Practical Manual ON Agricultural Meteorlogy: Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 500 030

PRACTICAL MANUAL
ON
AGRICULTURAL METEORLOGY
Dr. V. Radha Krishna Mutrhy

Professor (Academics)
ANGRAU
S. G. Mahadevappa
Assistant Professor (Agro.), ANGRAU,
Agricultural Polytechnic, Garikapadu
Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 030
Lecture No.
Contents
Visit to the Meteorological Observatory
Calculation of time
Solar radiation
Sunshine
Rainfall
Rainfall analysis
Drought
Air temperature
Soil temperature
10
Humidity
11
Pressure
12
Wind
13
Evaporation
14
Micro-climatic studies
15
Establishment of a standard meteorological

observatory
Synoptic charts and weather reports
16
Page
No.
1.
CARE AND PRECAUTIONS

Punctuality is very important in making meteorological observations. Great
care should be taken to ensure that the clock or watch used for guidance
keeps correct IST.
2.
Every observation should be recorded honesty as read. In case of a doubt, the

observation (s) should be repeated twice or thrice and in no case concocted
figures be inserted.
3.
The readings should never be written on scraps of paper with the intention of
copying them later on.
4.
Check each observation after noting it in recording sheet provided for each
exercise to make sure that no mistake has been made.
5.
Self recording instruments

a) the sensitive element must respond to the changes of meteorological
elements and the movements of magnifying system shall be transmitted to
the subscribing pen.
b) the revolving drum of the recording system should move properly by clock
work
c) The pen pressure on the recording chart shall be carefully adjusted and
pen be cleaned to reduce too thick a trace.
d) Stepped trace and breaks in the record are due to faulty ink and air gap
between the chart and the drum. Adjust the drum and spindle to overcome
this problem.
e) Add glycerin to check the spreading of ink
f) use distilled water to clean the dust on the hair hygrograph
g) Compare
the
screen
temperature
and
temperature
obtained
by
thermograph for correctness of thermograph

h) Check and adjust the siphoning and flout before the observation in case of
self recording raingauge
i) the evaporation measuring instruments shall be with good resolution and
range. The evaporograph must be self contained, Portable and corrosion
resistant.
6.
Other Instruments
a)
Handle the instruments used to measure solar radiation accurately and

properly Leveling shall be done properly.
b)
While measuring the radiation inside the crop canopies the instruments
shall be connected to the milt voltmeters properly.
c)
The temperature and heat flux measuring instruments shall be moisture

and corrosion resistant and must be useful to record underground and
surface observations.
d)
The rain gauges shall be of dependable, easy maintenable
and of
unlimited capacity
e)
If movement is not free, lubricate the bearings and clean the gear of
anemometer.
f)
Use kerosene to clean and lubricate all the parts of wind vane, if friction is
noticed.
g)
Before recoding the observations, the evaporimeter shall be checked for

leaks, sediments and oil films.
h)
Use distilled water for wetting the wet bulb of the psychrometer
7.
Keep the eatables and drinking water away from the observation site.
8.
Report all mistakes and accidents, however small they are.
9.
Attend the class with proper uniform as prescribed by the university
10.
Make the class interesting to learn more by observing the existing weather
elements and measuring them with genuine interest and zeal.
PRACTICAL MANUAL ON AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY
1. Visit to the Meteorological Observatory

We invited to the I.M.D (India Meteorological Department) at begumpet in
Secunderabad. On July 22nd. The Things we deserved in IMD are few below
1. Symons rain gange : To measure the rain water with measuring jar to know
the rainfall in mm or cm.
2. Natural Syphoning & Self recording rain gange:
To measure the rain
gange with self recording graph.

3. Open pan evaporation : To measure the Evaporation lanes
4. Baro Meter : It indicates the pressure of atmosphere with respect of time
5. Thermo Meter : it indicates the temperature of the day of minimum and the
Avg temperature
6. Hydrography : It indicates the humidity of the day with respective time. It is
observed 2 times per day a) 8:30- 9:30 A.M b) 3:30-4:00 P.M.
7. Themography : It indicates the humidity temp. of the day with respect time.
Temperature observed 2 times in a day with the reference in a day with the
reference of graph.
8. Hydrogen balloon : It is used to know the velocity of wind, temp of upper
layer of the earth and also prenuro. the balloon having an instrument which
caminth of temperature. Prenuro instrument it given the information to Radar
Room . Ealon in filled with the gas which is prepared from NaOH Nilika & H2O.
the cert. of balloon varies the velocity of balloon.
Ex. 32gr 10 K.M /hr 150 gr- 20 Km/hr
Global Radiation : The total energy of sun light which is coming from the sun.
pyronometro & Thermo electrical psytenometer used for measurement the energy of
sunlight.
Diffine sky radiation : Some times clouds disturb ice sunlight it is used for the
measuring ice disturb sunlight
Globe : for knowing the energy which is coming from sun with respect of time.
It indicates the energy an the thick paper with burning farm, which is placed below the
globe. Normally radiation of the sun. 13.50 / m2
Radar : Radio amplification and defection and defection and Ranging
Radar system: It is used fro taking the mind velocity temperature humidity at
various levels of the research.
Tropopasure In a layer which is placed 16 cm from the earth. Cyclones enters
in the direction of north east.
Floods Cyclone Severe Cyclone Haricanes
<30 km / hr 30: 70 km/ph 70:85 km ph > 130 kmph
Abbriviations:
SSR Sun nine recorder
WV wind vane
MCP Micro climate part
AM Anorro Meter
STS Small Thermometer Screen
LTS Large Thermometer Screen
NRG Non Recording rain Gange
ST Soil Thermo meter
TRN Grain min Thermometer
DGS Dew Gange stand
OPE Open Evoprovimeter
SMP Soil moisture plat
2. CALCULATION OF TIME
A series of crossing lines on a map or a globe which enable to identify the
location of any point on the Earth is known as the Earth Grid. A latitude of a place is
the distance north or south of the equator which is measured as an angle whose
apex is at the centre of the Earth. One degree of latitude is approximately equal to
111 kilometres. The distance of a place east or west of the meridian of Greenwich or
the Prime Meridian as an angle is known as longitude of a place. A meridian is a line
joining places which have their noon at the same time.
INDIAN STANDARD TIME (IST)

The surface of the Earth is divided into 24 'time zones' the way in which there
are 24 hours in a day. The time established in each of the zone is called as 'Standard
time'. The Indian Standard Time (IST) is the Local Mean Time (LMT) for the meridian
of longitude 82 " 30 ' E. This is the longitude of Allahabad which is taken as standard
longitude for our country. Since each degree is equal to four minutes of time, the IST
is 5 1/2 hours ahead of Greenwich M-c!an Time (GMT). The GMT is also known as
universal time.
LOCAL APPARENT TIME (LAT)
The interval between two successive transits of the Sun across the meridian is
called the true solar day and the time based on the length of this day is called
Apparent Solar Time. Local Apparent Time is the apparent solar time for any
particular place such that the Sun passes across the geographical meridian at noon.
LOCAL MEAN TIME (LMT)
This is the local time based on the transit of the mean Sun. To calculate LMT
from IST, ft is essential to know the longitude of the station.
THE RELATION BETWEEN LAT, LMT and IST

LMT = IST
Where L1
L2
4(L1 -- L2)
Standard Meridian ( 82o 30' for our country)
The meridian of the station.
If the station is to the west of the standard meridian subtract 4 minutes for
every degree from the IST. If the station is to the east of standard meridian, time has
to be added to the, IST.
LAT
LMT
-- Equation of time.
Values of correction due to equation of time which vary with season can be
obtained from the tables. (Since these are available in all the observatories, the
student is advised to refer to them separately).
SAMPLE CALCULATION
Station
Hyderabad
Date
Select a date which you plan

78o 30' East. i.e. 78.5 East
Longitude
Standard meridian
LAT = IST -- 4
82o 30 i.e. 82.5o
82.5 -- 78.5
IST
-- 4 (4)
IST
-- 16 minutes.
If IST is 10 h 30 m, then
LMT = 10 h 30 m -- i6 m = 10 b 14 rn.
LAT = LMT -- Equation of time.
10 h 14 m -- 'X' minutes
'X' minutes is the correction due to equation of time on the date which you
select. This can be obtained from the standard sunrise and sunset tables.
The above calculations can be used in the meteorological observatories in
which the observations are to be recorded. It is to mention that the observations shall
be recorded as precise and accurate as possible at the prescribed timings as per the
instructions of the India Meteorological Department.
ASSIGNMENT 1
1.
Obtain a map of the globe and describe briefly the main features seen on Its
surface.
2.
Collect some cuttings of the daily news papers in which planetary configuration
is available. Observe and narrate the phenomena from time to time with regard
to the Sun, the Earth and the Moon.
3. SOLAR RADIATION
Solar radiation affects to a large extent the micro-climate thereby the crop
growth and yield. Spectral quality of sunlight intercepted by the crop canopy and light
that penetrates through the canopy are other important factors determining the crop
growth in the system. The measurements should enable the evaluation of the
photosynthetic efficiency of the system and matching of this with alternate designs of
canopy structure. Instruments used for the measurement of radiation for the study of
micro-climatic regimes are:
1)
Line quantum sensor
2)
Net radiometer
3)
Spectroradiometer
4)
Pyranometer
5)
Pyrano - albedometer etc.

In all the above instruments in general, radiant energy may be detected in four
ways:
a)
By the rise of temperature of the receiving surface
b)
By the response of photoelectric cell
c)
By photo-chemical methods
d)
By photographic emulsions
Radiometers are named according to the nature and direction of radiation

which they absorb and indicate. The commonly used instruments are given below.
S.No. Name of the instrument
Radiation measured
1.
Pyranometer or Solarimeter
Direct and diffuse solar radiation
2.
Pyrhellometer
Direct solar radiation
3.
Pyrradiometer
Solar and long-wave radiation
4.
Pyrgeometer
Long-wave radiation
5.
Netradiometer
Net radiation flux
Measurement of Short wave radiation in a crop canopy:

By using the layer technique, the relative radiation intensity in the crop
canopies can be measured.
Principle: The relative radiation! intensity decreases exponentially with increasing leaf
area
The formulae are
R. (S)z
R (s)t
exp -KF
Where
R(s)z
Short-wave radiation available at level 'z' in the

crop canopy (50cm from ground).(Langley per minute).
R(s)t
Short-wave radiation available at one metre above

the crop canopy (langley per minute).
Neparian base (0-70) which is always constant.
Extinction coefficient.
Leaf area index.
Extinction coefficient can be obtained by the following way.

R(S)g
-K
Ln ------------------- F-1
R (s)t
Where,
R(S)g
= Short wave radiation at the ground

(10 cm from surface)
F, K and R(s)t
Note:
crop canopy.
law.
= as detailed above.
In the same way ft is easy to measure the long-wave radiation also in a

It may be noted that the above procedure -is a modification of Beer's
EXERCISE NO: I
Aim: To measure the different' components of solar radiation.
Material: Pyrano-albedometer, millivoltmeter etc.
Available information: The visible part of the spectrum is short-wave
radiation. The solar radiation is a@ combination 8i both direct and diff use. So, to
measure direct solar radiation, the diffuse radiation has to be substracted from the
total incident radiation. The total incident radiation, diffused radiation and radiation
reflected from various surfaces can be measured with the help of a pyranoalbedometer.
Principle of the pyrano-albedometer: When radiation is incident on the
sensitive element of the instrument, ft produces electric current which Is measured in
millivolts in the miltivoft- meter. There is a conversion factor for each instrument.
When the reading in millivoltmeter is multiplied by conversion factor, the reading
comes out in langley per metre per metre per second or watts per metro per metre
per second. ( Visible part of the spectrum is short- wave radiation. Solar radiation is
either'direct' or 'diffuse'.)
Procedure:
1. Connect the pyrano-albedometer property to the millivoltmeter.
2. Keep the instrument ready for taking observations by setting the knob at 'ON', in
the millivoltmeter.
3. Level the instrument, if needed, using a small spirit level.
4. Total incident radiation, diffuse radiation and reflected part of the radiation shall be
recorded simultaneously, as per the Instructions given for the instrument, on the
selected surfaces.
5. Normally, a bare soil, a dry turf, a wet turf and a crop canopy may give values of
real worth comparison.
6. Repeat the process at 1 5 minute intervals for atleast 6 times on the same
surfaces and record the observations in the recording sheet (3.1) provided for this
exercise.
7. Calculate albedo and direct radiation as per the formulae in point no.9 given
below.
8. Observe the trends In albedo and absorbed radiation with variation in time.
9. Formulae: a) Direct radiation = Incoming radiation - Diffuse radiation

b) Albedo
Reflected radiation/Total Incoming radiation x 100
Graph: Plot a neat graph for all the measurements recorded above.
Results, calculations and conclusion.
RECORDING SHEET NO: 3.1

Station/ Location:
Sl. No
Time
Surface
in IST
Bare Soil
Dry turf
Wet turf
Mean
Bare Soil
Dry turf
Wet turf
Mean
Bare Soil
Dry turf
Wet turf
Mean
Bare Soil
Dry turf
Wet turf
Mean
Date :
Incoming
Outgoing
Diffused Direct
Albedo
solar
solar
radiation radiation
(%)
radiation (mv) radiation (mv) (mv)
(mv)
EXERCISE NO: 2
Aim: To measure the radiation interception in a crop canopy.
Material: Pyrano-albedometer, millivoltrneter etc.
After the crop develops to full leaf area and when the crop is in full blooming, it
is easy to measure interception of solar radiation by a beginner in micro-meteorology.
Principle: As detailed in field excercise No.1 above.
Procedure:
1.
Connect the pyrano-albedometer properly to the millivoltmeter.
2.
Keep the instrument horizontally one metre above the crop canopy-
3.
Observe the reading and record. This is R(s)t .
4.
Keep the instrument in the same way 50 cm above the ground in the crop
canopy.
5.
Observe the reading and record. This is R(s)z.
6.
Keep the instrument 10 cm above the ground and record the reading. This is
R(S)g.
7.
Calculate the leaf area index of the crop either graphically or by using the leaf
area meter.
8.
Calculate the extinction co-efficient (K value) with the help of the formulae as
detailed above.
9.
By incorporating the above values in the equations, one can easily measure the
radiation Intercepted.
10. Repeat the same atleast 4 times at half an hour intervals and record the
observations In the recording sheet no. 3.2.
Graph: Plot a neat graph with time on X-axis and radiation % interception on
axis.
Results, calculations and conclusions:
Y-
Recording Sheet No. 3.2

Station/ Location :
Height:
Stage:
Date:
Pyrano albedometer readings
Time in
IST
S.No.
Crop:
R(s)t
R(s)z
K- values
R(s)g
Conversion factors for solar radiation,

Where no general conversion exists, a simple approximation is given as detailed
below:
S.No.
u E m-2 s-1 (400-700 nm)
W M-2 (400-700 nm)
Cal cm-2 min-1 (400-700 nm)
1.
3000
705.0
1.01
2.
2500
587.5
0.84
3.
2000
470.0
0.67
4.
1500
352.5
0.51
5.
1000
235.0
0.34
6.
500
117.5
0.17
1 elnstein
= Avogadros number of quanta, (6.023 x 1023)

i.e a mole of quanta.
1 photon
= 1 quantum of light
1 J m-2 s-1
= 1 W m-2
1 cal
= 4.184 J
-2
1 cal cm min-1 = 1 langley = 697.8 Wm-2

