CTtc

CT

CT 2004
ABSTRACTS
Workshop
on

Computerized Tomography
for
Scientists and Engineers
February 13-15, 2004
INCLUDEPICTURE "http://www.iitk.ac.in/aicte/iitlogo.jpg" \* MERGEFORMATINET

Organised by

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology
Kanpur - 208016

INVITED TALKS
Process Tomography: Development and Application of Non-intrusive Measuring
Techniques for Multiphase Flows

M. Behling, D. Mewes
University of Hannover (Germany)
Impedance Technique for the Measurement of Two Phase Flow Parameters:
Possibilities and Challenges

P.K. Das, G. Das, S. Sen and K. Biswas

Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Ultrasonic Assessment of the Effect of Variations of Different Process Parameters in
Blowing of Industrial Rubbers

D. Datta
Bengal Engineering College, Howrah
X-Ray Computed Tomography for Solid Objects

A.K. Jena, N.K. Das, S.J. George, B. Venkataraman,

K. Kasiviswanathan, T. Jayakumar, P. Kalayanasundaram and Baldev Raj
DPEND, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
Steady-state Multi-phase Flow Measurement Facility at FCRI

M. Suresh, R.V. Rajesh, M. Viswanathan, M.S. Konnur

Fluid Control Research Institute, Palghat
Bone Imaging Using Compound Ultrasonic Tomography

P. Lasaygues1, P. Laugier2
1

Laboratoire de Mcanique et d'Acoustique, Marseille, France

Laboratoire d'Imagerie Paramtrique, Paris, France

Challenges in quantitative ultrasound bone strength assessment : status and

perspectives

P. Laugier
Laboratoire d'Imagerie Paramtrique, Paris, France
Computerized Tomography in Blast Furnace

S.K. Mandal
National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur
Electrical tomography for two-phase flows: Seeing without eyes inside stirred
vessels

R. Mann
Chemical Engineering, UMIST, Manchester, UK
Digital Radiography: Imaging And Visualization For Industrial Applications

D. Mishra, V. Manoharan, N. Gopalika, S. George & G. Mohr*

GE, Bangalore

Convection In Differentially Heated Air-Water Layers And Its Reconstruction Using

Radial Tomography In A Circular Cavity

S. Punjabi
Ujjain Engineering College, Ujjain
Tomography in Fusion Plasma Research

C.V.S. Rao
Institute for Plasma Research, Gandhinagar
Tomographic Reconstructive Techniques for Void-fraction distribution in Heavy
Density Liquid Metal Two-phase Flows

P. Satyamurthy, N. S. Dixit, P. Munshi*

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
*Institute Of Technology Kanpur
Steady-state Multi-phase Flow Measurement Facility at FCRI
3D Tomography using neutrons and x-rays

A. Sinha, P.S. Sarkar, B.K. Godwal

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Trombay, Mumbai
Development of Computer Aided Tomography systems in DRDL

S. Vathsal
DRDL, Hyderabad
Determination of 3-D Concentration Field around a Growing Crystal Using Laser
Shadowgraphic Tomography

S. Verma, K. Muralidhar* and V. K. Wadhawan

Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore

Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur

Process Tomography: Development and Application of Nonintrusive Measuring Techniques for Multiphase Flows
M. Behling, D. Mewes
University of Hannover (Germany), Institute of Process Engineering, IfV
The variety of ready to use measuring techniques available on the market is ever
growing. But nevertheless in multiphase flows the non-intrusive acquisition of local
measurements of process parameters like temperature, concentration or volume
fractions often is still a challenge. In many cases instead of the desired local
measurements only integral measurements, for instance along lines, can be obtained.
This is the point when process tomography comes into play. In general, in
tomography the desired local values of the respective property are reconstructed
mathematically from a certain number of integral measurements. Depending on the
measurement task, a variety of optical, electrical conductance, electrical capacitance,
X-ray, and some other can be used. The various techniques differ significantly in their
suitability for different measurement objects, spatial and temporal resolution, and
availability on the market, cost, and many more parameters. In process engineering
research the desired tomographic systems often are still not offered commercially. The
Institute of Process Engineering of the University of Hannover, Germany, looks back
on many years of developing, building and using its own tomographic systems,
covering all the above mentioned techniques. This presentation gives an overview of
the tomographic measuring systems built and used at the Institute of Process
Engineering and the research work they are applied for.

X-ray tomography (CT): Liquid film in packing depending on flow rate

Impedance Technique for the Measurement of Two Phase Flow

Parameters: Possibilities and Challenges
P. K. Das1*, G. Das2, S. Sen3 and K. Biswas3
1
Mechanical Engineering, 2Chemical Engineering, and 3Electrical
Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur-721302
1. Introduction
Multiphase flow or simultaneous flow of several phases is commonly encountered in
a variety of engineering processes. Simultaneous flows of as many as four phases
namely, water, crude oil, gas and sand is not uncommon during oil exploration though
flow of two-phase mixtures in the most common occurrence in industry.
Simultaneous flow of gas and liquid or gas liquid two phase flow is observed in
power generation, refrigeneration and cryogenics as well as in chemical process
industries.
In spite of the extensive volume of past research activity, two phase flow is not yet an
area in which theoretical prediction of flow parameters is generally possible. Indeed,
this situation is likely to persist for the foreseeable future. Thus, the role of
experiment and parametric measurement is particularly important.
The techniques of measurement for single-phase flow are well established. Based on
these techniques, various meters and instruments have been developed which are
successfully employed for industrial measurement as well as for R&D activities.
Unfortunately, these instruments cannot be directly used for multiphase flow
measurement. Most of the problems in multiphase flow measurement arise from the
fact that the parameters characterizing it are many times larger than those in singlephase flows. In single-phase flow, the flow regimes encountered are laminar, turbulent
and a transition region between them. In multiphase flow, numerous flow regimes are
possible. The flow regimes observed under a specific set of flow conditions is
dependent on flow geometry (size and shape) and orientation (vertical, horizontal and
inclined), flow direction in a vertical or inclined flows (up or down), phase flow rates
and properties (density, viscosity, surface tension). It may be noted that the flow
regimes change drastically from the adiabatic case when phase transition (due to heat
transfer) is involved. In general, the following features, which complicates the flow
situation may be identified:
1. Even for the steady flow rates of the phases at the inlet, the local flow phenomenon
may become intermittent.
2. The distribution and velocity of the phases may change both with space and time.
3. In case of phase change, the flow regimes vary substantially along the flow
direction. It may also to be appreciated that unlike the single-phase flow there are
some unique parameters in two-phase flow, which needs to be measured. For
example, as the hydrodynamics depends largely on the prevailing flow regime, it
has to be identified and the void fraction or the phase fraction (amount of a
particular phase in a given cross section or volume) is to be determined. In certain

