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BASICS
Meaning of Accounting: According to American Accounting Association
Accounting is the process of identifying, measuring and communicating
information to permit judgment and decisions by the users of accounts.
Users of Accounts: Generally 2 types. 1. Internal management.
2. External users or Outsiders- Investors, Employees, Lenders, Customers,
Government and other agencies, Public.
Sub-fields of Accounting:

Book-keeping: It covers procedural aspects of accounting work and

embraces record keeping function.
Financial accounting: It covers the preparation and interpretation of
financial statements.
Management accounting: It covers the generation of accounting
information for management decisions.
Social responsibility accounting: It covers the accounting of social
costs incurred by the enterprise.

Fundamental Accounting equation:

Assets = Capital+ Liabilities.
Capital = Assets - Liabilities.
Accounting elements: The elements directly related to the measurement of
financial position i.e., for the preparation of balance sheet are Assets, Liabilities
and Equity. The elements directly related to the measurements of performance in
the profit & loss account are income and expenses.
Four phases of accounting process:

Journalisation of transactions
Ledger positioning and balancing
Preparation of trail balance
Preparation of final accounts.

Book keeping: It is an activity, related to the recording of financial data, relating

to business operations in an orderly manner. The main purpose of accounting for
business is to as certain profit or loss for the accounting period.
Accounting: It is an activity of analasis and interpretation of the book-keeping
records.
Journal: Recording each transaction of the business.
Ledger: It is a book where similar transactions relating to a person or thing are
recorded.
Types: Debtors ledger
Creditors ledger
General ledger

Concepts: Concepts are necessary assumptions and conditions upon which

accounting is based.

Business entity concept: In accounting, business is treated as separate

entity from its owners.While recording the transactions in books, it should
be noted that business and owners are separate entities.In the
transactions of business, personal transactions of the owners should not
be mixed.
For example: - Insurance premium of the owner etc...

Going concern concept: Accounts are recorded and assumed that the
business will continue for a long time. It is useful for assessment of
goodwill.
Consistency concept: It means that same accounting policies are
followed from one period to another.
Accrual concept: It means that financial statements are prepared on
merchantile system only.

Types of Accounts: Basically accounts are three types,

Personal account: Accounts which show transactions with persons are

called personal account. It includes accounts in the name of persons,
firms, companies.
In this: Debit the reciver
Credit the giver.
For example: - Naresh a/c, Naresh&co a/c etc

Real account: Accounts relating to assets is known as real accounts. A

separate account is maintained for each asset owned by the business.
In this: Debit what comes in
Credit what goes out
For example: - Cash a/c, Machinary a/c etc

Nominal account: Accounts relating to expenses, losses, incomes and

gains are known as nominal account.
In this: Debit expenses and loses
Credit incomes and gains
For example: - Wages a/c, Salaries a/c, commission recived a/c, etc.

Accounting conventions: The term convention denotes customs or traditions

which guide the accountant while preparing the accounting statements.

Convention of consistency: Accounting rules, practices should not

change from one year to another.

For example: - If Depreciation on fixed assets is provided on straight line

method. It should be done year after year.

Convention of Full disclosure: All accounting statements should be

honestly prepared and full disclosure of all important information should be
made. All information which is important to assets, creditors, investors
should be disclosued in account statements.

Trail Balance: A trail balance is a list of all the balances standing on the ledger
accounts and cash book of a concern at any given date.The purpose of the trail
balance is to establish accuracy of the books of accounts.
Trading a/c: The first step of the preparation of final account is the preparation of
trading account. It is prepared to know the gross margin or trading results of the
business.
Profit or loss a/c: It is prepared to know the net profit. The expenditure
recording in this a/c is indirect nature.
Balance sheet: It is a statement prepared with a view to measure the exact
financial position of the firm or business on a fixed date.
Outstanding Expenses: These expenses are related to the current year but
they are not yet paid before the last date of the financial year.
Prepaid Expenses: There are several items of expenses which are paid in
advance in the normal course of business operations.
Income and expenditure a/c: In this only the current period incomes and
expenditures are taken into consideration while preparing this a/c.
Royalty: It is a periodical payment based on the output or sales for use of a
certain asset.
For example: - Mines, Copyrights, Patent.
Hirepurchase: It is an agreement between two parties. The buyer acquires
possession of the goods immediately and agrees to pay the total hire purchase
price in instalments.
Hire purchase price = Cash price + Interest.
Lease: A contractual arrangement whereby the lessor grants the lessee the right
to use an asset in return for periodic lease rental payments.
Double entry: Every transaction consists of two aspects
1. The receving aspect
2. The giving aspect
The recording of two aspect effort of each transaction is called double entry.