The following conversion factors are mainly approximation.
At noon on a clear summer day in the wave band 400-700 nm,
10,000 foot-candies
= 350 W m-2
1 foot candle
= 10.76 lux
The solar irradiance at the Earth's surface in a temperate region at mid-day

during the summer in the wave band 400 - 700 nm = 350 W m-2
and in the wave band
700 - 2400 nm = 350 W m-2
The region 400 - 700 nm is called visible band or photosynthetically active

wave band. The short-wave infrared wave band is 700 - 2400 nm.
UNITS OF LENGTH
metre
= m
-1
10 m
= decimetre ( dm)
10-2 m
= centimetre (cm)
10-3 m
= millimetre (mm)
10-6 m
= micrometre (micron)
10-9 m
= nanometre ( nm )
-10
10 m
= Angstrom unit (o A )
ASSIGNMENT
1.
Collect the literature related to radiation measurement in two different crop

canopies in the library.
4. SUNSHINE
In most of the meteorological observatories, the duration of sunshine is
recorded. However, solar radiation is also recorded simultaneously in few of these
observatories. There is,a relationship between solar radiation and duration of
sunshine, as given below.
Q /QA = (a + b ) n / N
Where,
Q
The radiation actually received
QA
Angot's value
Actual duration of sunshine received
Maximum possible duration of sunshine
Constants i.e 0.23 and 0.48, respectively.
a and b
Note: Angot's value denotes the theoretical amount of radiation that would
reach the surface of the Earth in the absence of atmosphere. The values of 'a' and 'b'
vary according to longitude and latitude.
The number of hours of bright sunshine is recorded by a number of
instruments. Of all, the Campbell - Stokes sunshine recorder is the best one.
CAMPBELL - STOKES SUNSHINE RECORDER:

Principle: Sun's rays are concentrated on a chemically sensitised card by a
pherical lens. This card produces a trace as the Sun rays fall during the hours of
bright sunshine. As the card is graduated in hours and tenths, the daily duration of
sunshine can be easily determined.
Operation and measurement:

This is an instrument for recording the duration of bright sunshine.
1.
It consists of a glass sphere fixed centrally to a frame. Just below the glass
sphere is another structure, hemispherical boW is rigidly fixed to the frame.
The bomd has three slots or grooves through which the chemically treated
cards are Inserted. The frame is mounted on a base provided with three
levelling screws.
2.
The glass sphere acts as a converging lens. The different points on chemically
treated cards represent the principle foci for the different positions of the Sun,
during the apparent movement of Earth, from East to West. The bright sun
rays leave a charred or burnt line on the chemically treated card.
The cards
are graduated in hours for accurate measurement of bright sunshine.

3.
The sunshine recorder is kept an a platform at a height of 10 feet from the

ground surface. It is kept on a perfectly horizontal plane. To achieve this, the
levelling screws are adjusted and if needed a spirit level can also be used to
bring the Instrument in a perfectly horizontal position,
4.
a)
There are three types of cards available for measuring bright sunshine.
Long curved cards: Also called 'Summer cards' and these are used from 13 th
April to 31 st August. These cards are introduced through the bottom slot in the
concave plate.
b)
Short curved cards: Also called 'Winter cards'and are used from 13 th October
to the end of February. These are introduced at the top slot.
c)
Straight cards: When day and night lengths are equal, these cards are used
i.e., from 1 st March to 12 th Aprd and I st September to 12
th October.
These are introduced through the middle slot.

5.
In recent models of this recorder, only one slot for all season cards has been
implemented by having a broader card slot thereby enabling different curvature cards
for different season periods.
ASSIGNMENT
1.
Draw a neat sketch of Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder and label it

properly.
2.
Observe and draw the diagrams of different cards used in recording the
duration of sunshine.
5. RAINFALL
The economy of our nation depends largely on the amount and distribution of
rainfall received every year. This is a very valuable agricultural input. Once the
monsoon onset and rain falls, the whole activity of human beings change. The
farmers enter the fields with a confidence to unearth the gold.
Measurement of rainfall:
To measure the rainfall of an area, sampling has to be done at a number of
places. Rainfall measurements are point values. These values represent the average
rainfall of an area. In most of the observatories two different instruments are used to
measure the rainfall. They are: a) Symon's rain gauge and b) Natural syphon
recording rain gauge. Of late, tipping bucket rain gauges are used in high technology
automatic weather stations.
1. SYMON'S RAIN GAUGE: It is made up of gaivonised iron sheet of 12 gauge

thickness. Of late, fibre glass and plastic makes are also in use. This consists of four
parts a) Base b) Body c) Receiver d) Funnel.
Principle: Rain water entering the gauge from the top of the rim of the funnel is lead
via a funnel to the receiver. The rain water thus collected is measured with the help of
a measuring cylinder.
1.
The diameter of the funnel is 12.7 cm. The outer peripheral ring is made up of
copper or brass and it is called a 'rim'. It is designed in such a way that the rain
water doesn't splashout.
2.
The rain water received by the funnel is emptied into a collecting jar which is
kept in an outer jacket or receiver.
3.
The outer jacket is a cylindrical vessel closed at one end.
4.
Besides housing the collecting jar, the outer jacket also receives the overflow
of rain water from it.
5.
The funnel, the collecting jar, and the outer jacket are fitted into a base which
has a locking arrangement.
6.
The amount of rain water is measured with the help of a calibrated glass
measuring jar, corrected upto 0.1 mm.
7.
The rain gauge should be kept on a hard compact levelled platform partially
buried in the ground in such a way that the rim buried is at a height of I toot
(30cm) above the ground surface.
8.
The rim should be positioned on a perfectly horizontal plane. This can be done
by using a spirit level and rain gauge should be painted grey throughout.
9.
Rain gauge should be checked for leaks and dust particles. Leaves should be
removed from the collector.
10.
The measuring cylinder should be kept clean and a spare measuring cylinder
should be available in the observatory.
II. NATURAL SYPHONING SELF RECORDING RAIN GAUGE:

This is designed to give a continuous recording of the rainfall. This instrument
not only records the total amount of rainfall that has fallen since the record was
started but also the rate of rainfall@
Principle: Rain water entering the gauge from the top of the cover is lead via a funnel
to the receiver consisting of a float chamber and a syphon chamber. A pen is
mounted on the stem of the float and as the level of water rises in the receiver, the
float rises and the pen records the level of the water in the chamber. Syphoning
occurs automatically when the pen reaches the top of the chart.

1.
This is also made up of galvonised iron sheet of 12 gauge thickness. Now-adays fibre glass reinforced polyester r-naterial is extensively used.
2.
This also has a funnel with a glass 'rim' of 203 rnillimetres. This acts as a lid
and is provided with a slit or window. The rim of the funnel should be horizontal
to the ground and exacty at a height of 75 centimetres above the ground.
3.
The rain water received by the funnel is poured into a chamber through a
connecting tube.
4.
The chamber has a float and it is connected to a pen arm, through a lever
mechanism.
5.
The tip of the pen arm is self-inked and touches a calibrated chart which is
wrapped around a rotating drum.
6.
The drum works with a clock mechanism and completes one rotation in 24
hours.
7.
The X-axis of the chart represents rainfall with a precision of 0.1 mm, and Yaxis represents time.
8.
The chart has to be replaced only at the end of a rainy day.
9.
This instrument has a syphoning mechanism and when the water reaches the
maximum level it gets emptied automatically. The pen arm comes down to
zero and rises again if there is further rainfall.
10.
The chart has to be changed every day between 0830 and 0900 IST, and
there should be sufficient ink in the pen.
11.
The instrument should always be kept clean and no leaves should enter the
funnel.
12.
A spirit level may be used to keep the instrument exactly as detailed above.
13.
The slope of the trace of the pen at any point gives approximately the intensity
of rain.
14.
The rate of rainfall is obtained by dividing the total amount of rainfall with the
total hours of the rainfall during a day.,
III. TIPPING BUCKET RAIN GAUGE:

These rain gauges are generally attached to the automatic weather stations.
1.
This is an automated device and accumulates a certain volume of water in a

reservoir or bucket.
2.
Normally the reservoir or bucket is so small that it houses only 5 millimetres of

rain water.
3.
When the exact volume has been collected, the bucket automatically tips and
the water is emptied.
4.
This tipping mechanism also provides a method of recording on a moving chart

or a counter, attached to the tape recorder in the weather station.
5.
Sensitivities upto 0.10 or 0.25 mm of rain are available.
6.
The rim of rain gauge collector should be sharp and durable.
7.
The main source of error is the exposure of the gauge.
8.
Depending upon the maximum intensity of rainfall for a given location, the
tipping bucket rain gauge with suitable sensitivity has to be selected. Units of
measurements: millimetres or centimetres.
ASSIGNMENT
1.
Draw a neat sketch of self recording rain gauge and label the parts correctly.
2.
Plan and write how to measure the rainfall for demonstration purpose. with the
instruments you have studied, when there is no rain during your practical
class.
6. RAINFALL ANALYSIS
Rainfall is one of the most important factors influencing the vegetation. Rain
water is the source of soil moisture essential for growth of crops. Low and ill
distribution of rainfall are common features of dry land farming, wherein drought
tolerant crops like Sorghum, Pearl millet and Italian millet, Castor etc., are commonly
grown.
In the previous exercise how to measure the rainfall with different rain gauges
was discussed. An agrometeorologist should calculate the weekly, monthly and
annual means of rainfall for use in its analysis to know the trends. Based on the
trends the crops to be grown in an area can be known. It is a fact that crop water
needs can be fully'or partly met by rainfall. Rainfall for each period varies and mean
monthly rainfall data give only a certain pattern. In the rainfed agriculture one is
interested in the question; how much rainfall can be expected, atleast in a time
interval, in three out of four years or four out of five years? This can be known by
using 'Aanking order method' as described by Doorenbos and Pruitt (1984). The main
assumption in this method is that the rainfall is more or less normally distributed. The
main steps involved are:
a)
Thirty years rainfall data for a month in question should be presented in the
descending magnitude. This may be made into a column and name it 'Rain' or
any convenient term.
b)
Assign a number to each record. This is called ranking number 'M'. Always for
highest value No: 1 is given and the last number for the lowest rainfall.
c)
Give probability numbers Fa(rn) to these ranking numbers.
d)
The ranking numbers shall be calculated as follows:

F a (m) = 100 m / n+1
where in
n = number of records ( Since we have taken

30 years of data in this case, this is 30 ).
m = rank number
e)
If probability level for rank 20 is required ft can be done by this way

F a (m) = 100 X 20 / 31 = 64.51
f)
If a probability levei of 50 is required, this can be.done by this way
Here F a(m) = 50
n
= 30
=?
From the equation,

F a(m) = 100 X m / n+ I
M
= F a(m) X (n+1) / 100

= 50 X 31 / 100
= 15.5
g) When 15.5 is the probability for 50% of rainfall, against a rank number of
either 15 or 16 see how much is the rainfall. Then, that rainfall is the probable rainfall
at half to half chance.
Effective rainfall: What so ever may be the rainfall that is recorded after proper
measurement from a raingauge, it is not effective as far as its utilisation by a crop is
concerned. It is lost by
a) surface runoff
b) deep percolation
c) evaporation etc.
After deducting the losses from total received rainfall what ever be the
remaining amount is the effective rainfall for that crop. This can be estimated
scientifically by many methods. Of them, Evapotranspiration and precipitation ratio
method is found to be more useful than other methods.
Example: The July month rainfall of Bapatia is given below for 30 years in mm from
1961 to 1990. Calculate the 50 % probable rainfall. (The values given are only
assumptions)
Year
Rainfall
Year
Rainfall
Year
Rainfall
1961
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
80
60
76
85
64
88
59
58
58
80
1971
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
64
79
83
46
44
41
64
18
54
1981
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
58
60
50
54
48
60
41
27
39
80
To know the 50% probability of rainfall, we have to take F a (m) as 50.

we should calculate m i.e., rank number.
Then
From the equation as follows.
Fa(m) x (n+l)
M=
------------------100
by substituting the values,

50 X (30+1)
=
---------------------
50 X 31
= ---------------- = 15.5
100
100
So, for the rank number 15.5 we may consider either 15 or 16. If we take 16,
then, against this rank number the rainfall is 58 mm as per the Table 6. 1. So, in
Bapatia during July month we can expect 58 mm of rainfall at fifty percent probability.
Table 6.1
Rank (m)
Probability F a (m)
Rain / Plotting position (F a)
1.
3.22
88
2.
6.45
85
3.
9.67
83
4.
12.90
80
5.
16.12
80
6.
19.35
80
7.
22.58
79
8.
25.80
76
9.
29.03
64
10.
32.25
64
11.
35.48
64
12.
38.70
60
13.
41.93
60
14.
45.16
60
15.
48.38
59
16.
51.61
58
17.
54.83
58
18.
58.06
58
Rank (m)
Probability F a (m)
Rain / Plotting position (F a)
19.
61.29
54
20.
64.51
54
21.
67.74
50
22.
70.96
48
23.
74.19
46
24.
77.41
44
25.
80.64
41
26.
83.87
41
27.
87.09
39
28.
90.32
27
29.
93.54
18
30.
96.77
Assignment
1. Take the rainfall data for the month of August for the last 30 years of the place
where your college is located and analyse it to find 60% probable rainfall.
7. DROUGHT
Drought can be explained by the following ways.

The condition under which crops fail to mature because of insufficient supply of
water through rains.
The situation in which the amount of water required for transpiration and
evaporation by crop plants in a defined area exceeds the amount of available
moisture in the soil.
A situation of no precipitation in a rainy season for more than 15 days
continuously.
Whatsoever may be the situation, the other causes contributing to this
condition are:
a)
Defective tillage of soil.
b)
Failure to store rain water.
c)
Lack of technology with the user to retain the soil moisture.
d)
High seed rate and thick plant population.
There are many other factors involved in this phenomenon. The effects of
drought are:
a)
Depletion of soil moisture and reduction in ground water table.
b)
Reduction of output and turnover in industry, agriculture and thereby total

economy of the nation.
CLASSIFICATION OF DROUGHT:
Droughts can broadly be divided into 3 categories.
Meteorological drought: If annual rainfall is significantly short of certain level

(75 percent) of the climatologically expected normal rainfall over a wide area, then the
situation is called by this term. It may be noted that in every state each region
receives certain amount of normal rainfall. This is the basis for planning the cropping
pattern of that region or area.
Hydrological drought: This is a situation in which the hydrological resources

like streams, rivers, reservoirs, lakes, wells etc., dry up because of marked depletion
of surface water. The ground water table also depletes. The industry, power
generation and other income generating major sources are affected. It meteorological
drought is significantly prolonged, the hydrological drought results in.
Agricultural drought: This is a situation which is a result of inadequate
rainfall. Because of this, the soil moisture falls short to meet the demands of the crop
during its growth. Since the soil moisture available to a crop is insufficient, it affects
growth and finally results in the reduction of yield.
Some scientists consider the above classification only as a part of the total
classification. The classification based on 'mediurn' and also 'temporal' are in vogue,
in addition to the information mentioned above.
DROUGHTS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON CROP PLANTS:

The influence of drought can be observed not only on phenology but also on
phenophases of crop plants.
1.
From seedling to ripening stage the water influences the crops particularly in
case of cereals after the leaves are emerged from coleoptile. The influence of
drought is more pronounced at the time of maturity.
2.
During flowering stage, any little stress of moisture by virtue of drought

substantially reduces the size of inflorescence thereby affecting the final yield.
3.
In the same way fertilization and grain filling are also markedly influenced and
the final yield is substantially reduced.
4.
When soil moisture stress increases, it limits water supply to all the plant parts,
which result in witting.
5.
If drought occurs at the time of grain filling, it results in the decrease of yield
considerably.
6.
Cell division and enlargement are very sensitive to drought stress. During
drought stress cell enlargement is aff ected and is the primary cause of plant
stunting commonly observed under field conditions.
7.
Drought also affect nutrient absorption, carbohydrate and protein metabolism

and translocation of ions and metabolites.
8.
Protein breakdown injures the drought stressed plant due to the accumulation
of a toxic product of protein breakdown such as ammonia, rather than due to a
protein deficiency.
9.
Abscission of leaves, fruits and seeds can be induced by plant water deficit
during droughts.
10.
Plant respiration is drastically reduced.
DROUGHT CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AT THE TIME OF