applications parametric valued of each of the phased (namely phase velocity or

phase flow rate) need to be predicated.
This has given rise to the development of a number of techniques especially suited for
the measurement of two-phase flow parameters. As often one has to measure the
parameters separately for both the phases one needs to exploit a property, which has
grossly different values for the phases at the condition of measurement. Based on this
logic, measurement techniques have been developed using optical, radiation
attenuation acoustic and impedance principle. In the present paper measurement
technique based on impedance principle will be elaborated.
As the electrical impedance of a two-phase mixture is a function of concentration,
measurement of impedance can form a basis for the estimation of different two
phases. Several instruments for the measurement of void fraction and associated
parameters have been developed based on impedance technique has the following
advantages:
1. It is a low cost technique.
2. It is suitable for transient measurement.
3. Large variations of electrode design are possible making the method appropriate
for different flow situations and geometry.
4. Both intrusive and non-intrusive measurements are possible.
5. Point measurement as well as global measurement can be made by suitable design
of the probe.
6. Same principle (sometimes the same probe) may be used for the measurement of
associated parameters like,
a) flow regime identification,
b) bubble size and frequency
c) bubble velocity.
An impedance probe can be designed such that the prediction is made either due to
the variation of capacitance. If the liquid phase is the continuous one and electrically
conduction, then the probe is used in the resistive mode. If the gas phase is continuous
or the liquid phase is non-conduction, then the probe is used in capacitance mode. A
large variety of probe design is possible some of them are described below.
2.

Separated flow of gas and liquid

In annular flow, stratified flow, film flow, the gas and liquid phases are separated by a
well defined interface and generally the liquid phase does not contain any gas bubble
in dispersed condition. In such situation, impedance probe gives a good estimate of
the liquid film thickness. From electrostatics one gets,
(1)
2V 0
E VE
(2)
J E
(3)
From Ohms Law,
J

Jds

(4)

and

R 2V1 I

(5)

Where is the electrical potential, J the current density, E the electrical field, I the
current, the conductivity of the liquid and R the resistance.
Finally, the current I can be expressed as
I L

0 / 2

E r ( R1 d )

(6)

From the above relationships, one can calculate the resistance for a given liquid height
and liquid conductivity.
R Vin / V0 R f
(7)
Using the above relationships one can determine the void fraction for different
separated flow conditions.
3. Homogeneous mixed flow of gas and liquid:
Impedance probes can also be used when the phases are well mixed (bubbly flow or
drop flow). When the phases are well mixed from Maxwells theory, one gets

A Ac G 2 L
.
A 2 Ac G L

(8)

Where Ac is the admittance of the gauge when immersed in the liquid phase alone.
G and L are the conductivities of the gas and liquid phases if conductivity is
dominating. On the other hand, one should use the dielectric constants if capacity is
important. The above equation is suitable for bubbly flow.
For liquid droplet flow through a gas, one gets
( A L Ac G ) (L 2 G )
1
.
( A L 2 Ac G ) (L G )

(9)

4. Types of probes:
Depending on the requirement of measurement probe, different geometries have been
developed. Probes based on resistance or conductance principle generally have the
electrode in direct contact of the conducting phase. They can either be inserted in the
flow cross-section or may be flush mounted on the inside wall of the conduit.
For probing into an area or a volume an arc type, ring type, parallel wire and parallel
plate electrodes are commonly used. Conductivity or resistivity probes can be
designed to probing into a very small area idealized as a point. This is done by a
needle contact probe. With the help of traversing mechanism it can give the void age
profile. Increasing the number of the needle contacts (2 to 4) determination of the
bubble size and bubble velocity is possible. Capacitance probes on the other hand are
mounted on the outer surface of the conduit and have limited options as far an as
geometry in concerned. They are made of arc and spiral shape.
5. Challenges in the impedance based measurement
i) Estimation of void fraction: As the probes operate neither purely in the
capacitance mode nor in the resistance mode theoretical modeling becomes difficult.

ii) Fringing effect: This results in three-dimensional effects in area probes and
induces error. In conductivity probes and induces error. In conductivity probes this
can be reduced by guard electrodes. The size of the capacitance probes needs to be
determined to reduce the fringing effect.
iii) Stray capacitance effect: As the change of capacitance due to the change of phase
fraction is less the circuit has to be designed properly to reduce the stray capacitance
effect.
iv) Property variation: The change of conductivity and dielectric constants due to
impurity, temperature change is also another concern.
v) Double layer effect: This is one of the least understood phenomena, which plays a
very important role in the performance of the impedance probe. With the existing
information it is extremely difficult to model the effect of double layer. However by
suitable design of the probe and adoption of experimental technique this effect can be
reduced. In the full-length paper it will be discussed in detail.

