Tuition Notes for 3.

4U Course
Preface
PREFACE.......................................................................................................................11
THE CERTIFICATION SCHEME FOR WELDMENT INSPECTION PERSONNEL
ORGANISATION AND EXAMINATION.............................................................................11
1. The Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP)............11
1.1.
TWI..........................................................................................................11
1.1.1. Company Profile....................................................................................11
1.1.2. Single Source of Expertise....................................................................11
1.1.3. Non-profit Company..............................................................................11
1.1.4. Global Benefits......................................................................................12
1.1.5. Confidential Consultancy......................................................................12
1.1.6. TWI Certification Ltd............................................................................12
1.1.7. Certification Management Board..........................................................12
1.1.8. Responsibilities of the Board.................................................................13
1.1.9. The Management Committees:..............................................................13
1.1.10. CSWIP Certification for Underwater Inspectors.................................15
1.1.11. Inspector Categories............................................................................15
1.2. The CSWIP 3.4U Examination.....................................................................15
1.2.1. The Theory Examination.......................................................................15
1.2.1.1. The Question Papers:......................................................................15
1.2.2. Practical Examination............................................................................16
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................17
THE OFFSHORE INDUSTRY...........................................................................................17
1. Historical and Financial Background to Oil Production...................................17
1.3. Financial Restraints......................................................................................17
1.4. Profits From Oil............................................................................................17
1.5. Closure Of The Suez Canal..........................................................................18
1.5.1. The Formation of OPEC........................................................................18
1.5.2. Taxation.................................................................................................18
1.6. Cash Flow.....................................................................................................18
1.7. Origins of Oil and Gas..................................................................................19
1.7.1. The Geology Involved...........................................................................19
1.8. Discovering Hydrocarbon Deposits.............................................................20
1.8.1. Drilling..................................................................................................20
1.8.1.1. The Drilling Rig.............................................................................21
1.9. Logging The Well.........................................................................................27
1.10. Casing The Well.........................................................................................27
1.11. Pre-production Drilling...............................................................................28
1.12. Production Drilling.....................................................................................29
1.12.1. Production Platforms...........................................................................29
1.13. Future Trends In Oil Production.................................................................30
CHAPTER 1...................................................................................................................33
ENGINEERING OFFSHORE STRUCTURES.......................................................................33
1. General Background.......................................................................................33
1.1.
Safe To Operate.......................................................................................33
1.14. Government Legislation.............................................................................33
2. Design Specifications..........................................................................................33

