SCIENCE 10 (THIRD QUARTER)

UNIT III: LIVING THINGS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

MODULE 1: COORDINATED FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS, ENDOCRINE AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The human body is made up of different systems that coordinate with one another in order to perform their functions as well.
If any part of these organ systems malfunctions, the body will become unbalanced. The instability caused by the malfunctioning of
one system cannot be made stable by other systems because each system has its own function in the body.
The nervous system connects all body parts and transmits signals from one part to another. It is a system of cells, tissues and
organs that regulates the bodys responses to internal and external stimuli.
Functions of the nervous system
Man controls or regulates body processes in two ways: through a nervous system and by means of chemicals known as
hormones.
The functions of the nervous system are the following:
1. We receive information about our surroundings from the sense organs (or receptors) by way of sensory nerves
2. We process that information in the brain and spinal cord
3. We react or respond to that information through a command from the brain or spinal cord by way of motor nerves to the
effectors
The things in the environment that cause an organism to react or respond is referred to as stimuli (singular: stimulus). A receptor is a
cell or organ that perceives a stimulus, while an effector is a cell or organ that demonstrates the bodys response to whatever incites it
to action.
Major divisions and parts of the nervous system
1.Central Nervous System (CNS)
The CNS serves as the main processing center for the entire nervous system. It consists of two main components: the brain
and spinal cord
A.Brain
The human brain weighs about one kilogram and is made up of billions of neurons (nerve cells) and a large number of
supporting cells. These cells are wonderfully arranged in an intricate structure (with hundreds of billions of synapses) that allows the
brain to function more efficiently than the best possible computer. This is an organ located within the skull that functions as an
organizer and distributor of information for the body. It has gyrus (plural: gyri) and sulcus (plural: sulci)
Gyri ridges and folds in the brain
Sulci furrows or depressions in the brain

The brain has three main parts, namely:

a.Forebrain-where major processing centers in the brain can be found
1.Cerebrum large, upper part of the brain that controls activity and thought. The
largest and highly convoluted gray matter consists mostly of around 10 billion neurons, also known as cerebral cortex,
the seat of thinking, reasoning and the power of imagination. The cerebrum has two division: the left and right cerebral hemispheres,
joined together by a thick band of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum. Each of two hemispheres has four lobes (frontal lobe,
parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe), each of which contains association areas used for primary motor and sensory
functions like seeing, hearing, tasting and smelling.
2.Thalamus sorts out all information from the sense organs as well as other parts of
the brain before relaying them to the cerebrum
3.Hypothalamus plays a very important role in homeostasis (internal balance). It
controls the secretion of many hormones. It regulates blood pressure,
body
temperature and responses to satisfy physiological needs like hunger and thirst. It also controls emotions.
b.Midbrain it also relays information from the sense organs to the cerebrum. It coordinates
eye reflexes and helps regulate sleep.
c.Hindbrain also known as the brain stem. The medulla oblongata and pons of the hindbrain
contain the sensory and motor neurons between the spinal cord and the forebrain. It relays information between the spinal cord and the
brain. It regulates breathing, heartbeat and digestion. It also coordinates walking and other movements of the entire body.
1.Pons
2.Medulla oblongata
3.Cerebellum the part under the cerebrum that controls posture, balance and
coordination.

B.Spinal cord
This serves as a channel for signals between the brain and the rest of the body, and controls simple musculoskeletal reflexes
without input from the brain. The spinal cord is being protected by the backbone/spine or vertebral column. When viewed from the
side, the backbone is gently curved like a double S. This shape allows the backbone to act like a spring and thus absorb the shock
whenever a person jumps, thereby protecting the brain from being jarred.
2.Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The PNS connects the central nervous system to the organs and limbs and to the different parts of the body. It is made up of
12 pairs of nerves originating from the brain (cranial nerves) and 31 pairs of nerves originating from the spine (spinal nerves). It has
two main divisions: somatic and autonomic nervous system
A.Somatic nervous system
It connects the brain and spinal cord to voluntary muscles (skeletal muscles). The two important parts of somatic nervous
system are spinal nerves and cranial nerves.
B.Autonomic nervous system
It connects the brain and spinal cord to involuntary muscles (internal organs-heart, blood vessels, lungs, food tube, salivary
glands, liver, pancreas, etc.). Each internal organ has two autonomic nerves: a sympathetic nerve and a parasympathetic nerve. The
actions of the two sets of nerves are opposite.
Sympathetic nerve it is activated when the body is in a dynamic role or stress. Examples:
increased heart rate and breathing, dilation of pupil, sweating, etc.
Parasympathetic nerve it maintains body functions and restores the body to normal or relaxed
mode
The Nerve Cell
It is the basic unit of the nervous system. It consists of a cell body which contains the nucleus and two types of projections
called nerve fibers the shorter, thinner and more numerous and highly branched dendrites and the longer and thicker axon with fewer
branches. The dendrites relay signals toward the cell body. A cell may have as many as 200 dendrites carrying impulses toward the
cell body. A single dendrite can be over one meter long. Axons conduct signals away from the cell body. Axons can be grouped
together into cable-like bundles called nerves.