The principle of double entry is, for every debit there must be an equal and a
corresponding credit and vice versa.
BRS: When the cash book and the passbook are compared, some times we
found that the balances are not matching. BRS is preparaed to explain these
differences.
Capital Transactions: The transactions which provide benefits to the business
unit for more than one year is known as capital Transactions.
Revenue Transactions: The transactions which provide benefits to a business
unit for one accounting period only are known as Revenue Transactions.
Deffered Revenue Expenditure: The expenditure which is of revenue nature
but its benefit will be for a very long period is called deffered revenue
expenditure.
Ex: Advertisement expences
A part of such expenditure is shown in P&L a/c and remaining amount is shown
on the assests side of B/S.
Capital Receipts: The receipts which rise not from the regular course of
business are called Capital receipts.
Revenue Receipts: All recurring incomes which a business earns during normal
cource of its activities.
Ex: Sale of good, Discount Received, Commission Received.
Reserve Capital: It refers to that portion of uncalled share capital which shall not
be able to call up except for the purpose of company being wound up.
Fixed Assets: Fixed assets, also called noncurrent assets, are assets that are
expected to produce benefits for more than one year. These assets may be
tangible or intangible. Tangible fixed assets include items such as land, buildings,
plant, machinery, etc Intangible fixed assets include items such as patents,
copyrights, trademarks, and goodwill.
Current Assets: Assets which normally get converted into cash during the
operating cycle of the firm. Ex: Cash, inventory, receivables.
Flictitious assets: They are not represented by anything tangible or concrete.
Ex: Goodwill, deffered revenue expenditure, etc

Contingent Assets: It is an existence whose value, ownership and existence will

depend on occurance or non-occurance of specific act.
Fixed Liabilities: These are those liabilities which are payable only on the
termination of the business such as capital which is liability to the owner.
Longterm Liabilities: These liabilities which are not payable with in the next
accounting period but will be payable with in next 5 to 10 years are called
longterm liabilities. Ex: Debentures.
Current Liabilities: These liabilities which are payable out of current assets with
in the accounting period. Ex: Creditors, bills payable, etc
Contingent Liabilities: A contingent liability is one, which is not an actual liability
but which will become an actual one on the happening of some event which is
uncertain. These are staded on balance sheet by way of a note.
Ex: Claims against company, Liability of a case pending in the court.
Bad Debts: Some of the debtors do not pay their debts. Such debt if
unrecoverable is called bad debt. Bad debt is a business expense and it is
debited to P&L account.
Capital Gains/losses: Gains/losses arising from the sale of assets.
Fixed Cost: These are the costs which remains constant at all levels of
production. They do not tend to increase or decrease with the changes in volume
of production.
Variable Cost: These costs tend to vary with the volume of output. Any increase
in the volume of production results in an increase in the variable cost and viceversa.
Semi-Variable Cost: These costs are partly fixed and partly variable in relation
to output.
Absorption Costing: It is the practice of charging all costs, both variable and
fixed to operations, processess or products. This differs from marginal costing
where fixed costs are excluded.
Operating Costing: It is used in the case of concerns rendering services like
transport. Ex: Supply of water, retail trade, etc...
Costing: Cost accounting is the recording classifying the expenditure for the
determination of the costs of products.For thepurpuses of control of the costs.
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Rectification of Errors: Errors that occur while preparing accounting statements

are rectified by replacing it by the correct one.
Errors like: Errors of posting, Errors of accounting etc
Absorbtion: When a company purchases the business of another existing
company that is called absorbtion.
Mergers: A merger refers to a combination of two or more companies into one
company.
Variance Analasys: The deviations between standard costs, profits or sales and
actual costs. Profits or sales are known as variances.
Types of variances
1: Material Variances
2: Labour Variances
3: Cost Variances
4: Sales or ProfitVariances
General Reserves: These reserves which are not created for any specific
purpose and are available for any future contingency or expansion of the
business.
SpecificReserves: These reserves which are created for a specific purpose and
can be utilized only for that purpose.
Ex: Dividend Equilisation Reserve
Debenture Redemption Reserve
Provisions: There are many risks and uncertainities in business. In order to
protect from risks and uncertainities, it is necessary to provisions and reserves in
every business.
Reserve: Reserves are amounts appropriated out of profits which are not
intended to meet any liability, contingency, commitment in the value of assets
known to exist at the date of the B/S.

Creation of the reserve is to increase the workingcapital in the business and

strengthen its financial position. Some times it is invested to purchase out side
securities then it is called reserve fund.
Types:
1: Capital Reserve: It is created out of capital profits like premium on the
issue of shares, profits and sale of assets, etcThis reserve is not available to
distribute as dividend among shareholders.
2: Revenue Reserve: Any Reserve which is available for distribution as
dividend to the shareholders is called Revenue Reserve.
Provisions V/S Reserves:
1. Provisions are created for some specific object and it must be utilised for
that object for which it is created.
Reserve is created for any future liability or loss.
2. Provision is made because of legal necessity but creating a Reserve is a
matter of financial strength.
3. Provision must be charged to profit and loss a/c before calculating the net
profit or loss but Reserve can be made only when there is profit.
4. Provisions reduce the net profit and are not invested in outside securities
Reserve amount can invested in outside securities.
Goodwill: It is the value of repetition of a firm in respect of the profits expected in
future over and above the normal profits earned by other similar firms belonging
to the same industry.
Methods: Average profits method
Super profits method
Capitalisatioin method

Depreciation: It is a perminant continuing and gradual shrinkage in the book

value of a fixed asset.
Methods:
1. Fixed Instalment method or Stright line method

Dep. = Cost price Scrap value/Estimated life of asset.