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 1 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Table of Contents
2.1. Materials.......................................................................................................33
2.2. Working Life.................................................................................................33
2.3. Loading.........................................................................................................34
2.4. Environment.................................................................................................34
2.5. Maintenance.................................................................................................34
2.6. Weight...........................................................................................................34
2.7. Dimensions...................................................................................................34
3. Construction Activity Monitoring System...........................................................34
4. Guidance On Design And Construction..............................................................34
4.1. United Kingdom...........................................................................................35
4.2. Guidance from the UK Regulations.............................................................35
4.2.1. Specific Guidance..................................................................................36
4.2.2. Environment..........................................................................................36
4.2.3. Steel And Concrete................................................................................36
4.2.3.1. Steel................................................................................................36
4.2.3.2. Concrete Structures........................................................................38
4.2.3.3. Loads..............................................................................................39
4.3. United States of America..............................................................................39
4.3.1. Guidance From The US Regulations.....................................................39
4.3.1.1. Planning..........................................................................................39
4.3.1.2. Structural Steel...............................................................................41
5. Conclusion..........................................................................................................41
6. Pipelines..............................................................................................................41
6.1. Pipeline Laying.............................................................................................41
7. Offshore Oil Terminals........................................................................................43
8. Future Trends......................................................................................................43
8.1. Drilling.........................................................................................................43
8.2. Design Practices...........................................................................................50
CHAPTER 2...................................................................................................................53
OFFSHORE STRUCTURES AND INSTALLATIONS............................................................53
1. Introduction.........................................................................................................53
1.1. Terminology..................................................................................................53
1.1.1. Basic Components Of Steel Platforms..................................................54
1.1.2. Basic Components Of A Concrete Gravity Structure............................61
1.2. Common Concrete Components...................................................................61
2. Terminology With Different Offshore Structures.................................................65
2.1. Jack-up Rigs.................................................................................................65
2.2. A Semi-submersible Rig...............................................................................66
2.3. Drill ship.......................................................................................................68
2.4. Steel Production Platforms...........................................................................68
2.4.1. Brent A Statistics...................................................................................69
2.5. Concrete And Steel Gravity Platforms.........................................................71
2.5.1. Cormorant A Statistics...........................................................................72
2.5.2. Disadvantages of Concrete Structures...................................................73
2.6. Compliant Towers.........................................................................................74
2.7. Tension Leg Floating Platforms...................................................................77
2.8. Floating Production Systems........................................................................79
2.9. Seabed Facilities...........................................................................................80
Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 2 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Preface
2.10. Pipelines.....................................................................................................93
CHAPTER 3.................................................................................................................101
LOADING ON OFFSHORE STRUCTURES ENGINEERING CONCEPTS .............................101
1. General Introduction.....................................................................................101
1.1.
Stress......................................................................................................101
1.2.
Types Of Stress......................................................................................102
2. Properties Of Materials....................................................................................105
2.11. Yield Stress...............................................................................................106
2.12. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)..............................................................106
2.13. Stress Concentration.................................................................................107
2.13.1. Stress Intensity Factor.......................................................................109
3. Crack Stopping Or Blunting..............................................................................111
4. Residual Stresses................................................................................................111
5. Forces On A Structure.......................................................................................111
5.1. The Steady Force On A Structure In A Fluid Flow.....................................111
5.1.1. Drag Coefficient..................................................................................112
5.2. Vibrational Forces On A Structure In A Fluid Flow...................................113
5.3. Wave Loadings...........................................................................................114
5.3.1. Structural Design For Wave Loadings.................................................115
5.3.1.1. Static Loads..................................................................................115
5.3.1.2. Dynamic Loading.........................................................................116
5.4. Structural Response To Wave Loading.......................................................117
CHAPTER 4.................................................................................................................119
DETERIORATION OF OFFSHORE STEEL STRUCTURES.................................................119
1. General Comments............................................................................................119
2. Accidental Damage...........................................................................................119
3. Corrosion...........................................................................................................119
4. Fatigue..............................................................................................................120
5. Wear..................................................................................................................121
6. Embrittlement....................................................................................................122
7. Structural Deterioration...................................................................................123
7.1. Stage One Production Of The Raw Materials.........................................123
7.1.1. Steel.....................................................................................................123
7.2. Stage Two - Fabrication..............................................................................125
7.2.1. Steel Structures Fabrication Defects...................................................125
7.3. Stage Three Installation..............................................................................127
7.4. Stage Four In-Service.................................................................................128
7.4.1. Steel In-Service Defect Categories......................................................128
7.5. In-Service Defect Categories That Affect Both Steel And Concrete..........130
7.5.1. Inter-tidal And Splash Zones...............................................................130
7.5.2. Risers...................................................................................................130
7.5.3. Conductors And Conductor Guide Frames..........................................130
7.5.4. Caissons...............................................................................................130
CHAPTER 5.................................................................................................................133
DETERIORATION OF OFFSHORE CONCRETE STRUCTURES.........................................133
1. General Comments............................................................................................133