Two types of cells make up the nervous system: (a) nerve cells or neurons for transmitting messages from one part of the
body to another and (b) supporting cells for protecting and assisting the neurons.
The Nerve Impulse
Neurons are cells with the special ability to carry signals or impulses. Thought, emotions, learning and many body functions
are carried by nerve impulses in the neurons. A nerve impulse is a combination of an electrical charge and a chemical reaction. A nerve
impulse is not a flow of electricity but rather an electrochemical signal moving along a neuron. A nerve impulse cannot jump from one
neuron to another. When a nerve impulse comes to the end of an axon, it produces the chemical called neurotransmitter to be released.
The chemical crosses the space between neurons called synapse and stimulates the nerve impulse to start in the next dendrite.
The nervous system is assisted by five sense organs the eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin. These sense organs are constantly
receiving information from the environment and sending messages to the brain. These senses aid in the survival of human beings. A
stimulus is any factor in the environment that may trigger a nerve impulse. A response is a reaction to a stimulus. A stimulus is
received by the body and a response is made. An organism must be able to respond to a stimulus in order to survive. Messages do not
travel in both directions along the same neuron. Only the axon of the neuron releases neurotransmitters that cross the space between
neurons. Reaction time is the length of time between application of a stimulus and detection of a response.
Neurons differ in the direction of the message and type of impulse they carry:
a.Sensory neurons carry impulses to the brain or spinal cord
b.Motor neurons carry impulses from the brain or spinal cord to the muscles
c.Associative neurons or interneurons at the central nervous system integrate data from sensory neurons and then relay
commands to motor neurons

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system composed of glands that secrete different types of hormones (chemicals produced by the body to
control and regulate body functions) that affect almost every cell, organ and function of our body. The nervous system and endocrine
system have the same function control and regulation of the body processes.

Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream which carries them throughout the body. When a hormone in the
blood reaches the target organ, it produces a notable effect. The endocrine system sends signals all over the body, much like the
nervous system, but unlike the instant responses activated by the nervous system, the effects can take a few hours, weeks, months or
years.
Endocrine glands and their secretions
Gland
Pineal body

Location
In the center of the brain

Hormones Released
Melatonin

Function
Involved in activities with
daily or seasonal rhythms
associated with light
conditions of the
environment such as
sleeping and breeding
(especially in animals), it
regulates reproductive
hormones

Hypothalamus (the control

center of the endocrine
system)

Below the thalamus

Oxytocin and Vasopressin

Regulating the posterior

pituitary

Pituitary (posterior,
anterior, middle lobe)

Releasing and Inhibiting

hormones
At the base of the brain

Oxytocin

Regulating the anterior

pituitary
Controls contraction of the
smooth muscles of the
uterus and mammary
gland cells

Vasopressin or
Antidiuretic Hormone,
ADH

Promotes retention of
water by the kidneys

Growth hormone, GH or
Somatotropin

Stimulates growth
(especially of the skeleton)
and regulates metabolic
functions

Thyroid-stimulating
hormone , TSH

Regulates the activity of

the thyroid gland

Adrenocorticotropic

Stimulates the adrenal

hormone, ACTH

cortex to secrete
glucocorticoids

Prolactin, PRL

Stimulates the mammary

glands to produce milk

Follicle-stimulating
hormone, FSH

Luteinizing hormone, LH

Thyroid

Below the voice box

Melanocyte-stimulating
hormone, MSH
Thyroxine (T4) and
Triiodothyronine (T3)

