. It is caused by a mutation in
the normal allele (A) for hemoglobin (a protein on red blood cells).
Malaria is a deadly tropical disease. It is common in many African populations.
Heterozygotes (AS) with the sickle-cell allele are resistant to malaria. Therefore, they are more likely
to survive and reproduce. This keeps the S allele in the gene pool.
The sickle-cell example shows that tness depends on phenotypes. It also shows that tness may depend
on the environment. What do you think might happen if malaria was eliminated in an African population
with a relatively high frequency of the S allele? How might the tness of the dierent genotypes change?
How might this aect the frequency of the S allele? Sickle-cell trait is controlled by a single gene. Natural
selection for polygenic traits is more complex, unless you just look at phenotypes. Three ways that natural
selection can aect phenotypes are shown in Figure 19.24. You can also watch an animation comparing
the three ways at the link below. http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp23/2301s.swf.
1. Stabilizing selection occurs when phenotypes at both extremes of the phenotypic distribution are
selected against. This narrows the range of variation. An example is human birth weight. Babies
that are very large or very small at birth are less likely to survive. This keeps birth weight within a
relatively narrow range.
2. Directional selection occurs when one of two extreme phenotypes is selected for. This shifts the
distribution toward that extreme. This is the type of natural selection that the Grants observed in
the beak size of Galpagos nches.
3. Disruptive selection occurs when phenotypes in the middle of the range are selected against. This
results in two overlapping phenotypes, one at each end of the distribution. An example is sexual
dimorphism. This refers to dierences between the phenotypes of males and females of the same
species. In humans, for example, males and females have dierent heights and body shapes.
For a review of natural selection and genetic drift, and how they relate to evolution, see http://www.
cultureunplugged.com/play/2533/Mechanisms-of-Evolution. Mutation, natural selection, genetic drift
and gene ow are discussed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RtIQvkQWTZY (8:45).
Lesson Summary
Microevolution occurs over a short period of time in a population or species. Macroevolution occurs
over geologic time above the level of the species.
The population is the unit of evolution. A populations gene pool consists of all the genes of all the
members of the population. For a given gene, the population is characterized by the frequency of
dierent alleles in the gene pool.
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Figure 19.24: Natural Selection for a Polygenic Trait. Natural selection may aect the distribution of a
polygenic trait. These graphs show three ways this can happen.
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The Hardy-Weinberg theorem states that, if a population meets certain conditions, it will be in
equilibrium. In an equilibrium population, allele and genotype frequencies do not change over time.
The conditions that must be met are no mutation, no migration, very large population size, random
mating, and no natural selection.
There are four forces of evolution: mutation, gene ow, genetic drift, and natural selection. Natural
selection for a polygenic trait changes the distribution of phenotypes. It may have a stabilizing,
directional, or disruptive eect on the phenotype distribution.

Recall
1. Why are populations, rather than individuals, the units of evolution?
2. What is a gene pool?
3. Describe a Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium population. What conditions must it meet to remain in equilibrium?
4. Identify the four forces of evolution.
5. Why is mutation needed for evolution to occur, even though it usually has little eect on allele frequencies?
6. What is founder eect? Give an example.
7. Identify three types of natural selection for a polygenic trait.
Apply Concepts
8. Assume that a population of 50 individuals has the following numbers of genotypes for a gene with
two alleles, B and b: BB = 30, Bb = 10, and bb = 10. Calculate the frequencies of the two alleles in the
populations gene pool.
9. Assume that a population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium for a particular gene with two alleles, A
and a. The frequency of A is p, and the frequency of a is q. Because these are the only two alleles for
this gene, p + q = 1.0. If the frequency of homozygous recessive individuals (aa) is 0.04, what is the value
of q? Based on the value of q, nd p. Then use the values of p and q to calculate the frequency of the
heterozygote genotype (Aa).
Think Critically
10. Compare and contrast microevolution and macroevolution. How are the two related?
11. Explain why genetic drift is most likely to occur in a small population.
Points to Consider
Disruptive selection for a polygenic trait results in two overlapping phenotypes. Theoretically, disruptive
selection could lead to two new species forming.
How might this happen? Can you describe how it could occur?
How else might one species diverge into two?
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19.4
Macroevolution and the Origin of Species
Lesson Objectives
Describe two ways that new species may originate.
Dene coevolution, and give an example.
Distinguish between gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.
Vocabulary
allopatric speciation
coevolution
gradualism
punctuated equilibrium
speciation
sympatric speciation
Introduction
Macroevolution is evolution over geologic time above the level of the species. One of the main topics in
macroevolution is how new species arise. The process by which a new species evolves is called speciation.
How does speciation occur? How does one species evolve into two or more new species?
Origin of Species
To understand how a new species forms, its important to review what a species is. A species is a group of
organisms that can breed and produce fertile ospring together in nature. For a new species to arise, some
members of a species must become reproductively isolated from the rest of the species. This means they
can no longer interbreed with other members of the species. How does this happen? Usually they become
geographically isolated rst.
Allopatric Speciation
Assume that some members of a species become geographically separated from the rest of the species. If
they remain separated long enough, they may evolve genetic dierences. If the dierences prevent them
from interbreeding with members of the original species, they have evolved into a new species. Speciation
that occurs in this way is called allopatric speciation. An example is described in Figure 19.25.
Sympatric Speciation
Less often, a new species arises without geographic separation. This is called sympatric speciation. The
following example shows one way this can occur.
1. Hawthorn ies lay eggs in hawthorn trees (see Figure 19.26). The eggs hatch into larvae that feed
on hawthorn fruits. Both the ies and trees are native to the U.S.
2. Apple trees were introduced to the U.S. and often grow near hawthorn trees. Some hawthorn ies
started to lay eggs in nearby apple trees. When the eggs hatched, the larvae fed on apples.
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Figure 19.25: Allopatric Speciation in the Kaibab Squirrel. The Kaibab squirrel is in the process of
becoming a new species.
3. Over time, the two y populationsthose that fed on hawthorn trees and those that preferred apple
treesevolved reproductive isolation. Now they are reproductively isolated because they breed at
dierent times. Their breeding season matches the season when the apple or hawthorn fruits mature.
4. Because they rarely interbreed, the two populations of ies are evolving other genetic dierences.
They appear to be in the process of becoming separate species.
Figure 19.26: Sympatric Speciation in Hawthorn Flies. Hawthorn ies are diverging from one species into
two. As this example shows, behaviors as well as physical traits may evolve and lead to speciation.
Isolating mechanisms are discussed in the following video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-e64TfKeAXU
(2:57).
Coevolution
Evolution occurs in response to a change in the environment. Environmental change often involves other
species of organisms. In fact, species in symbiotic relationships tend to evolve together. This is called
coevolution. As one species changes, the other species must also change in order to adapt.
Coevolution occurs in owering plants and the species that pollinate them. The ower and bird in Figure
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19.27 are a good example. They have evolved matching structures.
Figure 19.27: Results of Coevolution in a Flower and Its Pollinator. The very long mouth part of this
hummingbird has coevolved with the tubular ower it pollinates. Only this species of bird can reach the
nectar deep in the ower. What might happen to the ower if the bird species went extinct?
Timing of Macroevolution
Is evolution slow and steady? Or does it occur in ts and starts? It may depend on what else is going on,
such as changes in climate and geologic conditions.
When geologic and climatic conditions are stable, evolution may occur gradually. This is how Darwin
thought evolution occurred. This model of the timing of evolution is called gradualism.
When geologic and climatic conditions are changing, evolution may occur more quickly. Thus, long
periods of little change may be interrupted by bursts of rapid change. This model of the timing of
evolution is called punctuated equilibrium. It is better supported by the fossil record than is
gradualism.
Lesson Summary
New species arise in the process of speciation. Allopatric speciation occurs when some members of
a species become geographically separated. They then evolve genetic dierences. If the dierences
prevent them from interbreeding with the original species, a new species has evolved. Sympatric
speciation occurs without geographic separation.
Coevolution occurs when species evolve together. This often happens in species that have symbiotic
relationships. Examples include owering plants and their pollinators.
Darwin thought that evolution occurs gradually. This model of evolution is called gradualism. The
fossil record better supports the model of punctuated equilibrium. In this model, long periods of
little change are interrupted by bursts of rapid change.
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Recall
1. Dene speciation.
2. Describe how allopatric speciation occurs.
3. What is gradualism? When is it most likely to apply?
4. Describe the timing of evolutionary change according to the punctuated equilibrium model.
Apply Concepts
5. Apply the concepts of tness and natural selection to explain how the insect and ower pictured in
Figure 19.27 could have evolved their matching structures.
Think Critically
6. Why is sympatric speciation less likely to occur than allopatric speciation?
Points to Consider
You read in this chapter about adaptive radiation on the Galpagos Islands. A single nch species evolved
into many new species to ll all available niches. For example, the species evolved adaptations for a variety
of food sources.
What is a species niche? What do you think it might include besides the food a species eats?
Niche is a term from ecology. What is ecology? How do you think knowledge of ecology might help
scientists understand evolution?
Image Sources
(1) Map by CK-12 Foundation; Camels (left to right): John ONeill; Adrian Pingstone; PowersPhotos;
Composite created by CK-12 Foundation. [Camels (left to right):
07._Camel_Profile,_near_Silverton,_NSW,_07.07.2007.jpg;
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bactrian.camel.sideon.arp.jpg;
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Guanaco_09.24.jpg ]. Map: CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0;
Camels (left to right): GNU-FDL 1.2; Public Domain; Public Domain.
(2) (Left to right) Catriona MacCallum; image copyright Darren Baker, 2010. [(Left to right)
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Geochelone_nigra.png;
http://www.shutterstock.com ]. (Left to right) CC-BY 2.5; Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(3) Horse and buggy image copyright Nancy Hixson, 2010; hands image G Baujat and M Le Merrer;
composite created by CK-12 Foundation.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Polydactyly_ECS.jpg. Horse and buggy image used
under license from Shutterstock.com; hands image CC-BY 2.0.
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(4) John Romanes, modied by CK-12 Foundation.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Homology.jpg. Public Domain.
(6) From left to right: Marc Figueras; Eva Hejda; Mariana Ruiz Villarreal. [From left to right:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iguanamarina.jpg;
Blaufu%C3%9Ft%C3%B6lpel_%28Sula_nebouxii_excisa%293.jpg;
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Megatherium_americanum_complete.JPG ]. From
left to right: GNU-FDL 1.2; CC-BY-SA 2.0 Germany; Public Domain.
(7) Image copyright Steve Byland, 2010. . Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
(9) Top row: Image Copyright Marketa Mark, 2010; bottom row, left to right: ASDFG1974;
ASDFG1974; Gyyr. [Top row: http://www.shutterstock.com; bottom row, left to right:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carrier_Taube.jpg;
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pfautaube.jpg;
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fiary_Swallow_%28Wing_Pigeon%29.jpg ]. Top
row: Used under license from Shutterstock.com; bottom row, left to right: GNU-FDL 1.2;
GNU-FDL 1.2; GNU-FDL 1.2.
(10) From left to right: Joseph Berger; Amanda Slater; Anne Burgess; Composite created by CK-12
Foundation. [From left to right:
http://www.invasive.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=5402798;
http://flickr.com/photos/pikerslanefarm/2907000663/;
http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/229793 ]. From left to right: CC-BY 3.0; CC-BY-SA 2.0;
CC-BY-SA 2.0.
(11) Geo Swan. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:
Orthographic_projection_centred_over_the_Galapagos.png. Public Domain.
(12) Azcolvin429, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Selectiontypes-n0_images.png. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
(14) Left to right: Ernst Wilhelm Zwergelstern; Aaron Logan; Mark Pellegrini; Image copyright Fernando
Cortes, 2010. [Left to right: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Human_2.jpg;
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Lightmatter_chimp.jpg;
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Male_silverback_Gorilla.JPG;
http://www.shutterstock.com/ ]. Left to right: GNU-FDL; CC-BY-2.5; GNU-FDL; Used under
(16) From left to right: Sally King/National Park Service; courtesy of NASA; Azhikerdude; Composite
created by CK-12 Foundation. [From left to right:
http://www.nps.gov/band/naturescience/images/abert%27s_squirrel_2.jpg;
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Grand_Canyon_autumn_STS61A-48-91.jpg;
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kaibab_Squirrel.jpg ]. From left to right: Public
Domain; Public Domain; CC-BY-SA 3.0.
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(17) Image copyright abhishek, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(18) Mcy jerry, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horseevolution.png. GNU-FDL 1.2.
Opening image copyright Daniel Korzeniewski, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
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Chapter 20
The Cell Cycle, Mitosis, and
Meiosis
What do you think this colorful picture shows? If you guessed that its a picture of a cell undergoing
cell division, you are right. In fact, the picture is an image of a lung cell stained with uorescent dyes
undergoing mitosis, specically during early anaphase. You will read about mitosis, a type of cell division,
in this chapter.
Cell division is just one of the stages that all cells go through during their life. This includes cells that are
harmful, such as cancer cells. Cancer cells divide more often than normal cells, and grow out of control.
In fact, this is how cancer cells cause illness. In this chapter, you will read about how cells divide, what
other stages cells go through, and what causes cancer cells to divide out of control and harm the body.
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20.1
Cell Division and the Cell Cycle
Lesson Objectives
Contrast cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Identify the phases of the eukaryotic cell cycle.
Explain how the cell cycle is controlled.
Dene cancer, and relate it to the cell cycle.
Vocabulary
binary ssion
cancer
cell cycle
cell division
cytokinesis
DNA replication
interphase
mitosis
tumor
Introduction
You consist of a great many cells, but like all other organisms, you started life as a single cell. How did
you develop from a single cell into an organism with trillions of cells? The answer is cell division. After
cells grow to their maximum size, they divide into two new cells. These new cells are small at rst, but
they grow quickly and eventually divide and produce more new cells. This process keeps repeating in a
continuous cycle.
Cell Division
Cell division is the process in which one cell, called the parent cell, divides to form two new cells, referred
to as daughter cells. How this happens depends on whether the cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
Cell division is simpler in prokaryotes than eukaryotes because prokaryotic cells themselves are simpler.
Prokaryotic cells have a single circular chromosome, no nucleus, and few other organelles. Eukaryotic cells,
in contrast, have multiple chromosomes contained within a nucleus and many other organelles. All of these
cell parts must be duplicated and then separated when the cell divides.
Cell Division in Prokaryotes