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 3 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Table of Contents
2. Structural Deterioration...................................................................................133
2.1. Stage One Production Of The Raw Materials.........................................133
2.1.1. Concrete...............................................................................................133
2.1.1.1. Portland Cement...........................................................................133
2.1.1.2. Mixing..........................................................................................134
2.1.1.2.1. Setting.................................................................................134
2.1.1.2.2. Hardening...........................................................................135
2.1.1.3. The Importance Of Water.............................................................137
2.1.1.4. Concrete........................................................................................137
2.1.1.4.1. Aggregates..........................................................................137
2.1.1.4.2. Water Content.....................................................................138
2.1.1.4.3. Concrete As A Material......................................................138
2.1.2. Reinforced Concrete............................................................................138
2.1.3. Reinforcement Design Philosophy......................................................139
2.1.3.1. Pre-stressing.................................................................................140
2.1.4. Production Problems...........................................................................141
2.2. Stage Two - Fabrication..............................................................................142
2.2.1. Concrete Structure Fabrication Defects...............................................142
2.3. Stage Three Installation..............................................................................142
2.4. Stage Four In-Service.................................................................................143
2.5. In-Service Defect Categories That Affect Concrete Structures..................143
2.5.1. Deterioration Caused By Chemical Attack..........................................143
2.5.1.1. Sulphate Attack.............................................................................143
2.5.1.2. Chlorides.......................................................................................143
2.5.1.3. Carbonation..................................................................................144
2.5.1.4. Reinforcement Corrosion.............................................................145
2.5.1.5. Corrosion Of Built-in Components..............................................147
2.5.1.6. Cracking.......................................................................................147
3. Standard Terminology.......................................................................................148
CHAPTER 6.................................................................................................................153
MARINE GROWTH......................................................................................................153
1. Introduction.......................................................................................................153
3. Types Of Marine Growth...................................................................................154
3.1. Soft Fouling................................................................................................155
3.2. Hard Fouling...............................................................................................160
4. Factors Affecting The Rate Of Marine Growth.................................................162
4.1. Depth..........................................................................................................162
4.2. Temperature................................................................................................163
4.3. Water Current.............................................................................................163
4.4. Salinity........................................................................................................164
4.5. Food Supply...............................................................................................164
4.6. Cathodic Protection....................................................................................164
CHAPTER 7.................................................................................................................167
CORROSION................................................................................................................167
1. Energy Considerations In Corrosion................................................................167
2. The Corrosion Process......................................................................................168
2.1. The Anodic Reaction..................................................................................169
Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 4 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Preface
2.2. The Cathodic Reaction...............................................................................170
2.3. Seawater Corrosion....................................................................................172
2.4. Electrochemical Aspects Of Corrosion......................................................172
3. Electrical Theory...............................................................................................173
CHAPTER 8.................................................................................................................177
TYPES OF CORROSION...............................................................................................177
1. Corrosion Cells.................................................................................................177
1.1. Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell................................................................177
1.1.1. The Electrochemical Force Series.......................................................177
1.1.1.1. Concentration Cell Corrosion.......................................................180
1.1.1.2. Pitting...........................................................................................181
1.1.1.3. Inter-granular Corrosion...............................................................186
1.1.1.4. Grain Boundary Corrosion...........................................................187
1.1.1.5. Stress Corrosion Cracking............................................................188
1.1.1.6. Fretting Corrosion........................................................................189
1.1.1.7. Erosion Corrosion.........................................................................191
1.1.1.8. Corrosion Fatigue.........................................................................193
1.1.1.9. Biological Corrosion....................................................................194
CHAPTER 9.................................................................................................................197
FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION RATES..................................................................197
1. Polarisation And Corrosion Rate......................................................................197
2. Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates...........................................200
2.1. Temperature................................................................................................200
2.2. Water Flow Rate.........................................................................................201
2.3. The pH Value Of The Water.......................................................................202
CHAPTER 10...............................................................................................................206
CORROSION PROTECTION...........................................................................................206
1. Corrosion Protection.........................................................................................206
2. Cathodic Protection..........................................................................................207
2.1. Cathodic Protection: The Sacrificial Anode Method..................................208
2.1.1. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Sacrificial Anode Systems..........212
2.2. Cathodic Protection: Impressed Current Method.......................................212
2.2.1. Practical Considerations For Installing ICCP Systems.......................214
2.2.1.1. Reference Or Control Electrodes..................................................217
3. Using Coatings To Protect The Structure.........................................................218
3.1. Paints..........................................................................................................218
4. Inhibitors (Controlling The Electrolyte)...........................................................220
4.1. Anodic Inhibitors........................................................................................221
4.2. Cathodic Inhibitors.....................................................................................221
4.3. Adsorption Inhibitors..................................................................................222
5. Corrosion Protection By Design.......................................................................222
6. Anodic Protection..............................................................................................222
CHAPTER 11...............................................................................................................225
CORROSION PROTECTION MONITORING....................................................................225
1. Monitoring Corrosion Protection.....................................................................225