DROUGHT:
1.
Modification of microclimate by use of shelter-belts and artificial barriers to

reduce evapotranspiration and wind movement.
2.
Maintaining optimum plant population.
3.
Best possible seed-bed preparation to hold and absorb maximum moisture

and better weed management.
4.
Tillage practices to miiiimise runoff and evapotranspiration.
5.
Crops that evade or endure periods of drought shall be sown.
6.
Drought tolerant crops for which row spacing can be increased without
affecting the final yield can be identified and practised.
7.
The dates of sowing shall be adjusted such that the reproductive stage of the
crop shall not pass through the drought, inaddition to other stages for critical
crop growth.
8.
Effective control of pests and diseases by timely using the pesticides and
insecticides.
9.
Correcting nutrient deficiencies and use of recommended doses of fertilizers.
10.
Application
of
antitranspirants
and
use
of
mulches
evapotranspiration.
11.
Application of irrigation at appropriate stages of crop growth.
will
reduce
12.
Weed control by keeping the land fallow has an added effect in conserving the
moisture.
13.
Putting of range lands with heavy disks or similar equipment to make a more
rapid and complete infiltration.
14.
Shaping of land so that the water stays where it falls or runoff from a slope to
Irrigate a level bench below the slope.
ANALYSIS OF DROUGHT:
Droughts can not be predicted as they are not cyclic and have no persistence.
There had been attempts to analyse the drought for many years.
1.
Rainfall data alone is Insufficient to quantify drought. In addition to the rainfall,

air temperature was taken Into consideration to classify droughts by many
leading scientists in the earlier part of this century.
2.
Precipitation, evapotranspiration and available soil moisture In the root zone

are used as inputs to quantify the occurrence of agricultural drought.
3.
Models requiring exhaustive data and calculation procedures are developed

recently. As the crop growing season is generally lower than an year (except
for horticultural plantations) ft was recognised that periods of less than an year
should be, studied to analyse the agricultural drought.
4.
Monthly weather data were used to analyse meteorological drought by many

scientists. These are found to analyse the drought condition with respect to
climatic aridity, agricultural production and stream flow.
5.
Most of the workers interested in agricultural drought analysis now use either
weekly periods or daily periods. Daily values tend to vary a great deal and are
difficult to analyse on a large scale. Weekly periods are, therefore found to be
more suitable in analysing drought and scheduling irrigation.
RESEARCH NEEDS:
Research on the following topics may be undertaken to ameliorate the
conditions in drought prone areas.
a)
Climatological water balance studies.
b)
Dynamics of soil moisture.
c)
Delineation of arid and semi-arid regions.
d)
System analysis approach for crop planning.
e)
Statistical analysis of inter-relationship between various weather parameters

and crop yields.
f)
Water harvesting techniques and quantification of rainfall.
g)
Studies on radioactive and thermal characteristics of crops.
h)
Microclimatic studies like shelter-belts and wind barriers.
i)
Identification of rainfall pattern and quantification of crop yields under rainfed

conditions.
j)
Energy balance studies.
k)
Crop weather models etc.
ASSIGNMENT
1.
What are the major droughts that our state experienced? Give a detailed
account of the steps taken to combat drought in the fifth five year plan.
8. AIR TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the dominant factor controlling the rate at which a crop

develops. There are different instruments to measure the standard air temperature.
Different types of thermometers used in agrometeorological research are based on
different variables which include
Mercury in glass
1. Displacement
Alcohol in glass
Mercury in steel
Bimetallic thermometers
2. Pressure
Pressure thermometer
3. Resistance change
Resistance thermometer
4. Voltage
Thermocouple Thermopile
5. Radiation
Infra-red thermometer
The following five instruments are used to measure air temperature in most of
the observatories.
1. MAXIMUM THERMOMETER:
Principle: Expansion of mercury occurs due to change in air temperature
which is measured by observing the height of mercury column in the bore (capillary)
of the thermometer.
Operation and Measurement: Maximum temperature is the highest
temperature reached during a particular time in a day. Eventhough it may be obtained
by observing the thermograph, it is also known from a maximum thermometer, where
selfrecording thermograph facility is not available. The dry bulb thermometer provides
instantaneous values of temperature. But maximum thermometer is used to measure
the maximum temperature.
1.
The simplest maximum thermometer is a mercury in glass thermometer.
2.
The bore in the stem of this thermometer is made extremely fine near the neck
of the bulb which is called as 'constriction'.
3.
The presence of this constriction, where the capillary joins the bulb,
differentiates this thermometer from other ordinary mercurial thermometers.
4.
The constriction is of such a size that, it only allows the expanding mercury to
pass, as the temperature rises. But when the temperature drops, the column of
mercury breaks at the constriction leaving a part in the bore.
5.
The mercury in.the bulb can then contract while the mercury column remains
above the constriction.
6.
The length. of the mercury column in the bore, thus provides the maximum
temperature reached since the thermometer was last set.
7.
This thermometer is mounted on a special support so that ft can be released

and turned to a vertical position.
8.
This can be reset by whirling it rppidly in the horizontal direction so that the
detached thread of mercury comes down past the constriction into the bulb.
9.
Repeat the swinging till the thermometer -reads the same value as that of the
dry bulb temperature.
10.
This should be read to the nearest tenth of a degree.
11.
After each observation the maximum thermometer has to be set and kept
ready for the next observation.
II.MINIMUM THERMOMETER:
Principle: Expansion and contraction of alcohol in the bore (capillary) of the

thermometer which occur due to changes in air temperature as recorded by an index.
Operation and measurement: Minimum temperature is the lowest air
temperature recorded during a day or for a fixed time. This may be obtained from
thermograph readings also.
However, minimum thermometer provides a record of
the lowest temperature occuring at a place of exposure from the time of setting until it
is read, where thermograph facility is not available.
1.
This is an instrument used to measure the minimum temperature of the day.
2.
This has a large bore and its fluid is colouriess ethyl alcohol or alcohol.
3.
Within the liquid in the bore of the tube, a tiny dark dumb bell shaped index,
made up of a metal, is present.
4.
When the temperature decreases the liquid contracts with the decreasing
temperature. The miniscus of the liquid pulls the index down due to surface
tension.
5.
When the temperature rises again the alcohol flows around the index. The
miniscus moves up the bore. However, it leaves the index behind, at-the
lowest point to which the liquid surface descends to register the lowest
temperature. reached during a day.
6.
The position of the end of the dumb bell shaped index, farthest from the bulb
(the upper surface of the index) marks the lowest temperature.
7.
At the same time the alcohol surface always indicate the current air
temperature.
8.
The minimum thermometer should always be kept in horizontal position,

Otherwise, the metallic- index will fall through the liquid to the bottom of the
tube.
9.
After the readings are taken a magnet is used to reset the thermometer and is
restored to the horizontal position. Resetting can also be accomplished by
inverting the stem until the index slides down the stem.
10.
This thermometer is graduated from -45 to +55 degrees centigrade.
11.
This should also be read to the nearest tenth of a degree, like maximum
thermometer.
12.
After setting the thermometer for next reading, the miniscus of the alcohol
should read the same temperature as dry bulb thermometer.
III. DRY BULB THERMOMETER:

Principle: Expansion or contraction of mercury, as per changes in air
temperature are observed in the bore (capillary) of the thermometer.
1.
This is an accurate ordinary mercury thermometer.
2.
In this,. mercury is enclosed in a sealed glass tube.
3.
This has an uniform bore and a bulb at one end.
4.
The expansion or contraction of mercury takes place as per the changes in the
temperature.
5.
This is graduated from -10 to +50 degrees centigrade for direct reading.
6.
This instrument always record the current air temperature.
IV. WET BULB THERMOMETER:

Principle: The expansion and contraction of mercury take place as per the
changes in air temperature, under wet condition of bulb made moist by muslin cloth.
1.
This is also same as that of dry bulb thermometer. But, the bulb is covered
with a muslin.
2.
The bulb is continuously kept moist with the muslin cloth.
3.
The other end of the cloth is dipped in a container with water, preferably
distilled water.
4.
Evaporation from the muslin lowers the temperature of the bulb.
5.
This thermometer indicates the temperature of the ambient air under saturated
conditions.
6.
The difference between the readings of wet and dry bulb thermometers is
called wet bulb depression.
7.
From the readings of the dry bt.;b and wet bulb depression, the relative
humidity as well as vapour pressure can be found with the help o#' a calibrated
table.
8.
The relative humidity is always expressed as percentage.
V. THERMOGRAPH:
Principle: Two metals having different co-efficient of expansions like InvarBronze are welded together to form a sensitive element. This is connected by a
system of linkages to a pen recording on a chart wrapped on a drum which is
operated by a clock work.
Operation and measurement: This is a self recording device. This is used to

obtain continuous and accurate record of air temperature.
1.
The sensitive element of this instrument is a bimetallic coil as mentioned in the

principle above.
2.
One end of this element is fixed and the other end touches a delicate set of
lever mechanism which operates a pen arm.
3.
The tip of the arm is selfinked and touches the calibrated chart wrapped
around the rotating drum.
4.
The drum completes one rotation in a day of 24 hours and works on a clock
mechanism.
5.
When the temperature changes the curvature of the bimetallic are increases or
decreases due to difference in the expansion of two metals.
6.
These changes are recorded on the calibrated chart.
7.
The X - axis of the chart represents time and Y - axis temperature.
8.
This device works with a precision of 0.25 degrees celsius.
9.
The chart has to be replaced every day.
10.
For accurate recordings, the clock should be checked regularly, the recording
sheet should be fixed firmly and the pen must be kept clear.
11.
The thermograph is located in a, double Stevenson screen.
Units of measurement:
In agricultural meteorology the two basic scales of temperature used are;
a) Centigrade
b) Fahrenheit
Relationship between oC and oF is
o
F = 32 + 9/5 oC
C = 5/9 (oF-32)
In meteorology for upper air measurements the absolute scale of temperature
is used. The relationship between oA and oC is,

o
273.16 + oC
EXERCISE
Aim: To measure the air temperature at different sites and also to find whether
there is any difference in air temperature at different levels in a crop canopy.
Relevant information: The Sun should not shine and rain must not fall on
temperature measuring instruments.
Free flow of air over the bulbs is essential for
accurate measurement of air temperature. To achieve all these conditions, all the
temperature measuring instruments shall be mounted in the Stevenson screen. When
a thermometer is exposed to air, it reads its own temperature but not the ambient air
temperature. It is not desirable to measure the temperature on the top of a high
building. The reason is that the sunshines directly on the thermometer and also the
reflected longwave radiation from the structure of the building falls on the bulb@ The
bulb becomes hotter than the air around it. If it is not exposed to freely moving air, it
indicates the temperature of the localised air. So, to measure the correct air
temperature the thermometers should be placed in a freely moving air and there
should be better thermal contact between the air and the bulb of the thermometer.
This can be achieved by placing it in a Stevenson screen or carefully shielded
insulating metal caps.
Material:
1. Dry bulb thermometers - 7 Nos.

2. Stevenson screen boxes or insulating metal shields - 7 Nos.
3. Clock watches
- 2 Nos.
4. Tables or supporting stands - 6 Nos.

5. Graphsheets - 2nos., Pencil - I no.
Procedure:
1.
Mount the dry bulb thermometers vertically in the Stevenson screen/metal

shields, as seen in the observatories.
2.
Take 4 thermometers and keep one each on tables in the practical class room,
in the open field, under the shade of a tree, near a water surface, all at 4 feet
above the ground.
3.
Of the remaining three, one shall be placed in between the rows of a crop field
and the other one just at the top of the crop canopy on a table and the last
one, one metre height above the crop canopy.
4.
Record 5 to 6 readings at 15 minute intervals in the recording sheet provided

in this exercise. L)se pencil only.
5.
Cornpare the readings with those recorded in a thermograph.
Graph: Plot 2 graphs, one each for the readings in the recording sheets.
Results: calculations and conclusions:

Station / Location
Lat:
Crop:
a)
Crop Height:
Long
Alti.
Crop Stage:
Date:
Measurement of air temperature at different levels In & crop canopy.

Thermometer readings
Site
S.No.
(hr)
1.
100 cm above the crop

canopy
2.
Just at the level of the

crop height
3.
10-15 cm height from the

ground in between the
rows
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
b) Measurement of air temperature at different sites at 4 feet height above the

ground.
Thermometer readings
S.No.
Site
1.
Class room
2.
Open field
3.
Under the shade of a tree
4.
Near a water surface
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
ASSIGNMENT
1.
What s current temperature? How do you measure it?
2.
How does a maximum thermometer differ from an ordinary mercurial

thermometer?
3.
What is the correct position for reading the thermometer?
4.
Convert 75o F Into degrees Celsius?
5.
Convert 30o C into absolute temperature?
6.
Draw the sketches of different thermometers explained in the class.
9. SOIL TEMPERATURE
Soil temperature is also an important micro-meteorological parameter like air
temperature. This parameter influences the crop growth starting from seed
germination to harvesting.
MEASUREMENT OF SOIL TEMPERATURE:
The instruments generally used to measure the soil temperature are:
a) Mercury thermometer
b) Resistance thermometer
c) Thermocouple thermometer
For most of the agricultural purposes, the soil temperature may be measured
atleast at two depths. The depths at which the soil temperature shall be measured Is
at the discretion of the micro-meteorologist. He has to depend on the instruments
which are available with him and the stage of crop growth Including its ground cover
etc. However, the world meteorological committee recommended that the standard
depths for Earth temperature measurements should be 10,20,50 and 100
centimeters, In our country Earth temperatures are measured at various depths as
recommended by India Meteorological Department. The usual depths Include
1,5,15,30,50,100 and 150 centimeters.
MEASUREMENT
OF
EARTH
TEMPERATURE
WITH
MERCURY
THERMOMETERS IN AN OBSERVATORY,.
Principle: Same as any other mercury-in-glass thermometers. A vessel is an
extra part and this is arranged in the corresponding depth where as its scale Is
situated above the Earth's surface In order to facilitate the reading. A metal support is
used to give strength in mounting.
1.
For measurement of Earth temperature at shallow depths, the thermometers

are bent in between 60 and 120o for convenience of reading.
2.
Even though the vessel Is arranged in the corresponding depth, it's scale is
exposed for, excellent and easy view.
3.
Mercury-in-glass thermometers are also used for depths of 50, I 00 and 150
centimeters.
4.
These thermometers also consist of glass vessel filled with mercury and of the
glass capillary fused to it.
5.
As soon as the temperature rises, the mercury is pressed into the glass
capillary.
6.
A scale support is arranged behind the capillary.
7.
Scale support and capillary are surrounded by an enclosing tube, the lower
part of which is melted together with the mercury vessel.
8.
The immersion depth is calculated from the lower end of the thermometer bulb
upto the middle of the bulge situated in the upper part of the stem.
9.
In some commercial makes, the bulbs are embedded in wax and hung in metal
tubes in contact with soil.
10.
Care is also taken to see that water does not enter the tubes.
11.
In all the observatories, the Earth thermometers are installed on a level bare
ground with no water logging even during heavy rains,
12.
It Is desirable to keep each thermometer 45 centimeters apart, and the scale

portion of each thermometer shall be Inclined towards the North.
13.
The measuring field should be free from weeds.
14.
These are also read at the two usual prescribed timings.
15.
The thermometers 100 and 150 centimeters depths are to be removed from
their places to record the observations.
Note: The above procedure Is to be followed in the measurement of Earth
temperature In an observatory but not in a cropped field.
MEASUREMENT OF SOIL TEMPERATURE IN A CROPPED FIELD WITH

MERCURY THERMOMETERS:
In a cropped field the mercury thermometers have to be kept at 2.5 and 7.5 cm
in shallow root crops and 5 and 15 cm or according to the need In deep root crops,
Principle: Same as above,

1.
The mercury thermometers shall be placed at appropriate depths in all the

treatments of the proposed experiment,
2.
The above procedure (as mentioned in the measurement of Earth

temperature) -shall be adopted while taking the readings, with the following
changed.
3.
The crop should not be given Irrigation at the time of observations i.e,, the field
should not be at saturated conditions,
4.
Keep the thermometers close to the root zone and not in between the rows.
5.
There should be proper contact between the bulb and soil.
6.
Insertion of the thermometers should not disturb the soil structure.
7.
If any breaks are noticed in the mercury column whirl gently till the column is
uniform.
8.
Install the thermometer along a line running East to West.
OTHER DEVICES USED FOR MEASUREMENT OF SOIL TEMPERATURE IN

CROP
CANOPIES:
The thermal conductivity of soil changes with structure and compactness of the
soil. It is not as easy as one assumes to measure the correct temperature of the soil
with mercury thermometer. The problems include aeration of the soil, coverage of soil
with crop canopy, moisture content of the soil etc. So, the soil heat flux plates are
used to measure heat flux instead of soil temperature. The other devices are:
a) Thermocouples of sturdy construction.
b) Soil heat flux-plates.
c) Insertion of sensors connected to an automatic weather station.
The procedure for collection of data is explained in the experiment.
Units of Measurement: oC
EXERCISE
Airn: To determine the soil heat flux using soil heat flux plates.
Material: Soil heat flux plates, millivoltmeter etc.