Most prokaryotic cells divide by the process of binary ssion. A bacterial cell dividing this way is depicted
in Figure 20.1. You can also watch an animation of binary ssion at this link: http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/File:Binary_fission_anim.gif.
Binary ssion can be broken down into a series of three steps, although it is actually a continuous process. The steps are described below and also illustrated in Figure 20.2. They include DNA replication,
chromosome segregation, and cytokinesis.
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Figure 20.1: Binary Fission in a Bacterial Cell. Cell division is relatively simple in prokaryotic cells. The
two cells are dividing by binary ssion. Blue and red lines indicate old and newly-generated bacterial cell
walls, respectively. Eventually the parent cell will pinch apart to form two identical daughter cells. Left,
growth at the center of bacterial body. Right, apical growth from the ends of the bacterial body.
Step 1: DNA Replication. Just before the cell divides, its DNA is copied in a process called DNA
replication. This results in two identical chromosomes instead of just one. This step is necessary
so that when the cell divides, each daughter cell will have its own chromosome.
Step 2: Chromosome Segregation. The two chromosomes segregate, or separate, and move to
opposite ends (known as poles) of the cell.
Step 3: Cytokinesis. A new plasma membrane starts growing into the center of the cell, and the
cytoplasm splits apart, forming two daughter cells. This process is called cytokinesis. The two
daughter cells that result are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell.
Cell Division in Eukaryotes

Cell division is more complex in eukaryotes than prokaryotes. Prior to dividing, all the DNA in a eukaryotic
cells multiple chromosomes is replicated. Its organelles are also duplicated. Then, when the cell divides,
it occurs in two major steps:
The rst step is mitosis, a multi-phase process in which the nucleus of the cell divides. During
mitosis, the nuclear membrane breaks down and later reforms. The chromosomes are also sorted
and separated to ensure that each daughter cell receives a complete set of chromosomes. Mitosis is
described in greater detail in Lesson 5.2.
The second major step is cytokinesis. As in prokaryotic cells, during this step the cytoplasm divides
and two daughter cells form.
The Cell Cycle

Cell division is just one of several stages that a cell goes through during its lifetime. The cell cycle
is a repeating series of events that include growth, DNA synthesis, and cell division. The cell cycle in
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Figure 20.2: Steps of Binary Fission. Prokaryotic cells divide by binary ssion. This is also how many
single-celled organisms reproduce.
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prokaryotes is quite simple: the cell grows, its DNA replicates, and the cell divides. In eukaryotes, the cell
cycle is more complicated.
Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

The diagram in Figure 20.3 represents the cell cycle of a eukaryotic cell. As you can see, the eukaryotic
cell cycle has several phases. The mitosis phase (M) actually includes both mitosis and cytokinesis. This
is when the nucleus and then the cytoplasm divide. The other three phases (G1, S, and G2) are generally
grouped together as interphase. During interphase, the cell grows, performs routine life processes, and
prepares to divide. These phases are discussed below. You can watch a eukaryotic cell going through these
phases of the cell cycle at the following link: http://www.cellsalive.com/cell_cycle.htm.
Figure 20.3: Eukaryotic Cell Cycle. This diagram represents the cell cycle in eukaryotes. The G1, S, and
G2 phases make up interphase (I). The M phase includes mitosis and cytokinesis. After the M phase, two
cells result.
Interphase
Interphase of the eukaryotic cell cycle can be subdivided into the following three phases, which are represented in Figure 20.3:
Growth Phase 1 (G1): during this phase, the cell grows rapidly, while performing routine metabolic
processes. It also makes proteins needed for DNA replication and copies some of its organelles in
preparation for cell division. A cell typically spends most of its life in this phase.
Synthesis Phase (S): during this phase, the cells DNA is copied in the process of DNA replication.
Growth Phase 2 (G2): during this phase, the cell makes nal preparations to divide. For example,
it makes additional proteins and organelles.
Control of the Cell Cycle

If the cell cycle occurred without regulation, cells might go from one phase to the next before they were
ready. What controls the cell cycle? How does the cell know when to grow, synthesize DNA, and divide?
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The cell cycle is controlled mainly by regulatory proteins. These proteins control the cycle by signaling the
cell to either start or delay the next phase of the cycle. They ensure that the cell completes the previous
phase before moving on. Regulatory proteins control the cell cycle at key checkpoints, which are shown in
Figure 20.4. There are a number of main checkpoints.
Figure 20.4: Checkpoints (arrows) in the eukaryotic cell cycle ensure that the cell is ready to proceed
before it moves on to the next phase of the cycle.
The G1 checkpoint, just before entry into S phase, makes the key decision of whether the cell should
divide.
The S checkpoint determines if the DNA has been replicated properly.
The mitotic spindle checkpoint occurs at the point in metaphase where all the chromosomes should
have aligned at the mitotic plate.
Cancer and the Cell Cycle

Cancer is a disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated. This may happen because a
cells DNA becomes damaged. Damage can occur due to exposure to hazards such as radiation or toxic
chemicals. Cancerous cells generally divide much faster than normal cells. They may form a mass of
abnormal cells called a tumor (see Figure 20.5). The rapidly dividing cells take up nutrients and space
that normal cells need. This can damage tissues and organs and eventually lead to death.
Cancer is discussed in the video at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
11/RZhL7LDPk8w.
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Figure 20.5: These cells are cancer cells, growing out of control and forming a tumor.

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Lesson Summary
Cell division is part of the life cycle of virtually all cells. It is a more complicated process in eukaryotic
than prokaryotic cells because eukaryotic cells have multiple chromosomes and a nucleus.
The cell cycle is a repeating series of events that cells go through. It includes growth, DNA synthesis,
and cell division. In eukaryotic cells, there are two growth phases, and cell division includes mitosis.
The cell cycle is controlled by regulatory proteins at three key checkpoints in the cycle. The proteins
signal the cell to either start or delay the next phase of the cycle.
Cancer is a disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated. Cancer cells grow rapidly
and may form a mass of abnormal cells called a tumor.

Recall
1. Describe binary ssion.
2. What is mitosis?
3. Identify the phases of the eukaryotic cell cycle.
4. What happens during interphase?
5. Dene cancer.
Apply Concepts
6. How might the relationship between cancer and the cell cycle be used in the search for causes of cancer?
Think Critically
7. Cells go through a series of events that include growth, DNA synthesis, and cell division. Why are these
events best represented by a cycle diagram?
8. Contrast cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Why are the two types of cell division dierent?
9. Explain how the cell cycle is regulated.
10. Why is DNA replication essential to the cell cycle?
Points to Consider
When a eukaryotic cell divides, the nucleus divides rst in the process of mitosis.
What do you think happens during mitosis? Can you predict what molecules and cell structures are
involved in this process?
How do you think mitosis might dier from binary ssion? What steps might be involved in mitosis?
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20.2
Chromosomes and Mitosis
Lesson Objectives
Describe chromosomes and their role in mitosis.
Outline the phases of mitosis.
Vocabulary
anaphase
centromere
chromatid
chromatin
chromosome
gene
homologous chromosomes
metaphase
prophase
telophase
Introduction
In eukaryotic cells, the nucleus divides before the cell itself divides. The process in which the nucleus
divides is called mitosis. Before mitosis occurs, a cells DNA is replicated. This is necessary so that each
daughter cell will have a complete copy of the genetic material from the parent cell. How is the replicated
DNA sorted and separated so that each daughter cell gets a complete set of the genetic material? To
understand how this happens, you need to know more chromosomes.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and proteins. Chromosomes are the form of the
genetic material of a cell during cell division. During other phases of the cell cycle, DNA is not coiled into
chromosomes. Instead, it exists as a grainy material called chromatin.
The vocabulary of DNA: chromosomes, chromatids, chromatin, transcription, translation, and replication is
discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/6/s9HPNwXd9fk (18:23).

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Chromatids and the Centromere

DNA condenses and coils into the familiar X-shaped form of a chromosome, shown in Figure 20.8, only
after it has replicated. (You can watch DNA coiling into a chromosome at the link below.) Because DNA
has already replicated, each chromosome actually consists of two identical copies. The two copies are called
sister chromatids. They are attached to one another at a region called the centromere. A remarkable
animation can be viewed at http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/media/DNAi_packaging_vo2-sm.
mov.
Figure 20.8: Chromosome. After DNA replicates, it forms chromosomes like the one shown here.
Chromosomes and Genes

The DNA of a chromosome is encoded with genetic instructions for making proteins. These instructions
are organized into units called genes. Most genes contain the instructions for a single protein. There may
be hundreds or even thousands of genes on a single chromosome.
Human Chromosomes
Human cells normally have two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each parent. There are 23
chromosomes in each set, for a total of 46 chromosomes per cell. Each chromosome in one set is matched
by a chromosome of the same type in the other set, so there are actually 23 pairs of chromosomes per
cell. Each pair consists of chromosomes of the same size and shape that also contain the same genes. The
chromosomes in a pair are known as homologous chromosomes.
Mitosis and Cytokinesis

During mitosis, when the nucleus divides, the two chromatids that make up each chromosome separate
from each other and move to opposite poles of the cell. This is shown in Figure 20.9. You can watch an
animation of the process at the following link: http://www.biology.arizona.edu/Cell_bio/tutorials/
cell_cycle/MitosisFlash.html.
Mitosis actually occurs in four phases. The phases are called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
They are shown in Figure 20.10 and described in greater detail in the following sections.
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Figure 20.9: Mitosis is the phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle that occurs between DNA replication and the
formation of two daughter cells. What happens during mitosis?
Figure 20.10: Mitosis in the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle. Mitosis is the multi-phase process in which the nucleus
of a eukaryotic cell divides.
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Prophase
The rst and longest phase of mitosis is prophase. During prophase, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope, or membrane, breaks down. In animal cells, the centrioles near the
nucleus begin to separate and move to opposite poles of the cell. As the centrioles move, a spindle starts
to form between them. The spindle, shown in Figure 20.11, consists of bers made of microtubules.
Figure 20.11: Spindle. The spindle starts to form during prophase of mitosis. Kinetochores on the spindle
attach to the centromeres of sister chromatids.
Metaphase
During metaphase, spindle bers attach to the centromere of each pair of sister chromatids (see Figure
20.12). The sister chromatids line up at the equator, or center, of the cell. The spindle bers ensure that
sister chromatids will separate and go to dierent daughter cells when the cell divides.
Figure 20.12: Chromosomes, consisting of sister chromatids, line up at the equator of the cell during
metaphase.
Anaphase
During anaphase, sister chromatids separate and the centromeres divide. The sister chromatids are pulled
apart by the shortening of the spindle bers. This is like reeling in a sh by shortening the shing line.
One sister chromatid moves to one pole of the cell, and the other sister chromatid moves to the opposite
pole. At the end of anaphase, each pole of the cell has a complete set of chromosomes.
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Telophase
During telophase, the chromosomes begin to uncoil and form chromatin. This prepares the genetic
material for directing the metabolic activities of the new cells. The spindle also breaks down, and new
nuclear membranes form.
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis is the nal stage of cell division in eukaryotes as well as prokaryotes. During cytokinesis, the
cytoplasm splits in two and the cell divides. Cytokinesis occurs somewhat dierently in plant and animal
cells, as shown in Figure 20.13. In animal cells, the plasma membrane of the parent cell pinches inward
along the cells equator until two daughter cells form. In plant cells, a cell plate forms along the equator
of the parent cell. Then, a new plasma membrane and cell wall form along each side of the cell plate.
Figure 20.13: Cytokinesis is the nal stage of eukaryotic cell division. It occurs dierently in animal and
plant cells.
The phases of mitosis are discussed in the video: http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/
7A9646BC5110CF64/8/LLKX_4DHE3I.