Regulates follicle
formation in the ovary and
sperm formation in the
testis
Stimulates ovaries and
testes
Increases production of the
skin pigment, melanin
Controls metabolic rates,
physical growth and
mental growth

Calcitonin

Lowers blood calcium

levels

Parathyroid

In the neck

Parathyroid hormone, PTH

or Parathormone

Raises blood calcium level

Thymus

In front of the heart

Thymosin

Adrenal (adrenal cortex

and adrenal medulla)

On top of the kidneys

Glucocorticoids: cortisol,
corticosterone and
cortisone

Stimulates T cells
(controls formation of
antibodies)
Increase blood glucose,
cortisone maintains
carbohydrate, fat and
protein metabolism

Pancreas (Islets of
Langerhans)

Between the kidneys

Mineralocorticoids,
aldosterone

Promote reabsorption of
Na+ and excretion of K+ in
the kidneys

Cortin

Regulates sodium, calcium

and water balance in the
blood

Androgens

Influence development of
secondary sex
characteristics

Epinephrine (adrenaline)
and Norepinephrine
(noradrenaline)

Both constrict blood

vessels, thereby increasing
blood pressure
Epinephrine initiates the
physiological changes in
the fight or flight
response

Insulin by beta cells

Controls transformation of
blood glucose into liver
glycogen, hence lowers
the blood glucose level

Glucagon by alpha cells

Controls transformation
liver glycogen into blood
glucose, hence raises the
blood glucose level

Inhibits secretion of both

insulin and glucagon
Testes

Lower abdomen

Ovaries

Lower abdomen

Somatostatin by delta cells

Androgens: Testosterone,
dihydrotestosterone,
androstenedione

Estrogens: beta-estradiol,
estrone, estriol

Progesterone
Stomach and Upper
Intestine

Abdomen

Gastrin

Secretin

Controls sperm formation

as well as the development
and maintenance of male
secondary sex
characteristics
Stimulate growth of the
uterine lining, control
development and
maintenance of female
secondary characteristics
Stimulates growth of the
uterine lining
Stimulates secretion of the
gastric juice by gastric
glands
Stimulates secretion of
pancreatic juice by
pancreatic glands

Characteristics of hormones
1.Hormones act in very small amounts
An increase or decrease in the said amount may result in a body disorder. An example is the case of thyroxine which controls
physical and mental growth and also metabolic rate. A vital component of this hormone is iodine. If iodine is lacking in the diet, not
enough thyroxine is produced. The condition is called hypothyroidism. The thyroid gland enlarges in an effort to produce more
thyroxine. The result is simple goiter, which is characterized by a swelling in the front part of the neck. The opposite condition is
hyperthyroidism where there is more than the normal amount of thyroxine in the blood. The result is exophthalmic goiter, which is
characterized by protruding eyeballs.
Hormonal imbalance unregulated production and secretion of hormones in the body that causes abnormality in body functions
2.Hormones are secreted by ductless glands directly into the blood.

3.Hormones may be proteins, peptides, amines or steroids.

Proteins group of organic compounds containing C,H,O,N, longer chains
Peptides group of organic compounds containing C,H,O,N, shorter chains
Amines group of organic compounds containing C,H,N
Steroids its main building block is cholesterol that is being converted into bile salts by the liver
Only a few endocrine glands produce steroids, the rest produce nonsteroid hormones
4.Some hormones have many targets
Such hormones affect most tissues of the body (e.g. growth hormone), some affect only a few targets (e.g. prolatin)
5.Some hormones affect other endocrine glands
For instance, the TSH of the pituitary stimulates the thyroid gland while the adrenocorticotropic hormone, also of the
pituitary, stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids
6.Hormones function closely with the nervous system
7.Hormones have antagonistic effects
Examples: Calcitonin lowers calcium levels while Parathyroid hormone raises the blood calcium level; Insulin lowers the
blood sugar while Glucagon raises the blood sugar.