Ultrasonic Assessment of the Effect of Variations of Different

Process Parameters in Blowing of Industrial Rubbers
D. Datta
Mechanical Engineering Department Bengal Engineering College
(Deemed Univ.), Howrah 711103, West Bengal
Ultrasonic non-destructive evaluation techniques are widely used for flaw detection
purposes. With modifications, the techniques can also be used to characterize different
physical and chemical processes. One such recent example is the ultrasonic
monitoring and characterization of the blowing process of industrial rubbers in which
the monitoring, done in real time, is more effective than the existing techniques
employing rheometers and gas- capturing-processibility-testers. Blowing in rubber is
the process of dissolution of the constituent chemical agents causing formation of
numerous bubbles. The presence of numerous bubbles in blown rubbers leads to the
cellular structure of the product and these materials, having comparatively lower
stiffness, are suitably used as surface layer of the printing rolls and in other weather
stripping applications. A computer controlled ultrasonic NDE facility has been
devised to perform ultrasonic measurements on a blowing sample. Definite ultrasonic
signatures in the form of signal amplitude and time-of-flight variations are found to
exist in detection of blowing.
The bubble formation process is, however, complex and may be affected by several
factors. Important factors include (i) the temperature at which the rubber is heated, (ii)
types and properties of the chemicals being used as blowing agents and (iii) the extent
of the natural cure present in the rubber. In the present case studies, effects of the first
two factors on ultrasonic signatures are taken into consideration. The heating
temperature seems to have a direct effect on the rapidity of the blowing process and
such effects can be suitably studied by the observing changes in the said ultrasonic
signatures. Three different temperatures namely 160C, 180C and 200C haven been
used for the study. Ultrasonic signal amplitudes and time-of-flight at discrete time
intervals are recorded during measurement and their variation signatures are
considered for possible correlation with the blowing process. Observations are
compared with the respective photomicrograph of the cross-sections of the blown
sample.
Rapidity of blowing also depends on the composition of chemical agents. Such a case
study has also been performed on rubber samples with three different blowing agents
and ultrasonic signatures have been found to be adequately sensitive to the
corresponding rate of blowing.

X-Ray Computed Tomography for Solid Objects

A.K. Jena, N.K. Das, Saji Jacob George, B. Venkataraman,
K. Kasiviswanathan, T. Jayakumar, P. Kalayanasundaram and Baldev Raj
Division for PIE and NDT Development
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam-603 102
Email: jena@igcar.ernet.in
Computed Tomography (CT) has proved to be one of the powerful tools for internal
structure visualization in Non-Destructive evaluation of objects in industrial and
scientific applications. Tomography is an imaging technique, which produces cross
sectional details of an object from its line integrals of projections. The design of the
CT machine for industrial and scientific applications is more complex than medical
systems since, it has to accommodate large variations in density and achieve finer
resolution. The tomography system at the authors laboratory consists of an X-ray
source, manipulator for object handling and a image intensifier based real time
system. The X-ray unit is Eresco 200 MF with a voltage range of 20-200 kV and a
maximum tube current of 10 mA. A 9 inch trifield image intensifier has been used.
This tube with CsI screen has a typical resolution of 45 lp/cm in normal mode and 65
lp/cm in the magnification 2 modes. The critical part of the tomography system is the
source, detector and object-handling units. Both the X-tray tube and the detector are
mounted on a C arm so that alignment of the source and detector becomes relatively
simple. The object is held in a precision manipulator designed and developed
indigenously. This is a four-axis manipulator capable of handling objects with a
maximum weight of 25 kg. The span in the x, y and z directions are 30, 25 and 15 cm
with step resolution of 10 micron and the resolution in is 0.001 degree. The
manipulator is controlled by PC card. Data acquisition is accomplished using an 8bit
frame grabber card and the data are captured and analyzed using a PC. As a first step,
objects with regular shapes and standard artificial defects were designed and
evaluated to standardize on the methodology, software and also establish the limits of
detectability and contrast sensitivity. The objects were:
(1) 25 mm Aluminum cylinder,
(2) 25 mm Aluminum cylinder with 3 mm central hole,
(3) 25 mm Aluminum cylinder with 3 mm central hole filled with Steel &
(4) 25 mm Aluminum cylinder with 3 mm central, 3 mm off central and 4 mm
off central holes.
400 projections in 360 degree were acquired. The reconstruction of the images has
been done using Filtered Convolution Back Projection technique. The correction for
polychromacity of the beam has been done using beam hardening technique. The
details of data acquisition and reconstruction are discussed. The density matrices of
the images obtained are close to actual object.The size of the object and the holes are
predicted with an accuracy of about 8 %. The systematic approaches to be followed,
the important points to be considered and the difficulties that may arise during the
setting up of a optimum and reliable industrial CT setup for NDE applications would
be specifically highlighted from the experience of the authors.
Further, a setup for microtomography using cooled CCD and microfocus X-ray source
is under progress. The arrangement for the same will also be discussed.

Steady-state Multi-phase Flow Measurement Facility at FCRI

M. Suresh, R.V. Rajesh, M. Viswanathan, M.S. Konnur
Fluid Control Research Institute (FCRI), Palghat-678 623
Multi-phase flow, gas-liquid two-phase flow in particular, is of critical importance to
industries in Oil and gas sector and Nuclear power plants. Measurement of multiphase flow is not easy and the methods currently in use are particularly not very
accurate. Uncertainties of unacceptably high order have been reported when
conventional single-phase flow meters such as turbine-meters, mass flow meters are
attempted for multi-phase flows. Extreme variations in viscosity, density and velocity
between the phases occur not only across the pipe but also temporarily along the pipe.
Much care has to be taken for properties of the different fluids when metering multiphase fluids. The past three decades have witnessed considerable progress in
development of technologies for measurement of phase-fraction and two-phase and
three-phase flow measurement
As part of a BRNS-sponsored project, FCRI designed and developed a multi-phase
flow-meter using gamma-ray attenuation technique in conjunction with Venturi-meter.
A Test Facility to evaluate performance of the developed multi-phase flow meter was
also set-up at FCRI. This paper describes the multi-phase hydraulic test facility and
the performance / behaviour of the multi-phase flow meter under various test flowregimes.