2. Diminishing Balance method: Under this metod, depreciation is calculated at
a certain percentage each year on the balance of the asset, which is bought
forward from the previous year.
3. Annuity method: Under this method amount spent on the purchase of an
asset is regarded as an investment which is assumed to earn interest at a certain
rate. Every year the asset a/c is debited with the amount of interest and credited
with the amount of depreciation.
EOQ: The quantity of material to be ordered at one time is known EOQ. It is fixed
where minimum cost of ordering and carryiny stock.
Key Factor: The factor which sets a limit to the activity is known as key factor
which influence budgets.
Key Factor = Contribution/Profitability
Profitability =Contribution/Key Factor
Sinking Fund: It is created to have ready money after a particular period either
for the replacement of an asset or for the repayment of a liability. Every year
some amount is charged from the P&L a/c and is invested in outside securities
with the idea, that at the end of the stipulated period, money will be equal to the
amount of an asset.
Revaluation Account: It records the effect of revaluation of assets and liabilities.
It is prepared to determine the net profit or loss on revaluation. It is prepared at
the time of reconsititution of partnership or retirement or death of partner.
Realisation Account: It records the realisation of various assets and payments
of various liabilities. It is prepared to determine the net P&L on realisation.
Leverage: - It arises from the presence of fixed cost in a firm capitalstructure.
Generally leverage refers to a relationship between two interrelated
variables.
These leverages are classified into three types.
1. Operating leverage
2. Financial Leverage.
3. Combined leverage or total leverage.

1. Operating Leverage: It arises from fixed operating costs (fixed costs

other than the financing costs) such as depreciation, shares, advertising
expenditures and property taxes.

When a firm has fixed operatingcosts, a change in 1% in sales results in a

change of more than 1% in EBIT
%change in EBIT
% change in sales

The operaying leverage at any level of sales is called degree.

Degree of operatingLeverage= Contribution/EBIT
Significance: It tells the impact of changes in sales on operating income.
If operating leverage is high it automatically means that the breakeven point would also be reached at a highlevel of sales.
2. Financial Leverage: It arises from the use of fixed financing costs such
as interest. When a firm has fixed cost financing. A change in 1% in
E.B.I.T results in a change of more than 1% in earnings per share.
F.L =% change in EPS / % change in EBIT
Degree of Financial leverage= EBIT/ Profit before Tax (EBT)
Significance: It is double edged sword. A high F.L means high
fixed financial costs and high financial risks.
3. Combined Leverage: It is useful for to know about the overall risk or total
risk of the firm. i.e, operating risk as well as financial risk.
C.L= O.L*F.L
= %Change in EPS / % Change in Sales
Degree of C.L =Contribution / EBT

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A high O.L and a high F.L combination is very risky. A high O.L and a low F.L
indiacate that the management is careful since the higher amount of risk involved
in high operating leverage has been sought to be balanced by low F.L
A more preferable situation would be to have a low O.L and a F.L.
Working Capital: There are two types of working capital: gross working capital
and net working capital. Gross working capital is the total of current assets. Net
working capital is the difference between the total of current assets and the total
of current liabilities.
Working Capital Cycle:
It refers to the length of time between the firms paying cash for
materials, etc.., entering into the production process/ stock and the inflow of cash
from debtors (sales)
Cash Raw meterials WIP Stock
Labour overhead
Debtors
Capital Budgeting: Process of analyzing, appraising, deciding investment on
long term projects is known as capital budgeting.
Methods of Capital Budgeting:
1. Traditional Methods
Payback period method
Average rate of return (ARR)
2. Discounted Cash Flow Methods or Sophisticated methods
Net present value (NPV)
Internal rate of return (IRR)
Profitability index
Pay back period: Required time to reach actual investment is known as payback
period.
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= Investment / Cash flow

ARR: It means the average annual yield on the project.
= avg. income / avg. investment
Or
= (Sum of income / no. of years) / (Total investment + Scrap value) / 2)
NPV: The best method for the evaluation of an investment proposal is the NPV or
discounted cash flow technique. This metod takes into account the time value of
money.
The sum of the present values of all the cash inflows less the sum of the
present value of all the cash outflows associated with the proposal.
NPV = Sum of present value of future cash flows Investment
IRR: It is that rate at which the sum total of cash inflows aftrer discounting equals
to the discounted cash outflows. The internal rate of return of a project is the
discount rate which makes net present value of the project equal to zero.
Profitability Index: One of the methods comparing such proposals is to workout
what is known as the Desirability Factor or Profitability Index.
In general terms a project is acceptable if its profitability index value is greater
than 1.
Derivatives: A derivative is a security whose price ultimately depends on that of
another asset.
Derivative means a contact of an agreement.
Types of Derivatives:
1. Forward Contracts
2. Futures
3. Options
4. Swaps.
1. Forward Contracts: - It is a private contract between two parties.