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 5 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Table of Contents
1.1. Inspection Requirements............................................................................225
2. Cathode Potential Measurement.......................................................................226
2.1. High Purity Zinc Electrodes (ZRE)............................................................226
2.2. CP Readings Utilising Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) Electrodes.........227
3. Current Density Measurements.........................................................................228
4. Calibration Procedures For Hand-held CP Meters..........................................229
4.1. Necessary Equipment.................................................................................229
4.1.1. Procedure.............................................................................................230
4.1.1.1. Proving The Calomel Cells..........................................................230
4.1.1.2. Calibration Of The Meter.............................................................231
4.1.1.2.1. Calibration Of A Bathycorrometer.....................................231
4.2. Overall Calibration of ROV Deployed CP Meters.....................................232
4.2.1. Calibration Of An ROV Deployed Contact CP Meter.........................232
4.2.2. Calibration Of Ag/AgCl Proximity Probes..........................................233
5. Operating Procedures.......................................................................................234
5.1. Normal Cathode Potential Readings Against Ag/AgCl..............................235
CHAPTER 12...............................................................................................................237
WELDING AND WELDING DEFECTS ...........................................................................237
1. Joining Metal Components...............................................................................237
2. Fabricating Offshore Structures.......................................................................237
2.1.1. Welding Processes...............................................................................237
2.1.1.1. Solid Phase Welding.....................................................................238
2.1.1.2. Thermo-chemical Welding...........................................................239
2.1.1.3. Electric-resistance Welding..........................................................239
2.1.1.4. Unshielded Arc Welding...............................................................239
2.1.1.5. Radiant Energy Welding...............................................................240
2.1.1.6. Flux Shielded Arc Welding...........................................................241
2.1.1.7. Gas Shielded Arc Welding............................................................242
3. Types of Welded Joint........................................................................................244
3.1. The Butt Joint.............................................................................................245
3.2. T Joint......................................................................................................245
3.3. Lap Joint.....................................................................................................245
4. Types of Weld.....................................................................................................247
5. Welding Metallurgy...........................................................................................247
5.1. Further Considerations for Weld Control...................................................249
6. Welding Terms...................................................................................................250
6.1. Plate Preparation Terms..............................................................................250
6.2. Terms Defining Weld Features...................................................................251
6.2.1. Welding Process Terminology.............................................................252
6.3. Welded Nodes and Nozzles........................................................................253
7. Weld Defect Terminology..................................................................................254
7.1. Cracks.........................................................................................................255
7.2. Cavities.......................................................................................................256
7.3. Solid Inclusions..........................................................................................257
7.4. Lack of Fusion and Penetration..................................................................258
7.5. Imperfect Shape..........................................................................................259
7.6. Miscellaneous.............................................................................................260
8. Defect Categories and Reporting......................................................................261
Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 6 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Preface
8.1. Reporting Defects in Welds........................................................................262
8.2. Dimensional Checking Weld Parameters...................................................262
8.2.1. The Welding Institute Measuring Gauge.............................................262
8.2.2. Welding Institute Leg Length Gauge...................................................263
CHAPTER 13...............................................................................................................265
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION...........................................................................................265
1. Ultrasonic Inspection........................................................................................265
2. Producing Ultrasound.......................................................................................265
2.1. What Is Ultrasonic?....................................................................................265
2.2. Frequency of the Wave...............................................................................267
2.3. Speed of the Wave......................................................................................269
2.4. Types of Ultrasonic Wave...........................................................................269
2.4.1. Waves That Propagate Through Solids................................................269
2.4.1.1. Longitudinal or Compression Waves...........................................269
2.4.1.2. Shear or Transverse Waves...........................................................270
2.4.2. Surface Waves.....................................................................................271
3. Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves.............................................................................272
4. Ultrasonic Wavelength......................................................................................274
5. Further Effects of Ultrasonic Properties in Materials......................................276
5.1. Acoustic Impedance (Z)..............................................................................276
5.2. Pressure or Stress Magnitude (p)................................................................276
5.2.1. Acoustic Attenuation...........................................................................276
5.3. The Decibel System....................................................................................276
5.4. The Direction of Propagation of an Ultrasonic Wave................................279
5.4.1. Law of Reflection................................................................................279
5.4.2. Law of Refraction................................................................................280
5.4.2.1. The Reflected Compression Wave in the Perspex........................284
5.4.2.2. Refracted Compression Wave in the Steel...................................285