10

Bone Imaging using Compound Ultrasonic Tomography

P. Lasaygues1, P. Laugier2
1
Laboratoire de Mcanique et d'Acoustique UPR CNRS 7051,
Marseille, France
2
Laboratoire d'Imagerie Paramtrique UMR CNRS 7623, Paris, France
The goal of Ultrasonic Tomography is to reconstruct the spatial distribution of some
acoustic parameter of an object using ultrasonic measurements. The measurements are
made for a set of emitter-receiver positions and of frequencies of the interrogating
wave. The method is based on a linear approximation of the inverse scattering
problem, the Inverse Born Approximation (IBA), which allows to reconstruct small
perturbations from a known-reference medium.
For media with weak inhomogeneities, such as soft biological tissues (weak
scatterers), the method works straightforward. This leads to a "Constant Background"
IBA method, whose practical solution results in regular angular scanning with broadband pulses, allowing to cover slice-by-slice the spatial frequency spectrum of the
imaged object. This leads to "Reconstruction-From-Projections" algorithms like those
used for X-ray Computed Tomography.
For media with strong heterogeneities as bone (strong contrasts, large objects with
respect to wavelength), the problem is non-linear and there is in general no single
solution. In this case, ultrasound tomography suffers from an important limitation due
to strong wavefronts distortion (refraction, attenuation) resulting in a poor quality of
tomographic images.
One solution is to compensate for refraction based on an exact a priori knowledge of
the geometry and of the speed of sound of the object and on the assumption that the
Snell's law is valid for each single ray. The exact shape and size of the test object can
be reconstructed from initial measurements performed using Ultrasonic Reflection
Tomography. Ultrasonic Transmission Tomography, using compensation procedure,
provides then quantitative values of the sound velocity. In case of inaccurate a priori
object size and sound velocity, the algorithm becomes an iterative process, which
converges quickly towards the solution.
Preliminary experimental results on human femur demonstrate the feasibility of
quantitative images using Compound Ultrasonic Tomography.

11

Challenges in Quantitative Ultrasound Bone Strength

Assessment : Status and Perspectives
P. Laugier
Laboratoire d'Imagerie Paramtrique UMR CNRS 7623, Paris, France
Because ultrasonic waves involve compressional or shear stress, the propagation
characteristics of ultrasonic wave through bone are closely related to its mechanical
properties (elastic constant) as well as to any other bone characteristics, such as bone
mineral density, micro-architecture or micro-damages relating to mechanical
properties. Quantitative ultrasound (QUS) measurements is playing a growing role in
the assessment of skeletal status. Currently available technologies are based on
measurements in transmission of the slope of the frequency-dependent attenuation and
the speed of sound at peripheral skeletal sites (finger phalanges, heel, wrist). In this
contribution, we will review the current state of development and we will outline a
few promising developments.
Several investigations are currently being conducted to develop innovative QUS
techniques, such as transmission imaging technology, reflection techniques based on
backscatter, propagation of guided waves along cortical bone and ultrasound
tomography. The feasibility of these different approaches and / or their clinical
evaluation is currently being studied in different groups.
In contrast to X-ray based computed tomography which is a well-established
technique in osteoporosis diagnostics, quantitative ultrasound tomography is still in its
infancy and raises new challenges. In particular, an accurate interpretation of
ultrasound measurement requires first a detailed understanding of ultrasound
propagation with clear identification of the different waves and their exact
propagation path that contribute to analyzed signals. In other words, this requires
solving the direct problem. Analytic solutions become rapidly inextricable due to the
complexity of the medium. The situation is progressively being changed, with recent
development of numerical tools based on finite difference modeling that permits to
accurately model the propagation of ultrasound wave in 3D anisotropic models of
bone. Numerical simulations can be performed on actual bone geometry, as measured
from 3-D X-rays computerized tomography (CT) for instance, combined with local
effective elastic constants. Such computations have recently been able to elucidate the
propagation of ultrasound in cortical bone. Another powerful advantage of these
simulation tools is their potential to explore virtually different experimental
configurations to measure bone properties (i.e., tomography) and therefore to guide
engineers to design novel techniques for in vivo bone strength assessment.

12

Computerized Tomography in Blast Furnace

S.K. Mandal
Engineering Division, National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur
831 007, Jharkhand
Many experimental studies have been carried out to study the workings of packed bed
Reactors such as Blast Furnace, Catalytic Reformer and Solid drying Process using
various two/three dimensional models. Blast Furnace is the most complex and typical
among them. However, no experimental data are available in the literature on the
estimation of permeability distribution in a packed bed, which is very essential and
important to understand the dynamics of the packed bed reactors.
The focus of this topic is to reconstruct three-dimensional image from two
dimensional image slices obtained from X-Ray Radiography System. This will help
us in the estimation of permeability distribution in a packed bed
The systems involving X-Ray, Gamma Ray, Ultrasonic, Eddy Current etc. are
principally used in Non-Destructive Testing. Most of the methods used in those
systems can be combined into the mathematical techniques of Computerized
Tomography (CT). The mathematical techniques used are based on Convolution Back
Projection Algorithm (CBP).