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An agreement between two parties to exchange an asset for a price

that is specified todays. These are settled at end of contract.
2. Future contracts: - It is an Agreement to buy or sell an asset it is at a certain
time in the future for a certain price. Futures will be traded in exchanges
only.These is settled daily.
Futures are four types:
1. Commodity Futures: Wheat, Soyo, Tea, Corn etc..,.
2. Financial Futures: Treasury bills, Debentures, Equity Shares, bonds, etc..,
3. Currency Futures: Major convertible Currencies like Dollars, Founds,
Yens,
and Euros.
4. Index Futures: Underline assets are famous stock market indicies. NewYork
Stock Exchange.
3. Options: An option gives its Owner the right to buy or sell an Underlying asset
on or before a given date at a fixed price.
There can be as may different option contracts as the number of items to
buy or sell they are,
Stock options, Commodity options, Foreign exchange options and
interest rate options are traded on and off organized exchanges across the
globe.
Options belong to a broader class of assets called Contingent claims.
The option to buy is a call option.The option to sell is a PutOption.
The option holder is the buyer of the option and the option writer is the seller of
the option.
The fixed price at which the option holder can buy or sell the underlying asset is
called the exercise price or Striking price.
A European option can be excercised only on the expiration date where as an
American option can be excercised on or before the expiration date.
Options traded on an exchange are called exchange traded option and options
not traded on an exchange are called over-the-counter optios.

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When stock price (S1) <= Exercise price (E1) the call is said to be out of money
and is worthless.
When S1>E1 the call is said to be in the money and its value is S1-E1.
4. Swaps: Swaps are private agreements between two companies to exchange
casflows in the future according to a prearranged formula.
So this can be regarded as portfolios of forward contracts.
Types of swaps:
1: Interest rate Swaps
2: Currency Swaps.

1. Interest rate Swaps: The most common type of interest rate swap is Plain
Venilla .
Normal life of swap is 2 to 15 Years.
It is a transaction involving an exchange of one stream of interest obligations for
another. Typically, it results in an exchange of ficed rate interest payments for
floating rate interest payments.
2. Currency Swaps: - Another type of Swap is known as Currency as Currency
Swap. This involves exchanging principal amount and fixed rates interest
payments on a loan in one currency for principal and fixed rate interest payments
on an approximately equalant loan in another currency. Like interest rate swaps
currency swars can be motivated by comparative advantage.
Warrants: Options generally have lives of upto one year. The majority of options
traded on exchanges have maximum maturity of nine months. Longer dated
options are called warrants and are generally traded over- the- counter.
American Depository Receipts (ADR): It is a dollar denominated negotiable
instruments or certificate. It represents non-US companies publicly traded equity.
It was devised into late 1920s. To help American investors to invest in overseas
securities and to assist non US companies wishing to have their stock traded in
the American markets. These are listed in American stock market or exchanges.
Global DepositoryReceipts (GDR): GDRs are essentially those instruments
which posseses the certain number of underline shares in the custodial domestic
bank of the company i.e., GDR is a negotiable instrument in the form of
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depository receipt or certificate created by the overseas depository bank out side
India and issued to non-resident investors against the issue of ordinary share or
foreign currency convertible bonds of the issuing company. GDRs are entitled to
dividends and voting rights since the date of its issue.
Capital account and Current account: The capital account of international
purchase or sale of assets. The assets include any form which wealth may be
held. Money held as cash or in the form of bank deposits, shares, debentures,
debt instruments, real estate, land, antiques, etc
The current account records all income related
flows. These flows could arise on account of trade in goods and services and
transfer payment among countries. A net outflow after taking all entries in current
account is a current account deficit. Govt. expenditure and tax revenues do not
fall in the current account.
Dividend Yield: It gives the relationship between the current price of a stock and
the dividend paid by its issuing company during the last 12 months. It is
caliculated by aggregating past years dividend and dividing it by the current
stock price.
Historically, a higher dividend yield has been considered to be desirable among
investors. A high dividend yield is considered to be evidence that a stock is under
priced, where as a low dividend yield is considered evidence that a stock is over
priced.
Bridge Financing: It refers to loans taken by a company normally from
commercial banks for a short period, pending disbursement of loans sanctioned
by financial institutions. Generally, the rate of interest on bridge finance is higher
as compared with term loans.

Shares and Mutual Funds

Company: Sec.3 (1) of the Companys act, 1956 defines a company. Company
means a company formed and registered under this Act or existing company.