8. Hormones have big role in homeostasis

The term homeostasis is used to refer to the state of internal equilibrium or balance. In a healthy body, homeostasis is
possible because the body has efficient control mechanisms that oppose changes in its internal environment. For instance, the body
keeps the following within normal range or level:
Body temperature
Amount of water in the body
Amount of metabolic wastes in the cell
Blood calcium level
Hormones in the blood
For example: Sugar level in the blood (normal level: 90mg glucose per 100 mL of blood)
Suppose a student plays basketball during the noon break and incidentally misses his lunch. What may happen inside his body as a
result?
1. The level of his blood glucose may drop below normal
2. The hypothalamus detects the situation and sends out appropriate signals
3. The pancreas is stimulated to release glucagon directly into the blood
4. The liver transforms glycogen into glucose and releases it into the blood
5. The blood glucose level rises to normal; the pancreas stops releasing glucagon
Suppose a student chooses for snacks a serving of spaghetti, cake, ice cream and a bottle of softdrinks. What may happen inside her
body as a result?
1. The level of his blood glucose may rise beyond normal
2. The hypothalamus detects the situation and sends out appropriate signals
3. The pancreas is stimulated to release insulin into the bloodstream
4. The liver transforms glucose into glycogen and stores it in its tissues, while the muscles and other body tissues also take up
additional glucose
5. The blood glucose level goes down to normal; the pancreas stops releasing extra insulin
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
System involved in sexual reproduction
The Male Reproductive System

Part
Testis
Scrotum
Penis
Vas deferens (tube)
Urethra
Glands:
a.seminal vesicle
b.prostate gland
c.bulbourethral gland

Function
Produces sperm cells
Sac of skin that holds the testis
Deposits sperms into the vagina during mating
Carries sperm from testes to urethra
Carries sperm and urine out of the body
Provide liquid in which sperm can swim
-secretes a fluid that makes up most of the components
of the semen
-secretes a slightly alkaline milky fluid that is discharged
as part of the semen
-secretes a thick and clear mucus that lubricates and
neutralizes any trace of acidic urine in the urethra

Tracing the path of the sperm:

1. From the testis
2. To the epididymis (where the sperm develops fully in 3 to 4 weeks)
3. To the vas deferens (behind the bladder, the vas deferens from the two testes join and form a common duct)
4. To the urethra, and out of the body
The composition of semen is approximately 95% secretions from the glands and 5% (around 200 million to 500 million) sperm.
Normal sperm count: 15 million to 200 million per millilitre (mL) of semen
Sperm are sensitive to temperature. They do not develop at body temperature. Having the testes and epididymis inside the scrotum,
outside the abdominal cavity, enables the sperm to develop to maturity.

The Female Reproductive System

Functions of the female reproductive system:
1.
2.
3.

Produce female sex cells

Receives sperm cells from the male
Nurtures the development of and provides nourishment
for the new individual

Part
Ovary
Oviduct

Function
Produces egg cells
Serves as passageway of eggs from the ovary to the
uterus, site of egg fertilization
Serves as site of egg implantation, is where the fertilized
egg develops
Receives the penis of male during mating

Uterus
Vagina

Puberty involves the onset of sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce. When a female reaches puberty, egg cells start to develop in
her ovaries that produce the sex cells. It is also the time when the body develops the capacity to conceive.
The Role of Hormones in Female and Male Reproductive Systems
The male reproductive system also has prostate glands. Chemicals from these glands nourish the sperm cells and help them
mature. The production of sperm cells and the release of semen can be regulated by hormones or special chemicals that come from the
testis, the brain and the pituitary gland. These hormones keep the reproductive system properly functioning.
The female reproductive system, just like the male reproductive system, is also regulated by hormones. The follicles produce
hormones that control the growth and release of eggs from the ovaries. While other hormones prepare the uterus so a baby can grow in
it, other hormones still control the stretching of the uterus during pregnancy.
The Menstrual Cycle
On average, an ovary releases only one egg every 28 days. The monthly changes that take place in the female reproductive
system are called menstruation. The cycle occurs every month from the onset which could happen when a female is between 10 to 13
years old. The monthly cycle continues for about 40 years.
Important events during the menstrual cycle:
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