Relevant information: Soil heat flux can be measured with the help of heat
flux plates. The relationship is
G.T
where:
= lamda(Tt - Tb)/ L
lamda = Thermal conductivity

L
= Depth of soil
Tt
= Temperature at the top of the plate
Tb
= Temperature at the bottom of the plate
Procedure:
1.
Fix the flux plate at 2.5 or 3 cm below the soil in a crop field.
2.
Connect the heat flux plate to the millivoltmeter properly.
3.
Switch the knob of the millivoltmeter to 'on' with the button.
4.
Record the observed values.
5.
Repeat the process for 4 to 6 times at 15 minutes interval.
6.
To minimise the error fix the sensor plate properly and it should be thin.
7.
Record the observations in the recording sheet No: 9.1
Graph: Plot a neat graph with the information obtained as above.

Results: Calculations and conclusions:

Location / Station
S.No. Type
of soil
Date
Time in
Thermal
Temp. at Temp. at (Tt- Tb)
IST
Conductivity
top
(L)
bottom
o
Tt ( C)
G.T
/L
Tt ( C)
Note: The values of thermal conductivity for different types of soils are available in
relevant books.
For wet sandy soil it is 2.2 watts per metre per degree centigrade.
For dry sandy soil it is 0.29 watts per metre per degree centigrade.
EXERCISE
Aim: To measure the soil temperature and heat flux in a crop field using
mercury in glass thermometers.
Material: Two each of Soil thermometers of I and 5 centimetres depth.
Procedure:
1.
Fix the soil thermometers of depth 1 and 5 centimetres in a crop canopy.
2.
Fix the same type of another set of thermometers in an open field.
3.
Follow the procedure explained above in fixing the thermometers both in the
crop and open fields.
4.
Record the observations for 4-to 6 times at 15 minutes interval, in the

recording sheet No: 9.2
Graph:Plot a neat graph with the information obtained as above.

Results, calculations and conclusion:
Note: From the readings obtained above by using the following equation, soil
heat flux can be determined using the following formula:
G = -K dT/dZ
G
where
= Heat flux in watts per metre per metre.
dT = Temperature difference between two depths.

dZ = Difference in depth.
K
= Thermal conductivity of soil.

Soil Temperature (oC)
In a crop canopy
In the open field
Time
S.No
On the
in IST
On the
At 5 cm
At 5 cm
Difference Surface
Difference
surface (1cm) depth
depth
(1 cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
ASSIGNMENT
1.
What is the difference between soil temperature and soil heat flux?
2.
Why there is variation in temperature of the soil and air?
3.
Draw a neat sketch of soil thermometer and label it properly.
10. HUMIDITY
Humidity is an, important agro climatic factor in crop production since it is a
major determinant of potential evapotranspiration. This is not an independent variable
but is closely related to the rainfall and temperature. The atmospheric humidity is
measured by a wide range of instruments. These are grouped into a number of
classes, for, convenience. However, strict classification has not been possible as on
date. Because these instruments are manufactured based on various principles.
Among the multitude of methods. some common principles based on which the
hygrometers working are mentioned below.
S.No.
1.
Method
Mechanical
Principle
Contraction or expansion of absorbing material
with changes -in moisture content.
2.
Psychrometric
Difference between wet and dry bulb readings,

which work on unventilated and forced
ventilations.
3.
Dew. point
Deposition of moisture from gas by cooling in

Which a mirror is used, to observe the formation
of dew.
4.
Chemical
Changes In chemical reactions due to

absorption of water from volume of air.
5.
Electrical
Measurement of electrical resistance of a thin

film of hygroscopic material when exposed to air.
6.
Gravimetric
Known volume of air is drawn through a

weighed drying agent which will absorb moisture
from it and the increase in the weight of the agent
measured directly.
7.
Spectroscopic
Variation in the intensity of selected absorbing

spectral lines with change in humidity of air.
8.
Microwave
Absorption of microwaves by. water vapour.
The most commonly used instruments to measure the relative humidity are: 1.
WET AND DRY BULB HYGROMETER:
Principle: Difference between wet and dry bulb readings, because of change
of rate of evaporation from the underlying wet surface.
Operation and measurement: This hygrometer is handy and an accurate
device. Used for outside measurements and also in crop fields.
1.
This consists of two rnercury-in-glass thermometers graduated between -10

and 50 degrees centigrade and mounted side by side.
2.
One is mounted a little lower than the other and its bulb is covered with a piece
of fine muslin cloth, which-is wetted with distilled water at the time of
observation.
3.
The other end of the cloth is dipped in a container filled with pure
water(distilled water).
4.
Both the thermometers are exposed to air, tl)e humidity of which is to be

measured.
5.
The dry bulb thermometer indicates current air temperature where as the wet
bulb thermometer indicates the temperature of air under saturated conditions.
6.
The moisture in muslin of wet bulb evaporates and the latent heat is absorbed
by the evaporating there by moisture causing the temperature reading of wet
bulb thermometer to fall.
7.
When the speed of the unsaturated air is equal or more than five feet per
second and passes over the bulb of the thermometer, water evaporates from
the wet bulb depending upon relative humidity and rate of air movement.
8.
The difference between the readings of wet and dry bulb thermometers is
called wet bulb depression.
9.
From the readings of the dry bulb and wet bulb depression, the relative
humidity can be found with the help of calibrated tables.
10.
The relative humidity is expressed as percentage.
Note: The relative humidity can also be measured from the readings of dry
and wet bulb temperatures recorded in the Stevenson screen using psychrometric
charts. A wet and dry bulb thermometer differs from thermometers mounted in
Stevenson screen. In Stevenson screen the thermometers are mounted separately,
apart from each other, where as in wet and dry bulb thermometers, they are mounted
side by side on a frame, being protected from exposure to direct solar radiation.
II. ASSMANN PSYCHROMETER:
Principle: The difference between wet and dry bulb readings when
unsaturated air passes over the bulbs of thermometers on forced ventilation.
Operation and measurement: This is the best available psychrometer for
humidity measurement in micro-meteorological research of crop plants. This is
portable and also called as 'Aspiration psychrometer.
1.
In this instrument two sensitive, calibrated mercury in glass thermometers are

enclosed in a double walled radiation screen.
2.
Usually, nickel plated coaxial tubes which are thermally insulated from rest of
the apparatus are used to minimise the radiation effects.
3.
Of the two thermometers, one is dry bulb and the other one is covered with
thin muslin cap which is moistened with distilled water everytime the
instrument is used.
4.
To ensure adequate opportunity of evaporation from the wick of the wet bulb
the psychrometer is aspired by a clock work motor housed in the casing. In the
recent commercial versions, a small direct current motor is also being used.
5.
The wet bulb must be on the down stream side of the dry bulb i.e. nearer the
fan. This should be done to prevent the cold air from the wet bulb impinging on
the dry bulb.
6.
The depression of wet bulb temperature below the dry bulb temperature in an
unsaturated air is due to the evaporation of water from the muslin around the
wet bulb and the consequent cooling due to evaporation phenomenon.
7.
The relative humidity can be computed from the tables, given in the annexure
(1).
8.
In recent commercial makes thermometers are replaced by differential

thermocouples.
Note: Hygrometric tables meant for Assmann psychrometer should not be

used for computing relative humidity from Stevenson screen temperatures, and vice
versa. Tables appropriate to the altitude of the station should be used. Please, follow
the annexure (1) given in this book.
Ill. HAIR HYGROMETER:

Principle: When the air is dry, the cells in the hair are close together. But,
when the air is humid, the space between the cells absorbs water vapour and the hair
thickens and lengthens. This contraction or expansion of hair with change in moisture
content is used to measure the moisture.
Operation and measurement: This instrument measures relative humidity and is
easy to carry to distant places.
1.
A bunch of human hair is used in a socket.
2.
On absorption of moisture, any slight increase In the volume of hair is

magnified
3.
by a delicate set of I.ever mechanism.
To this lever mechanism a pointer is fixed which can move over a Scale
graduated from 0 to 100 percent.
4.
When the humidity changes, corresponding Change occurs in the length of

hair. So, the pointer moves because of the movement in the lever mechanism.
5.
The pointer which moves across a scale. indicates the relative humidity
directly.
IV. HAIR HYGROGRAPH:

Principle: Same as hair hygrometer. However., to record the continuous
changes in relative humidity on graph paper during the hours of the day, a recording
mechanism is used.
When a hygrometer is transformed into a sell recording device ft is called as a
hygrograph. This is used to record the relative humidity of the air continuously.
Operation and measurement
1.
A band of human hair is fixed on the levers and any slight increase in the
volume is transmitted to the pen arm.
2..
The pen arm is self-inked and works on levers.
3.
A change in the length of hair is proportional to the log change of relative

humidity
4.
A calibrated chart is wrapped around a rotating drum. This completes one

rotation In 24 hours, and works on clock mechanism.
5.
The X-axis represents time and Y-axis, the relative humidity.
6.
The chart has to be replaced everyday.
7.
The dust on the hair should be cleaned and washed regularly. The hair should
not be touched with hand.
8.
This instrument should be exposed in double Stevenson screen. The screen

should be located in a place where the air is not polluted with smoke, dust, oil
and amrnonia releasing industries in the immediate surroundings.
Units of measurement: Percentage

STEVENSON'S SCREEN:
1.
It is a wooden box designed by a British scientist Mr. Stevenson.
2.
It is made up of small pieces of wood (panes) which are fitted obliquely to

prevent direct entry of air inside.
3.
It is provided with double roofing with air in between the two roofs.
4.
As air is a poor conductor of heat, ft serves as an insulator.
5.
The upper roof has a mild slope to drain off the rain water.
6.
It has one or two doors or windows which should only open either towards 'N'
or 'S' to avoid the rays of Sun falling directly on the thermometers.
7.
This box is kept on a wooden stand at a height of about 4 feet above the
ground surface.
8.
The box and the stand are painted white throughout.
9.
The Stevenson screen is meant for keeping the instruments like minimum, and
maximum thermometers, self recording instruments namely, thermograph,
barograph and hygrograph etc.
10.
This is available in two (2) different sizes and the inside dimensions are as
follows:
Instrument
11.
Length (cm)
Width (cm)
Panes Height (cm)
S.S.S
45.5
27
38
D.S.S
91.0
27
38
Minimum and Maximum thermometers are kept horizontally where as wet and
dry bulb thermometers are kept vertically on either side of minimum and
maximum thermometers.
12.
In all types of observatories these are fixed for recording weather data.
EXERCISE
Aim: To measure the Relative humidity In a maize crop (or any other field
crop) and compare with open field observations.
Material
1, Assman psychrometers - 6 Nos.
2. Distilled water - 100 ml.
3. Thin Posts with clamps at 3 heights - 2 Nos.
4. Wooden bench of 1.5 metres height - I No.
5. clock watches - 2 Nos.
Procedure
1.
Fix one thin post in the middle of a maize crop Or any other field crop, in
between the rows.
2.
Fix another thin post in an open field at a distance of 50 metres Or more.
3.
Ask one helper each to be nearer these Posts with 2 Assmann psychrorneters
Per head.
4.
Mount one psychrometer to the clamp fixed at a level equal to the top of the
crop. Mount another one to the clamp which is fixed 1( to 15 cm from the
ground and the third to the clamp which is 100 cm above the crop.
5.
Fix the other 3 psychrometers in the open field also, just at the same heights
as in the maize crop.
6.
At these 2 places moisten the wet bulbs of the psychrometers at the same
time.
7.
Wind the clock-work motors at both the places.
8.
Wait for 2 (two) minutes until the wet bulb reading becomes steady.
9.
Read the wet bulb.
10.
Read the dry bulb.
11.
Repeat the same process at 15 minutes interval for a minimum of 4 to 6 times

at both heights in each place. Record the observations in the recording sheet
no. 10.1
12.
While taking the readings at 100 cm above the crop, use a wooden bench.
13.
Compute the relative humidity from the suitable tables, as given in the
annexure 1.
Graph: Plot a graph with time on X axis and relative humidity on Y axis for different
readings.
Results: calculations and conclusions:

Station/Location:
Crop:
Lat
Height:
Long
E Alt.(AMSL):
Stage:
metres
Date:
a) Measurement of relative humidity at different levels in a (
) crop canopy.
Psychrometer readings
S.No.
Height of the
Psychrometer
1.
Psychometer readings
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
100 cm above the

crop height
2.
Just at the level of

crop height
3.
10 to 15 cm height in
between the row
b) Measurement of relative humidity in the open field.