13

Electrical Tomography for Two-Phase Flows:

Seeing without eyes inside stirred vessels
R. Mann
Chemical Engineering, UMIST, Manchester, M60 1QD, UK
r.mann@umist.ac.uk
Body scanning exploiting 3-D imaging has revolutionised diagnostics and treatment
in medicine. Process engineers would like to be able to image chemical process units
in 3-D, but without the multi-million price tag. UMIST has pioneered several
electrical process tomography techniques and used them for a variety of applications.
Illustrations are presented to show how electrical resistance tomography has been
developed for typical stirred vessels widely used in chemical process manufacturing
especially as chemical reactors. The technique is potentially fast and inexpensive and
capable of 3-D imaging both dynamic and pseudo-stationary processes. Examples for
UMISTs 2-tonne vessel will be presented for miscible tracer mixing as well as gasliquid and liquid-solid mixing.
A list of recent references by the author is attached.
References
R. Mann with M. Wang, F. J. Dickin, T. Dyakowski, P. J. Holden and A. E. Forrest,
"Resistance Tomography Imaging of Stirred Vessel Mixing at Plant Scale", I. Chem.
E., Symp. Series, 140, 155, 1996
R. Mann with F.J. Dickin, M. Wang, T. Dyakowski and R.A. Williams, "Application
of Electrical Resistance Tomography to Interrogate Mixing Processes at Plant Scale",
Chem. Eng. Sci., 52, 2087, 1997
R. Mann with R.A. Williams, T. Dyakowski, F.J. Dickin and R.B. Edwards,
"Development of Mixing Models using Electrical Resistance Tomography", Chem.
Eng. Sci., 52, 2073, 1997
R. Mann with M. Wang "Recent Developments in Electrical Techniques for Chemical
Process Tomography", Meas. and Control, 30, 206, 1997
R. Mann with P.J. Holden, M. Wang, F.J. Dickin and R.B. Edwards, "Imaging Stirred
Vessel Macro-Mixing using Electrical Resistance Tomography, AIChE Jl., 44, 780,
1998
R. Mann with P.J. Holden, M. Wang, F.J. Dickin and R.B. Edwards, "On Detecting
Mixing Pathologies Inside a Stirred Vessel Using Electrical Resistance Tomography",
Trans. I.Chem.E 77 (A), 709, 1999
R. Mann with P.A.T Pinheiro, W.W. Loh, M. Wang and R.C. Waterfall, "ThreeDimensional Electrical Resistance Tomography in a Stirred Mixing Vessel", Chem.
Eng. Comm., 175, 25, 1999

14

R. Mann with M. Wang and F.J. Dickin "Electrical Resistance Tomography Sensing
Systems for Industrial Applications", Chem. Eng. Commun.,
175, 49, 1999
R. Mann with M. Wang, A.E. Forrest, P.J. Holden, F.J. Dickin, T. Dyakowski and R.B.
Edwards, "Gas-Liquid and Miscible Liquid Mixing in a Plant-Scale Vessel Monitored
Using Electrical Resistance Tomography, Chem. Eng. Commun., 175, 39, 1999
R. Mann with D.S. Vlaev, M. Wang, T. Dyakowski and B.D. Grieve, "Detecting FilterCake Pathologies in Solid-Liquid Filtration: Semi-Tech Scale Demonstrations using
Electrical Resistance Tomography (ERT)", Chem.Eng.Jl, 77, 87, 2000
R. Mann with M. Wang, A. Dorward and D.S. Vlaev, "Measurements of Gas-Liquid
Mixing in a Stirred Vessel using Electrical Resistance Tomography", Chem.Eng.Jl.,
77, 93, 2000
R. Mann with T. Dyakowski, M. Mikos, D.S. Vlaev, G.W. Follows, A. Boxman and
M.P.W. Wilson, "Imaging Nylon Polymerisation Processes by Applying Electrical
Tomography", Chem.Eng.Jl., 77, 105, 2000
R. Mann with E. Yuen, S.D. Vlaev, T. Dyakowski, B.D. Grieve and T.A. York,
"Applying Electrical Resistance Tomography (ERT) to Solid-Fluid Filtration", Proc of
8th World Congress on Filtration, 165, 2000
R. Mann with M. Rahimi, M. Buchmann and D. Mewes, "Interpretation of macro- and
micro-mixing measured by dual-wavelength photometric tomography", Proc. 10th
Europ. Conf. on Mixing, Delft, 377, 2000
R. Mann with S. Stanley D. Vlaev, E. Wabo and K. Primrose, Augmented-reality
visualisation of fluid mixing in stirred chemical reactors using electrical resistance
tomography (ERT), Jl Electronic Imaging, 10(3), 620, 2001
R. Mann with K. Salem and K. Kling, Application of Electrical Resistance
Tomography (ERT) to Monitor a Flow-Follower in a Stirred Vessel Proc. 2 nd World
Congress on Industrial Process Tomography, Hannover, 159, 2001
R. Mann, with S.J. Stanley, E. Wabo and K. Primrose, Dual-Validation of Miscible
Liquid Mixing in a Stirred Vessel Imaged by Electrical Resistance Tomography
(ERT), Proc. 2nd World Congress on Industrial Process Tomography, Hannover, 151,
2001
R. Mann with E.L. Yuen, T.A. York and B.D. Grieve, Electrical Resistance
Tomography (ERT) Imaging of a Metal-Walled Solid-Liquid Filter, Proc. 2 nd World
Congress on Industrial Process Tomography, Hannover, 183, 2001
R. Mann with S.J. Stanley and K. Primrose, Tomographic imaging of fluid mixing in
3-D for single-feed semi-batch operations of a Stirred Vessel, Trans.I.Chem.E., 80(A),
903, 2002