Lesson Summary
Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and proteins. They form after DNA replicates and
are the form in which the genetic material goes through cell division. Chromosomes contain genes,
which code for proteins.
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Cell division in eukaryotic cells includes mitosis, in which the nucleus divides, and cytokinesis, in
which the cytoplasm divides and daughter cells form.
Mitosis occurs in four phases, called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Recall
1. What are chromosomes? When do they form?
2. Identify the chromatids and the centromere of a chromosome.
3. List the phases of mitosis.
4. What happens during prophase of mitosis?
5. During which phase of mitosis do sister chromatids separate?
6. Describe what happens during cytokinesis in animal cells.
Apply Concepts
7. If a cell skipped metaphase during mitosis, how might this aect the two daughter cells?
Think Critically
8. Explain how chromosomes are related to chromatin. Why are chromosomes important for mitosis?
9. Explain the signicance of the spindle in mitosis.
Points to Consider
Cell division occurs not only as organisms grow. It also occurs when they reproduce.
What role do you think cell division plays when prokaryotes such as bacteria reproduce?
How do you think cell division is involved in the reproduction of eukaryotes such as humans?
20.3
Reproduction and Meiosis
Lesson Objectives
Compare and contrast asexual and sexual reproduction.

Give an overview of sexual reproduction, and outline the phases of meiosis.
Explain why sexual reproduction leads to variation in ospring.
Dene life cycle, and identify dierent types of sexual life cycles.
Vocabulary
asexual reproduction
crossing-over
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diploid
egg
fertilization
gamete
gametogenesis
haploid
independent assortment
life cycle
meiosis
sexual reproduction
sperm
zygote
Introduction
Cell division is how organisms grow and repair themselves. It is also how they produce ospring. Many
single-celled organisms reproduce by binary ssion. The parent cell simply divides to form two daughter
cells that are identical to the parent. In many other organisms, two parents are involved, and the ospring
are not identical to the parents. In fact, each ospring is unique. Look at the family in Figure 20.15. The
children resemble their parents, but they are not identical to them. Instead, each has a unique combination
of characteristics inherited from both parents. In this lesson, you will learn how this happens.
Figure 20.15: Family Portrait: Mother, Daughter, Father, and Son. Children resemble their parents, but
they are never identical to them. Do you know why this is the case?
Reproduction: Asexual vs. Sexual

Reproduction is the process by which organisms give rise to ospring. It is one of the dening characteristics
of living things. There are two basic types of reproduction: asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction involves a single parent. It results in ospring that are genetically identical to
each other and to the parent. All prokaryotes and some eukaryotes reproduce this way. There are several
dierent methods of asexual reproduction. They include binary ssion, fragmentation, and budding.
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Binary ssion occurs when a parent cell splits into two identical daughter cells of the same size. This
process was described in detail in Lesson 5.1.
Fragmentation occurs when a parent organism breaks into fragments, or pieces, and each fragment
develops into a new organism. Starsh, like the one in Figure 20.16, reproduce this way. A new
starsh can develop from a single ray, or arm.
Budding occurs when a parent cell forms a bubble-like bud. The bud stays attached to the parent
cell while it grows and develops. When the bud is fully developed, it breaks away from the parent
cell and forms a new organism. Budding in yeast is shown in Figure 20.17.
Figure 20.16: Starsh reproduce by fragmentation. Starsh, however, are also capable of sexual reproduction.
Figure 20.17: Yeast reproduces by budding. Both are types of asexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction can be very rapid. This is an advantage for many organisms. It allows them to
crowd out other organisms that reproduce more slowly. Bacteria, for example, may divide several times
per hour. Under ideal conditions, 100 bacteria can divide to produce millions of bacterial cells in just a
few hours! However, most bacteria do not live under ideal conditions. If they did, the entire surface of the
planet would soon be covered with them. Instead, their reproduction is kept in check by limited resources,
predators, and their own wastes. This is true of most other organisms as well.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two parents. As you can see from Figure 20.19, in sexual reproduction, parents produce reproductive cellscalled gametesthat unite to form an ospring. Gametes are
haploid cells. This means they contain only half the number of chromosomes found in other cells of the
organism. Gametes are produced by a type of cell division called meiosis, which is described in detail below.
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The process in which two gametes unite is called fertilization. The fertilized cell that results is referred
to as a zygote. A zygote is diploid cell, which means that it has twice the number of chromosomes as a
gamete.
Mitosis, Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction is discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#
p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/7/kaSIjIzAtYA.

Figure 20.19: Cycle of Sexual Reproduction. Sexual reproduction involves the production of haploid
gametes by meiosis. This is followed by fertilization and the formation of a diploid zygote. The number of
chromosomes in a gamete is represented by the letter n. Why does the zygote have 2n, or twice as many,
chromosomes?
Meiosis
The process that produces haploid gametes is meiosis (see Figure 20.19). Meiosis is a type of cell
division in which the number of chromosomes is reduced by half. It occurs only in certain special cells of
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the organisms. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate, and haploid cells form that have only
one chromosome from each pair. Two cell divisions occur during meiosis, and a total of four haploid cells
are produced. The two cell divisions are called meiosis I and meiosis II. The overall process of meiosis is
summarized in Figure 20.20. It is also described in detail below. You can watch an animation of meiosis
at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1_-mQS_FZ0&feature=related.
Figure 20.20: Overview of Meiosis. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate and go to dierent
daughter cells. This diagram shows just the nuclei of the cells.
Phases of Meiosis
Meiosis I begins after DNA replicates during interphase. In both meiosis I and meiosis II, cells go through
the same four phases as mitosis. However, there are important dierences between meiosis I and mitosis.
The owchart in Figure 20.21 shows what happens in both meiosis I and II. You can follow the changes
in the owchart as you read about them below.
The phases of meiosis are discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/
9/ijLc52LmFQg (27:23).
Meiosis I
1. Prophase I: The nuclear envelope begins to break down, and the chromosomes condense. Centrioles
start moving to opposite poles of the cell, and a spindle begins to form. Importantly, homologous
chromosomes pair up, which is unique to prophase I. In prophase of mitosis and meiosis II, homologous
chromosomes do not form pairs in this way.
2. Metaphase I: Spindle bers attach to the paired homologous chromosomes. The paired chromosomes
line up along the equator of the cell. This occurs only in metaphase I. In metaphase of mitosis and
meiosis II, it is sister chromatids that line up along the equator of the cell.
3. Anaphase I: Spindle bers shorten, and the chromosomes of each homologous pair start to separate
from each other. One chromosome of each pair moves toward one pole of the cell, and the other
chromosome moves toward the opposite pole.
4. Telophase I and Cytokinesis: The spindle breaks down, and new nuclear membranes form. The
cytoplasm of the cell divides, and two haploid daughter cells result. The daughter cells each have a
random assortment of chromosomes, with one from each homologous pair. Both daughter cells go on
to meiosis II.
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Figure 20.21: Phases of Meiosis. This owchart of meiosis shows meiosis I in greater detail than meiosis
II. Meiosis Ibut not meiosis IIdiers somewhat from mitosis. Compare meiosis I in this owchart with
the earlier gure featuring mitosis. How does meiosis I dier from mitosis?

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Meiosis II
1. Prophase II: The nuclear envelope breaks down and the spindle begins to form in each haploid
daughter cell from meiosis I. The centrioles also start to separate.
2. Metaphase II: Spindle bers line up the sister chromatids of each chromosome along the equator of
the cell.
3. Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
4. Telophase II and Cytokinesis: The spindle breaks down, and new nuclear membranes form. The
cytoplasm of each cell divides, and four haploid cells result. Each cell has a unique combination of
chromosomes.
Mitosis, Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction is discussed at http://www.youtube.com/user/khanacademy#
p/c/7A9646BC5110CF64/7/kaSIjIzAtYA (18:23).

You can watch an animation of meiosis at this link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1_-mQS_FZ0&#
38;#38;feature=related.
Gametogenesis
At the end of meiosis, four haploid cells have been produced, but the cells are not yet gametes. The cells
need to develop before they become mature gametes capable of fertilization. The development of haploid
cells into gametes is called gametogenesis. Gametogenesis may dier between males and females. Male
gametes are called sperm. Female gametes are called eggs. In human males, for example, the process
that produces mature sperm cells is called spermatogenesis. During this process, sperm cells grow a tail
and gain the ability to swim, like the human sperm cell shown in Figure 20.24. In human females, the
process that produces mature eggs is called oogenesis. Just one egg is produced from the four haploid cells
that result from meiosis. The single egg is a very large cell, as you can see from the human egg in Figure
20.24.
Sexual Reproduction and Genetic Variation

Sexual reproduction results in ospring that are genetically unique. They dier from both parents and
also from each other. This occurs for a number of reasons.
When homologous chromosomes pair up during meiosis I, crossing-over can occur. Crossing-over is
the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. It results in new combinations
of genes on each chromosome.
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Figure 20.24: A human sperm is a tiny cell with a tail. A human egg is much larger. Both cells are mature
haploid gametes that are capable of fertilization. What process is shown in this photograph?
When cells divide during meiosis, homologous chromosomes are randomly distributed to daughter
cells, and dierent chromosomes segregate independently of each other. This called is called independent assortment. It results in gametes that have unique combinations of chromosomes.
In sexual reproduction, two gametes unite to produce an ospring. But which two of the millions of
possible gametes will it be? This is likely to be a matter of chance. It is obviously another source of
genetic variation in ospring.
All of these mechanisms working together result in an amazing amount of potential variation. Each human
couple, for example, has the potential to produce more than 64 trillion genetically unique children. No
wonder we are all dierent!
Sexual Reproduction and Life Cycles

Sexual reproduction occurs in a cycle. Diploid parents produce haploid gametes that unite and develop
into diploid adults, which repeat the cycle. This series of life stages and events that a sexually reproducing
organism goes through is called its life cycle. Sexually reproducing organisms can have dierent types of
life cycles. Three are described in the following sections.
Haploid Life Cycle

The haploid life cycle (Figure 20.25) is the simplest life cycle. It is found in many single-celled organisms.
Organisms with a haploid life cycle spend the majority of their lives as haploid gametes. When the haploid
gametes fuse, they form a diploid zygote. It quickly undergoes meiosis to produce more haploid gametes
that repeat the life cycle.
Diploid Life Cycle

Organisms with a diploid life cycle (Figure 20.26) spend the majority of their lives as diploid adults. When
they are ready to reproduce, they undergo meiosis and produce haploid gametes. Gametes then unite in
fertilization and form a diploid zygote. The zygote develops into a diploid adult that repeats the life cycle.
Can you think of an organism with a diploid life cycle? (Hint: What type of life cycle do humans have?)
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Figure 20.25: Haploid Life Cycle. The letter n indicates haploid stages of the life cycles, and 2n indicates
diploid stages.
Figure 20.26: Diploid Life Cycle. The letter n indicates haploid stages of the life cycles, and 2n indicates
diploid stages.
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Alternation of Generations
Organisms that have a life cycle with alternating generations (Figure 20.27) switch back and forth between
diploid and haploid stages. Organisms with this type of life cycle include plants, algae, and some protists.
These life cycles may be quite complicated. You can read about them in later chapters.
Figure 20.27: Alternation of Generations. The letter n indicates haploid stages of the life cycles, and 2n
indicates diploid stages.
Lesson Summary
Asexual reproduction involves one parent and produces ospring that are genetically identical to
each other and to the parent. Sexual reproduction involves two parents and produces ospring that
are genetically unique.
During sexual reproduction, two haploid gametes join in the process of fertilization to produce a
diploid zygote. Meiosis is the type of cell division that produces gametes. It involves two cell
divisions and produces four haploid cells.
Sexual reproduction has the potential to produce tremendous genetic variation in ospring. This
variation is due to independent assortment and crossing-over during meiosis and random union of
gametes during fertilization.
A life cycle is the sequence of stages an organisms goes through from one generation to the next.
Organisms that reproduce sexually can have dierent types of life cycles, such as haploid or diploid
life cycles.