5.4.2.3. The Refracted Shear Wave in the Steel........................................285
5.4.2.4. First and Second Critical Angles..................................................286
6. Test Frequency..................................................................................................286
7. Ultrasonic Transducers.....................................................................................286
7.1. Types of Transducers (Probes)...................................................................288
7.1.1. Single Crystal Probes..........................................................................288
7.1.2. Twin Crystal Probes.............................................................................289
7.1.3. Compression or Zero Degree Probes...................................................289
7.1.4. Angle Probes........................................................................................289
8. Couplant............................................................................................................290
9. The Ultrasonic Beam........................................................................................290
9.1. The Dead Zone...........................................................................................290
9.2. The Near Zone............................................................................................291
9.3. The Far Zone..............................................................................................291
10. Principles of Ultrasonic Testing......................................................................292
11. Ultrasonic Test Systems...................................................................................294
11.1. The Flaw Detector....................................................................................295
11.2. A-scan Flaw Detector Controls.................................................................296
11.2.1. A-scan Display...................................................................................297
12. A-scan Calibration and Thickness Measurement............................................298
Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 7 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Table of Contents
12.1. Calibration and Reference Blocks............................................................299
12.1.1. Reference Block................................................................................299
12.1.2. Calibration Block...............................................................................299
12.2. Pre-calibration Checks..............................................................................300
12.2.1. CRT Display......................................................................................300
12.2.2. Time Base Linearity..........................................................................300
12.2.3. Linearity of Amplification.................................................................300
12.3. Calibration Procedure for 100 mm Thickness..........................................301
12.3.1. Setting Sensitivity..............................................................................301
12.3.2. Setting Resolution.............................................................................302
13. The 6 dB Drop Method For Plotting Laminations..........................................302
13.1. The 6 dB Drop Method Explained...........................................................303
14. The Use of Angle or Shear Wave Probes.........................................................304
14.1. Lamination Plotting..................................................................................304
15. Digital Thickness Meters................................................................................305
15.1. Procedure for Taking Digital Thickness Readings...................................306
15.1.1.1. Converting Underwater DTM Readings....................................306
15.2. Accuracy of the Readings Obtained With a DTM....................................308
16. Care and Maintenance of Equipment..............................................................310
CHAPTER 14...............................................................................................................313
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION.............................................................................313
1. History of Magnetism........................................................................................313
2. Types of Magnetism...........................................................................................313
3. Theory of Magnetism........................................................................................314
3.1. Polarity.......................................................................................................315
3.2. Magnetic Field............................................................................................316
4. Flux Density (B)................................................................................................319
4.1. Remanence or Residual Magnetism...........................................................323
4.2. Retentivity..................................................................................................324
4.3. Permeability ()..........................................................................................324
4.4. Coercive Force............................................................................................324
4.5. Reluctance..................................................................................................324
4.6. Demagnetising............................................................................................325
4.6.1. Measuring the Residual Field..............................................................325
4.7. AC Aperture Coil........................................................................................327
4.8. Reversing DC Aperture Coil......................................................................328
4.9. AC Electromagnets.....................................................................................328
4.10. Other Methods to Demagnetise................................................................329
5. Producing Magnetic Fields...............................................................................329
5.1. Magnetisation.............................................................................................329
5.1.1. Use of Permanent Magnets..................................................................329
5.1.2. Strength Required for MPI Permanent Magnets.................................330
5.1.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Permanent Magnets......................331
5.1.3.1. Advantages...................................................................................331
5.1.3.2. Disadvantages...............................................................................331
5.2. Electromagnet (or Yoke)..........................................................................332
5.2.1. Strength Required for MPI Electromagnets........................................332
5.2.2. Advantages..........................................................................................332
Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 8 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Preface
5.2.3. Disadvantages......................................................................................333
5.3. Passing an Electric Current Directly Through the Work Piece..................333
5.3.1. Alternating Current..............................................................................334
5.3.2. Advantages..........................................................................................336
5.3.3. Disadvantages......................................................................................336
5.4. Induced Magnetism Using a Coil...............................................................336
5.4.1. Evenly Spaced Coil.............................................................................337
5.4.2. Close Wrapped Coil.............................................................................338