S.No.
Height of the
Psychrometer
1.
Psychometer readings
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
(hr)
Height equal to 100

cm from the top of the
crop
2.
Height equal to the

top of the crop
3.
10 to 15 cm height in
above the ground
ASSIGNMENT
1.
What is the difference between the principles used in mechanical and chemical
methods of measuring relative humidity ?
2.
What are the major differences between hair hygrometer and hair hygrograph
?
3.
How an Assmann psychrometer differs from a wet and dry bulb hygrometer?
4.
Calculate the relative humidity if the amount of water vapour present at 30 oC

in Bapatla is 20 grams per cubic metre and at the same temperature the
amount of water that can be held is 50 grams per cubic metre.
5.
Draw the diagrams of Assmann psychrometer, Hair hygrometer and Hair

hygrograph.
11. PRESSURE
The weight exerted by a column of air on unit surface of the Earth is known as
atmospheric pressure. This can be measured by an instrument called barometer.
There are two types of barometers, viz.,
1) Mercury barometers
2) Aneroid barometers
Of these two, the most accurate instrument is the mercurial barometer. This is
used as standard for calibrating the others. The following instruments are used to
measure the atmospheric pressure.
1. MERCURIAL BAROMETERS:
There are two types of mercurial barometers.
A) Fortin's baroi-neter
B) Kew pattern barometer
A) FORTIN'S BAROMETER:
Principle: Balancing of column of air against a column of mercury in a sealed
glass tube. The height of the mercury column is proportional to the pressure.
1)
The Fortin's barometer is a familiar sight at most of the micro-meteorological

laboratories and is an accurate one.
2)
It consists of a glass tube of uniform cross section and length, which is closed
at one end.
3)
It is about one metre in length, filled with mercury and then inverted with it's
lower end open into a movable cistern of mercury.
4)
The cistern vessel contains mercury with a flexible leather bag and screw at
it's bottom.
5)
There are two scales on two sides of the tube, one in centimetres and the
other in inches.
6)
For accurate readings vernier calipers is also attached.
7)
The mercury column in the tube is supported by the pressure of the air on the
surface of the mercury in the cistern.
8)
To take the pressure reading, the height of mercury column is measured on

main scale and then vernier scale is read.
9)
To read the Fortin's barometer:
a) Read the attached thermometer to the nearest degree before the time
specified (or barometer observation.
b) Gently tap the cistern and tube of the instrument 2 to 3 times with the fingers.
c) Raise the surface of the mercury in the cistern by screwing up the plunger at
the base until the tip of the ivory point just touches it,s image in the clear
mercury surface.
d) Set the lower edge of the vernier tangent to the top of miniscus.
e) Flead the scale and the vernier.
f) Check the reading by making a fresh setting.
B) KEW PATTERN BAROMETER:
Principle: Same as Fortin's barometer.
1.
This is also like the Fortin's barometer, but is easy to operate.
2.
In this the cistern vessel is fixed and has no adjusting screw.
3.
To allow the rise and fall of mercury in the cistern the divisions are made
unequal.
4.
The initial adjustment of cistern is not required.
5.
To set and read this barometer

a) Observe the thermometer attached to the barometer and note the
temperature in degrees absolute.
b) Tap the instrument gently.
c) Set the vernier scale properly.
d) Read the readings.
II. ANEROID BAROMETERS: A) ANEROID BAROMETER:

Principle: Aneroid means without liquid. LJse of sylphon cell which is a
partially evacuated metal diaphragm, expands or collapses depending upon the
outside pressure.
I.
This is constructed with one or more (upto 14) bellows that have been partially
evacuated.
2.
Each bellow may contain an internal spring or may be constructed from

tempered steel which acts as a spring.
3.
The spring forces the bellows apart against force exerted by the atmospheric
pressure.
4.
If the atmospheric pressure decreases the springs expand and vice-versa if

the pressure increases.
5.
The variations of the bellows with pressure changes is mechanically linked to

an indicator on a calibrated dial.
6.
Aneroid barometers are suitable for out door measurements and are also used
as altimeters ( devices used to find the height above the ground
B) ANEROID BAROGRAPH:
Principle: The sensitive element in this device is an aneroid capsule which
consists of a closed circular \,accum box or boxes placed one above the other. The
box is made of an alloy of silver plated berylleium copper. As the atmospheric
pressure rises or falls the walls of the box collapse or distand proportional to the
impressed pressure changes. The motion is communicated to a lever system
connected to a rotating drum on which recording is made.
Operation and measurement: This is an instrument used to record the
atmospheric pressure continuously.
1.
The characteristics of the sensitive element of a barograph are a) Thin walled

b) Corrugated c) Silver plated, and d) Aneroid.
2.
The movement of aneroid box corresponding to pressure changes depends

upon a) The dimensions of the aneroid box and the thickness of the corrugated
diaphragm, and b) The kind of material used in making the diaphragm.
3.
The cumulative effect of pressure fluctuations will be recorded by a spindle

running centrally through the boxes.
4.
One end of the spindle is fixed and the other end touches a lever mechanism.
5.
This mechanism operates a pen arm, the tip of which is self-inked and touches
a chart wrapped around a rotating drum.
6.
This works with a clock mechanism and completes one rotation in 24 hours.
7.
The graph chart is calibrated vertically in pressure units and horizontally in

time units.
8.
The pressure is recorded to the precision of one millibar.
9.
The chart of barograph has to be replaced everyday.
10.
Any defect due to temperature can be corrected by leaving certain quantity of

dry air.
11.
To reduce the friction error, a clean pen with proper point should be used.
Units of measurements:
I.
Height of mercury column is measured in inches, centirnetres or millimetres.
2.
Bar is equal to 10 ro dynes per sq.cm.
The S.I. unit for pressure is Pascal and this is equal to a force of one newton
per sq. m.
One atmospheric pressure = 29-92 inches
or 76 cm or 760 mm of Hg
= 1013.250 millibar
= 101.325 kilopascal (kPa) 14.7 lbs / inch2
= 1.014 X 106 dynes / cm2
EXERCISE
Aim: To measure the vapour pressure at different sites.
Material:
1. Wet and dry bulb hygrometers - 6 Nos.
2. Distilled water - 100 ml.
3. Thin posts with two clamps - 3 Nos.
4. Clock watches - 2 Nos.
Procedure:
1.
Fix one thin post each in an open field, a crop with at least one metre height and
on a building of atleast 6 to 8 metres height.
2.
Mount a pair of the wet and dry bulb hygrometers to the clamps fixed at 75 cm
apart. Adjust the placement in such a way that the bottom hygrometer is atleast
25 cm above the ground.
3.
At these three places moisten the wet bulbs of the psychrometers at the same
time.
4.
Wait for 2 (two) minutes until the wet bulb reading has become steady.
5.
Read the wet bulb.
6.
Read the dry bulb.
7.
Repeat the same process at 15 minutes interval for a minimum of 4 to 6 times at

all the three places
8.
Compute the vapour pressure from the suitable tables and for wet and dry bulb
hygrometers. Please follow annexure (1).
9.
Record the observations in the recording sheet no. 11.1 provided in this exercise
Graph: plot a graph with the observations recorded with time on X-axis and vapour
pressure on Y-axis
Result, calculations and Conclusions :
RECORDING SHEET NO. 11.1

Station / Location
Crop:
Lat:
Crop Height:
Long
Crop Stage:
Alti.
Date:
S.No.
Time in IST
Hygrometer reading
Over a building
Upper
Lower
In a crop
Upper
Lower
Assignment
1. Draw the neat sketches of the devices explained in the class.
Open field
Upper
Lower
12. WIND
We may feel air when it moves, but no one can see it. It has weight and exerts
pressure. It is also mobile and both Compressible and expansible. Horizontally
moving air is called wind. The average motion of air for a few minutes, in a crop ca
PY is consider as wind by most of the micro-meteorologists. They do not believe in
instantaneous gusts and lulls as wind to describe wind at a given time, its direction,
speed, gustiness frequency must be specified.
WIND DIRECTION:
The direction from which the wind blowing is called as wind direction. This is
denoted by two methods. They are a) In points of compass and b) Degrees of
azimuth, as measured from the true North. The zero Point is true north. The other
points East, South and West are 90, 180 and 270 degrees respectively and these are
commonly written as 09, 18, 27. The North wind has direction 360o (36) and zero (0)
is not used except in connection with a 'calm'. In common practice, the wind
directions are referred to compass points such as N, NNW, NW etc.
a)
Points of compass: In this system the four main directions are sub-divided into 8
or 16 and it is called 8 or 16 point system.
b)
Degrees of azimuth: The zero of the circular scale indicates geographical North,
count the degrees while moving in clock-wise direction and ft indicates the wind
direction.
The instruments Used to measure the wind direction are.-
a)
Anemoscope: This records the direction of wind continuously.
b)
Aerovane: This measures the velocity and direction of the wind instantaneously.
c)
Windyane: This is used in observatories to find the wind direction.
WIND VANE:
Principle: From the pointer or arrow head of the balancing arm, the indications
of the direction are transmitted directly to a cam inside a ring of electrical contacts. By
means of contacts corresponding to the cardinal and inter cardinal points of compass
16 directions can be indicated. Another important means to transmit wind direction
(indications) is, by means of self-synchronous transmitting motor connected directly

to the wind vane.

1.
This consists of a balancing arm which is made up of a very light weight metal or
alloy which turns freely about a vertical axis.
2.
Bearings are provided to minimise frictional losses. The bearings should be

good enough to give free turn with light winds.
3.
In most common type of wind vanes, one end of the balancing arm exposes
a broacl surface to the wind. This is bifurcated and is known as 'fang'. While the
other end is narrow and points to the direction from which the wind blows. This
is known as pointer or arrow head.
4.
Under this movable system four to sixteen rods are fixed to a rigid cross.
5.
The arms of this cross are said to be the four cardinal directions i.e., North, East,
South and West. Some other commercial types are provided with eight to
sixteen cardinal direction Indicators.
6.
The wind vane is installed over a wooden plank which is fixed over the wooden
post, at about ten feet from the ground surface. The north indicator should be
set to true North and not to the magnetic North.
7.
The observer should stand nearer to the pole and record the mean position of
the arrow which oscillates over the cardinal direction.
8.
The wind direction should always be recorded as the point from which the wind
comes.
9.
The wind vane should be watched for few minutes before recording the direction
to get the mean observation. The direction of wind is given by the direction of
arrow.
10. The observer should make sure that the wind vane moves freely on the axis.
11. All parts should be washed with kerosene and lubricated once in every 3
months.
WIND VELOCITY OR SPEED:

To measure the wind velocity or the wind speed four principal types of
anemometers are used in general meteorological work. They are:
a)
Rotating cups
b)
Pressure plates
c)
Briddled or torque type
d)
Pressure tube anemometer

In micro-meteorological studies of crop plants, the knowledge of wind speed
with height is necessary for its profile description and to estimate the effectiveness of
vertical exchange processes, with the knowledge of wind speed, at a fixed or
reference level, R is also possible to estimate wind speed at other levels for various
applications. From the view point of a micro-meteorologist of crop plants, the
anemometers may be classified, as detailed below, depending upon principle used in
its manufacturing.
a)
Pressure
b)
Mechanical
c)
Thermoelectric
In the crop micro-meteorological research works, the following are used:
a)
Pressure tube anemometers
b)
Cup anemometers
c)
Thermoelectric anemometers
d)
Sonic anemometers
The anemometers used in most of the observatories are described below.
1. ROBINSON'S CUP ANEMOMETER:

This is a rotating cup anemometer, developed in 1846 A.D. This instrument
measures wind speed. Each rotation of the cup wheel corresponds to a definite
distance travelled by the wind. Therefore, the number of turns the cup wheel makes
in a given time interval corresponds to the distance the wind traveled in that interval.
The wind speed can be determined by dividing the distance travelled with time taken.
Principle: Three or four cups are extended over a vertical axis so that the
plane of the cup is in a vertical position. The wind pressure on the concave side of the
cup is greater than the convex side. This causes the cups to spin around the vertical
axis. By means of proper gear reductions, the rotation of the cups is calibrated in
terms of wind speed.

1.
This consists of 3 to 4 balancing arms which are made up of a very light metal or
alloy.
2.
Hemispherical or conical cups are attached to the ends of the arms to provide
necessary pressure gradient which is caused by the convex and concave
surfaces of the cup.
3.
As the force of the wind on the concave side of the cups is greater than that on
the convex side, the cups rotate due to kinetic energy.
4.
The balancing arm rotates freely over the vertical axis and at the point of
articulation, high grade ball bearings are provided to minimise frictional losses.
5.
The cups are extended on the vertical axis so that the plane of the cup is in a
vertical position. The force of the wind causes rotation.
6.
The rotating movement of balancing arms is transmitted to the spindle provided

in the vertical axis.
7.
The spindle is provided with the grooves which operates gauge and this is
transmitted to a fine digital meter.
8.
Friction is minimised by lubrication and ball bearings. The gauge is calibrated to

real units, tenths, hundreds of thousands.
9.
The rate of rotation of the cups increases with the wind speed. 54
10. The box contains a mechanism which establishes a contact when the cups have
rotated a certain number of times.
11. The anemometer is kept on a platform at a height of 10 feet from the ground
surface and the range of the meter is 0 to 9999.9.
12. An ideal cup anemometer should have no mechnical inertia and starting speed
low.
13. In a good cup anemometer there is a linear relationship between wind speed
and cup rotation per unit time.
14. The wind speed is obtained by measuring the run of the wind in kilometres for a
period of 3 minutes at the hour of observation and multiplying it by 20 to obtain
the wind speed in kilometres per hour. The mean wind speed in knots is
obtained by multiplying the wind in kilometres per hour by 0.54.
15. The wind speed increases with height in accordance with logarithmic law
in neutral conditions.
Hence, whenever wind speeds recorded at differentt
places are to be compared, the height of the anemometer should be taken into
account.
16. The height of the anemometer means the height of the cups above the ground.
There is no standard height of exposure for anemometers. However, the
anemometers at agromet observatories are exposed tg 3 metres above the
ground.
17. The bearings and gear should be cleaned and lubricated at regular intervals
II. BRIDDLED OR TORQUE ANEMOMETERS:

These are old type anemometers and can be seen, only in old meteorological
observatories.
1.
These are composed of a series of 32 or more cups around a wheel.
2.
The wind force acts on the cups which are held by a spring on the vertical shaft
of the cup wheel.
3.
The displacement of the cups, or their movement against the spring, represents
the wind force.
4.
This in turn can be translated into wind speed.
5.
The movement is usually transmitted to an indicating dial or recorded by means

of two self-synchronous motors.
Ill. PRESSURE TUBE ANEMOMETER:

This instrument is in use from 1892 A.D.
Principle: The speed of the wind is proportional to the square root of the
pressure difference divided by the air density. Since, density changes with pressure
and temperature variations, the speed is obtained from an indicator.
Operation and measurement,
1.
The anemometer consists of a 'pilot' tube which is kept pointed into the wind by
a vane.
2.
The forward end of the tube is open to the wind pressure.
3.
It is necessary to measure the pressure difference between wind pressure and

the static pressure or air pressure.
4.
A series of holes are arranged around an outer sleeve of the pilot head.
5.
Pressure difference is measured by a pressure gauge.