Recall
1. What are three types of asexual reproduction?
2. Dene gamete and zygote. What number of chromosomes does each have?
3. What happens during fertilization?
4. Outline the phases of meiosis.
5. What is a life cycle?
6. What is gametogenesis, and when does it occur?
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Apply Concepts
7. Create a diagram to show how crossing-over occurs and how it creates new gene combinations on each
chromosome.
8. An adult organism produces gametes that quickly go through fertilization and form diploid zygotes.
The zygotes mature into adults, which live for many years. Eventually the adults produce gametes and
the cycle repeats. What type of life cycle does this organism have? Explain your answer.
Think Critically
9. Compare and contrast asexual and sexual reproduction.
10. Explain why sexual reproduction results in genetically unique ospring.
11. Explain how meiosis I diers from mitosis.
Points to Consider
In sexually reproducing organisms, parents pass a copy of each type of chromosome to their ospring by
producing gametes. When gametes are fertilized and form ospring, each has a unique combination of
chromosomes and genes from both parents. The inherited gene combination determines the characteristics
of the ospring.
Is it possible to predict possible gene combinations in ospring from the genes of their parents?
Can the characteristics of ospring be predicted from the characteristics of their parents?
Image Sources
(3) Image copyright Juan Carlos Tinjaca, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license
(10) Y tambe. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bacilli_division_diagram.png.
GNU-FDL 1.2.
(11) Ed Uthman. http://web2.airmail.net/uthman/specimens/index.html. Public Domain.
(12) Courtesy of www.PDImages.com. http://www.pdimages.com/03709.html-ssi. Public Domain.
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(13) Image copyright Knorre, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(14) Marek Kultys. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mitosis_diagram.jpg. CC-BY-SA
3.0.
(15) Image copyright Cre8tive Images, 2010, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://www.shutterstock.com/. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
(16) Image copyright asharkyu, 2010. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from
Shutterstock.com.
(17) Image copyright MichaelTaylor, 2010, modied by CK-12 Foundation.
http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.
(20) Courtesy of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/sabl/2007/Oct/onering.html. Public
Domain.
Opening image courtesy of Conly Rieder/National Institutes of Health and is in the public domain.
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Chapter 21
Biology Glossary
(Opening image copyright by Stephen Aaron Rees, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com.)
21.1
abiotic factor nonliving aspect of the environment such as sunlight and soil
absolute dating carbon-14 or other method of dating fossils that gives an approximate age in years
absorption process in which substances such as nutrients pass into the blood stream
acid solution with a pH lower than 7
acid rain low-pH precipitation that forms with air pollution combines with water
acquired immunodeciency syndrome (AIDS) disorder characterized by frequent opportunistic infections that eventually develops in people who are infected with human immunodeciency virus
(HIV)
action potential reversal of electrical charge across the membrane of a resting neuron that travels down
the axon of the neuron as a nerve impulse
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activation energy energy needed to start a chemical reaction

active immunity ability to resist a pathogen that results when an immune response to the pathogen
produces memory cells
active transport movement of substances across a plasma membrane that requires energy
adaptation characteristic that helps living things survive and reproduce in a given environment
adaptive radiation process by which a single species evolves into many new species to ll available
niches
adolescence period of transition between the beginning of puberty and adulthood during which signicant physical, mental, emotional, and social changes occur
adolescent growth spurt period of rapid growth that occurs during puberty
adrenal glands pair of endocrine glands located above the kidneys that secrete hormones such as cortisol
and adrenaline
aerobic respiration type of cellular respiration that requires oxygen
age-sex structure number of individuals of each sex and age in a population
aggression behavior that is intended to cause harm or pain
air pollution chemical substances and particles released into the air mainly by human actions such as
burning fossil fuels
Air Quality Index (AQI) assessment of the levels of pollutants in the outdoor air that is based on
their human health eects
alcoholic fermentation type of anaerobic respiration that includes glycolysis followed by the conversion
of pyruvic acid to ethanol and carbon dioxide and the formation of NAD+
algae (singular, alga) plant-like protists such as diatoms and seaweeds
algal bloom excessive growth of algae in bodies of water because of high levels of nutrients, usually from
fertilizer in runo
allele one of two or more dierent versions of the same gene
allele frequency how often an allele occurs in a gene pool relative to the other alleles for that gene
allergen any antigen that causes an allergy
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allergy disease in which the immune system makes an inammatory response to a harmless antigen
allopatric speciation evolution of a new species that occurs when some members of an original species
become geographically separated from the rest of the species
alternation of generations change back and forth from one generation to the next between haploid
gametophyte and diploid sporophyte stages in the life cycle of plants
alveoli (singular, alveolus) tiny sacs at the ends of bronchioles in the lungs where pulmonary gas
exchange takes place
amoeboid type of protozoa, such as Amoeba, that moves with pseudopods
amino acid small molecule that is a building block of proteins
amniote animal that produces eggs with internal membranes that allow gases but not water to pass
through so the embryo can breathe without drying out (reptile, bird, or mammal)
amniotic sac enclosed membrane containing uid that surrounds and protects a fetus
amphibian ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrate that may live on land but must return to water in order to
reproduce
anabolic reaction endothermic reaction in organisms
anaerobic respiration type of cellular respiration that does not require oxygen
analogous structure structure that is similar in unrelated organisms because it evolved to do the same
job, not because it was inherited from a common ancestor
anaphase third phase of mitosis during which sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of
the cell
angiosperm type of seed plant that produces seeds in the ovary of a ower
animal heterotrophic, multicellular eukaryote with cells that lack cell walls; member of the animal kingdom
animal behavior any way that animals interact with each other or the environment
Annelida invertebrate phylum of segmented worms such as earthworms
antheridia (singular, antheridium) male reproductive organs of the gametophyte generation of plants
that produce motile sperm
antibiotic drug drug that kills bacteria and cures bacterial infections and diseases
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antibiotic resistance ability to withstand antibiotic drugs that has evolved in some bacteria
antibody large, Y-shaped proteins produced by B cells that recognize and bind to antigens in a humoral
immune response
antigen molecule that the immune system identies as foreign and responds to by forming antibodies
aphotic zone area in aquatic biomes deeper than 200 meters
aquatic biome water-based biomes, dened by the availability of sunlight and the concentration of
dissolved oxygen and nutrients in the water
aquifer underground layer of rock that stores water
arboreal of or pertaining to trees, as in arboreal, or tree-living, mammal
Archaea one of two prokaryote domains that includes organisms that live in extreme environments
archegonia (singular, archegonium) female reproductive organs of the gametophyte generation of
plants that produce eggs
artery type of blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart toward the lungs or body
arthropod invertebrate in the phylum Arthropoda, characterized by a segmented body, hard exoskeleton,
and jointed appendages
articial selection process in which organisms evolve traits useful to humans because people select
which individuals are allowed to reproduce and pass on their genes to successive generations
asexual reproduction reproduction that involves a single parent and results in ospring that are all
genetically identical to the parent
asthma respiratory system disease in which air passages of the lungs periodically become too narrow,
making breathing diicult
atherosclerosis condition in which plaque builds up inside arteries
athletes foot infection of the skin between the toes by the fungus Trichophyton
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) energy-carrying molecule that cells use to power their metabolic processes
autoimmune disease type of disease, such as type 1 diabetes, in which the immune system attacks the
bodys cells as though they were pathogens
autonomic nervous system (ANS) division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary activities not under conscious control such as heart rate and digestion
autosome chromosomes 122 in humans that contain genes for characteristics unrelated to sex
autotroph organism that makes its own food
axon long extension of the cell body of a neuron that transmits nerve impulses to other cells
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21.2
Bacteria domain of prokaryotes, some of which cause human diseases

bark tissue that provides a rough, woody external covering on the stems of trees
base solution with a pH higher than 7
B cell type of lymphocyte that ghts infections by forming antibodies
bilateral symmetry symmetry of a body plan in which there are distinct head and tail ends, so the
body can be divided into two identical right and left halves
bile uid produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder that is secreted into the small intestine to
help digest lipids and neutralize acid from the stomach
binary ssion type of cell division that occurs in prokaryotic cells in which a parent cells divides into
two identical daughter cells
binomial nomenclature method of naming species with two names, consisting of the genus name and
species name
biochemical reaction chemical reaction that occurs inside the cells of living things
biodiversity the variety of life and its processes; including the variety of living organisms, the genetic
dierences among them, and the communities and ecosystems in which they occur
biolm colony of prokaryotes that is stuck to a surface such as a rock or a hosts tissue
biogeochemical cycle interconnected pathways through which water or a chemical element such as
carbon is continuously recycled through the biotic and abiotic components of the biosphere
biogeography study of how and why plants and animals live where they do
biology science of life, study of life
biomass total mass of organisms at a trophic level
biome group of similar ecosystems with the same general type of physical environment
biosphere part of Earth where all life exists, including land, water, and air
biotechnology use of technology to change the genetic makeup of living things in order to produce useful
products
bioterrorism intentional release or spread of agents of disease
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biotic factor living aspects of the environment, including organisms of the same and dierent species
bird bipedal, endothermic, tetrapod vertebrate that lays amniotic eggs and has wings and feathers
bladder hollow, sac-like organ that stores urine until it is excreted from the body
blastocyst uid-lled ball of cells that develops a few days after fertilization in humans
blood uid connective tissue that circulates throughout the body through blood vessels
blood pressure force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels
blood type genetic characteristic associated with the presence or absence of antigens on the surface of
red blood cells
body mass index (BMI) estimate of the fat content of the body calculated by dividing a persons
weight (in kilograms) by the square of the persons height (in meters)
bone hard tissue in most vertebrates that consists of a collagen matrix, or framework, lled in with
minerals such a calcium
bone marrow soft connective tissue in spongy bone that produces blood cells
bone matrix rigid framework of bone that consists of tough protein bers and mineral crystals
brain central nervous system organ inside the skull that is the control center of the nervous system
brain stem lowest part of the brain that connects the brain with the spinal cord and controls unconscious
functions such as heart rate and breathing
bryophyte type of plant that lacks vascular tissues, such as a liverwort, hornwort, or moss
budding type of asexual reproduction in yeasts in which an ospring cell pinches o from the parent cell
21.3
Calvin cycle second stage of photosynthesis in which carbon atoms from carbon dioxide are combined,
using the energy in ATP and NADPH, to make glucose
Cambrian explosion spectacular burst of new life that occurred at the start of the Paleozoic Era
cancer disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated and cells divide out of control
candidiasis infection of the mouth or of the vagina in females that is caused by the yeast Candida
capillary smallest type of blood vessel that connects very small arteries and veins
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capsid protein coat that surrounds the DNA or RNA of a virus particle
carbohydrate organic compound such as sugar or starch
carbon cycle interconnected pathways through which carbon is recycled through the biotic and abiotic
components of the biosphere
carcinogen anything that can cause cancer
cardiac muscle involuntary, striated muscle found only in the walls of the heart
cardiovascular disease (CVD) any disease that aects the heart or blood vessels
carnivore consumer that eats animals
carrying capacity (K) largest population size that can be supported in an area without harming the
environment
cartilage dense connective tissue that provides a smooth surface for the movement of bones at joints
catabolic reaction exothermic reaction in organisms
cell basic unit of structure and function of living things
cell body central part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and other cell organelles
cell cycle repeating series of events that a cell goes through during its life, including growth, DNA,
synthesis, and cell division
cell division process in which a parent cell divides to form two daughter cells
cell-mediated immune response type of immune response in which T cells destroy cells that are infected with viruses
cell theory theory that all living things are made up of cells, all life functions occur within cells, and all
cells come from already existing cells
cellular respiration process in which cells break down glucose and make ATP for energy
cell wall rigid layer that surrounds the plasma membrane of a plant cell and helps support and protect
the cell
Cenozoic Era age of mammals that lasted from 65 million years ago to the present
central dogma of molecule biology doctrine that genetic instructions in DNA are copied by RNA,
which carries them to a ribosome where they are used to synthesize a protein (DNA RNA
protein)
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central nervous system (CNS) one of two main divisions of the nervous system that includes the
brain and spinal cord
central vacuole large saclike organelle in plant cells that stores substances such as water and helps keep
plant tissues rigid
centromere region of sister chromatids where they are joined together
cephalization concentration of nerve tissue in one end of an animal, forming a head region
cerebellum part of the brain below the cerebrum that coordinates body movements
cerebrum largest part of the brain that controls conscious functions such as reasoning and sight
Chargas rules observations by Erwin Charga that concentrations of the four nucleotide bases dier
among species; and that, within a species, the concentrations of adenine and thymine are always
about the same and the concentrations of cytosine and guanine are always about the same
chemical bond force that holds molecules together
chemical digestion chemical breakdown of large, complex food molecules into smaller, simpler nutrient
molecules that can be absorbed by the blood
chemical reaction process that changes some chemical substances into others
chemoautotroph producer that uses energy from chemical compounds to make food by chemosynthesis
chemosynthesis process of using the energy in chemical compounds to make food
chitin tough carbohydrate that makes up the cell walls of fungi and the exoskeletons of insects and other
arthropods
chlamydia sexually transmitted bacterial infection that is the most common STI in the United States
chlorophyll green pigment in a chloroplast that absorbs sunlight in the light reactions of photosynthesis
chloroplast organelle in the cells of plants and algae where photosynthesis takes place
chordates consists of all animals with a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, post-anal tail, and pharyngeal slits during at least some stage of their life
chromatid one of two identical copies of a chromosome that are joined together at a centromere before
a cell divides
chromatin grainy material that DNA forms when it is not coiled into chromosomes
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chromosomal alteration mutation that changes chromosome structure