15

Digital Radiography: Imaging and Visualization for Industrial

Applications
D. Mishra, V. Manoharan, N. Gopalika, S. George & G. Mohr*
Industrial Imaging and Modeling Laboratory, John F. Welch Technology
Center, Bangalore, India
*
GE Inspection Technologies, One Neumann Way MD K207, Cincinnati,
OH 45215
Digital radiography (DR) technique is rapidly expanding in industrial and medical
applications due to the benefit of cost and productivity it offers in comparison to the
traditional film-based radiography. Availability of instant high quality digital
radiographic images helps in quick inspection, transmission over network, archiving
information in minimal space and the availability of sophisticated image processing
algorithms for analyzing the data. Digital radiography along with micro-focal x-ray
tube can easily outperform the film-based radiography for several applications.
Digital radiography has already established its superior performance by higher
dynamic range, better Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE) and contrast resolution.
In addition to its performance the advent of digital radiography technology is
promising to create a radiation safe atmosphere since required contrast resolution can
be achieved through lower radiation dose. This is a major advantage for medical
applications.
The technology of the digital detectors and their performance for industrial
radiographic inspection will be discussed with examples. Since the traditional image
quality metrics are not sufficient to study the performance of digital detectors, we
need a metric, which can completely characterize the digital systems. Characteristics
such as Limiting spatial resolution (LSR) and Modular Transfer Function (MTF) can
no longer be considered as complete image quality metric for x-ray systems
inspection ability. The use of DQE, which is a measure of the combined effect of
noise and contrast performance of an imaging system, is a more accurate metric to
quantify the performance. DQE comparisons for film and digital detectors will be
presented. Some image processing tools that have been developed to analyze the
digital radiographs and visualization of CT data will also be discussed.

16

Convection in Differentially Heated Air-water Layers and its

Reconstruction using Radial Tomography in a Circular Cavity
S.Punjabi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ujjain Engineering College
Ujjain 456 010 India
Buoyancy-driven convection in a differentially heated gas-liquid layer that is confined
in a cavity has been experimentally studied. The gas phase is air, while water has been
employed as the liquid medium. The apparatus is octagonal in plan that closely
approximates a circular cavity. It has a nominal diameter of 130.6 mm and a height of
50 mm. The fluid layer thicknesses have been kept equal at 25 mm in the present
study. The lower surface of the cavity is at a higher temperature compared to the top
surface. Thus the temperature difference applied in the vertical direction is
destabilizing, leading to convection patterns in the fluid phases. The flow and thermal
fields in the cavity have been imaged using a Mach-Zehnder interferometer. The flow
field in the circular cavity has been scanned through four different view angles
namely 0, 45, 90, and 135o for generating the projection data. The projection data was
utilized in reconstructing the three-dimensional temperature field using radial
tomographic algorithm.
Important applications of flow and heat transfer in superposed fluid layers can be
found in buoyancy-driven convection in stratified water bodies such as a solar pond,
encapsulated crystal growth from its melt and growth of optical crystals from the
aqueous solution. The data from large aspect ratio experiments can be applied to study
earth's mantle convection. Recent literature on the subject can be found in the
references and has been extensively discussed by Punjabi (2002).
The objectives of the present work are to examine the axisymmetry of the thermal
field, three dimensionality and unsteadiness in the convection patterns in the
respective fluid layers. The movement of interface with respect to time at higher
Rayleigh numbers has also been addressed.
For the temperature field measurement in the fluid medium, the primary instrument
employed in the present work is the Mach-Zehnder interferometer. It employs a 35
mW He-Ne (Spectra Physics) laser with 150 mm diameter optics. Interferograms have
been recorded using a Pulnix CCD camera with a 512 512 pixel resolution. The
camera is interfaced with an IBM-compatible PC through an 8-bit A/D card, which
digitizes light intensity levels over the range of 0-255. For measurements in liquids, a
reference chamber is required to be included with the interferometer to compensate
for refractive changes under isothermal conditions. Temperatures at various points
over the solid surfaces of the cavity as well as the ambient temperature have been
monitored by 18 gage K-type thermocouples that are connected to a San-Ei 30
channel recorder.
The experiments have been performed in the infinite fringe setting of the
interferometer. The alignment of the interferometer in the infinite fringe setting is
required to be carried out individually for the fluid phases to capture the
interferograms. For this purpose, the reference chamber, as in the test cell is also filled

17

with fluid layers of equal thickness. The reference chamber is however thermally
inactive. When a thermal disturbance is introduced in the path of the test beam,
fringes appear in the field-of-view. The fringes represent contours on which the path
integral of the temperature field along the direction of the light beam is a constant.
Results on two-layer convection in the cavity containing air-water layers are presented
in the following discussion. The heights of fluid layers in the experiments were
maintained equal at 25 mm. Experiments were conducted with four temperature
differences namely 6.5, 8.5, 13, and 18 K in a thermally destabilizing configuration.
View angles of 0, 45, 90, and 135o have been considered. The experimental data has
been interpreted to understand the influence of increasing Rayleigh number on
transition to three dimensionality and unsteadiness.
For the temperature difference of 6.5 K across the cavity, the individual Rayleigh
numbers on the air and waterside can be calculated to be 9,530 and 48,474
respectively. The fringe patterns at different view angles appeared similar in terms of
orientation, number of fringes and the fringe spacing. Owing to similarity of fringe
patterns obtained with respect to the view angle, the thermal field is expected to be
axisymmetric. With an increase in the temperature difference to 8.5 K, the thermal
field in the cavity was found to be two dimensional in air and three dimensional in
water.
The transient evolution patterns at 0o and 90o view angles for the temperature
difference of 13 K has been studied. The corresponding Rayleigh numbers in air and
water are 18,870 and 1.16E+05 respectively. The flow field in the cavity was found to
reach a dynamic steady state after around 2.5 hours.
Tomograhic reconstruction shows the loss of symmetry in the thermal field, in
particular in water at higher Rayleigh numbers. The reconstruction also shows a
plume structure near the axis of the cavity.
REFERENCES
(1) Zeren, R.W., and Reynolds, W.C., 1972, Thermal instabilities in two-fluid
horizontal layers, J. Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 53, No. 2, pp. 305-327.
(2) Andereck, D.C., Colovas, M.M., and Peter, W.D., 1996, Observation of timedependent behaviour in the two-layer Rayleigh-Benard system, Proceedings of the
third Microgravity Fluid Physics Conference, pp. 313-318.
(3) Prakash, A., and Koster, J.N., 1997, Steady natural convection in a Two-Layer
system of Immiscible liquids, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 40, No. 12, pp.
2799-2812.
(4) Johnson, D., Narayanan, R., and Dauby, P.C., 1999, The effect of air height on
the pattern formation in liquid-air bilayer convection, Fluid Dynamics at Interfaces,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 15-30.
(5) Mishra, D., Muralidhar, K., and Munshi, P., 1999, Interferometric study of
Rayleigh-Benard convection at intermediate Rayleigh numbers, Fluid Dynamics
Research, Vol. 25, No. 5, pp 231-255.
(6) Gebhart B., Jaluria Y., Mahajan R.L., and Sammakia B., 1988, Buoyancy-Induced
Flows and Transport, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York.

