Location via proxy:   [ UP ]  
[Report a bug]   [Manage cookies]                
Scribd
Upload
82 views

Lecture 18 - Light Emitting Diodes - Outline: - Recombination Processes

This lecture discusses light emitting diodes (LEDs) and covers the following key points: 1. It outlines the basic concepts and operation of LEDs, including recombination processes, carrier lifetimes, and the relationship between current and light output. 2. It examines how to improve LED performance by optimizing the radiative efficiency, current efficiency, and extraction efficiency. This involves choosing materials with direct bandgaps and short radiative lifetimes, using asymmetric doping and wide diodes, and addressing total internal reflection. 3. It provides a brief history of LED development, noting that early red, green and amber LEDs were commercialized in the 1960s, but that little research was done until the

Uploaded by

Kamal Singh Rathore
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
82 views

Lecture 18 - Light Emitting Diodes - Outline: - Recombination Processes

This lecture discusses light emitting diodes (LEDs) and covers the following key points: 1. It outlines the basic concepts and operation of LEDs, including recombination processes, carrier lifetimes, and the relationship between current and light output. 2. It examines how to improve LED performance by optimizing the radiative efficiency, current efficiency, and extraction efficiency. This involves choosing materials with direct bandgaps and short radiative lifetimes, using asymmetric doping and wide diodes, and addressing total internal reflection. 3. It provides a brief history of LED development, noting that early red, green and amber LEDs were commercialized in the 1960s, but that little research was done until the

Uploaded by

Kamal Singh Rathore
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 22

6.

772/SMA5111 - Compound Semiconductors

Lecture 18 - Light Emitting Diodes - Outline


Recombination Processes

(continued from Lecture 17)

Radiative vs. non-radiative

Relative carrier lifetimes

Light emitting diode basics

Concepts, operation; the eye and color

Device design challenges; performance metrics

LED practice

(history; LED evolution and revolution)

Early devices

materials

device structures

Fiber coupled devices

Resonant cavity devices

Modern devices

high efficiency, high intensity advances


new material advances
white light sources

C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

(getting heat and light out)


(nitrides)

Lecture 18 - Slide 1

Recombination models: radiative and non-radiative

Radiative recombination rate:


Rrad = rrad (T) n p = B n p

where we have followed the convention of writing the


proportionality factor, rrad(T), as B.
If we assume we have a p-type sample, we define a
radiative lifetime for the minority carriers as:
1
1
n
@
, where we define t rad
Rrad =
Bp Bpo
t rad
Non-radiative recombination rate: Non-radiative

recombination also depends on the np product, but


since it occurs via mid-gap levels it is much less
sensitive to the majority population, p in this case.
Thus we define a non-radiative lifetime as
1
n
, with t non-rad
Rnon-rad = rnon-rad (T) n p = A n =
A
t non-rad
C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 2

Recombination models: net recombination

Net generation/recombination: In thermal equilibrium


generation and recombination balance:
Go = Ro = (rrad + rnon-rad ) n o po = Bpo n o + An o
When we disturb thermal equilibrium by injecting
excess carriers and/or having current, we can have
net generation or recombination, and a population
change:
n 1 J e
+ Go + gext ( x, t ) - Bnp - An
=
t q x
Using our equilibrium relation, we can write this as:
n 1 J e
= gext ( x, t ) - B( np - n o po ) - A(n - n o )
t q x
It is convenient to define excess carrier populations:
n' ( n - n o ), p' ( p - po )
C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 3

Recombination models: net recombination, cont.

With these definitions, we have


n' 1 J e
gext ( x,t ) - [ B( po + p') + A] n'
t q x
To obtain this we assumed quasineutrality, n' p', and
extrinsic p-type, po >> no.
If we assume low-level injection, defined as p' << po,
then we can neglect p' relative to po and write:
n'

n' 1 J e
gext ( x,t ) - [ Bpo + A] n' = gext ( x,t ) t min
t q x

where the minority carrier lifetime is defined as:

1
t min
( Bpo + A)
C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 4

Recombination models: net recombination, cont.