chromosome coiled structure made of DNA and proteins containing sister chromatids that is the form
in which the genetic material of a cell goes through cell division
cilia (singular, cilium) short, hairlike projections, similar to agella, that allow some cells to move
ciliate type of protozoa, such as Paramecium, that moves with cilia
circadian rhythm regular change in biology or behavior that occurs in a 24-hour cycle
circulatory system organ system consisting of the heart, blood vessels, and blood that transports materials around the body
clade group of related organisms that includes an ancestor and all of its descendants
climate average weather in an area over a long period of time
climax community nal stable stage of ecological succession that may be reached in an undisturbed
community
cloaca body cavity with a single opening in amphibians, reptiles, and monotreme mammals that collects
and excretes wastes from the digestive and excretory systems and gametes from the reproductive
system
Cnidaria invertebrate phylum that includes animals such as jellysh and corals that are characterized
by radial symmetry, tissues, and a stinger called a nematocyst
codominance relationship between two alleles for the same gene in which both alleles are expressed
equally in the phenotype of the heterozygote
codon group of three nitrogen bases in nucleic acids that makes up a code word of the genetic code
and stands for an amino acid, start, or stop
coelom uid-lled body cavity
coevolution process in which two interacting species evolve together, with each species inuencing the
others evolution
commensalism symbiotic relationship in which one species benets while the other species is not aected
community all of the populations of dierent species that live in the same area
compact bone dense outer layer of bone that is very hard and strong
comparative anatomy study of the similarities and dierences in the structures of dierent species
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comparative embryology study of the similarities and dierences in the embryos of dierent species
competition relationship between living things that depend on the same resources in the same place
and at the same time
competitive exclusion principle principle of ecology stating that two dierent species cannot occupy
the same niche in the same place for very long
complementary base pair pair of nucleotide bases that bond togethereither adenine and thymine
(or uracil) or cytosine and guanine
complete digestive system digestive system consisting of a digestive tract and two body openings
(mouth and anus)
compound substance with a unique, xed composition that consists of two or more elements
condensation process in which water vapor changes to tiny droplets of liquid water
cone structure consisting of scales that bear naked seeds in the type of seed plants called gymnosperms
connective tissue tissue made up of cells that form the bodys structure, such as bone and cartilage
consumer organism that consumes other organisms for food
cooperation type of animal behavior in which social animals live and work together for the good of the
group
courtship animal behavior that is intended to attract a mate
cranium part of a vertebrate endoskeleton that encloses and protects the brain; also called the skull
crop sac-like structure in the digestive system of birds that stores and moistens food before it is digested
crossing-over exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes when they are closely
paired during meiosis I
cuticle waxy, waterproof substance produced by epidermal cells of leaves, shoots, and other above-ground
parts of plants to prevent damage and loss of water by evaporation
cyanobacteria Gram-positive blue-green photosynthetic bacteria of the type that added oxygen to
Earths early atmosphere and evolved into chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells
cytokinesis splitting of the cytoplasm to form daughter cells when a cell divides
cytoplasm all of the material inside the plasma membrane of a cell (excluding organelles)
cytoskeleton structure of laments and tubules in the cytoplasm that provides a cell with an internal
framework
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21.4
dead zone area in the ocean or other body of water where low oxygen levels from excessive growth of
algae have killed all aquatic organisms
deciduous plant type of plant that seasonally loses its leaves to reduce water loss during the cold or
dry season each year and grows new leaves later in the year
decomposer organism that breaks down the remains of dead organisms and other organic wastes
demographic transition changes in population that occurred in Europe and North America beginning
in the 18th century, in which death rates fell and population growth rates increased, followed by birth
rates falling and population growth rates decreasing
dendrite extension of the cell body of a neuron that receives nerve impulses from other neurons
dependent variable variable in a scientic experiment that is aected by another variable, called the
independent variable
deposit feeder animal that obtains organic matter for nutrition by eating soil or the sediments at the
bottom of a body of water
dermal tissue type of plant tissue that covers the outside of a plant in a single layer of cells called the
epidermis
dermis lower layer of the skin that is made of tough connective tissue and contains blood vessels, nerve
endings, hair follicles, and glands
detritivore decomposer that consumes detritus
detritus substance composed of dead leaves, other plant remains, and animal feces that collects on the
soil or at the bottom of a body of water
dialysis medical procedure in which blood is ltered through a machine in patients with kidney failure
diaphragm large, sheet-like muscle below the lungs that allows breathing to occur when it contracts and
relaxes
dierentiation process by which unspecialized cells become specialized into one of many dierent types
of cells, such as neurons or epithelial cells
diusion type of passive transport that does not require the help of transport proteins
digestion process of breaking down food into nutrients that can be absorbed by the blood
digestive system organ system that breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates any remaining
waste
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diploid having two of each type of chromosome

directional selection type of natural selection for a polygenic trait in which one of two extreme phenotypes is selected for, resulting in a shift of the phenotypic distribution toward that extreme
dispersal movement of ospring away from their parents
disruptive selection type of natural selection for a polygenic trait in which phenotypes in the middle
of the phenotypic distribution are selected against, resulting in two overlapping phenotypes, one at
each end of the distribution
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) double-stranded nucleic acid that makes up genes and chromosomes
DNA replication process of copying of DNA prior to cell division
domain taxon in the revised Linnaean system that is larger and more inclusive than the kingdom
dominant allele allele that masks the presence of another allele for the same gene when they occur
together in a heterozygote
dormancy state in which a plant slows down cellular activity and may shed its leaves
double helix double spiral shape of the DNA molecule
drug abuse use of a drug without the advice of a medical professional and for reasons not originally
intended
drug addiction situation in which a drug user is unable to stop using a drug
21.5
eating disorder mental illness in which people feel compelled to eat in a way that causes physical,
mental, and emotional health problems
echinoderms invertebrates such as sea stars and sand dollars that are characterized by a spiny endoskeleton, radial symmetry as adults, and a water vascular system
ecological succession changes through time in the numbers and types of species that make up the
community of an ecosystem
ecology branch of biology that is the study of how living things interact with each other and with their
environment
ecosystem all the living things in a given area together with the physical factors of the nonliving environment
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ectoderm outer embryonic cell layer in animals

ectothermy regulation of body temperature from the outside through behavioral changes such as basking
in the sun
egg female gamete
ejaculation muscle contractions that propel sperm from the epididymes and out through the urethra in
males
electron transport chain series of electron-transport molecules that pass high-energy electrons from
molecule to molecule and capture their energy
element pure substance that cannot be broken down into other types of substances
elimination process in which waste passes out of the body
embryo stage of growth and development that occurs from implantation through the eighth week after
fertilization in humans
emigration movement of individuals out of a population
emphysema lung disease, usually caused by smoking, in which walls of alveoli break down, so less gas
can be exchanged in the lungs
endocrine system human body system of glands that release hormones into the blood
endocytosis type of vesicle transport that moves substances into a cell
endoderm inner embryonic cell layer in animals
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) organelle in eukaryotic cells that helps make and transport proteins
endoskeleton internal skeleton that provides support and protection
endosperm stored food inside a plant seed
endospore spores that form inside prokaryotic cells when they are under stress, enclosing the DNA and
helping it survive conditions that may kill the cell
endosymbiotic theory theory that eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria evolved from ancient,
free-living prokaryotes that invaded primitive eukaryotic cells
endothermic reaction chemical reaction that absorbs energy
endothermy regulation of body temperature from the inside through metabolic or other physical changes
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energy ability to do work

enzyme protein that speeds up biochemical reactions
epidermis outer layer of skin that consists mainly of epithelial cells and lacks nerve endings and blood
vessels
epididymis (plural, epididymes) one of two male reproductive organs where sperm mature and are
stored until they leave the body
epiphyte plant that is adapted to grow on other plants and obtain moisture from the air
epistasis situation in which one gene aects the expression of another gene
epithelial tissue tissue made up of cells that line inner and outer body surfaces, such as skin
esophagus long, narrow digestive organ that passes food from the pharynx to the stomach
estrogen female sex hormone secreted by the ovaries
estuary a partly enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams owing into it, and
with a free connection to the ocean
ethology branch of biology that studies animal behavior
eukaryote organism that has cells containing a nucleus and other organelles
eukaryotic cell cell that contains a nucleus and other organelles
evaporation process in which liquid water changes to water vapor
evergreen plant type of plant that keeps its leaves and stays green year-round
evidence any type of data that may be used to test a hypothesis
evolution change in the characteristics of living things over time, the change in species over time
exchange pool part of a biogeochemical cycle that holds an element or water for a short period of time
excretion process of removing wastes and excess water from the body
excretory system organ system that removes wastes and excess water from the body and includes the
kidneys, large intestine, liver, skin, and lungs
exocytosis type of vesicle transport that moves substances out of a cell
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exoskeleton non-bony skeleton that forms on the outside of the body of some invertebrates and provides
protection and support
exothermic reaction chemical reaction that releases energy
exotic species species that is introduced (usually by human actions) into a new habitat where it may
lack local predators and out-compete native species
experiment special type of scientic investigation that is performed under controlled conditions
exponential growth pattern of population growth in which a population starts out growing slowly but
grows faster and faster as population size increases
extinction situation in which a species completely dies out and no members of the species remain
extremophile any type of Archaea that lives in an extreme environment, such as a very salty, hot, or
acidic environment
21.6
facilitated diusion diusion with the help of transport proteins

Fallopian tube one of two female reproductive organs that carry eggs from the ovary to the uterus and
provide the site where fertilization usually takes place
feces solid waste that remains after food is digested and is eliminated from the body through the anus
fermentation type of anaerobic respiration that includes glycolysis followed by the conversion of pyruvic
acid to one or more other compounds and the formation of NAD+
fertilization union of two gametes that produces a diploid zygote
fetus developing human organism between weeks 8 and 38 after fertilization
brous root threadlike root that makes up part of the brous root system of some plants
lter feeder animal that obtains organic matter for nutrition by ltering particles out of water
sh ectothermic, aquatic vertebrate with a streamlined body and gills for absorbing oxygen from water
tness relative ability of an organism to survive and produce fertile ospring
agella (singular, agellum) long, thin protein extensions of the plasma membrane in most prokaryotic cells that help the cells move
agellate type of protozoa, such as Giardia, that moves with agella
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ower structure in angiosperms consisting of male and female reproductive structures that attracts animal pollinators
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) pituitary gland hormone that stimulates the ovaries to secrete
estrogen and follicles in the ovaries to mature
food organic molecules such as glucose that organisms use for chemical energy
food chain diagram that represents a single pathway through which energy and matter ow through an
ecosystem
food web diagram that represents multiple intersecting pathways through which energy and matter ow
through an ecosystem
fossil preserved remains or traces of organisms that lived in the past
fossil record the record of life as told by the study and analysis of fossils
frameshift mutation deletion or insertion of one or more nucleotides that changes the reading frame of
the genetic material
freshwater biome aquatic biome such as a pond, lake, stream, or river in which the water contains little
or no salt
fruit structure in many owering plants that develops from the ovary and contains seeds
fungi (singular, fungus) kingdom in the domain Eukarya that includes molds, mushrooms, and yeasts
21.7
Galpagos Islands group of 16 small volcanic islands in the Pacic Ocean 966 kilometers (600 miles)
o the west coast of South America, where Darwin made some of his most important observations
during his voyage on the HMS Beagle
gall bladder sac-like organ that stores bile from the liver and secretes it into the duodenum of the small
intestine
gamete reproductive cell produced during meiosis that has the haploid number of chromosomes
gametogenesis development of haploid cells into gametes such as sperm and egg
gametophyte haploid generation in the life cycle of a plant that results from asexual reproduction with
spores and that produces gametes for sexual reproduction
gastrointestinal (GI) tract organs of the digestive system through which food passes during digestion,
including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines
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gene unit of DNA on a chromosome that is encoded with the instructions for a single protein
gene cloning process of isolating and making copies of a gene
gene expression use of a gene to make a protein
gene ow change in allele frequencies that occurs when individuals move into or out of a population
gene pool all the genes of all the members of a population
generalist organism that can consume many dierent types of food
gene theory theory that the characteristics of living things are controlled by genes that are passed from
parents to ospring
gene therapy way to cure genetic disorders by inserting normal genes into cells with mutant genes
genetic code universal code of three-base codons that encodes the genetic instructions for the amino
acid sequence of proteins
genetic disorder disease caused by a mutation in one or a few genes
genetic drift a random change in allele frequencies that occurs in a small population
genetic engineering using biotechnology to change the genetic makeup of an organism
genetics the science of heredity
genetic trait characteristic that is encoded in DNA
genetic transfer method of increasing genetic variation in prokaryotes that involves cells grabbing
stray pieces of DNA from their environment or exchanging DNA directly with other cells
genital herpes sexually transmitted infection caused by a herpes virus that is characterized by periodic
outbreaks of blisters on the genitals
genital warts small, rough growths on the genitals caused by a sexually transmitted infection with
human papillomavirus (HPV)
genotype alleles an individual inherits at a particular genetic locus
genus taxon above the species in the Linnaean classication system; group of closely related species
geologic time scale time line of Earth based on major events in geology, climate, and the evolution of
life
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germination early growth and development of a plant embryo in a seed