18

(7) Herman, G. T., 1980, Image Reconstruction from projections, Academic Press,
New York
(8) Munshi, P.,1997, Application of Computerized Tomography for measurements in
Heat and Mass Transfer, Proceedings of the 3 rd ISHMT/ASME HMT conference, IIT
Kanpur.
(9) Punjabi, Sunil, 2002, Experimental study of convection in differentially heated
fluid layers using laser interferometry, Ph.D thesis, IIT Kanpur, India.

Tomography in Fusion Plasma Research

19

C.V.S. Rao
X-ray Diagnostics Group, Institute for Plasma Research, Bhat,
Gandhinagar 382 428
Tomography has demonstrated its usefulness to diagnose fusion plasmas. Its noninvasive character has made it attractive in plasma physics. It is essentially a
technique to recover the three dimensional distribution from the measured line
integral projections through a mathematical integral transform like Abel transform.
Many plasma diagnostics are made capable of measuring line integrals of plasma
parameters for tomographic purpose. Some commonly used techniques are
Microwave interferometer, Faraday rotation, electron cyclotron emission, visible,
ultraviolet, and x-ray emission etc. These diagnostics are used to study plasma
properties, like equilibrium, stability, plasma-wall interaction and impurity content,
MHD phenomenology, particle and energy transport and turbulence in the plasma
core. In fact, tomography has revolutionized the field of plasma diagnostics and has
lots of promise for the future fusion experiments.

Tomographic Reconstructive Techniques for Void-fraction

distribution in Heavy Density Liquid Metal Two-phase Flows

20

P. Satyamurthy and N. S. Dixit

Laser & Plasma Technology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre,
Mumbai, India-400085
P. Munshi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,
Kanpur, India-208016
Heavy-density molten liquid metals lead, Lead-Bismuth-Eutectic (LBE) and mercury
have been proposed as spallation target for neutron source with gas driven circulation
of these targets. To design these systems, it is required to understand two-phase highdensity flows under various regimes and develop suitable CFD codes, which are
validated with experimental data. The two-phase flow regimes (bubbly, Churn, Slug)
are governed by void fraction distribution and the accurate determination of void
fraction in these systems is complicated in view of high-density, opacity.
A 6.5 m high mercury facility has been set up in our institute to study two-phase
nitrogen and mercury flows at ambient temperature. The flow is upward and cocurrent. The loop consists of mixer, riser, separator, downcomer, MHD flow meter
and an MHD generator, dump tank etc. The flow circulation is achieved by creating
two-phase flow in the riser. The flow regime obtained in the facility (bubbly and
Churn) is similar to the flows expected in the gas-driven spallation targets. A
maximum of 60 kg/s mercury flow rate has been achieved.
We have also developed an non-intrusive 7-beam (Fan beam) and a parallel beam void
fraction measurement systems based on high-energy gamma rays (Co60 of 100 mCi
source) for these flows. The attenuation of these gamma rays, which are passed across
the cross section of the flow area are measured under three conditions: when the pipe
is filled with mercury, when filled with nitrogen and when there is a two-phase flow
present. The data is collected at different orientations by rotating and parallel
displacement of the source and detectors.
We have studied in detail many variants of ART (Algebraic Reconstruction
Technique) and MART (Multiplicative Algebraic Reconstruction Techniques)
algorithms for reconstruction of void fraction distribution. All these algorithms were
tested by comparing with predicted values of simulated void fraction distribution. In
general MART algorithms were better suited than ART for void fraction
reconstruction for heavy density two-phase liquid metal flows.
In this talk, details of the experimental loop, void fraction measurement system and
various ART and MART tomographic algorithms used will be presented along with
measured void fraction profiles for a typical flow.

3D Tomography using Neutrons and x-rays

21

Amar Sinha, P.S. Sarkar, B.K. Godwal

High Pressure Physics Division, Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre,Trombay, Mumbai -400 085 ( email:
image@magnum.barc.ernet.in)
3D Visualization of the interior of an object has been one of the important goals of
NDT. It can be used for examination of defects and cracks in their full three
dimensional perspective and for reverse engineering applications. Such a goal of 3D
visualization can be realized using tomography techniques. Both neutron and x-rays
have been used for such a purpose each with its own unique properties and area of
application. However, most of the applications on neutron and x-ray tomography have
been developed to provide only 2D cross-sectional image of the object. Extending
such 2D tomography technique to 3D tomography has its own problems and
limitations. One of the methods used in such 3D visualization involves obtaining
several two dimensional tomography scans at different positions of object and then
combining these images into a three dimensional volume data. Volume rendering or
surfaces rendering techniques are then used for visualization of such volume data.
While the other method involves direct 3D reconstruction using cone beam geometry.
We have developed both types of approaches one for neutron while the other for xrays. This paper will review some of our work on 3D neutron tomography using the
first approach of 3D tomography using stacks of multiple 2D scans and then using
volume and surface rendering technique to visualize such data. This technique has
been extensively used at APSARA reactor at Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre(BARC), Mumbai for various applications.
For X-rays, we have developed a cone beam tomography setup at BARC, which has
also been used extensively for various applications. We discuss on the tools and
techniques used for this work and its applications in tomography of large volume
objects and in micro-tomography. We also describe new trends in tomography using
synchrotrons and our efforts to design phase sensitive synchrotron beamline for phase
contrast tomography and microtomography.