It is important to relate the total minority carrier


lifetime to the radiative and non-radiative lifetimes
we introduced earlier:
1

1
1
+
Bpo + A =
t min
t rad t non-rad
Finally, note that if we have high-level injection, we find
that the lifetime decreases with injection level:
1
t min =
B( po + p') + A
Note also that the it is the radiative lifetime that is
decreasing and thus that the fraction of carriers
recombining radiatively is increasing.
C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 5

Light emitting diodes: current-output relationships

Assume we have an LED where the efficient radiative


emission occurs on the p-side of the device (a typical
situation). The optical power out of this LED is:
n'
dx

Pout = hext Pgenerated = hext hn A


internally
dev t rad
where:

hn: energy per photon

hext:
extraction or external efficiency (the fraction ot

of photons generated that get out)

A: device cross-section area normal to current

and the integral is the total number of photons generated


per unit time in the device.
This integral can be related to the total diode current and
the minority carrier current on the p-side.
C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 6

Light emitting diodes: current-output relationships, cont

We return to:
n'
n' 1 J e
= gext ( x,t ) t min
t q x

In the steady state, with no external generation term

this becomes:

1 J e
n'
=
q x t min
And the integral in the output power equation becomes:

w
1 t min
1 t min w J e
n'
+
J
0
- Je (w p )
dx
=
dx
=
)

o t
e(
o
q t rad
x
q t rad
rad
p

Inserting this, we arrive at:


t
hn
hext A min J e (0 + ) - J e (w p )
Pout =
t rad
q

C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

]
Lecture 18 - Slide 7

Light emitting diodes: current-output relationships, cont

Finally, we recognize that it is useful conceptually to


identify several of the terms in this result as efficiencies.
Doing so we write:
+
A
J
0
- Je (w p ) t
)
e(
iD
iD
min
Pout = hn hext
= hn hext hi hrad
q
iD
t rad
q

where:
hn: energy per photon
hext: extraction or external efficiency (the fraction of

hi:
hrad:

of photons generated that get out)


current efficiency (the fraction of the total diode
current that is current into the p-side of the device and
that recombines there before getting to the contact)
radiative efficiency (the fraction of electron current
that recombines radiatively)

Identifying these efficiencies is useful because doing so


helps us understand how to make the device better. We
will next look at them each in turn, bottom to top
C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 8

Light emitting diodes: radiative efficiency

The radiative efficiency is defined as:


1
1 t rad
t
=

hrad min =
1+ t rad t non-rad
1 t rad + 1 t non-rad
t rad
From this we confirm our intuition that a short
radiative lifetime and long non-radiative lifetime are
best. This is largely a question of using the right
materials, and making sure they are high quality.
We can also write hrad in terms of A and B:
B( po + p')
1
t min
=
=
hrad
1+ A [B( po + p')]
B(
po + p') + A
t rad
from this we see that driving the device to high level
injection may help. (We say "may" because this may also
lead to heating which will reduce the non-radiative lifetime.)
C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 9

Light emitting diodes: radiative efficiency, cont

Material choices:

Direct band gap - the radiative lifetime is much shorter for


direct band gap materials:
B: 10-11 to 10-9 cm3s-1 for direct gap

10-15 to 10-13 cm3s-1 for indirect gap

Sample values:

GaAs: 7.2 x 10-10

Si: 1.8 x 10-15

Ge: 5.25 x 10-14

Common materials:

IR: GaAs, InGaAsP, GaInNAs


Visible: GaAsP, InGaP, InGaAsP, GaN, GaAlInN

Gap level transitions - there are a few examples of useful


radiative transitions via levels in the energy gap
GaP: Zn-O pairs (red)
N-valence band (green)

GaAs: Si-donor to Si-acceptor (980 nm)

C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 10

Light emitting diodes: current efficiency

The current efficiency is the fraction of the total diode


current that is due to the desired minority carriers
(electrons injected into the p-side in the present
example) that recombine before reaching the ohmic
contact:
A
J e (0 + ) - J e ( w p )
hi
iD

We can make the current efficiency approach 100% by


taking the following precautions:
- Use asymmetric doping: this insures injection into
-

the appropriate side of the device


NDn >> NAp
Make the diodes wide: this insures that the carriers
recombine before reaching the contacts
wp << Le
Use heterojunctions: to increase injection efficiency
and to shield carriers for ohmic contacts