germline mutation mutation that occur in gametes
giardiasis disease caused by Giardia protozoa that spreads through contaminated food or water
gills organs in aquatic organisms composed of thin laments that absorb oxygen from water
gizzard food-grinding organ in the digestive system of birds and some other animals that may contain
swallowed stones
global warming recent rise in Earths average surface temperature generally attributed to an increased
greenhouse eect
glucose simple carbohydrate with the chemical formula C6 H12 O6 that is the nearly universal food for
life
glycolysis rst stage of cellular respiration in which glucose is split, in the absence of oxygen, to form
two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid) and two (net) molecules of ATP
Golgi apparatus organelle in eukaryotic cells that processes proteins and prepares them for use both
inside and outside the cell
gonads glands that secrete sex hormones and produce gametes; testes in males and ovaries in females
gonorrhea common sexually transmitted infection that is caused by bacteria
gradualism model of the timing of evolution in which evolutionary change occurs at a slow and steady
pace
Gram-negative bacteria type of bacteria that stain red with Gram stain and have a thin cell wall with
an outer membrane
Gram-positive bacteria type of bacteria that stain purple with Gram stain and have a thick cell wall
without an outer membrane
grana within the chloroplast, consists of sac-like membranes, known as thylakoid membranes
greenhouse eect natural feature of Earths atmosphere that occurs when gases in the atmosphere
radiate the suns heat back down to Earths surface, making Earths temperature far warmer than it
otherwise would be
ground tissue type of plant tissue making up most of the interior of the roots and stems of plants that
carries out basic metabolic functions and provides support and storage
groundwater water that exists in the ground either in the soil or in rock layers below the surface
growing season period of time each year when it is warm enough and wet enough for plants to grow
gymnosperm type of seed plant that produces bare seeds in cones
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21.8
habitat physical environment in which a species lives and to which it has become adapted
habitat loss destruction or disruption of Earths natural habitats, most often due to human actions such
as agriculture, forestry, mining, and urbanization
hair follicle structure in the dermis of skin where a hair originates
haploid having only one chromosome of each type
Hardy-Weinberg theorem founding principle of population genetics that proves allele and genotype
frequencies do not change in a population that meets the conditions of no mutation, no migration,
large population size, random mating, and no natural selection
heart muscular organ in the chest that that pumps blood through blood vessels when it contracts
heart attack blockage of blood ow to heart muscle tissues that may result in the death of cardiac
muscle bers
hepatitis B inammation of the liver caused by infection with hepatitis B virus, which is often transmitted through sexual contact
herbivore consumer that eats producers such as plants or algae
heterotroph organism that gets food by consuming other organisms
heterozygote organism that inherits two dierent alleles for a given gene
homeobox gene gene that codes of regulatory proteins that control gene expression during development
homeostasis process of maintaining a stable environment inside a cell or an entire organism
homologous chromosomes pair of chromosomes that have the same size and shape and contain the
same genes
homologous structure structure that is similar in related organisms because it was inherited from a
common ancestor
homozygote organism that inherits two alleles of the same type for a given gene
host species that is harmed in a parasitic relationship
human genome all of the DNA of the human species
Human Genome Project international science project that sequenced all 3 billion base pairs of the
human genome
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human immunodeciency virus (HIV) virus transmitted through body uids that infects and destroys helper T cells and eventually causes acquired immunodeciency syndrome (AIDS)
human papilloma virus (HPV) sexually transmitted virus that causes genital warts and cervical cancer
humoral immune response type of immune response in which B cells produce antibodies against antigens in blood and lymph
hybrid ospring that results from a cross between two dierent types of parents
hydrogen bond type of chemical bond that forms between molecules: found between water molecules
hydrostatic skeleton type of internal support in an animal body that results from the pressure of uid
within the body cavity known as the coelom
hypertension high blood pressure
hyphae (singular, hypha) thread-like laments that make up the body of a fungus and consist of one
or more cells surrounded by a tubular cell wall
hypothalamus part of the brain that secretes hormones
hypothesis possible answer to a scientic question; must be falsiable
21.9
immigration movement of individuals into a population

immune response specic defense against a particular pathogen
immune system body system that consists of skin, mucous, membranes, and other tissues and organs
that defends the body from pathogens and cancer
immunity ability to resist a pathogen due to memory lymphocytes or antibodies to the antigens the
pathogen carries
immunization deliberate exposure of a person to a pathogen in order to provoke an immune response
and the formation of memory cells specic to that pathogen
immunodeciency inability of the immune system to ght o pathogens that a normal immune system
would be able to resist
implantation process in which a blastocyst embeds in the endometrium lining the uterus
incomplete digestive system digestive system that consists of a digestive cavity and a single opening
that serves as both mouth and anus
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incomplete dominance relationship between the alleles for a gene in which one allele is only partly
dominant to the other allele so an intermediate phenotype results
incubation period of bird reproduction when one or both parents sit on, or brood, the eggs in order to
keep them warm until they hatch
independent assortment independent segregation of chromosomes to gametes during meiosis
independent variable variable in a scientic experiment that is manipulated by the researcher to investigate its aect on another variable, called the dependent variable
infancy rst year of life after birth in humans
inammatory response nonspecic response the body rst makes to tissue damage or infection
inheritance of acquired characteristics mistaken idea of Jean Baptiste Lamarck that evolution occurs through the inheritance of traits that an organism develops in its own life time
innate behavior behavior closely controlled by genes that occurs naturally, without learning or practice,
in all members of a species whenever they are exposed to a certain stimulus; also called instinctive
behavior
instinct ability of an animal to perform a behavior the rst time it is exposed to the proper stimulus
integumentary system human body system that includes the skin, nails, and hair
interneuron type of neuron that carries nerve impulses back and forth between sensory and motor
neurons
interphase stage of the eukaryotic cell cycle when the cell grows, synthesizes DNA, and prepares to
divide
interspecic competition relationship between organisms of dierent species that strive for the same
resources in the same place
intertidal zone in marine biomes, the narrow strip along the coastline that is covered by water at high
tide and exposed to air at low tide
intraspecic competition relationship between organisms of the same species that strive for the same
resources in the same place
invertebrate animal that lacks a vertebral column, or backbone
21.10
joint place where two or more bones of the skeleton meet

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21.11
kelp multicellular seaweed that may grow as large as a tree and occurs in forests found throughout the
ocean in temperate and arctic climates
keratin tough, brous protein in skin, nails, and hair
keystone species species that plays an especially important role in its community so that major changes
in its numbers aect the populations of many other species in the community
kidney main organ of the excretory system that lters blood and forms urine
kidney failure loss of the ability of nephrons of the kidney to function fully
kingdom largest and most inclusive taxon in the original Linnaean classication system
Krebs cycle second stage of aerobic respiration in which two pyruvate (pyruvic acid) molecules from the
rst stage react to form ATP, NADH, and FADH2
K-selected species in which population growth is controlled by density-dependent factors and population
size is generally at or near carrying capacity
21.12
lactation production of milk for an ospring by mammary glands, which occurs in all female mammals
after giving birth or laying eggs
lactic acid fermentation type of anaerobic respiration that includes glycolysis followed by the conversion of pyruvic acid to lactic acid and the formation of NAD+
lancelets members of the subphylum Cephalochordata
large intestine organ of the digestive system that removes water from food waste and forms feces
larva (plural, larvae) juvenile stage that occurs in the life cycle of many invertebrates, sh, and amphibians and that diers in form and function from the adult stage
larynx organ of the respiratory system between the pharynx and trachea that is also called the voice box
because it allows the production of vocal sounds
last universal common ancestor (LUCA) hypothetical early cell (or group of cells) that gave rise to
all subsequent life on Earth
latency period of dormancy of a virus inside a living body that may last for many years
law of independent assortment Mendels second law stating that factors controlling dierent characteristics are inherited independently of each other
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law of segregation Mendels rst law stating that the two factors controlling a characteristics separate
and go to dierent gametes
learning change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience
leukocyte white blood cell produced by bone marrow to ght infections
lichen mutualistic relationship between a fungus and a cyanobacterium or green alga
life cycle series of stages a sexually reproducing organism goes through from one generation to the next
ligament band of brous connective tissue that holds bones together
light reactions rst stage of photosynthesis in which light energy from the sun is captured and changed
into chemical energy that is stored in ATP and NADPH
lignin tough, hydrophobic carbohydrate molecule that stiens and waterproofs vascular tissues of plants
linkage map map that shows the positions of genes on a chromosome based on the frequency of crossingover between the genes
linked genes genes that are located on the same chromosome
Linnaean classication system system of classifying organisms based on observable physical traits;
consists of a hierarchy of taxa, fro the kingdom to the species
lipid organic compound such as fat or oil
liver organ of digestion and excretion that secretes bile for lipid digestion and breaks down excess amino
acids and toxins in the blood
locus position of a gene on a chromosome
logistic growth pattern of population growth in which growth slows and population size levels o as
the population approaches the carrying capacity
lung organ of the respiratory system in which gas exchange takes place between the blood and the
atmosphere
luteinizing hormone (LH) pituitary gland hormone that stimulates the testes to secrete testosterone
and the ovaries to secrete estrogen
lymph uid that leaks out of capillaries into spaces between cells and circulates in the vessels of the
lymphatic system
lymphatic system system of the body consisting of organs, vessels, nodes, and lymph that produces
lymphocytes and lters pathogens from body uids
lymph node small structures located on lymphatic vessels where pathogens are ltered from lymph and
destroyed by lymphocytes
lymphocyte type of leukocyte that is a key cell in the immune response to a specic pathogen
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21.13
macroevolution evolutionary change that occurs over geologic time above the level of the species
macronutrient nutrient such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, or water that is needed by the body in
relatively large amounts
malaria disease caused by Plasmodium protozoa and transmitted by mosquitoes in tropical and subtropical regions of the world
mammal endothermic, tetrapod vertebrate that lays amniotic eggs and has mammary glands (in females)
and hair or fur
mammary gland gland in female mammals that produces milk for ospring
mantle layer of tissue that lies between the shell and body of a mollusk and forms a cavity, called the
mantle cavity, that pumps water for lter feeding
marine biome aquatic biome in the salt water of the ocean
marsupial therian mammal in which the embryo is born at an early, immature stage and completes its
development outside the mothers body in a pouch on her belly
mass extinction extinction event in which many if not most species abruptly disappear from Earth
matter anything that takes up space and has mass
mechanical digestion physical breakdown of chunks of food into smaller pieces by organs of the digestive
system
medusa (plural, medusae) basic body plan in cnidarians such as jellysh that is bell-shaped and typically motile
meiosis type of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is reduced by half and four haploid
cells result
melanin brown pigment produced by melanocytes in the skin that gives skin most of its color and
prevents UV light from penetrating the skin
memory cell lymphocyte (B or T cell) that retains a memory of a specic pathogen after an infection
is over and thus provides immunity to the pathogen
menarche beginning of menstruation; rst monthly period in females
menopause period during which menstrual cycles slow down and eventually stop in middle adulthood
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menstrual cycle monthly cycle of processes and events in the ovaries and uterus of a sexually mature
human female
menstruation process in which the endometrium of the uterus is shed from the body during the rst
several days of the menstrual cycle; also called monthly period
meristem type of plant tissue consisting of undierentiated cells that can continue to divide and dierentiate and from which plants grow in length or width
mesoderm embryonic cell layer in many animals that is located between the endoderm (inner cell layer)
and ectoderm (outer cell layer)
mesophyll specialized tissue inside plant leaves where photosynthesis takes place
Mesozoic Era age of dinosaurs that lasted from 24565 million years ago
messenger RNA (mRNA) type of RNA that copies genetic instructions from DNA in the nucleus and
carries them to the cytoplasm
metabolism sum of all the biochemical reactions in an organism
metamorphosis process in which a larva undergoes a major transformation to change into the adult
form, which occurs in amphibians, arthropods, and other invertebrates
metaphase second phase of mitosis during which chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell
microevolution evolutionary change that occurs over a relatively short period of time within a population or species
micronutrient nutrient such as a vitamin or mineral that is needed by the body in relatively small
amounts
migration regular movement of individuals or populations each year during certain seasons, usually to
nd food, mates, or other resources
mineral chemical element such as calcium or potassium that is needed in relatively small amounts for
proper body functioning
mitochondria (singular, mitochondrion) organelle in eukaryotic cells that makes energy available to
the cell in the form of ATP molecules
mitosis process in which the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell divides
model representation of part of the real world
molecular clock using DNA (or proteins) to measure how long it has been since related species diverged
from a common ancestor
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Mollusca phylum of invertebrates that are generally characterized by a hard outer shell, a mantle, and
a feeding organ called a radula
molting process in which an animal sheds and replaces the outer covering of the body, such as the
exoskeleton in arthropods
monosaccharide simple sugar such as glucose that is a building block of carbohydrates
monotreme type of mammal that reproduces by laying eggs
motility the ability to move
motor neuron type of neuron that carries nerve impulses from the central nervous system to muscles
and glands
mucous membrane epithelial tissue that lines inner body surfaces and body openings and produces
mucus
mucus slimy substance produced by mucous membranes that traps pathogens, particles, and debris
multiple allele trait trait controlled by one gene with more than two alleles
muscle ber long, thin muscle cell that has the ability to contract, or shorten
muscle tissue tissue made up of cells that can contract; includes smooth, skeletal, and cardiac muscle
tissue
muscular system human body system that includes all the muscles of the body
mutagen environmental factors that causes mutations
mutation change in the sequence of bases in DNA or RNA
mutualism type of symbiotic relationship in which both species benet
mycelium body of a fungus that consists of a mass of threadlike laments called hyphae
mycorrhiza mutualistic relationship between a plant and a fungus that grows in or on its roots
myelin sheath lipid layer around the axon of a neuron that allows nerve impulses to travel more rapidly
down the axon
MyPlate visual guideline for balanced eating, replacing MyPyramid in 2011
MyPyramid visual dietary guideline that shows the relative amounts of foods in dierent food groups
that should be eaten each day
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21.14
natural resource something supplied by nature that helps support life