The pituitary gland controls and starts the cycle

The pituitary gland releases hormones that cause the egg in the ovary to mature. The luteinizing hormone (LH) initiates the
maturation of the follicles, converts ruptured follicles into corpus luteum and causes the secretion of progesterone. The
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) assists in the maturation of the follicles and causes the secretion of estrogen from the
follicles.
Meanwhile, the ovary itself releases a hormone called estrogen which causes the uterine lining to increases in thickness. The
uterine lining becomes thicker so that the fertilized egg can attach to it.
The ovary releases an egg on day 14. Assume that no sperm is present.
The egg moves through the oviduct and enters the uterus
Meanwhile, the uterine lining continues to thicken
The egg has not been fertilized, therefore, it will not attach to the uterus
The thick uterine lining is no longer necessary, so the cells of the thickened uterine lining break off and leave the vagina. The
unfertilized egg is lost and some blood is lost too. This loss of cells from the uterine lining, blood and egg is called
menstruation.
After menstruation, the cycle starts again.

Menstrual cramps are the results of the strong contraction of the uterine wall that occur before and during menstruation. The cramps
can be caused by excessive secretions of prostaglandins. Shedding of the endometrium of the uterus results in the inflammation in the
endometrial layer of the uterus and prostaglandins are produced as a consequence of inflammation.
Phases or Stages of Menstrual Cycle:
1. Follicle Stage when an ovarian follicle grows to full maturity
2. Ovulation stage when a ripe follicle releases an ovum
3. Corpus luteum/ Luteal stage when the uterus undergoes changes
in preparation for the implantation of the embryo

4.

Menstrual stage when the lining of the uterus

disintegrates and flows out of the body

MODULE 2: HEREDITY: INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

The DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule is composed of three types of component molecules: phosphate group, sugar,
nitrogenous bases (adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T)).
One nucleotide is composed of one phosphate group, one sugar, and one of the nitrogenous bases.
Remember: A always pairs with T; and G with C.
Differences of DNA and RNA
Basis of comparison
Number of strands
Location in the cell
Type of sugar
Nitrogenous base pair

DNA
2
Nucleus
Deoxyribose
A, T, C, G

RNA
1
Cytoplasm
Ribose
A, U, C, G

The Central Dogma

The central dogma of the transfer of genetic information states that the sequence involved in the expression of hereditary
characteristics is from DNA to RNA to proteins.

Replication
DNA is copied during interphase prior to mitosis and meiosis. It is important that new copies are exactly like the original
molecule. The structure of the DNA provides a mechanism for making accurate copies of the molecule. The process of making copies
of DNA is called replication. When DNA replicates, two identical copies of DNA molecules are produced, which are exactly the same
as the original. It is usually coded by a particular sequence of base triplet called codons.

Replication DNA makes a copy of itself. It happens in the nucleus.

1.
2.
3.

An enzyme called helicase breaks the bond between nitrogenous bases. The two strands of DNA split.
The bases attached to each strand then pair up with the free nucleotides
The complementary nucleotides are added to each strand by DNA polymerase to form new strands. Two new DNA
molecules, each with a parent strand and each with a new strand are formed. The DNA replication is known as semiconservative replication, because one of the old strands is conserved in each new molecule.

Transcription the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule. It
cytoplasm.
1.
2.
3.

happens in the

RNA polymerase enzyme binds and opens the DNA molecule that will be transcribed
As the DNA molecule opens, the RNA polymerase slides along the DNA strand and links free RNA nucleotides that pair with
the nitrogenous bases of the complementary DNA strand.
When the process of base-pairing is completed, the RNA molecule breaks away as the DNA strands rejoin. The RNA leaves
the nucleus and goes to the cytoplasm

Translation is a process which determines the order of bases in mRNA of amino acids into protein. It occurs in the ribosome. The
order of the mRNA sequence determines the proteins synthesized.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

As translation begins, mRNA binds to a ribosome. Then, tRNA molecules, each carrying a specific amino acid, approach the
ribosome. The tRNA anticodon pairs with the first mRNA (start) codon AUG to form the initiation complex. The two
molecules temporarily join together.
Usually, the first codon in mRNA is AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine. AUG signals the start of protein
synthesis. Then, the ribosome slides along the mRNA to the next codon.
A new tRNA molecule carrying an amino acid pairs with the second mRNA codon
When the first and second amino acids are in place, an enzyme joins them by forming a peptide bond between them
As the process continues, a chain of amino acid is formed and the ribosome reaches a stop codon (UAG, UGA, UAA) on the
mRNA strand. The polypeptide chain is released. Protein synthesis is completed.