C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 11

Light emitting diodes: extraction efficiency

The extraction efficiency, how much of the radiation


actually leaves the device, is the most difficult issue for
many LEDs. There are several contributions:
1. Total internal reflection

2. Internal (re)absorption

3. Blocking by contacts

Because of the refractive index of most semiconductors is


high, 3.5 being a typical value, Item 1 is a major issue.
The critical angle for total internal reflection is only 16
at a semiconductor-to-air boundary. Spontaneous
radiation (which is what we are dealing with) is directed
uniformly in all directions, and the fraction hitting a
flat surface within the critical angle, Qcrit, is:
hex = (sin 2 Q crit ) 4
Evaluating this for n = 3.5, we find that only 2% of
the light can escape the solid!
C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 12

Light emitting diodes: fighting total internal reflection

Total internal reflection can be alleviated if the device is


packaged in a domed shaped, high index plastic
package:

If the device is fabricated with a substrate that is


transparent to the emitted radiation, then light can
be extracted from the 4 sides and bottom of the
device as well as from the top. This increases the
extraction efficiency by a factor of 6!

C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 13

Light emitting diodes: fighting total internal reflection, cont.

Other solutions to the total internal reflection that are not


as widely used as these are:
Thin devices with roughened surfaces: The idea is that if
there is very little internal (re)absorption of the emitted light,
the light will bounce around inside the device until it hits the
surface at an angle within the critical angle. If the surface is
rough, the chance of this happening is increased.

Resonant cavity LEDs: If a one-dimensional photonic


crystal (a distributed Bragg reflector) is placed on the bottom
of the device, the light emitted downward will be redirected up.

Superluminescent emitting LEDs: If a device is driven


strongly enough, there can be some stimulated emission, and
this will be highly directed, as we shall see when we talk about
laser diodes. This can be used to increase an LEDs emission.
None of these ideas work as well as using a transparent substrate,
collecting the light from all sides of a device, and putting the
device in a high-index package positioned in a suitable reflector.
C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 14

Light emitting diodes: historical perspective

LEDs are a very old device, and were the first commercial
compound semiconductor devices in the marketplace.
Red, amber, and green LEDs (but not blue) were sold in
the 1960's, but main research focus was on laser diodes,
and little LED research was done after the 1970's.
Things changed dramatically in the 1990's,
in part because of new materials developed in the search
for red and blue lasers, InGaP/GaAs, GaInAlN/GaN
in part because of packaging innovations,
improved heat sinking and advanced reflector designs

in part due to advances in wafer bonding, and


transparent substrates for improved light extraction

in part due to the diligence of LED researchers.


taking advantage of advances in other fields

C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 15

III-V quarternaries:

InGaAsP

Early GaAsP red


LEDs grown on
linearly graded
buffer on GaAs

Modern InGaAlP
red LEDs grown
lattice-matched

on GaAs, and

transferred to

GaP substrates

C. G. Fonstad, 2/03

Lecture 1 - Slide 16

The III-V wurtzite quarternary:


GaInAlN
AlN

0.2

6.0

0.25

5.0

0.3

4.0
GaN

0.4

3.0

0.5
2.0

0.6
0.7

InN

1.0
0.28

C. G. Fonstad, 2/03

0.30

0.34
0.36
0.32
Lattice period, a (nm)

0.38

Lecture 1 - Slide 17

Light emitting diodes typical specta

LED emission - typ. 20 nm wide

Important spectra for


comparison with LED
spectrum

C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 18

Light emitting diodes - human eye response


700

v: Luminous flux (lm)

600

500

400
610 nm

510 nm
300

C. G. Fonstad, 4/03
400

450

500

550

600

Red

Orange

Yellow

Blue

Green

100

Violet

200

650

700

Lecture 18 - Slide 19
750

Light emitting diodes - Red and Amber LEDs

Red LEDs

Yellow/Amber LEDs

C. G. Fonstad, 4/03

Lecture 18 - Slide 20

Light emitting diodes - Conventional green LEDs; Burrus-type

Green LEDs
LED designed to
couple efficiently
to a fiber (Burrus
geometry)

C. G. Fonstad, 4/03
Lecture 18 - Slide 21

You might also like