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Public Company: A corporate body other than a private company. In the public
company, there is no upperlimit on the number of share holders and no restriction
on transfer of shares.
Private Company: A corporate entity in which limits the number of its members
to 50. Does not invite public to subscribe to its capital and restricts the members
right to transfer shares.
Liquidity: A firms liquidity refers to its ability to meet its obligations in the short
run. An assets liquidity refers to how quickly it can he sold at a reasonable
price.
Cost of Capital: The minimum rate of the firm must earn on its investments in
order to satisfy the expectations of investors who provide the funds to the firm.
Capital Structure: The composition of a firms financing consisting of equity,
preference, and debt.
Annual Report: The report issued annually by a company to its shareholders. It
primarily contains financial statements. In addition, it represents the
managements view of the operations of the previous year and the prospects for
future.
Proxy: The authorization given by one person to another to vote on his behalf in
the shareholders meeting.
Joint Venture: It is a temporary partenership and comes to an end after the
compleation of a particular venture. No limit in its.
Insolvency: In case a debtor is not in a position to pay his debts in full, a petition
can be filled by the debtor himself or by any creditors to get the debtor declared
as an insolvent.
Long Term Debt: The debt which is payable after one year is known as long
term debt.
Short Term Debt: The debt which is payable with in one year is known as short
term debt.
Amortisation: This term is used in two senses 1. Repayment of loan over a
period of time 2.Write-off of an expenditure (like issue cost of shares) over a
period of time.
Arbitrage: A simultaneous purchase and sale of security or currency in different
markets to derive benefit from price differential.

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Stock: The Stock of a company when fully paid they may be converted into
stock.
Share Premium: Excess of issue price over the face value is called as share
premium.
Equity Capital: It represents ownership capital, as equity shareholders
collectively own the company. They enjoy the rewards and bear the risks of
ownership. They will have the voting rights.
Authorized Capital: The amount of capital that a company can potentially issue,
as per its memorandum, represents the authorized capital.
Issued Capital: The amount offered by the company to the investors.
Subscribed capital: The part of issued capital which has been subscribed to by
the investors
Paid-up Capital: The actual amount paid up by the investors.
Typically the issued, subscribed, paid-up capitals are the same.
Par Value: The par value of an equity share is the value stated in the
memorandum and written on the share scrip. The par value of equity share is
generally Rs.10 or Rs.100.
Issued price: It is the price at which the equity share is issued often, the issue
price is higher than the Par Value
Book Value: The book value of an equity share is
= Paid up equity Capital + Reserve and Surplus / No. Of outstanding
shares equity
Market Value (M.V): The Market Value of an equity share is the price at which it
is traded in the market.
Preference Capital: It represents a hybrid form of financing it par takes some
characteristics of equity and some attributes of debentures. It resembles equity in
the following ways
1. Preference dividend is payable only out of distributable profits.
2. Preference dividend is not an obligatory payment.
3. Preference dividend is not a tax deductible payment.

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Preference capital is similar to debentures in several ways.

1. The dividend rate of Preference Capital is fixed.
2. Preference Capital is redeemable in nature.
3. Preference Shareholders do not normally enjoy the right to vote.

Debenture: For large publicly traded firms. These are viable alternative to term
loans. Skin to promissory note, debentures is instruments for raising long term
debt. Debenture holders are creditors of company.
Stock Split: The dividing of a companys existing stock into multiple stocks.
When the Par Value of share is reduced and the number of share is increased.
Calls-in-Arrears: It means that amount which is not yet been paid by share
holders till the last day for the payment.
Calls-in-advance: When a shareholder pays with an instalment in respect of call
yet to make the amount so received is known as calls-in-advance. Calls-inadvance can be accepted by a company when it is authorized by the articles.
Forfeiture of share: It means the cancellation or allotment of unpaid
shareholders.
Forfeiture and reissue of shares allotted on pro rata basis in case of over
subscription.
Prospectus: Inviting of the public for subscribing on shares or debentures of the
company. It is issued by the public companies.
The amount must be subscribed with in 120 days from the date of prospects.
Simple Interest: It is the interest paid only on the principal amount borrowed. No
interest is paid on the interest accured during the term of the loan.
Compound Interest: It means that, the interest will include interest caliculated
on interest.
Time Value of Money: Money has time value. A rupee today is more valuable
than a rupee a year hence. The relation between value of a rupee today and
value of a rupee in future is known as Time Value of Money.
NAV: Net Asset Value of the fund is the cumulative market value of the fund net
of its liabilities. NAV per unit is simply the net value of assets divided by the
number of units out standing. Buying and Selling into funds is done on the basis
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of NAV related prices. The NAV of a mutual fund are required to be published in
news papers. The NAV of an open end scheme should be disclosed ona daily
basis and the NAV of a closed end scheme should be disclosed atleast on a
weekly basis.
Financial markets: The financial markets can broadly be divided into money and
capital market.

Money Market: Money market is a market for debt securities that pay off
in the short term usually less than one year, for example the market for 90days treasury bills. This market encompasses the trading and issuance of
short term non equity debt instruments including treasury bills, commercial
papers, bankers acceptance, certificates of deposits, etc.

Capital Market: Capital market is a market for long-term debt and equity
shares. In this market, the capital funds comprising of both equity and debt
are issued and traded. This also includes private placement sources of
debt and equity as well as organized markets like stock exchanges.
Capital market can be further divided into primary and secondary markets.