Three major types of RNA:

1.
2.
3.

mRNA (messenger RNA) carries the information from DNA to the ribosomes
tRNA (transfer RNA) translates the genetic message carried by the mRNA through protein synthesis
rRNA (ribosomal RNA) forms the structural component of the ribosomes

Mutation
Mutation is any change in the sequence of the nitrogen bases in the DNA, any mistake in the transcription of genetic
information from DNA to RNA or pairing of codon and anticodon. Changes in the DNA sequence may delete such protein or change
its structure. Mutation may be induced by factors called mutagens. Mutagens are commonly in the form of toxic chemicals and
harmful radiation. Mutation can occur in two different types of cells: reproductive cells and body cells. Only mutations in sex cells
pass on to offspring. Mutations affect the reproductive cells of an organism by changing the sequence of nucleotides within a gene in a
sperm or an egg cell. If these cells are fertilized, then the mutated gene becomes a part of the genetic makeup of the offspring. If
mutation is severe, the resulting protein may be non-functional and the embryo may not be developed. There are two types of
mutations that can occur in gamete cells:
1. Gene mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene. Examples: albinism, sickle cell anemia
2. Chromosomal mutation occurs at the chromosome level resulting in gene deletion, duplication or rearrangement that may
occur during the cell cycle and meiosis. It may be caused by parts of chromosomes breaking off or rejoining incorrectly.
a.Translocation abnormality caused by rearrangement of parts between nonhomologous
chromosomes
b.Deletion - a part of a chromosome or a sequence of DNA is lost during DNA replication.
c.Inversion - a chromosome rearrangement in which a segment of a chromosome is reversed
end to end
Most mutations are harmful. Some mutations in a body cell are known to cause cancer, while mutations in sex cells can cause
birth defects. A severe mutation can lead to cell death and may have no effect on the body. Sometimes mutations may be useful for the
species. For example, a mutation in blood proteins prevents viruses or parasites to thrive in host organisms.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The gain or loss of chromosome material can lead to a variety of genetic disorders. Human examples are the following:
Cri du chat caused by deletion of part of the short arm (p-arm) of chromosome 5. It is a French term, and the condition is so
named because affected babies make high-pitched cries that sound like a cat.
Down syndrome is usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21).
Edwards syndrome the second most common trisomy after Down syndrome, is a trisomy of chromosome 18.
Jacobsen syndrome is also called terminal 11q deletion disorder. Most have a bleeding disorder called Paris-Trousseau
syndrome
Klinefelters syndrome an extra X chromosome (XXY)
Turners syndrome X instead of XX or XY

Human Karyotyping
A karyotype is an image of the full set of chromosomes of an individual that displays the normal number, size and shape.
Karyotypes may reveal the gender of a fetus or test for certain defects through examination of cells from uterine fluid a procedure
called amniocentesis or through sampling of placental membranes.
Genetic Engineering
It is a modern biotechnology that produces transgenic or genetically modified organisms.
When DNA from two different species is joined together, it is called recombinant DNA. This process uses restriction enzymes to
cleave one organisms DNA into fragments and other enzymes to splice the DNA fragment into a plasmid or viral DNA. Transgenic
organisms are able to manufacture genetic products foreign to them using recombinant DNA. Genetic engineering has already been
applied to bacteria, plants and animals.
Steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

A plasmid (ring of DNA) is isolated from a bacterium.

The restriction enzyme cuts the DNA at specific sites.\
A gene of interest is taken from another cell and is cut with the same enzyme
The gene is inserted into the plasmid, where it fits exactly to form the recombinant DNA.
The recombinant plasmid is inserted back into the bacterium
The new gene directs the bacterium to make a new protein products
When the bacterium divides and replicates, it makes copies of itself and the recombinant DNA

Today, molecular biologists are finding applications for recombinant DNA technology: from medical applications, including
gene therapy and vaccines, DNA fingerprinting used to identify persons responsible for crimes and provide evidence for identity of
dead persons; to the creation of genetically modified crops that are resistant to pests, or that make extra vitamins and minerals; to
bacteria that can clean oil spills. While the application of recombinant DNA technology is numerous, there are also ethical issues and
limitations to it.
The Genetic Code Table
Genetic code is a set of rules that specify the codons in DNA or RNA that corresponds to the amino acids in proteins