Often the vane and the cups are built into one instrument.
IV. DIGITAL ANEMOMETER:

This is an instrument used to measure the instantaneous speeds of the wind.
Principle: When the conventionally twisted vane arms are exposed to air, the
wind velocity is displayed on a remote sensor. This is done chiefly by a rotating
mechanism operated by a battery which is connected to the sensor head.
1.
This is a multi-function measurement i.e. m/s. km/h, f/m and knots.
2.
Low-friction ball bearings allow free vane movement.
3.
Very accurate at both high and low wind velocities.
4.
The sensitive balanced vane wheel rotates freely in response to air flow.
5.
'Data hold' function for storing the desired value on display.
6.
For easy readability, a large display of low power consumption is provided.
7.
SmaII and light weight design allow one hand operation.
Measurement of Wind speed at the hour of observation:
To determine the wind speed at a particular time, two successive readings are
taken at an interval of 3 minutes. The difference of the readings is multiplied by 20.
For example:
First anemometer reading
= 2090.0
Second anemometer reading
= 2093.01
Wind speed at that particular hour is

2093.01 - 2090.0 = 2.11 X 20 = 42.20 kmph.
To determine the average wind speed during the past 24 hours, the readings
of yesterday and today are required and the yesterday's reading is subtracted from
today's reading. The difference is divided by 24, which gives the average wind
velocity for the past 24 hours. For example:
Today's anemometer reading at
08 00 = 9563.5
Yesterday's anemometer reading at
08 00 = 9371.6
The difference
= 191.9
Average wind speed
191.9 / 24
8 kmph
Measurement of wind velocity:

1. Knot
2. Metre per second (m/s)
4. Miles per hour (mph)

1 knot
1 mph
I m/s
3. Kilometre per hour (kmph)
5. Feet per second (f/s).
1 Nautical mile
1.15 Status miles/h 0.5148 m/s
1,853 kmph
0,8684 knot
0.447 m/s
1.609 kmph
1.467 f/s
1.94
2.24 mph
3.6
knots
kmph
EXERCISE
Aim: To measure the wind speed with a digital anemometer at different sites.
Material:
Digital anemometer
2 nos.
Connecting Battery
2 nos.
(the output of the battery should be between 6.5 V and 7.5 V.)
Procedure:
1.
Slide the OFF/ON/HOLD selector to the 'ON' position.
2.
Based on the measuring requirement slide the Function selector to the 'm/s',
km/h', 'f/m' or 'knots' position.
3.
Hold the sensor handle by hand and let the sensor head opposite to the
measuring air flow source, then the display will show air velocities directly.
4.
The above procedure shall be followed at three different heights in two places.
5.
Of the two places to be selected one may be in a crop canopy and the other in
open field.
6.
In the crop field, place the sensor head simultaneously at 3 places i.e. I metre
above the crop canopy, 10 cm below the top of the crop and 10 cm from the
ground ( at the same time ).
7.
In the same way and at the same heights keep the other anemometer sensor
head in an open field also.
8.
Observe and record the readings and repeat five to six times at 15 minutes
interval. Graph: A graph may be plotted with the readings recorded above at 15
minutes interval.
Results: Calculations and Conclusions:
Record Sheet No. 12.1

Station / Location
Lat:
Long
Date:
Height.
(AMSL)
Measurement of wind speed at different height in and open field and crop field
Height of the
S.No sensor Head
(cm)
100 cm above
1. the crop
10 cm down
2. from the top of
a crop
10 cm from the
3. groud
Anemometer
In a crop field (
)
In an open field
hr hr hr hr hr hr hr hr hr hr hr
Note the measurement in the open field shall be at the same height as field
Assignment
1. Draw the neat sketches of the devices discussed in the class
hr
13. EVAPORATION
A change in the physical state of water from liquid to vapour is known as
evaporation. Evaporation from a surface is influenced not only by environmental
factors but also by the depth, size and state of evaporating surface and surroundings
etc.
There are four main types of evaporimeters or pans used for measuring
evaporation. They are
1. FLOATING PANS:
1.
These are made to float in water bodies with special devices.
2.
The loss of water from these pans is equal to the loss of water from the water
bodies in which the same are floating.
3.
These are costly and under windy weather the accuracy is reduced.
2. PANS PLACED ABOVE THE GROUND:

1.
These are installed on the ground.
2.
They include, 20 square metre evaporimeter, G.G.I. 3000 and the widely used
U.S. Weather Bureau Class 'A' pan evaporimeter etc.
3.
The major draw back in these instruments is the influence of sensible heat flux
on the sides and bottom of the pans.
4.
Increased rates of evaporation is a common feature.
3. SUNKEN PANS:
lnspite of problems like cleaning and heat leakage, these are most commonly
used by micro-meteorologists in crop studies (further details are given in the later part
of this exercise).
4. LYSIMETERS:
1.
These are very expensive and can not be moved from one place to another in
the same field laboratory.
2.
These are used to measure not only evaporation but also evapotranspiration.
The
most
commonly
used
evaporimeters
in
all
the
meteorological
observatories are
I.
U.S.W.B. Class 'A' open pan evaporimeter
II.
Sunken screen evaporimeter
Ill.
Evaporograph
1.
U.S.W.B. Class 'A'open pan evaporimeter (Mesh covered fixed Point

gauge)
Principle: The amount of water lost by evaporation from the free water surface
in the pan at any given interval of time is measured by adding known quantities of
water to the pan and bringing ft to the original level.
Operation and Measurement: This is an instrument used to measure the
amount of water lost by evaporation per unit area at a given interval of time. The
values of evaporation give a measure of evaporative power of the air layers near the
ground.
1.
This is made up of galvonised iron / or copper sheet of 20 gauge thickness.

10mm thick copper is the latest recommended standard.
2.
The pan of the evaporimeter is 122 centimeters in diameter and 25.5

centimeters in deep. It is painted white and is covered with a lid of hexagonal
mesh to protect the water from birds and squirrels.
3.
This is used to measure the rate of evaporation in mm/day with a precision of

0.1 mm.
4.
Water level in this appliance should be maintained upto 20 centimeters.
5.
In order to provide undisturbed water surface, a still-well is used. It is kept in the

pan at the base and is provided with 3 small openings (120 degrees apart) at its
bottom so that the water level of the pan corresponds to that of still-well.
6.
The reference point is provided by the brass rod, fixed at the centre of the stillwell and is tampered to end at a point exactly 190 mm above the base of the
pan.
7.
Measured quantities of water is added or removed to bring back the level of

water to it's original position.
8.
The rate of evaporation is determined by using the equation Volume = Area X

Depth.
9.
A hook gauge is used for measuring rate of evaporation. It works on the

principle of screw gauge and the least count is 0.1 mm.
10. The pan rests on a wooden platform which is painted white and placed about 3
to 4 inches above the ground surface. This allows free circulation of air and also
to detect leakages, if any.
11. A thermometer to measure the temperature of the water is fixed with a clamp to
the side of the pan so that the bulb dips 5 centimetres below the water surface.
12. If rain is there, the water level in the pan increases. So, water has to be removed
to bring back it's level to original position.
13. After knowing the depth of water it is easy to find evaporation (if any) as the
depth of the rainfall is already known from the rain gauge.
14. The measuring cylinder is a brass container with scale ranging from 0 - 20 cm.
The diameter is exactly one tenth that of the pan i.e 122 mm, which means the
cross sectional area of the cylinder is exactly one hundredth that of the pan. So,
200 mm of water from the cylinder added to the pan will raise the level of water
in the pan by 2 mm.
15. The amount of water lost by evaporation from the pan divided by the time
interval gives the rate of evaporation.
16. Since the capacity of cylinder is only 20 cm, the cylinder has to be filled more
than once ff over 2 mm of water is lost by evaporation. Calibrated charts are
also available to enable the semi-skilled workers to observe the corresponding
evaporation.
17. Observations with evaporimeter should be taken twice a day at 08:30 and 14:30
hours IST.
18. The observations are to be taken as detailed below.
a)
Read the thermometer just immersed in the water.
b)
When water level is below the reference point, add water to the
evaporimeter using the measuring cylinder.
c)
Add water until the tip of the fixed point equals the surface of the water in
the still-well.
d)
For example, one full cylinder and 10 cm. i.e., 30 cm of the water is added
to the pan. This divided by 100 i.e. 3.0 mi-n is the amount of water lost by
evaporation from the pan, it no rainfall occurred since the last observation.
e)
On a rainy day, if the amount of water "ded to bring the level equal to point
is 38 cm, the difference as per the above calibration in the description is 3.8
mm. If the rainfall is 5.7 mm during the day, then the evaporation is 5.7 3.8 = 1.9 mm.
f)
When there is light rain, and the water level may not rise then the
procedure to be followed is like this. If 20 cm of water is added to the pan
(i.e. 2.0 mm after calibration) and rainfall is 1.2 mm, then the actual
evaporation is 2.0 + 1.2 = 3.2mm.
19. Precautions to be taken include:

a) Repairs for any leaks must be attended as and when noticed.
b)
Clean the pan and stilling well regularly.
c) Paint the evaporimeter with white enamel paint every year.

d) Use lemon juice to remove white deposits on the bulb of the thermometer.
II. Sunken screen evaporimeter:

Principle: A still-well is attached to the evaporimeter through a connecting
tube. The whole instrument is buried into the ground. Measured quantities of water is
either added or removed to indicate the evaporation.
Operation and Measurement: This instrument comes under the category of

sunken pans.
1.
This is developed by Dr. Sharma and Dastane, in the year 1966 at Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, New Delhi.
2.
This is very useful in Agrometeorology observatories and Is more dependable

than other instruments.
3.
The pan of this evaporimeter is made up of galvanized iron sheet of 20 gauge

thickness.
4.
It has a diameter of 60 centim6tres and depth of 45 centimeters.
5.
A still-well with 15 centimeters diameter and 45 centimeters depth is attached to

the pan through a connecting tube.
6.
This evaporimeter is painted white throughout.
7.
Both the pan and still-well are covered with a lid of hexagonal mesh.
8.
Water level in this evaporimeter is maintained upto 35 centimeters from the

bottom of the pan.
9.
A pointer, attached to the wall of still-well and bent upwards at right angles to the
well, is used to maintain the water level.
10. The tip of the pointer is at a height of 35 centimeters from the bottom. The whole
instrument is buried into the ground upto a depth of 35 centimeters.
11. Measured quantities of water is either added or removed to bring back the level
of water. to its original position.
12. The rate of evaporation is determined by using the same equation, volume =
Area X depth.
13. Calibrated charts are also available for ready reference.
14. This evaporimeter is preferred over the U.S.W.D-. class 'A' open pan
evaporimeter, because the crop co-efficient range is very small i.e., 0.95 to 1.05.
15. With the help of this crop factor, water requirement of the crop can be worked
out and scheduling of irrigation is done.
The differences between U.S.W.B. class 'A' open pan evaporimeter and Sunken
screen evaporimeter are given below.
S.No.
Character
U.S.W.B. Class A
open pan
evaporimeter
Sunken screen
evaporimeter
Place of instrument
Above the ground

surface
Below the ground
2.
Diameter of the pen
122 cm
60 cm
3.
Height of the pan
25 cm
45 cm
4.
Place of stilling well
Inside the pan
Outside the pan
5.
Crop co-efficient factor
0.5 to 1.3
0.95 to 1.05
6.
Rate of evaporation
measured
At free surface
In the cropped field
1.
Units of measurement: This is expressed in units of depth i.e. millimetres or

centimetres per day.
Sample calculation:
1.
How much water should be added in U.S.W.B. class 'A' open pan evaporimeter
to increase the level of water to 1/10th of a centimeter ?
Ans.
Volume = Area X Depth
r 2 x (d) = 22/7 x 60 x 60 x 1/10 = 1131.4 c.c. of water

where r= radius of the pan 60 cm
d= increased (or) reduced depth or height of water
2.
How much water should be added in Sunken screen evaporimeter to increase

the water through I/10 th of a centimetre ?
Ans.
a) Area of pan
Volume = Area x Depth
= 22/7 X 30 X 30 X 1/10 = 282.85 c.c.
where r = radius of the pan
d = depth or height of water.
b) Area of still-well
22/7 X 7.5 X 7.5 X 1/10 = 17.67 c.c.

Area of pan = Area of still well = 282.85 + 17.67
=
300.52 c.c.
If we add 360 ml. then evaporation will be 1 mm or 1/10th of a centimetre.

III. Evaporograph:
This is an instrument used to measure continuous record of evaporation both
in laboratories and in crop canopies.
Principle: A filter paper which is in contact with a wick allows free evaporation
(when in contact with water). Decrease in water content due to evaporation is
measured by a float which is connected to a pen arm.

1.
It is a survey instrument which
provides
a graphic
record of the time
distribution of evaporation.
2.
Distilled water from an internal cistern evaporates through an exposed filter

paper on the top of the instrument.
3.
The filter paper is in capillary contact with the water by means of a wick.
4.
The decrease in water level due to evaporation is measured by a float which

drives the recording pen arm.
5.
For applications which require a larger evaporation range, the exposed surface
area of the paper can be reduced. This slows the evaporation rate and extends
the measuring range.
6.
A white enamel finish on the case minimises heat effects from solar radiation.
7.
A funnel around the filter paper holder collects rain water and drains it away
from the measuring system.
8.
Almost all commercial makers use corrosion resistant material and all internal
parts chrome plated brass or stainless steel.
9.
The base should be heavy as far as possible.
10. The 1 day / 7 day brass clock is either spring-wound or battery operated.
11. Optional recording periods of 24 hours and 168 hours are also in use.
12. In crop canopies the instrument should be installed in a louvered shelter or
exposed to ambient conditions.
13. When used in crop canopies the evaporograph is -typically correlated with an
evaporation pan in the same area ( or the one in a nearby observatory
to
determine any required correction factor.
EXERCISE
Aim: To measure the evaporation in a crop canopy.
Material: Evaporographs - 2 nos.
Wooden base of, I0. cm height - 2 nos.
Dry bulb thermometers - 2 nos.
Stands to place dry bulb thermometers - 2 nos.
Procedure:
1.
Keep the wooden bases one in the crop field and the other in the nearby open
field.
2.
Place the evaporographs on each of the bases.
3.
Follow the specific instructions for installing the evaporographs in the crop
canopy.
4.
Keep one dry bulb thermometer inside the crop ( 50 cm above the
evaporograph).
5.
Keep another dry bulb thermometer in the same way in the open field also.
6.
Protect the dry bulb thermometers as per the guidelines given in the previous
exercise.
7.
Use the co-eff icient factor to arrive at the crop evapotranspiration. Use the
factor as per the specifications of the commercial make.
Graph: Plot a graph for half-houdy intervals for both evaporation and temperature.
Results,calculations and conclusions:
Note: Selection of crop is at the discretion of the teacher. If evaporographs are

not available metal cans of 25 cm height and 18 cm diameter can be used to
measure the evaporation. The cans have to be calibrated against U.S.open pan.
Evaporation can be recorded by bringing water level to a fixed point by pipetting out
water into the can, thus the amount of water evaporated can be known in millimeters.
The potential evapotranspiration can be calculated from this evaporation by using
appropriate crop coefficients.

Satation/Location:
Crop:
Lat.
Height:
Long.
Inside the Crop

(hr)
Temp
(oC)
Alti.
Date:
Evaporation (mm)
Open field
(hr)
Stage:
Temperature (oC)
S.No.
Temp
(oC)
Inside the Crop

(hr)
Evaporation
(mm)
Open field
(hr)
Evaporation
(mm)
ASSIGNMENT
1.
Draw and label the neat sketches of U.S.W.B. open pan evaporimeter and
Sunken screen evaporimeter.
2.
Measure the amount of evaporation on -the day of visit to the observatory.
3.
Calculate the evaporation when 3 cans and 12 cm of water is added to the

U.S.W.B. class'A' pan evaporimeter and the rainfall occured inbetween two
successive observations is 5 mm,
14. MICRO-CLIMATIC STUDIES
To monitor the pest/disease development, the radiation and temperature

profiles, wind velocity reduction, relative humidity and soil temperature gradients are
required . A field experiment for which the details are given below will be an
appropriate exercise, in this direction.
Aim: To observe the pests and diseases in relation to micro-climate.
Material
1. Pyrano-albedometer
2. Tube solarimeter
3. Net radiometer
4. Wet and dry bulb hygrometers
5. Calibrated Inetal cans for measuring evaporation (Pan evaporimeter)
6. Soil thermometers
7. Biram's anemometers (Birams air flow meter)
8. Micro-meteorological stand
9. Infra-red thermometer
and other small equipment as per the objectives and availability.
Relevant information: To study the rnicro-clirnate of a crop a detailed
examination on the micro-scale basis of physical and meteorological factors that are
taking place within the ecosphere have to be observed. Here, ecosphere means
atleast 2 rnetres above the ground, 2 metres horizontal level and atleast one metre
below the crop canopy in a volume of crop. These measurements hold good for a
crop variety grown upto one metre height above the ground. Ex: a wheat crop
canopy, a dry paddy crop, Soybean, mustard etc.
The wind velocity near the surface of the crop is influenced by roughness of
the crop and it decreases with increase in roughness of the crop surface. The relative
radiation intensity also decreases according to the increase in leaf area of the crop
which influences the depletion process. The crop canopy which is efficient to
channalise the heat can absorb more energy and vice-versa.
All the details given while describing each instrument in the previous exercises
shall be remembered in designing this experiment. The following equation can be
used to study the radiation absorbed by a crop, in addition to other ones already
given.
Emissivity + Absorptivity + Transmissivity = 1
For an opaque surface like crop canopy, transmittance is zero. So, Absorptivity
= (1 - Emissivity). .
Micro-meteorological stand: A locally made i-nicro-meteorological stand can
be used. This can be made as detailed below:
1.
Take 3 metre iron tube with one inch diameter.
2.
Fix an appropriate base of either iron or wooden.
3.
Make small holes of 2 centirnetre diameter for every 20 centimetres depending

upon the gauge of the iron tube.
4.
Procure 6 to 8 iron bars of 2 centimetre diameter with one and half to 2 metre
length.
5.
To this vertical stand fix iron bars as per the requirements at different heights.
6.
To this horizontal bars different micro-meteorological instruments can be fixed.
7.
Keep the iron stand vertically in the field with it's base on a levelled place in
between the rows of the crop, whenever an experiment is planned.
Procedure: The following information shall be obtained for 2 to 3 days and
note the disease/pest growth.