Primary Market: It provides the channel for sale of new securities. Primary
Market provides opportunity to issuers of securities; Government as well as
corporate, to raise resources to meet their requirements of investment and/or
discharge some obligation.
They may issue the securities at face value, or at a
discount/premium and these securities may take a variety of forms such as
equity, debt etc. They may issue the securities in domestic market and/or
international market.
Secondary Market: It refers to a market where securities are traded after being
initially offered to the public in the primary market and/or listed on the stock
exchange. Majority of the trading is done in the secondary market. It comprises
of equity markets and the debt markets.
Difference between the primary market and the secondary market: In the
primary market, securities are offered to public for subscription for the purpose of
raising capital or fund. Secondary market is an equity trading avenue in which
already existing/pre- issued securities are traded amongst investors. Secondary

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market could be either auction or dealer market. While stock exchange is the part
of an auction market, Over-the-Counter (OTC) is a part of the dealer market.
SEBI and its role: The SEBI is the regulatory authority established under
Section 3 of SEBI Act 1992 to protect the interests of the investors in securities
and to promote the development of, and to regulate, the securities market and for
matters connected therewith and incidental thereto.
Portfolio: A portfolio is a combination of investment assets mixed and matched
for the purpose of investors goal.
Market Capitalisation: The market value of a quoted company, which is
caliculated by multiplying its current share price (market price) by the number of
shares in issue, is called as market capitalization.
Book Building Process: It is basically a process used in IPOs for efficient price
discovery. It is a mechanism where, during the period for which the IPO is open,
bids are collected from investors at various prices, which are above or equal to
the floor price. The offer price is determined after the bid closing date.
Cut off Price: In Book building issue, the issuer is required to indicate either the
price band or a floor price in the red herring prospectus. The actual discovered
issue price can be any price in the price band or any price above the floor price.
This issue price is called Cut off price. This is decided by the issuer and LM
after considering the book and investors appetite for the stock. SEBI (DIP)
guidelines permit only retail individual investors to have an option of applying at
cut off price.
Bluechip Stock: Stock of a recognized, well established and financially sound
company.
Penny Stock: Penny stocks are any stock that trades at very low prices, but
subject to extremely high risk.
Debentures: Companies raise substantial amount of longterm funds through the
issue of debentures. The amount to be raised by way of loan from the public is
divided into small units called debentures. Debenture may be defined as written
instrument acknowledging a debt issued under the seal of company containing
provisions regarding the payment of interest, repayment of principal sum, and
charge on the assets of the company etc
Large Cap / Big Cap: Companies having a large market capitalization

20

For example, In US companies with market capitalization between $10 billion and
$20 billion, and in the Indian context companies market capitalization of above
Rs. 1000 crore are considered large caps.
Mid Cap: Companies having a mid sized market capitalization, for example, In
US companies with market capitalization between $2 billion and $10 billion, and
in the Indian context companies market capitalization between Rs. 500 crore to
Rs. 1000 crore are considered mid caps.
Small Cap: Refers to stocks with a relatively small market capitalization, i.e.
lessthan $2 billion in US or lessthan Rs.500 crore in India.
Holding Company: A holding company is one which controls one or more
companies either by holding shares in that company or companies are having
power to appoint the directors of those company
The company controlled by holding company is
known as the Subsidary Company.
Consolidated Balance Sheet: It is the b/s of the holding company and its
subsidiary company taken together.
Partnership act 1932: Partnership means an association between two or more
persons who agree to carry the business and to share profits and losses arising
from it. 20 members in ordinary trade and 10 in banking business
IPO: First time when a company announces its shares to the public is called as
an IPO. (Intial Public Offer)
A Further public offering (FPO): It is when an already listed company makes
either a fresh issue of securities to the public or an offer for sale to the public,
through an offer document. An offer for sale in such scenario is allowed only if it
is made to satisfy listing or continuous listing obligations.
Rights Issue (RI): It is when a listed company which proposes to issue fresh
securities to its shareholders as on a record date. The rights are normally offered
in a particular ratio to the number of securities held prior to the issue.
Preferential Issue: It is an issue of shares or of convertible securities by listed
companies to a select group of persons under sec.81 of the Indian companies
act, 1956 which is neither a rights issue nor a public issue.This is a faster way for
a company to raise equity capital.
Index: An index shows how specified portfolios of share prices are moving in
order to give an indication of market trends. It is a basket of securities and the
21