MODULE 3: BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION

Evolution change in species through time
Sources of Evidence for Evolution
1.Fossil records
Fossils are examples of evidences that paleontologists use in studying evolution. They are traces of organisms that lived in
the past and were preserved by natural process or catastrophic events. They can be remains of organisms which include bones, shells,
teeth and also feces embedded in rocks, peat, resin, and ice. Paleontologist is a person who studies fossils. Most fossils were
commonly found in sedimentary rocks. They were from the hard parts of the organism like woody stem, bones or teeth. Another type
of fossil is an imprint or impression. Imprints are shallow external molds left by animal or plant tissues with little or no organic
materials present. Compression is the other side with more organic material. Radiometric dating is a method used to determine the
age of rocks using the decay of radioactive isotopes (Carbon 14) present in rocks. All organisms have decaying carbon-14 in it. Plants
and animals that are still alive constantly replace the supply of carbon in their body and the amount of carbon-14 in their body stays
the same. When an organism dies, C14 starts to decay. Carbon dating is used to tell the age of organic materials.
The Geologic Time Scale shows the major events in the Earths history. It also shows the appearance of various kinds of
organisms in a particular period of time on earth. Era is the largest division of the Geologic Time Scale, namely Precambrian,
Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Each Era is further divided into Period.
2.Comparative Anatomy
Structures from different species which have similar internal framework, position and embryonic development are considered
to be homologous. Homologous structures may perform different functions in the species living in the different environment, or it may
have the same origin but different functions. Examples: Forelimbs of dogs, bird, lizard and whale which are structurally the same but
functionally different. Analogous structures are structures of unrelated species that may evolve to look alike because the structure is
adapted to similar function. Examples: wings of birds, bats and insects that have the same function but different in origin. The
presence of homologous structures is a strong indicator that the organisms evolved from common ancestors. This type of evolution is
called divergent evolution. Divergent evolution is the splitting of an ancestral population into two or more subpopulations that are
geographically isolated from one another. Convergence is an increase in similarities among species derived from different ancestors as
a result of similar adaptation to similar environment. In convergent evolution, analogous structures of unrelated organisms from
different ancestors develop similar function such as butterfly wings and bird wings.
3.Embryonic Development
An embryo is an early stage of development in organisms. Embryonic development includes stages such as blastula, gastrula
and organogenesis. The embryo of fishes, salamanders, lizards, birds, cats and humans are similar during the first stage of their
embryonic development; and have similar homologous structures that are not present when the organisms are adults. Studies show that
species that are closely related exhibit similar embryonic development. Even when in the adult stage, the organisms are quite different.
Theories of evolution
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was the first evolutionist to believe that organisms change over time.
a.Theory of need states that organisms change in response to their environment, their ability
to survive helped them develop characteristics necessary for them to adapt in a given environment

b.Theory of use and disuse organs not in use will disappear while organs in use will develop. He
believed that giraffes before have short necks but because of the need to
survive and in order to
reach tall trees for food, they kept stretching their
necks until these became longer and able to reach taller trees.
c.Theory of acquired characteristics the acquired characteristics were believed to be inherited
by their offsprings and propagated by the next generation

Darwinian Theory/Theory of evolution Charles Darwin

Theory of Natural Selection Darwin proposed this theory after his voyage to the Galapagos Island. He
was fascinated by the diversity of organisms he found along the journey.
He
observed that finch species have different beak structures for different food types. According to him, selection also takes place in
nature. In
selective breeding, farmer identifies and selects the best and desirable trait to propagate. In natural selection,
environmental factors promote the survival of the fittest and eliminates the less fit.
Organisms struggle for existence in order to survive, they compete for food and space. Organisms with favorable and
advantageous characteristics survive and reproduce. Fitness refers to the ability of an organism to survive and produce offsprings.
Different individuals in a population possess different characteristics and abilities. This is called variation. Variation among
individuals in the population would likely to bring greater chance of survival. An organism that is adapted and has structures fitted to
survive in a given environment would likely produce offspring.
Adaptation ability of an organism to adjust and thrive in a given environment
Organisms (students) that cannot adapt to extreme conditions (like difficult examinations) will soon become extinct Maam Chu

Prepared by:
Ms. Marichu J. Aznar