5.4.2.1. The Right Hand Rule....................................................................340
5.4.3. Advantages..........................................................................................342
5.4.4. Disadvantages......................................................................................342
5.5. Continuous and Residual Magnetisation Techniques.................................342
5.5.1. Continuous Magnetisation...................................................................342
5.5.2. Residual Magnetisation.......................................................................343
6. How Defects Interact With the Induced Magnetic Field...................................343
7. Detection of the Magnetic Field........................................................................344
7.1. Burmah Castrol Strips................................................................................345
7.2. Berthold Penetrameter................................................................................345
7.3. Gauss Meter................................................................................................346
8. Detecting the Distortion in the Magnetic Field (Flux Leakage).......................347
8.1. Visual Detection.........................................................................................347
8.1.1. Ink Properties.......................................................................................347
8.1.2. Ink Colours Used Underwater.............................................................348
8.2. Testing MPI Ink to BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002.............................................348
8.2.1. Settling Test.........................................................................................348
8.2.2. Fluorescent Inks...................................................................................349
8.2.3. Non-fluorescent Inks...........................................................................349
8.2.4. Carrier Fluid........................................................................................349
9. Lighting and Viewing Conditions......................................................................349
9.1. Visible Light Inspection (Using Non-fluorescent Inks).............................350
9.2. Background and Ultraviolet Light Levels Using Fluorescent Inks............350
9.2.1. Safety Considerations With Ultraviolet Light.....................................350
9.3. Testing the Ultraviolet Light.......................................................................350
9.3.1. Ultraviolet Light Test Procedure.........................................................351
10. Cleaning Standard..........................................................................................352
11. Alternative Forms of Electric Current Applied in MPI...................................352
12. MPI Test Procedure.........................................................................................355
13. Interpretation of Indications...........................................................................356
14. Reporting Indications......................................................................................357
15. Recording Indications.....................................................................................358
15.1. Ultraviolet Photography...........................................................................358
15.2. Cast...........................................................................................................359
15.3. Foil Packets (Magfoil)...........................................................................359
15.4. CCTV.......................................................................................................359
15.5. Rubberised Tape Transfer.........................................................................359
16. Factors Affecting MPI Sensitivity...................................................................359
16.1. Surface Condition (1)...............................................................................360
16.2. Lighting (2)...............................................................................................360
16.3. Ink Condition (3)......................................................................................361
Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 9 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Table of Contents
16.4. Field Strength (4)......................................................................................361
16.5. Ink Condition (5)......................................................................................361
16.6. Geometry of the Work Piece (6)...............................................................361
16.7. Efficiency of the Magnetic Field Conditions (7)......................................361
17. Glossary of Terms and List of Standards Applicable to MPI..........................361
17.1. Glossary....................................................................................................361
17.2. MPI Standards..........................................................................................363
CHAPTER 15...............................................................................................................365
PHOTOGRAPHY...........................................................................................................365
1. Introduction to Photography.............................................................................365
1.1. Light and Photography...............................................................................366
2. The Camera.......................................................................................................367
2.1. Lens Aperture.............................................................................................367
2.2. Shutter Speed..............................................................................................368
2.3. Relationship Between Aperture and Shutter Speed....................................369
2.4. How Digicams Compare to Conventional Cameras...................................369
2.5. Bracketing Getting the Exposure Right...................................................370
3. Focusing the Camera........................................................................................370
3.1. The Lens Focal Length...............................................................................371
3.2. Depth of Field.............................................................................................372
3.3. Framing the Subject....................................................................................374
4. Light and Underwater Photography.................................................................375
4.1. Colour Absorption......................................................................................376
4.2. Loss of Light Intensity................................................................................376
5. Artificial Light for Underwater Photography...................................................377
5.1. Electronic Strobe Lighting.........................................................................378
5.1.1. Strobe Placement.................................................................................378
6. Close-up Weld Mosaic Photography.................................................................379
7. Specific Applications for Offshore Photography..............................................381
7.1. MPI Photography.......................................................................................381
7.2. Stereo-photography and Photogrammetry..................................................382
8. Specific Requirements for Inspection Photographs..........................................384
9. ROV Mounted Cameras....................................................................................385
10. Recording Photographs and Care of Equipment............................................385
10.1. Care of Equipment....................................................................................386