average price movement of the basket of securities indicates the index

movement, whether upward or downwards.
Dematerialisation: It is the process by which physical certificates of an investor
are converted to an equivalent number of securities in electronic form and
credited to the investors account with his depository participant.
Bull and Bear Market: Bull market is where the prices go up and Bear market
where the prices come down.
Exchange Rate: It is a rate at which the currencies are bought and sold.
FOREX: The Foreign Exchange Market is the place where currencies are traded.
The overall FOREX markets is the largest, most liquid market in the world with an
average traded value that exceeds $ 1.9 trillion per day and includes all of the
currencies in the world.It is open 24 hours a day, five days a week.
Mutual Fund: A mutual fund is a pool of money, collected from investors, and
invested according to certain investment objectives.
Asset Management Company (AMC): A company set up under Indian
companys act, 1956 primarily for performing as the investment manager of
mutual funds. It makes investment decisions and manages mutual funds in
accordance with the scheme objectives, deed of trust and provisions of the
investment management agreement.
Back-End Load: A kind of sales charge incurred when investors redeem or sell
shares of a fund.
Front-End Load: A kind of sales charge that is paid before any amount gets
invested into the mutual fund.
Off Shore Funds: The funds setup abroad to channalise foreign investment in
the domestic capital markets.
Under Writer: The organization that acts as the distributor of mutual funds share
to broker or dealers and investors.
Registrar: The institution that maintains a registry of shareholders of a fund and
their share ownership. Normally the registrar also distributes dividends and
provides periodic statements to shareholders.
Trustee: A person or a group of persons having an overall supervisory authority
over the fund managers.

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Bid (or Redemption) Price: In newspaper listings, the pre-share price that a
fund will pay its shareholders when they sell back shares of a fund, usually the
same as the net asset value of the fund.
Schemes according to Maturity Period:
A mutual fund scheme can be classified into open-ended scheme or close-ended
scheme depending on its maturity period.
Open-ended Fund/ Scheme
An open-ended fund or scheme is one that is available for subscription and
repurchase on a continuous basis. These schemes do not have a fixed maturity
period. Investors can conveniently buy and sell units at Net Asset Value (NAV)
related prices which are declared on a daily basis. The key feature of open-end
schemes is liquidity.
Close-ended Fund/ Scheme
A close-ended fund or scheme has a stipulated maturity period e.g. 5-7 years.
The fund is open for subscription only during a specified period at the time of
launch of the scheme. Investors can invest in the scheme at the time of the initial
public issue and thereafter they can buy or sell the units of the scheme on the
stock exchanges where the units are listed. In order to provide an exit route to
the investors, some close-ended funds give an option of selling back the units to
the mutual fund through periodic repurchase at NAV related prices. SEBI
Regulations stipulate that at least one of the two exit routes is provided to the
investor i.e. either repurchase facility or through listing on stock exchanges.
These mutual funds schemes disclose NAV generally on weekly basis.
Schemes according to Investment Objective:
A scheme can also be classified as growth scheme, income scheme, or balanced
scheme considering its investment objective. Such schemes may be open-ended
or close-ended schemes as described earlier. Such schemes may be classified
mainly as follows:
Growth / Equity Oriented Scheme
The aim of growth funds is to provide capital appreciation over the medium to
long- term. Such schemes normally invest a major part of their corpus in equities.
Such funds have comparatively high risks. These schemes provide different
options to the investors like dividend option, capital appreciation, etc. and the
investors may choose an option depending on their preferences. The investors
must indicate the option in the application form. The mutual funds also allow the

23

investors to change the options at a later date. Growth schemes are good for
investors having a long-term outlook seeking appreciation over a period of time.
Income / Debt Oriented Scheme
The aim of income funds is to provide regular and steady income to investors.
Such schemes generally invest in fixed income securities such as bonds,
corporate debentures, Government securities and money market instruments.
Such funds are less risky compared to equity schemes. These funds are not
affected because of fluctuations in equity markets. However, opportunities of
capital appreciation are also limited in such funds. The NAVs of such funds are
affected because of change in interest rates in the country. If the interest rates
fall, NAVs of such funds are likely to increase in the short run and vice versa.
However, long term investors may not bother about these fluctuations.

Balanced Fund
The aim of balanced funds is to provide both growth and regular income as such
schemes invest both in equities and fixed income securities in the proportion
indicated in their offer documents. These are appropriate for investors looking for
moderate growth. They generally invest 40-60% in equity and debt instruments.
These funds are also affected because of fluctuations in share prices in the stock
markets. However, NAVs of such funds are likely to be less volatile compared to
pure equity funds.
Money Market or Liquid Fund
These funds are also income funds and their aim is to provide easy liquidity,
preservation of capital and moderate income. These schemes invest exclusively
in safer short-term instruments such as treasury bills, certificates of deposit,
commercial paper and inter-bank call money, government securities, etc. Returns
on these schemes fluctuate much less compared to other funds. These funds are
appropriate for corporate and individual investors as a means to park their
surplus funds for short periods.
Gilt Fund
These funds invest exclusively in government securities. Government securities
have no default risk. NAVs of these schemes also fluctuate due to change in
interest rates and other economic factors as is the case with income or debt
oriented schemes.
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Index Funds
Index Funds replicate the portfolio of a particular index such as the BSE
Sensitive index, S&P NSE 50 index (Nifty), etc these schemes invest in the
securities in the same weightage comprising of an index. NAVs of such schemes
would rise or fall in accordance with the rise or fall in the index, though not
exactly by the same percentage due to some factors known as "tracking error" in
technical terms. Necessary disclosures in this regard are made in the offer
document of the mutual fund scheme.
There are also exchange traded index funds launched by the mutual funds which
are traded on the stock exchanges.
Earning per share (EPS): It is a financial ratio that gives the information
regarding earing available to each equity share. It is very important financial ratio
for assessing the state of market price of share. The EPS statement is applicable
to the enterprise whose equity shares are listed in stock exchange.
Types of EPS:
1. Basic EPS ( with normal shares)
2. Diluted EPS (with normal shares and convertible shares)