natural selection evolutionary process in which some living things produce more ospring than others
so the characteristics of organisms change over time
nature-nurture debate debate over the extent to which genes (nature) or experiences in a given environment (nurture) control traits such as animal behaviors
nectar sweet, sugary liquid produced by the owers of many angiosperms to attract animal pollinators
Nematoda phylum of invertebrates called roundworms, which have a pseudocoelom and complete digestive system
neocortex layer of nerve cells covering the cerebrum of the mammalian brain that plays an important
role in many complex brain functions
nephron structural and functional unit of the kidney that lters blood and forms urine
nerve one of many cable-like bundles of axons that make up the peripheral nervous system
nerve impulse electrical signal transmitted by the nervous system
nervous system human body system that carries electrical messages throughout the body
nervous tissue tissue made up of neurons, or nerve cells, that carry electrical messages
neuron nerve cell; structural and functional unit of the nervous system
neurotransmitter chemical that carries a nerve impulse from one nerve to another at a synapse
niche role of a species in its ecosystem that includes all the ways the species interacts with the biotic
and abiotic factors of the ecosystem
nitrogen cycle interconnected pathways through which nitrogen is recycled through the biotic and abiotic components of the biosphere
nitrogen xation process of changing nitrogen gas to nitrates that is carried out by nitrogen-xing
bacteria in the soil or in the roots of legumes
nondisjunction failure of replicated chromosomes to separate during meiosis II, resulting in some gametes with a missing chromosome and some with an extra chromosome
nonrenewable resource natural resource that exists in a xed amount and can be used up
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notochord sti support rod that runs from one end of the body to the other in animals called chordates
nucleic acid organic compound such as DNA or RNA
nucleotide small molecule containing a sugar, phosphate group, and base that is a building block of
nucleic acids
nucleus (plural, nuclei) organelle inside eukaryotic cells that contains most of the cells DNA and acts
as the control center of the cell
nutrient substance the body needs for energy, building materials, or control of body processes
21.15
obesity condition in which the body mass index is 30.0 kg/m2 or greater
observation anything that is detected with the senses
omnivore consumer that eats both plants and animals
oogenesis process of producing eggs in the ovary
open circulatory system type of circulatory system in which blood ows not only through blood vessels
but also through a body cavity
operator a region of an operon where regulatory proteins bind
operon region of prokaryotic DNA that consists of a promoter, an operator, and one or more genes that
encode proteins needed for a specic function
organ structure composed of more than one type of tissue that performs a particular function
organelle structure within the cytoplasm of a cell that is enclosed within a membrane and performs a
specic job
organic compound compound found in living things that contains mainly carbon
organism an individual living thing
organ system group of organs that work together to do a certain job
osmosis diusion of water molecules across a membrane
ossication process in which mineral deposits replace cartilage and change it into bone
osteoblast type of bone cell that makes new bone cells and secretes collagen
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osteoclast type of bone cell that dissolves minerals in bone and releases them back into the blood
osteocyte type of bone cell that regulates mineral homeostasis by directing the uptake of minerals from
the blood and the release of minerals back into the blood as needed
ovary one of two female reproductive organs that produces eggs and secretes estrogen
ovipary type of reproduction in which an embryo develops within an egg outside the mothers body
ovovivipary type of reproduction in which an embryo develops inside an egg within the mothers body
but in which the mother provides no nourishment to the developing embryo in the egg
ovulation release of a secondary oocyte from the uterus about half way through the menstrual cycle
ozone hole hole in the ozone layer high in the atmosphere over Antarctica caused by air pollution
destroying ozone
21.16
paleontologist scientist who nds and studies fossils to learn about evolution and understand the past
Paleozoic Era age of old life from 544245 million years ago that began with the Cambrian explosion
and ended with the Permian extinction
pancreas gland near the stomach that secretes insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose and enzymes to help digest food
parasite species that benets in a parasitic relationship
parasitism symbiotic relationship in which one species benets while the other species is harmed
parathyroid glands a pair of small glands in the neck that secretes hormones that regulate blood
calcium
passive immunity type of immunity to a particular pathogen that results when antibodies are transferred to a person who has never been exposed to the pathogen
passive transport movement of substances across a plasma membrane that does not require energy
pathogen disease-causing agent such as a bacterium, virus, fungus, or protozoan
pedigree chart showing how a trait is passed from generation to generation within a family
penis male reproductive organ containing the urethra, through which sperm and urine pass out of the
body
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periosteum tough, brous membrane that covers the outer surface of bone
peripheral nervous system (PNS) one of two major divisions of the nervous system that consists of
all the nervous tissue that lies outside the central nervous system
peristalsis rapid, involuntary, wave-like contraction of muscles that pushes food through the GI tract
and urine through the ureters
Permian extinction extinction at the end of the Paleozoic Period that was the biggest mass extinction
the world had ever seen until then
petal outer parts of owers that are usually brightly colored to attract animal pollinators
pH scale that is used to measure acidity
phagocytosis process in which leukocytes engulf and break down pathogens and debris
pharmacogenomics eld that is tailoring medical treatments to t our genetic proles
pharynx long, tubular organ that connects the mouth and nasal cavity with the larynx through which
air and food pass
phenotype characteristics of an organism that depend on how the organisms genotype is expressed
phloem type of vascular tissue in a plant that transports food from photosynthetic cells to other parts
of the plant
phospholipid bilayer double layer of phospholipid molecules that makes up a plasma membrane
photic zone area in an aquatic biome that extends to a maximum depth of 200 meters
photoautotroph producer that uses energy from sunlight to make food by photosynthesis
photosynthesis process of using the energy in sunlight to make food (glucose)
photosystem group of molecules, including chlorophyll, in the thylakoid membrane of a chloroplast that
captures light energy
phylogenetic tree diagram that shows how species are related to each other through common ancestors
phylogeny evolutionary history of a group of related organisms
phytoplankton bacteria and algae that use sunlight to make food
pineal gland gland of the endocrine system that secretes the hormone melatonin that regulates sleepwake cycles
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pioneer species type of species that rst colonizes a disturbed area

pistil female reproductive structure of a ower that consists of a stigma, style, and ovary
pituitary gland master gland of the endocrine system that secretes many hormones, the majority of
which regulate other endocrine glands
placenta temporary organ that consists of a large mass of maternal and fetal blood vessels through the
mothers and fetuss blood exchange substances
placental mammal therian mammal in which a placenta develops during pregnancy to sustain the fetus
while it develops inside the mothers uterus
plant multicellular eukaryote with chloroplasts, cell walls made of cellulose, and specialized reproductive
organs
plasma golden-yellow uid part of blood that contains many dissolved substances and blood cells
plasma membrane thin coat of lipids (phospholipids) that surrounds and encloses a cell
plasmid small, circular piece of DNA in a prokaryotic cell
platelet cell fragment in blood that helps blood clot
Platyhelminthes invertebrate phylum of atworms that are characterized by a at body because they
lack a coelom or pseudocoelom
pleiotropy situation in which a single gene aects more than one trait
pneumonia disease in which the alveoli of the lungs become inamed and lled with uid as a result of
infection or injury
point mutation change in a single nucleotide base in the genetic material
polarity dierence in electrical charge between dierent parts of the same molecule
pollen tiny grains that bear the male gametes of seed plants and transfer sperm to female reproductive
structures
pollination fertilization in plants in which pollen is transferred to female gametes in an ovary
polygenic characteristic characteristic, or trait, controlled by more than one gene, each of which may
have two or more alleles
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) biotechnology process that makes many copies of a gene or other
DNA segment
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polynucleotide chain of nucleotides that alone or with another such chain makes up a nucleic acid
polyp basic body plan in cnidarians such as jellysh that is tubular in shape and typically sessile
polypeptide chain of amino acids that alone or with other such chains makes up a protein
polysaccharide chain of monosaccharides that makes up a complex carbohydrate such as starch
population all the organisms of the same species that live in the same area
population density average number of individuals in a population per unit of area or volume
population distribution describes how the individuals are distributed, or spread throughout their habitat
population genetics science focusing on evolution within populations that is the area of overlap between
evolutionary theory and Mendelian genetics
population growth rate (r) how fast a population changes in size over time
population pyramid bar graph that represents the age-structure of a population
Porifera invertebrate phylum of sponges, which have a non-bony endoskeleton and are sessile as adults
precipitation water that falls from clouds in the atmosphere to Earths in the form of rain, snow, sleet,
hail, or freezing rain
predation relationship in which members of one species consume members of another species
predator species that consumes another in a predator-prey relationship
prediction statement that tells what will happen under certain conditions
pregnancy carrying of one or more ospring from fertilization until birth
prey species that is consumed by another in a predator-prey relationship
primary succession change in the numbers and types of species that live in a community that occurs
in an area that has never before been colonized
probability the likelihood, or chance, than a certain event will occur
producer organism that produces food for itself and other organisms
product substance that forms as the result of a chemical reaction
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prokaryote single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus