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 10 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Preface

PREFACE
The Certification Scheme For Weldment
Inspection Personnel Organisation and
Examination
1. The Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP)
CSWIP is an accreditation body approved by the UK Governments Board of
Trade and Industry. CSWIP is a subsidiary of TWI Certification, which is
incorporated into The Welding Institute (TWI).
1.1. TWI
Is a world centre for materials joining technology and is the parent
organisation for TWI Certification.
1.1.1. Company Profile
TWI Ltd, the operating arm of The Welding Institute, is one of the world's
foremost independent research and technology organisations. Based at
Great Abington near Cambridge since 1946, TWI provides industry with
engineering solutions in structures incorporating welding and associated
technologies (surfacing, coating, cutting, etc.) through Information
Advice and technology transfer
Consultancy and project support
Contract R&D
Training and qualification
Personal membership
1.1.2. Single Source of Expertise
TWI Ltd is the only single source of expertise in every aspect of joining
technology for engineering materials - metals, plastics, ceramics and
composites.
1.1.3. Non-profit Company
TWI is a non-profit distributing company, limited by guarantee and owned
by its Members; it is therefore able to offer independent advice. It is
internationally renowned for bringing together multidisciplinary teams to
implement established or advanced joining technology or to solve
problems arising at any stage - from initial design, materials selection,
production and quality assurance, through to service performance and
repair.