1.
Instantaneous wind speed has to be measured by placing Biram's type

anemometers at 80 cm and 1 0 cm above the canopy and 30 cm above the
ground. The speed of the wind can be recorded for 3 minutes interval.
2.
At these levels the tube solarimeter can be placed and incoming radiation can
be recorded and out going radiations have to be recorded by using pyranoalbedometer.
3.
Fix the psychrometers with clamps to the iron tube at the centre points where
the bars make cross with it. Record the wet and dry bulb temperatures at the
same heights, where the anemometers and pyrano-albedometers are read.
4.
By placing infrared thermometer at 45 0 angle measure the canopy temperature.
5.
Place two calibrated metal cans to measure evaporation.
6.
Fix the soil thermometers at 2.5 and 7.5 cm depth.
7.
The net radiation can be measured at 80 cm above the crop.
8.
Record all the readings as quickly and accurate as possible.
9.
Repeat the readings for 4 to 6 times at half an hour interval, or hourly atleast for
6 to 8 hours.
10. Record the observations in the recording sheet no. 14.1.

Graph: Plot relevant graphs with the information obtained.
Results: Calculations and conclusions
15. ESTABLISHMENT OF A STANDARD METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORY

India Meteorological Department was established in the year 1875, with its
head quarters at Pune, Maharashtra State. At the time of starting, there were only 66
meteorological observatories or surface observatories spread throughout the country.
The present number of observatories is more than 500. These observatories are
meant for collection of data on various weather parameters such as temperature,
humidity, wind, solar radiation, cloud formation, precipitation etc.
To facilitate the collection of data at one point, five regional centres were
established, which are located in five different places, for which the head quarters are
mentioned agaiist each as detailed below.
North zone
Delhi
Eastzone
Calcutta
South zone
Madras
West zone
Bombay
Central zone
Nagpur
The classification of the observatories is made based on the

a) Physical facilities available
b) Mode of transmission of data
c) The type of persons employed it) the observatory.
S.No. Character
II
Category / Class
III
IV
1.
Other name Special

station
2.
Type
persons
3.
Mode
of At once (on Two
Once a Once
times a day
transmission dot)
week
day
4.
Instruments Automatic
Ordinary Ordinary Partially Rain
sophisticated
equipped gauge
of Highly
qualified
full time
VI
Synoptic Synoptic Climatic Rainfall Nonstation station station

station instrument
station
Part
Part
& time
time
skilled skilled
workers
Trained Trained Semi

Skilled
workers parttime
workers
workers
a Once a On
month request
Nil
In 1932 it was realised to collect the information on the influence of these

weather parameters on different crops. So, most of the class I observatories were
converted into Agromet observatories. These observatories are supervised by
agencies like Agricultural Universities and Research Stations. There are 125 Agromet
observatories throught the country out of which 51 are attached to Agricultural
Universities.
Hours of observation:
Since Meteorological elements vary with time, it is necessary that they should
be recorded at a particular time on every occasion.
In India, the main observations are recorded as per the guide lines of I.M.O. at
0830 and 1730 IST.
At Agromet observatories the observations are recorded at 07:00 and 14:00
hours LMT except evaporation and rainfall which are recorded at 08:30 hours IST.
Radiation observations including sunshine are recorded as per LAT (Local
Apparent Time). At meteorological observatories the hours are numbered
consecutively from midnight 00 hours to midnight 24 hours, the hours after noon
being 13 hours, 14 hours and so on. Time as 2:30 p.m and 2:30 a.m are expressed
as 1430 and 0230 hours I.S.T. respectively.
The instruments should be read in the following order:
1. Wind instruments
2. Raingauge
3. Thermometers
4. Barometer
Non instrumental observations i.e. clouds and visibility should be taken in 3

minute intervals between first and second readings of the anemometer.
Selection of site:
The India Meteorological Department which is the principal Government
Agency in all matters pertaining to meteorology, recommends the following procedure
in the selection of site for meterological observatory.
1.
The site should be well exposed, bare, levelled plot taking care of the proposed
buildings, roads, canals, etc., which effect the exposure.
2.
When the observatory is to be located in an agricultural farm the site should be,
as far as possible, so chosen that ft is the representative of principal agricultural
soils of the area.
3.
In Yooded areas, the site should be on an open plateau or terrace.
4.
In areas of drifting sand the site should be at a place with minimum drift.
5.
If the observatory is to be located near a reservoir, lake, ft must be located at the

upwind of the reservoir, along the most prevalent direction of the high winds and
at a distance away from drifts of spray from the spillways.
6.
The site should be free from water logging and high structure, tall trees, hills,
especially on the East and West as these cast shadows on the instruments. The
above obstructions should not be closure to the site alleast ten times their
height. Where radiation or sunshine observations are envisaged, there should
be no substantial objects to the East or West subtending an elevation angle of
more than 3 degrees with respect to the level of the radiation instrument or
surshine recorder.
7.
The highest groundwater level at the site must not be less than two metres from
the surface.
8.
Final selection should be based on considerations such as proximity to a post

office, water and the convenience to the observer.
9.
The size of the observatory has to be decided depending upon the number of
instruments to be installed. The general recommendation for size of the plot is:
a) 54 m NS by 36 m EW for Agromet Observatory
b) 25 m NS by 15 m EW for other purposes
10.
A suitable fencing should be provided.

The following instruments or appliances are kept at specific positions in the
observatory.
1.
Raingauge: Records total amount of rainfall received during 24 hours in mm.
2.
Evaporimeter: Helps in determining the rate of evaporation measured in

mm/day.
3.
Dew gauge: Records total amount of dew deposited in a day in mm/day.
4.
Stevenson screen: A single S.S.S. is a wooden box with certain specifications

and ft is available in standard sizes. It houses the following thermometers.
a)
Minimum thermometer - Records minimum temperature attained during 24

hours.
b)
Maximum thermometer - Records maximum temperature attained during

24 hours.
c)
Wet and dry bulb thermometer - For determining the relative humidity.
The double Stevenson screen houses some autographic instruments like

thermograph, barograph, hygrograph, etc., for maintaining a continuous record of
temperature, pressure and relative humidity.
5.
Sunshine recorder: Records total number of sunshine hours in a day.
6.
Grass minimum thermometer: A thermometer is kept to record the minimum

temperature attained during 24 hours when the ground is covered by vegetation.
7.
Soil thermometers: 3 or 4 thermometers are kept with their bulbs inside the
ground surface at different depths. These thermometers indicate the
temperature of the soil at different depths.
8.
Psychrometer: For relative humidity in micro-meteorological observations.
9.
Windvane: Indicates direction of wind.
10. Anemometer: Measures the velocity of wind.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Draw the plan of a standard agrometeorological observatory.
16. SYNOPTIC CHARTS AND WEATHER REPORTS
In the previous exercises, the procedure of collection of data with various

devices Is covered. After this process, the data need to be transferred to an
appropriate place for ka arwysis. In this regard, ft is proper to know a little about
synoptic climatology.
The term synoptic climatology is applied to investigations of regional weather
and circulation "s. It Ls also used to refer any climatological analysis which makes
some reference to synoptic weather phenomena. This field is concerned with
obtaining.an insight into local or regional climates by examining the relationship of
weather elements individually or collectively to atmospheric circulation processes.
Synoptic climatology Is defined as the description and analysis of the totality of
weather at a single place or over a small area, in terms of the properties and motionof the atmosphere over and around the place or area.
There are essentially two stages to a synoptic climatological study:
1.
The determination of categories of atmospheric circLAation type
2. The assessment of weather elements in relation to these categories.

Besides agricultural meteorological,observatories, synoptic weather stations
also record weather data such as rainfall, temperature, radiation, low level wind and
evaporation sic. The surface observatories collect information on various weather
elements and based an these, daily forecasts, warnings and weather reports are
prepared by 5 regkmi forecating centres at Madras, Nagpur, Bombay, Delhi and
Calcutta. The weather bulletins are being broadcast In regional languages through All
India Radio and Television.
Synoptic report: Observed weather conditions are marked in brief coded form
as a synopsis of the conditions. Such a brief report on weather conditions is known as
synoptic report.
Synoptic chart/weather map: The regular observatories record weather
elements at scheduled time and send these readings through a telegram to the main
observatory at Pune. They reach Pune within an hour of observation and they are
chatted on outline map of India, using the international code of signals and
abbreviations. These are called synoptic charts or weather maps.
In synoptic charts different weather phenomena and atmospheric characters

are marked with different symbols as mentioned below.
S.No. Symbols
Weather element / character / phenomenon
1.
Narrow block items
Isobars
2.
Numbers at ends of isobars Pressure values in mb
3.
Shading
Precipitation
4.
Arrows
Wind direction
5.
Feathers in the arrows
Wind velocity
6.
Small circles with shading
Amount of clouds
In addition to the above, different symbols are used for recording. weather
phenomena, in relevant columns of the pocket register and. The Monthly
Meteorological Register by the observer. A few are mentioned in the Table,(16.1)
given in this exercise.
The duties of the observer: The routine duties of the observer include:
1.
To make regular and careful observations and to note the general character of
the weather and record in the pocket register.
2.
To prepare and
dispatch the weather telegram as per the instructions to the
different forecasting centers, immediately after the observations are taken.

3.
To send, heavy rainfall telegrams to the various offices on warning list.
4.
To prepare and post monthly meteorological and pocket registers, for each
month to the controlling meteorological office.
5.
To keep the instruments clean and maintain them property.

After the observer sends the data as per the standard procedure it should be
decoded and the weather observations for each station must be plotted at the
appropriate location in a systematic manner following the international station model.
Only weather maps in first-class forecasting centers approach the completeness of
the model. Printed maps and maps used for plotting usually have an appropriately
numbered circle corresponding to each reporting land station and observations are
plotted about this location in the appropriate position regardless of the number of
observations shown. It must be, emphasized again that the weather pattern affecting
a locality is an integral part of the much larger hemispheric weather pattern. It is
necessary to plot a map over a large area. Even iT observations are not to be plotted,
it is necessary to know the plotting scheme in order to read and interpret weather
charts already plotted.
ASSIGNMENT
Collect three synoptic reports of
different weather conditions of the place
where your college is located and decode / analyse them. Give a brief note of each
report for its interpretation.
ANNEXURE-1
SATURATION VAPOUR PRESSURE OVER WATER IN mm OF Hg.for
temperatures 0 to 50 0 C
Temp .0
0
4.58
.1
4.61
.2
4.65
.3
4.68
.4
4.72
.5
4.75
.6
4.79
.7
4.82
.8
4.86
.9
4.89
4.93
4.96
5.00
5.03
5.07
5.11
5.14
5.18
5.22
5.25
5.29
5.33
5.37
5.41
5.45
5.49
5.52
5.56
5.60
5.64
5.68
5.73
5.77
5.81
5.85
5.89
5.913
5.97 6.02
6.06
6.10
6.14
6.19
6.23
6.27
6.32
6.36
6.41
6.45
6.50
6.54
6.59
6.64
6.88
6.73
6.78
6.82
6.87
6.92
6.97
7.01
7.06
7.11
7.16
7.21
7.26
7.31
7.36
7.41
7.46
7.51
7.57
7.62
7.67
7.72
7.78
7.83
7.88
7.94
7.99
8.05
8.10
8 .16
8.21
8.27
8.32
8.38
8.44
8.49
8.55
8.61
8.67
8.73
8.79
8.85
8.91
8.97
9.03
9.09
9.15
10
9.21
9.27
9.33
9.40
9.46
9.52
9.59
9.65
9.71
9.78
11
9.84
9.91
9.98
10.04
10.11
10.18
10.24
10.31
10.38 10.45 12
10.52
10.59
10.66
10.73
10.80
10.87
10.94
11.01
11.09 11.16 13
11.23
11.31
11.38
11.45
11.53
11.61
11.68
11.76
11.83 11.91 14
11.99
12.07
12.14
12.22
12.30
12.38
12.46
12.55
12.63 12.71 15
12.79
12.87
12.96
13.04
13.12
13.21
13.29
13.38
13.46 13.55 16
13.64
13.72
13.81
13.90
13.99
14.08
14.17
14.26
14.35 14.44 17
14.53
14.62
14.72
14.81
14.91
15.00
15.10
15.19
15.29
15.48
15.58
15.68
15.78
15.87
15.97
16.08
16.18
16.28 16.38 19
16.48
16.58
16.69
16.79
16.90
17.00
17.11
17.22
17.32
17.43
20
17.54
17.65
17.76
17.87
17.98
18.09
18.20
18.31
18.42
18.54
21
18.66
18.77
18.88
19.00
19.12
19.24
19.35
19.47
19.59
19.71
22
19.83
19.95
20.07
20.20
20.32
20.44
20.57
20.70
20.82 20.95 23
21.07
21.20
21.33
21.46
21.59
21.72
21.85
21.98
22.12 22.25 24
22.38
22.52
22.65
22.79
22.92
23.06
23.20
23.34
23.48
23.76
23.90
24.05
24.19
24.33
24.48
24.63
24.77
24.92 25.07 26
25.22
25.37
25.52
25.67
25.82
25.97
26.13
26.28
26.44 26.59 27
26.76
26.90
27.06
27.22
27.38
27.54
27.70
27.87
28.03 28.19 28
18
25
15.38
23.62
28.36
28.52
28.69
28.86
29.03
29.19
29.30
29.54
29.71 29.88 29
30.05
30.23
30.40
30.58
30.75
30.93
31.11
31.29
31.47
31.83
32.02
32.20
32.38
32.57
32.76
32.95
33.13
33.32 33.51 31
33.71
33.90
34.09
34.29
34.48
34.68
34.88
35.07
35.27 35.47 32
35.67
35.88
36.08
36.28
36.49
36.69
36.90
37.11
37.32 37.53 33
37.74
37.95
38.17
38.38
38.60
38.81
39.03
39.25
39.47 39.69 34
39.91
40.13
30.36
40.58
40.81
41.04
41.26
41.49
41.72 41.95 35
42.19
42.42
42.66
42.90
43.14
43.38
43.62
43.86
44.10 44.34 36
44.58
44.83
45.07
45.32
45.57
45.81
46.06
46.32
46.57 46.82 37
47.08
47.34
47.59
47.85
48.11
48.38
48.64
48.91
49.17 49.44 38
49.71
49.97
50.24
50.52
50.79
51.07
51.35
51.62
51.90 52.18 39
52.46
52.74
53.02
53.31
53.59
53.88
54.17
54.46
54.75
55.04
40
55.34 55.63
55.93
56.23
56.53
56.83
57.14
57.44
57.74
58.05
41
58.36 58.67
58.98
59.29
59.60
59.92
60.24
60.56
60.88
61.20
42
61.52 61.85
62.17
62.50
62.82
63.15
63.49
63.82
64.15
64.49
43
64.82 65.16
65.50
65.84
66.19
66.53
66.88
67.23
67.58
67.93
44
68.28 68.63
68.99
69.35
69.71
70-08 70.44
70.80
71.17
71.53
45
71.90
72.27
72.65
73.02
73.39
73.76
74.14
74.52
74.90
75.29
46
75.67 76.06
76.45
76.84
77.23
77.63
78.02
78.42
78.82
79.22
47
79.62 80.03
80.43
80.84
81.25
81.66
82.07
82.48
82.90
83.32
48
83.74 84.16
84.59
85.01
85.44
85.87
86.30
86.74
87.17
87.61
49
88.05 88.49
88.93
89.38
89.83
90.27
90.72
91.17
91.62
92.08
50
92.50 93.0
93.4
93.9
94.4
94.8
95.3
95.8
96.3
96.7
30
31.65
CALCULATION
OF
ACTUAL
VAPOUR
PRESSURE,
TEMPERATURE, RH% AND VAPOUR PRESSURE DEFICIT:2
DEW
POINT
a) With Stevenson's Screen wet and dry bulb thermometers