prokaryotic cell cell without a nucleus that is found in single-celled organisms
promoter region of a gene where a RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription of the gene
prophase rst phase of mitosis during which chromatin condense into chromosomes, the nuclear envelope
breaks down, centrioles separate, and a spindle begins to form
protein organic compound made up of amino acids
protein synthesis process in which cells make proteins that includes transcription of DNA and translation of mRNA
protist kingdom in the domain Eukarya that includes all eukaryotes except plants, animals, and fungi
protozoa (singular, protozoan) animal-like protists such as Amoeba and Paramecium
pseudocoelom partial, uid-lled cavity inside the body of some invertebrates
pseudopod temporary, foot-like extension of the cytoplasm that some cells use for movement or feeding
psychoactive drug drug that aects the central nervous system, generally by inuencing the transmission of never impulses in the brain
puberty period during which humans become sexually mature
pulmonary circulation part of the circulatory system that carries blood between the heart and lungs
punctuated equilibrium model of the timing of evolution in which long periods of little evolutionary
change are interrupted by bursts of rapid evolutionary change
Punnett square chart for determining the expected percentages of dierent genotypes in the ospring
of two parents
pupa life cycle stage of many insects that occurs between the larval and adult stages and during which
the insect is immobile, may be encased within a cocoon, and changes into the adult form
21.17
21.18
radial symmetry symmetry of a body plan in which there is a distinct top and bottom but not distinct
head and tail ends, so the body can be divided into two halves like a pie
reactant starting material in a chemical reaction
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recessive allele allele that is masked by the presence of another allele for the same gene when they occur
together in a heterozygote
recombinant DNA DNA that results when DNA from two organisms is combined
red blood cell type of cell in blood that contains hemoglobin and carries oxygen
reex rapid motor response to a sensory stimulus in which nerve impulses travel in an arc that includes
the spinal cord but not the brain
regeneration regrowing of tissues, organs, or limbs that have been lost or damaged
regulatory element region of DNA where a regulatory protein binds
regulatory protein protein that regulates gene expression
relative dating method of dating fossils by their location in rock layers; determines which fossils are
older or younger but not their age in years
renewable resource natural resource that can be replenished by natural processes as quickly as humans
use it
reproduction process by which living things give rise to ospring
reproductive system system of organs that produces gametes and secretes sex hormones
reptile ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrate that lays amniotic eggs; includes crocodiles, lizards, snakes, and
turtles
reservoir part of a biogeochemical cycle that holds an element or water for a long period of time
respiration exchange of gases between the body and the outside air
respiratory system organ system that brings oxygen into the body and releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere
resting potential dierence in electrical charge across the plasma membrane of a neuron that is not
actively transmitting a nerve impulse
rhizoid hair-like structure in a nonvascular plant that absorbs water and minerals and anchors the plant
to a surface
ribosomal RNA type of RNA that helps form ribosomes and assemble proteins
ribosome organelle inside all cells where proteins are made
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ringworm skin infection caused by the fungus Trichophyton that causes a characteristic ring-shaped rash
RNA (ribonucleic acid) single-stranded nucleic acid that helps make proteins
RNA world hypothesis hypothesis that RNA was the rst organic molecule to evolve and that early
life was based on RNA, rather than DNA or protein
root hair tiny hairlike structure that extends from an epidermal cell of a plant root and increases the
surface area for absorption
root system all the roots of a plant, including primary roots and secondary roots
r-selected species in which population growth is rapid but death rates are high so population size is
generally below the carrying capacity
runo precipitation that falls on land and ows over the surface of the ground
21.19
saprotroph decomposer such as a fungus or protozoan that feeds on any remaining organic matter that
is left after other decomposers do their work
saturated fatty acid molecule in lipids in which carbon atoms are bonded to as many hydrogen atoms
as possible
sauropsid type of early amniote that evolved during the Carboniferous Period and eventually gave rise
to dinosaurs, reptiles, and birds
scavenger decomposer that consumers the soft tissues of dead animals
science distinctive way of gaining knowledge about the natural world that tries to answer questions with
evidence and logic
scientic investigation plan for asking questions and testing possible answers
scientic law statement describing what always happens under certain conditions in nature
scientic method the process of a scientic investigation
scientic theory broad explanation that is widely accepted as true because it is supported by a great
deal of evidence
sebaceous gland gland in the dermis of skin that produces sebum, an oily substance that waterproofs
the skin and hair
secondary succession change in the numbers and types of species that live in a community that occurs
in an area that was previously colonized but has been disturbed
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seed structure produced by a seed plant that contains an embryo and food supply enclosed within a
tough coat
seed coat tough covering of a seed that protects the embryo and keeps it from drying out until conditions
are favorable for germination
segmentation division of an animal body into multiple segments
semen uid containing sperm and gland secretions that nourish sperm and carry them through the
urethra and out of the body
sensory neuron type of neuron that carries nerve impulses from tissue and organs to the spinal cord
and brain
sensory receptor specialized nerve cell that responds to a particular type of stimulus such as light or
chemicals
sepal part of a ower that helps protect it while it is still in bud
sessile of or relating to an animal that is unable to move from place to place
sex chromosome X or Y chromosome (in humans)
sex hormone chemical messenger that controls sexual development and reproduction
sex-linked gene gene located on a sex chromosome
sex-linked trait traits controlled by a gene located on a sex chromosome
sexual dimorphism dierences between the phenotypes of males and females of the same species
sexually transmitted infection (STI) infection caused by a pathogen that spreads mainly through
sexual contact; also known as sexually transmitted disease (STD)
sexual reproduction type of reproduction that involves the fertilization of gametes produced by two
parents and produces genetically variable ospring
sixth mass extinction current mass extinction caused primarily by habitat loss due to human actions
skeletal muscle voluntary, striated muscle that is attached to bones of the skeleton and helps the body
move
skeletal system human body system that consists of all the bones of the body as well as cartilage and
ligaments
sliding lament theory theory that explains muscle contraction by the sliding of myosin laments over
actin laments within muscle bers
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slime mold fungus-like protist commonly found on rotting logs and other decaying organic matter
small intestine long, narrow, tube-like organ of the digestive system where most chemical digestion of
food and virtually all absorption of nutrients take place
smooth muscle involuntary, nonstriated muscle that is found in the walls of internal organs such as the
stomach
social animal animal that lives in a society
society close-knit group of animals of the same species that live and work together
sodium-potassium pump type of active transport in which sodium ions are pumped out of the cell
and potassium ions are pumped into the cell with the help of a carrier protein and energy from ATP
soil mixture of eroded rock, minerals, organic matter, and other materials that is essential for plant
growth and forms the foundation of terrestrial ecosystems
solution mixture that has the same composition throughout
somatic mutation mutation that occurs in cells of the body other than gametes
somatic nervous system (SNS) division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary,
conscious activities and reexes
spawning depositing large numbers of gametes in the same place and at the same time by sh or amphibians
specialization evolution of dierent adaptations in competing species, which allows them to live in the
same area without competing
speciation process by which a new species evolves
species group of organisms that are similar enough to mate together and produce fertile ospring
sperm male gamete
spermatogenesis process of producing sperm in the testes
spermatophyte type of plant that reproduces by producing seeds
spinal cord thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue that extends from the brainstem down the back to
the pelvis and connects the brain with the peripheral nervous system
spongy bone light, porous inner layer of bone that contains bone marrow
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sporangium (plural, sporangia) structure on a plant of the sporophyte generation that produces
spores for asexual reproduction
sporophyte diploid generation in the life cycle of a plant that results from sexual reproduction with
gametes and that produces spores for asexual reproduction
sporozoa (singular, sporozoan) type of protozoa that cannot move as adults
stabilizing selection type of natural selection for a polygenic trait in which phenotypes at both extremes
of the phenotypic distribution are selected against, resulting in a narrowing of the range of phenotypic
variation
stamen male reproductive structure of a ower that consists of a stalk-like lament and a pollenproducing anther
stimulus something that triggers a behavior
stomach sac-like organ of the digestive system between the esophagus and small intestine in which both
mechanical and chemical digestion take place
stomata (singular, stoma) tiny pore in the epidermis of a plant leaf that controls transpiration and
gas exchange with the air
stroma space outside the thylakoid membranes of a chloroplast where the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis
takes place
sublimation process in which ice and snow change directly to water vapor
survivorship curve graph that represents the individuals still alive at each age in a population
sustainable use use of resources in a way that meets the needs of the present and also preserves the
resources for the use of future generations
sweat gland gland in the dermis of skin that produces the salty uid called sweat, which excretes wastes
and helps cool the body
swim bladder balloon-like internal organ in most sh that can be used to move up or down through the
water column by changing the amount of gas it contains
symbiosis close relationship between organisms of dierent species in which at least one of the organisms
benets from the relationship
sympatric speciation evolution of a new species that occurs when without geographic separation rst
occurring between members of an original species
synapse place where an axon terminal meets another cell
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synapsid type of early amniote that evolved during the Carboniferous Period and eventually gave rise
to mammals
synthetic biology eld of biology involved in engineering new functions from living systems
syphilis sexually transmitted infection caused by bacteria that may eventually be fatal if untreated
systemic circulation part of the circulatory system that carries blood between the heart and body
21.20
taproot single, thick primary root that characterizes the root system of some plants
target cell type of cell on which a particular hormone has an eect because it has receptor molecules for
the hormone
TATA box regulatory element that is part of the promoter of most eukaryotic genes
taxa a grouping of organisms in a classication system such as the Linnaean system; for example, species
or genus
taxonomy science of classifying organisms
T cell type of lymphocyte involved in cell-mediated immunity in which cells infected with viruses are
destroyed
telophase last stage of mitosis during which chromosomes uncoil to form chromatin, the spindle breaks
down, and new nuclear membranes form
tendon tough connective tissue that attaches skeletal muscle to bones of the skeleton
terrestrial biome a biome of or pertaining to land, as in terrestrial ecosystem
testis (plural, testes) one of two male reproductive organs that produces sperm and secretes testosterone
testosterone male sex hormone secreted by the testes
tetrapod vertebrate with four legs (amphibian, reptile, bird, or mammal)
therapsid type of extinct organism that lived during the Permian Period and gave rise to mammals
therian mammal viviparous mammal that may be either a marsupial or placental mammal
thylakoid membrane membrane in a chloroplast where the light reactions of photosynthesis occur
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thyroid gland large endocrine gland in the neck that secretes hormones that control the rate of cellular
metabolism throughout the body
tissue group of cells of the same kind that perform a particular function in an organism
trachea long, tubular organ of the respiratory system, also called the wind pipe, that carries air between
the larynx and lungs
tracheophyte type of plant that has vascular tissues, such as a seed plant or owering plant
transcription process in which genetic instructions in DNA are copied to form a complementary strand
of mRNA
transfer RNA (tRNA) type of RNA that brings amino acids to ribosomes where they are joined together to form proteins
transgenic crop crop that has been genetically modied with new genes that code for traits useful to
humans
translation process in which genetic instructions in mRNA are read to synthesize a protein
transpiration process in which plants give o water vapor from photosynthesis through tiny pores, called
stomata, in their leaves
transport protein protein in a plasma membrane that helps other substances cross the membrane
trichomoniasis common sexually transmitted infection that is caused by protozoa
trilobite oldest known arthropod, which is now extinct and known only from numerous fossils
trophic level feeding position in a food chain or food web, such as producer, primary consumer, or
secondary consumer
tropism turning by an organism or part of an organism toward or away from an environmental stimulus
tumor abnormal mass of cells that may be cancerous
tunicates members of the subphylum Urochordata are tunicates (also called sea squirts)
21.21
unsaturated fatty acid molecule in lipids in which some carbon atoms are bonded to other groups of
atoms rather than to hydrogen atoms
ureter muscular, tube-like organ of the urinary system that moves urine by peristalsis from a kidney to
the bladder
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urethra muscular, tube-like organ of the urinary system that carries urine out of the body from the
bladder; in males, it also carries sperm out of the body
urinary system organ system that includes the kidneys and is responsible for ltering waste products
and excess water from the blood and excreting them from the body
urination process in which urine leaves the body through a sphincter at the end of the urethra
urine liquid waste product of the body that is formed by the kidneys and excreted by the other organs
of the urinary system
uterus (plural, uteri) female reproductive organ in therian mammals where an embryo or fetus grows
and develops until birth
21.22
vaccine substance containing modied pathogens that does not cause disease but provokes an immune
response and results in immunity to the pathogen
vacuole large saclike organelle that stores and transports materials inside a cell
vagina female reproductive organ that receives sperm during sexual intercourse and provides a passageway for a baby to leave the mothers body during birth
vascular tissue type of tissue in plants that transports uids through the plant; includes xylem and
phloem
vector organism such as an insect that spreads pathogens from host to host
vegetative reproduction asexual reproduction in plants using nonreproductive tissues such as leaves,
stems, or roots
vein type of blood vessel that carries blood toward the heart from the lungs or body
ventilation process of carrying air from the atmosphere into the lungs
vertebrae (singular, vertebra) repeating bony units that make up the vertebral column of vertebrates
vertebral column bony support structure that runs down the back of a vertebrate animal; also called
a backbone
vertebrate animal with a vertebral column, or backbone
vesicle small saclike organelle that stores and transports materials inside a cell
vesicle transport type of active transport in which substances are carried across the cell membrane by
vesicles
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vestigial structure structure such as the human tailbone or appendix that evolution has reduced in size
because it is no longer used
villi (singular, villus) microscopic, nger-like projections in the mucous membrane lining the small
intestine that form a large surface area for the absorption of nutrients
virion individual virus particle that consists of nucleic acid within a protein capsid
virus tiny, nonliving particle that contains DNA but lacks other characteristics of living cells
vitamin organic compound needed in small amounts for proper body functioning
vivipary type of reproduction in which an embryo develops within, and is nourished by, the mothers
body
vulva external female reproductive structures, including the labia and vaginal opening
21.23
water cycle interconnected pathways through which water is recycled through the biotic and abiotic
components of the biosphere
water mold fungus-like protist commonly found in moist soil and surface water
weed plant that is growing where people do not want it
wetland area that is saturated with water or covered by water for at least one season of the year
white blood cell type of cell in blood that defends the body against invading microorganisms or other
threats in blood or extracellular uid
21.24
xerophyte plant that is adapted to a very dry environment

X-linked gene gene located on the X chromosome
X-linked trait trait controlled by a gene located on the X chromosome
xylem type of vascular tissue in a plant that transports water and dissolved nutrients from roots to stems
and leaves
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21.25
21.26
zooplankton tiny animals that feed on phytoplankton

zygospore diploid spore in fungi that is produced by the fusion of two haploid parent cells
zygote diploid cell that forms when two haploid gametes unite during fertilization
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Science and the Natural World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Biology: The Study of Life

2 The Principles of Ecology

The Science of Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Communities and Populations

Human Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Biodiversity Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Natural Resources and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Overview of Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Overview of Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

5 From Sponges to Invertebrate

Sponges, Cnidarians, Flatworms, and Roundworms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Mollusks and Annelids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Arthropods and Insects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Echinoderms and Invertebrate Chordates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

6 From Fishes to Birds

Overview of Vertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

7 Mammals and Animal Behavior

Mammalian Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

Reproduction in Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

Evolution and Classication of Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Overview of Animal Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

8 Introduction to the Human

Organization of the Human Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

The Skeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

The Muscular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

The Integumentary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

9 The Nervous and Endocrine

The Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

The Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

10 The Circulatory, Respiratory,

10.1 The Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

11.1 Nonspecic Defenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

12.2 Female Reproductive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

12.3 From Fertilization to Old Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

13.1 Introduction to Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

14.1 Plant Tissues and Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452

15.1 Energy for Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

16.1 DNA and RNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512

17.2 Mendelian Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548

18.1 Human Chromosomes and Genes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560

19.1 Darwin and the Theory of Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587

20.2 Chromosomes and Mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

Science and the Natural World

Identify the goal of science.

The Goal of Science

Nature can be understood through systematic study.

Nature Can Be Understood

Scientic Ideas Can Change

Scientic Knowledge Can Withstand the Test of Time

Science Cannot Answer All Questions

The Scientic Method

Figure 1.3: Does this moth remind you of an owl?

Testing the Hypothesis

KQED: Medicine From the Ocean Floor

Sample Size and Repetition

Other Types of Scientic Investigations