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 11 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

The CSWIP Scheme
1.1.4. Global Benefits
Over 450 skilled staff are dedicated to helping industry apply all forms of
joining technology safely and efficiently. Some 3200 companies and
organisations - representing virtually all sectors of manufacturing industry
from over 60 countries around the globe - benefit from TWI services.
1.1.5. Confidential Consultancy
TWI undertakes contract R & D in confidence for both industry and
governments. As a consultant it can offer individual experts or teams able
to help solve problems of all kinds related to materials joining. It will send
its specialists anywhere in the world at short notice on troubleshooting
missions.
1.1.6. TWI Certification Ltd
This is a TWI Group company formed in 1993.
1.1.7. Certification Management Board
The body with overall responsibility for the activities of TWI Certification
Ltd is the Certification Management Board
Professional Board of TWI

Certification Management Board

(TWI Certification Ltd)

Membership, Registration
& Education Committee

Membership, Registration
& Education Committee
CSWIP Welding
Specialists & Practitioners
Management Committee
CSWIP Plastics Welders
Certification Management Committee
Welding Fabricator
Certification Management Committee
Certification Scheme for
Welder Training Organisations
CSWIP In-Service Inspection
Management Committee

1.1.8. Responsibilities of the Board

Thus the Certification Management Board:

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 12 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Preface
Acts as the Governing Board for Certification in keeping with
the requirements of the industries served by the scheme
In turn, appoints specialist Management Committees to
oversee specific parts of the scheme.
The Certification Management Board comprises 12
representatives of industry and other parties with a valid
interest in the certification schemes, for example, fabricators,
client organisations, design authorities and training
associations. This ensures that the certification schemes truly
reflect the needs of industry.
1.1.9. The Management Committees:
Meet regularly and monitor the administration of the
examinations
Recommend changes where they are needed if it means that
the examinations can be improved to meet the requirements of
industry
Discuss new certification ideas.
It can therefore be seen that CSWIP is a comprehensive scheme, which
provides for the examination and certification of individuals seeking to
demonstrate their knowledge and/or experience in their field of operation. The
scope of CSWIP includes Welding Inspectors, Welding Supervisors, Welding
Instructors and Underwater Inspection personnel

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 13 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

The CSWIP Scheme

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 14 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Preface

1.1.10. CSWIP Certification for Underwater Inspectors

Requirement documents: all CSWIP examination requirements
documents are available free of charge and may be downloaded from the
website www.cswip.com.
1.1.11. Inspector Categories
There are four categories of certification in the Underwater Inspector
scheme:
3.1U Diver Inspector
3.2U Diver Inspector
3.3U ROV Inspector
3.4U Underwater Inspection Controller
1.2. The CSWIP 3.4U Examination
This is an approved course for preparation for the examination. The
examination itself consists of two main elements, a theoretical examination
and a practical assessment.
1.2.1. The Theory Examination
The theory examination is in 3 parts, A, B and C. Parts A and B will be
one three hour long paper and part C will consist of one paper for which
3 hours is allowed.
1.2.1.1. The Question Papers:
Part A - 50 multi-choice questions
Part B - General inspection principles and applications six
written answer questions from five sections. You must answer one
question from each section and one additional question from any
of the five sections. The sections contain questions about:
Magnetic particle inspection
Ultrasonic inspection
Corrosion protection systems
Underwater visual inspection

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 15 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

The CSWIP Scheme
Non-destructive testing (general knowledge)
Part C - Application aspects of inspection: eight written answer
questions from seven sections. You must answer one question
from each section and one additional question from any of the five
sections. The sections contain questions about:
Remotely applied inspection systems
Recording and processing data
Quality assurance
Inspection planning and briefing
Capabilities and limitations of ROVs and
submersibles
Care and deployment of equipment
1.2.2. Practical Examination
The Practical examination is in 7 parts:
Data recording
Commenting on the video inspection of a component
Written reports
Written description of a component
Technical drawing evaluation
Telex prcis
Work scheduling

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 16 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Chapter 4
This page is blank

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 17 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Types of Corrosion

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 18 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Chapter 8
This page is blank

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 19 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Chapter 8
This page is blank

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 20 of 21

Tuition Notes for 3.4U Course

Chapter 13
This page is blank

Issue 1.0
Rev 0
Issue date: 1 April 2006

Page 21 of 21