For deriving the vapour pressure in the India Meteorological Department the
formula is as follows:
For temperatures of Wet Bulb above 0 " C
X=
where
f' - 0.480 (T-T') X p 610 - T'
X = pressure of vapour present in the air (AVP)

f'
saturation vapour pressure at temperature T' 0 C of the wet bulb.
Temperature of the Dry bulb in 0 C.
T'
Temperature of the Wet bulb in " 0.
Pressure of the air.
%Relative Humidity U =
x/f X 1 00
where x = Pressure of vapour present in the air (AVP).

f = Saturation vapour pressure at temperatue T " C of the Dry bulb.
u = Humidity in percentage.
By using Saturation Vapour Pressure in mn of Hg table, we can substitute the
relevant values and find the vapour pressure present in the air (Actual Vapour
pressure) and percentage humidity.
Example: Given T = 20oC
T = 30oC
p = 713 mm of Hg. (for Hyderabad, Altitude of 545 m AMSL)
Note from svp table
Sal.Vap.Press. at wet bulb temperature (f) = 17.54
Sat.Vap.Press. at Dry bulb temperature (f) = 31.83
Actual Vapour Pressure 'x' =17.54 ((-0.480 (30-20)) x (713))/610-20
= 17.54 - 5.8
= 11.74 mm 2
2
IMD information to observatories.
Dew point temperature (T d) =
13.7oC (By definition, look for temperature

corresponding to AVP value in SVP table)
Relative Humidity %
= 11.74/131.83 = 36.9 %
Vapour Pressure Deficit
= SVP (at T) - AVP

= 31.83 - 11.74
= 20.09 mm
b) With Assmann Psychrometer wet and dry bulb thermometers

AVP = e = a' (0.000660 (l + 0.0011I bt')] p (t - t')
or
e - e, - a e
Where:
t = air temperature
t'=wet-bulb temperature
p=barometric pressure
e = vapour pressue in the air (Actual)
e = Saturation vapour pressure at temperature t'
% Relative Humidity
Actual vapour pressure/$aturated vapour pressure X =
e / E x 100
where
e is AVP
E is SVP at dry bulb temperature
Vapour Pressure Deficit= SVP (at T) - AVP

After wetteinnq the wick of wet bulb thermometer, shake gently to khrow out
any excess water around the wet bulb. Now wind the clock and run for abolit 1 1/2 to
2 minutes. Air will be drawn at velocity greater than 4 m/sec. Re-moisten the wet bulb
and wind the clock at suitable intervals say every 2 sets. When wet and dry bulb
thermometer readings show steady readings, note them
For comparison with temperatures recorded from the thermometers exposed in
the Stevenson screen, the Assmann Psychrometer should be hung inside the screen
by means of hook. While recording the microclimatic observations, in the open or
inside a crop the instrument should be hold horizontally at required level.
Example:
T' = 20o C
T = 30o C
p = 713 mm ( for Hyderabad of 545 m AMSL)
we know e' is saturated vapour pressure at T' ( from table)
it is saturated vapour pressure at T (from table)
AVP = e = e' [0.000660 ( 1 + 0.00115 T')] p ( T - T' )
= 17.54 [0.000660 ( I + .001 15 x 20 )] 713 (30-20)
= 17.54 - 4.81
= 12.73 mm
By Definition, Dew point temperature ( T
) is the temperature at which actual
vapour pressure becomes saturated vapour pressure. Hence, for 12.73 mm of

pressure, look for corresponding temperature in SVP tables.
Td
= 14.9o C
RH % = e/E X 100
= 12.73 / 31.83 X 100
= 40.0 %
VPD = SVP ( at,,T) - AVP
=E-e
= 31.83 - 12.73
= 19.1 mm
Conversion Table:
1 mm of Hg
= 1.333224 mb
1 mb
= 0.7502 mm of Hg
= 133.322 pascals
= 100 pascals (or 0. I kPa)
Note: For any Hygrometric calculations, we need to follow one of the above
methods depending upon the type of radiation shield/vet)tilation used and air
velocities over the thermometers. Atmospheric pressure (p) corresponding to the
altitude of the location has to be substituted.
Altitudes and corresponding Atmospheric Pressure in mm of Hg. for
typical. Mid- latitude locations during summer. (Temperature 21o C)
Altitude (m)
Pressure (mm)
Altitude (m)
Pressure (mm)
759.8
50
755.3
100
750.8
150
746.7
200
742.6
250
738.1
300
733.6
350
729.4
400
725.3
450
721.2
500
717.1
550
712.9
600
708.8
650
704.7
700
700.6
750
696.8
800
693.1
850
668.9
900
684.8
950
681.1
1000
677.3
1050
673.2
1100
669.1
1150
665.3
1200
661.6
1250
657.8
1300
654.1
1350
650.3
1400
646.6
1450
642.8
1500
639.0
REFERENCES
The author expresses his thanks to all other authors and publishers whose
books he frequently consulted and referred to in this work. In addition to so many
lecture notes, catalogues, cyclostyled papers, IMD manuals, monographs, instruction
bulletins, ICAR publications, research notes available in the library. The following
books have been consulted in preparing this manual.
Albright, John G..- "Physical Meteorology", Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J,
1939.
Anna Mani.: "Handbook of Solar Radiation", Data for India, 1985.
Barrs, H.D.: "In water Deficits and plant growth', Volume 1, Ed by T.T.Koziowski,
Academic press. New York, 1968.
Berry, Frederic A., et al.: "Hand book of Meteorology", McGraw - Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1945.
Blair, Thomas A.: "Weather Elet-nents", 4 tie ed., Prentice - Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N.J., 1957.
Blair, Thomas A.: "Climatology", Prentice - Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliff, N.J, 1942.
Brands, George J.: "Meteorology", McGraw - Hill book coi-npany, Inc., New York,
1944.
Chang, Jen-Hu.: "Ciii-nate and Agriculture, An Ecological Survey", Aldine publishing
co., Chicago, 1968.
Clive darttier.: 'The changing world of weather", Guinness publishing Ltd., 33 London
Road, Enfield, Middlesex, 1990.
Donn, William L.: "Meteorology", 4 th ed., McGraw - Hill book company, Inc., New
York, 1975.
Doorenbos. J and W.D. Pruitt.: "Guidelines for predicting crop water requirements",
F.A.0. Irrigation and drainage, p.p., 72 -74, 1984,
Fliteroft,
I.,J.et.al.:
"Basic
microrneteorology
and
instrumentation",
Winrock
International, 1991.
Fritcli--ii. L.J. and Gai, L.W.: "Environmental Instrumentation. Spritig!er-Veriag, New
York, 1979.
G.atigadhar, S.R.: "Nietc,@orology", Agrornet publishers, 52, ltidraprastha, Nagpur,

Maharastra, 1991.
Gates, D.M.-. "Radiaiit
energy, its receipt and disposal, Agricultural Meteorology,
Meteorological monograph" published by American Meteorological Society,

1965.
Geiger, Rudolf: 'The climate near the Ground', (translation by Milroy N.Stewart, et al.),
2 nd ed., Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1950.
Grace.J.: 'Plant response to wind", Academic press, London, 1977.
Gupta, U.S.- 'Physiological aspects of dryland farming', Oxford and ISH publishing
co., 1982.
Henderson, A., et.al.: 'Contemporary climatology', John wiley & sons, Inc, 1990.
Houghton, D.David.:'Handbook of applied meteorology, A Wiley- Interscience
publication., John wiley and sons, 1989.
Jaiswal, N.K.: "Development of drought prone areas', NIRD, Raiendranagar, 1981.
Jensen, M.E.et.al.: "Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Requirements', American
Society of Civil Engineers, 345 East, 47 th street, New York, 1981.
Koeppe.E.Clarence.: 'Weather and Climate", McGraw - Hill book company, Inc., New
York, 1 958.
Lal, D.S.: "Climatology", Chaitanya publishing house, 5-A, University road, Allahabad
- 2, India, 1989.
Lee Baker, D.et.al.: 'Elements of Physics', Allyn and Bacon, Inc, 1969.
Long, 1. F.: 'in the measurement of Environmental factors in Terrestrial Ecology, p.p.
1 -32.
Biological Engineering Society Symposium No.8. Ed. by A.M. Wadsworth et.al.
Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, 1968.
Mavi, H.S.: 'Introduction to Agronieteorology", Oxford and IBH publishing co., New
Delhi, 1986.
Mavi, H.S.: 'Agricultural meteorology, PAU, Ludhiana, 1974.
Mavi, H.S. and A.Chaurasia.: A comparison of open pan evaporation with computed
values under Punjab conditions. National Seminar on Agroclimatology,
Coirribattore, pp: 70-78, 1980.
Mavi, H.S. and Mahi G.S.: 'A study of agricultural droughts and irrigation planning in
the Punjab', Proceedings of the International Symposium in Hydrological
aspects of Drought, New Delhi, 577 - 586, 1978.
Mavi, H.S. et.al.: 'Improving field microclimate and crop yield with temporary lowcost
shelter belts in Punjab', Proceedings of the international conference on
Biometeorology, New Delhi, 1983.
Mavi, H.S. 1980.: Weather forecasting for Agriculture. Proc. First Agrometeorological
Conference, Coimbattore: 25-30, 1980.
Mavi, H.S and Mahi, G.S.: 'Agroclimatic regions of Punjab based on Summer (Kharif)
season Moisture stress', Proceedings of the Symposium on Land and Water
management in the Indus Basin (India). Vol.11, PAU, Ludhiana: 27-38, 1978.
Middleton, W.E.K., and Spilhaus, A.F.: "Meteorological Instruments', Universitya of
Toronto, Toronto, Canada, 1953.
Molga, M.: "Agricultural Meteorology. Part 11 - Outline of Agrometeorological
problems', Warsaw, 1962.
Monteith, J.L. and Unsworth, M.H.: "Principles of environmental physics", 2 nd ed.,
Edward Arnold, London, U.K, 1990.
Monteith, J.L.: 'Survey of Instruments for micrometeorology', IBP Handbook No.22.
Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, 1972.
Monteith, J.L.: 'Principles of Environmental Physics', Edward Arnold, London, 1973.
Ower, E. and Pankhurst, R.C.: 'The measurement of air flow", Pergamon, Oxford,
1966.
Pande.A.: 'Modern hygrometry', Somaiya publications (pvt)Ltd., Bombay, 1970.
Platt, R.B. and Griffiths.: 'Environmental measurement and Interpretation', Reinhold,
New York, 1964.
Radha Krishna Murthy, V.: 'A study of the role of meteorological factors in wheat crop
production in the Punjab', (Unpublished M.Sc. (Ag)., Thesis) P.A.U., Ludhiana,
1983.
Rama Rao, B.V.: 'Operational Agricultual Meteorology", Indian Society of Agronomy,

1988.
Stinger, E.T.: "Techniques of Climatology', W.H. Freeman and Company, San
Francisco, 1972.
Uvarov, E.B. et.al: 'A Dictionary of Science', Penguin Reference books, Penguin
books Inc., 1972.
Wisberg.S.J.: 'The Earth and its weather, Houghton Mifflin co., Boston, U.S.A, 1988.
Woodward, F.J. and J. E. Sheehy.: "Principles and measurements in Environmental
Biology', Butter-Worths and co. (pub) ltd. p.p. 35-36, 1983.
Miscellaneous:
"Agricultural Ecology', W.H. Freeman and Company., 1980.
'Catalog Weather measure, weathertronics', Division of qualimetrics, Inc., California,
1988.
'Compendium of Meteorology', American Meteorological Society, Boston, 1951.
'Geophysir-al Instruments and systems", catalog., 1981.
'Meteorological abstracts and bibliography", American Meteorological Society,
Boston, 1950.
Meteorological Monographs, 8 Nos. through 1964, American Meteorological Society,
Boston, 1964.
'Needs for climatic and Hydrologic data in Agriculture in Southeast Asia*,
prociaedings of the United Nations University workshop., CSIRO., 1989
'Smfthsonidn Meteorological Tables', 6 th ed., The Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, 1951.

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PRACTICAL MANUAL

Dr. V. Radha Krishna Mutrhy

Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University

Visit to the Meteorological Observatory

Establishment of a standard meteorological

CARE AND PRECAUTIONS

Every observation should be recorded honesty as read. In case of a doubt, the

Self recording instruments

thermograph for correctness of thermograph

Handle the instruments used to measure solar radiation accurately and

The temperature and heat flux measuring instruments shall be moisture

The rain gauges shall be of dependable, easy maintenable

Before recoding the observations, the evaporimeter shall be checked for

Report all mistakes and accidents, however small they are.

Attend the class with proper uniform as prescribed by the university

PRACTICAL MANUAL ON AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY

1. Visit to the Meteorological Observatory

To measure the rain

gange with self recording graph.

Floods Cyclone Severe Cyclone Haricanes

<30 km / hr 30: 70 km/ph 70:85 km ph > 130 kmph

INDIAN STANDARD TIME (IST)

THE RELATION BETWEEN LAT, LMT and IST

Select a date which you plan

82o 30 i.e. 82.5o

Line quantum sensor

Pyrano - albedometer etc.

By the rise of temperature of the receiving surface

By the response of photoelectric cell

Radiometers are named according to the nature and direction of radiation

Direct and diffuse solar radiation

Direct solar radiation

Solar and long-wave radiation

Net radiation flux

Measurement of Short wave radiation in a crop canopy:

Short-wave radiation available at level 'z' in the

Short-wave radiation available at one metre above

Neparian base (0-70) which is always constant.

Leaf area index.

Extinction coefficient can be obtained by the following way.

= Short wave radiation at the ground

In the same way ft is easy to measure the long-wave radiation also in a

9. Formulae: a) Direct radiation = Incoming radiation - Diffuse radiation

Reflected radiation/Total Incoming radiation x 100

RECORDING SHEET NO: 3.1

Connect the pyrano-albedometer properly to the millivoltmeter.

Observe the reading and record. This is R(s)t .

Observe the reading and record. This is R(s)z.

Recording Sheet No. 3.2

Pyrano albedometer readings

Conversion factors for solar radiation,

u E m-2 s-1 (400-700 nm)

W M-2 (400-700 nm)

Cal cm-2 min-1 (400-700 nm)

= Avogadros number of quanta, (6.023 x 1023)

1 cal cm min-1 = 1 langley = 697.8 Wm-2

The solar irradiance at the Earth's surface in a temperate region at mid-day

700 - 2400 nm = 350 W m-2