22

Development of Computer Aided Tomography Systems in

DRDL
S. Vathsal, Sc F
DRDL, Hyderabad
Computer Aided Tomography (CAT) development is multi disciplinary in nature
involving x-ray technology, scintillation detector array, a CNC based manipulator to
translate and rotate objects and a software reconstruction algorithm for image
reconstruction, tomograms are slices of cross-section of objects and a 3D visualization
is possible making use of multiple slices and 3D rending software. For a fixed focal
geometry, one encounters fan beams emanating from one point of source of variable
focal spot sizes. If the object is placed in half power point between source and
detector, good cross sectional images can be generated. In DRDL the major goals of
CAT is to build a system from which large objects like 1000mm dia and 2T weight
can be scanned. This is based on a six axes manipulator. In order to carry out research
and development, an experimental system which can handle objects of 300 mm dia
and 200 kg weight has also been built. This is based on a 4 axes manipulator. Both the
systems are operational. A 256 channel detector array has been procured and used for
data collection after x-ray passes over the objects. The reconstruction software is
based on convolution back projection (CBP) algorithm, which has been tested and
found to yield good images of cross section. This algorithm can take fan beam data
and if parallel beam data is available by some means they need to be converted to fan
beam data. The CBP algorithm is designed for projection data of monochromatic
source. In practice, the x-rays from standard sources exhibit polychromatic spectrum.
This introduces errors, which need to be corrected. This effect is known as beam
hardening effect. Beam hardening can be corrected by both hardware and software
filters. Hardware filters have been tested using 4 axes system whereas software
algorithm developed by IIT Kanpur is under implementation at DRDL. In order to cut
down the development time, we have involved multiple institutions like IISc, IIT(M),
IIT(K), ANURAG, WIDIA and HMT and the total system realization has been carried
out in DRDL with mostly in-house man power.
In this lecture, the details of the system developed and the experiences gained in
reconstruction of Tomograms, the problem encountered in system integration and
future plans will be covered.

23

Determination of 3-D Concentration Field around a Growing

Crystal Using Laser Shadowgraphic Tomogarphy
S. Verma, K. Muralidhar* and V. K. Wadhawan
Laser Materials Division, Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore 452
013, India
*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology,
Kanpur 208 016, India
Crystal growth from solution is a complex phenomenon involving double diffusive
convection. The temperature and concentration fields affect the growth process in an
intricate manner, particularly the growth rate, surface microstructure and hence the
growth mechanism, and the defect structure of the crystal [1]. In order to study the
relationship between these two fields and the growing crystal, optical technique of
shadow graphy along with the principles of computerised tomography have been used
to visualize the convective plumes rising above the growing crystal and to
reconstruction three dimensional concentration field respectively. Since thermal field
gradients are much weaker as compared to the concentration field gradients driving
the convective process, we have attempted to determine only the concentration maps
above the surface of the growing crystal at varying heights. Eighteen shadowgraph
images are captured equi-spaced at an angular interval of 10 between 0 -180, which
constitute the experimental projection data. The images are converted to refractive
index field (and hence the concentration field) by solving the governing equation of
the shadowgraph process [2]. The resulting two-dimensional refractive index field
constitute the projection data required for tomographic rec`1onstruction. We use both,
the convolution back projection as well as the series expansion methods for
reconstruction [3] for their specific advantages, beginning with the former and
refining our results further using the latter. Since implementation of the CBP
algorithm requires continuous projection data between 0-180, therefore the
experimental data is suitably interpolated to obtain the data missed due to the
experimental constraints. This is followed by an extrapolation procedure to obtain
information of the field parameter from the region lying outside the source-detector
configuration. This result in the complete projection data set required for faithful
tomographic reconstruction. Advantage of using the CBP algorithm is that it is faster
in convergence and provides an intelligent guess for proceeding with the iterative
algorithm. In addition, the CBP technique allows us to study the effects of the datacollection geometry (number of rays per unit area) and the type of filter function [45]. On the other hand, the iterative algorithm when started with the solution of the
CBP technique provides a more accurate value of the field parameter, and takes
relatively shorter time to converge. It also facilitates a crosscheck on the correctness
of the converged solution [6]. During the symposium, comparison of the 3D
concentration field reconstructed using the two algorithms, and the respective merits
and demerits of the two for the process under study will be discussed. The
instrumentation developed for conducting the laser shadowgraphic tomography
experiments will also be presented.

24

References:
[1]. W. R. Wilcox, Transport phenomena in crystal growth from solution, Prog. Cryst.
Growth and Charact., 26 (1993) 153-194.
[2]. Sunil Verma, K. Muralidhar and V. K. Wadhawan, Flow visualization and
modeling of convection during growth of KDP crystals, Proceedings of the 4th Asian
Meeting on Ferroelectric (AMF-4), Dec. 2003, I. I. Sc., Bangalore, India, p. 242.
[3]. G. T. Herman, Image reconstruction from projections: The fundamentals of
computerised tomography, Academic Press, New York, 1980.
[4]. P. Munshi, Error analysis of tomographic filters Part I: Theory, NDT & E
Internat., 25 (1992) 191-194.
[5]. P. Munshi, M. Maisl and H. Reiter, Experimental aspects of the approximate error
formula for tomographic reconstruction, Materials Evaluation, 55(2) (1997) 188-191.
[6]. Debasish Mishra, Experimental study of Rayleigh-Benard convection using
interferometric tomography, Ph.D. Thesis, IIT Kanpur, India, 1998.

25