EPS Statement :
Sales

****

Less: variable cost

****
Contribution

Less: Fixed cost

EBIT

***
****

*****

Less: Interest

***
EBT

Less: Tax

****
****

Earnimgs

****
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Less: preference dividend

****

Earnings available to equity

Share holders (A)

*****

EPS=A/ No of outstanding Shares

EBIT and Operating Income are same
The higher the EPS, the better is the performance of the company.
Cash Flow Statement: It is a statement which shows inflows (receipts) and
outflows (payments) of cash and its equivalents in an enterprise during a
specified period of time. According to the revised accounting standard 3, an
enterprise prepares a cash flow statement and should present it for each period
for which financial statements are presented.
Funds Flow Statement: Fund means the net working capital. Funds flow
statement is a statement which lists first all the sources of funds and then all the
applications of funds that have taken place in a business enterprise during the
particular period of time for which the statement has been prepared. The
statement finally shows the net increase or net decrease in the working capital
that has taken place over the period of time.
Float: The difference between the available balance and the ledger balance is
referred to as the float.
Collection Float: The amount of cheque deposited by the firm in the bank but
not cleared.
Payment Float: The amount of cheques issued by the firm but not paid for by
the bank.
Operating Cycle: The operating cycle of a firm begins with the acquisition of raw
material and ends with the collection of receivables.

26

Marginal Costing:
Sales VaribleCost=FixedCost Profit/Loss
Contribution= Sales VaribleCost
Contribution= FixedCost Profit/Loss
P / V Ratio= (Contribution / Sales)*100
Per 1 unit information is given,
P / V Ratio = (Contribution per Unit / Sales per Unit)*100
Two years information is given,
P / V Ratio= (Change in Profit / Change in Sales) * 100
Through Sales, P / V Ratio
Contribution =Sales * P / v Ratio
Through P / V Ratio, Contribution
Sales = Contribution / P / VRatio
Break Even Point (B.E.P)
IN Value = (Fixed Cost) / (P / v Ratio) OR (Fixed Cost / Contribution) * Sales
In Units = Fixed Cost / Contribution OR Fixed Cost / (SalesPrice per Unit V.C
per Unit)
Margin of Safety = Total Sales Sales at B.E.P (OR) Profit / PV Ratio
Sales at desired profit (in units)
= FixedCost+ DesiredProfit / Contribution per Unit
Sales at desired profit (in Value)

27

= FixedCost+ DesiredProfit / PV ratio (OR) Contribution / PV Ratio

RATIOANALYSIS
A ratio analysis is a mathematical expression. It is the quantitative
relation between two. It is the technique of interpretation of financial statements
with the help of meaningful ratios. Ratios may be used for comparison in any of
the following ways.

Comparison of a firm its own performance in the past.

Comparison of a firm with the another firm in the industry
Comparison of a firm with the industry as a whole

TYPES OF RATIOS

Liquidity ratio
Activity ratio
Leverage ratio
profitability ratio

1. Liquidity ratio: These are ratios which measure the short term financial
position of a firm.
i. Current ratio: It is also called as working capital ratio. The
current ratio measures the ability of the firm to meet its currnt liabilities-current
assets get converted into cash during the operating cycle of the firm and provide
the funds needed to pay current liabilities. i.e
Current assets
Current liabilities
Ideal ratio is 2:1

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ii. Quick or Acid test Ratio: It tells about the firms liquidity position. It is a fairly
stringent measure of liquidity.
=Quick assets/Current Liabilities
Ideal ratio is 1:1
Quick Assets =Current Assets Stock - Prepaid Expenses
iii. Absolute Liquid Ratio:
A.L.A/C.L
AL assets=Cash + Bank + Marketable Securities.
2. Activity Ratios or Current Assets management or Efficiency Ratios:
These ratios measure the efficiency or effectiveness of the firm in managing its
resources or assets

Stock or Inventory Turnover Ratio: It indicates the number of times the

stock has turned over into sales in a year. A stock turn over ratio of 8 is
considered ideal. A high stock turn over ratio indicates that the stocks are
fast moving and get converted into sales quickly.

= Cost of goods Sold/ Avg. Inventory

Debtors Turnover Ratio: It expresses the relationship between debtors and

sales.

=Credit Sales /Average Debtors

Creditors Turnover Ratio: It expresses the relationship between creditors

and purchases.

=Credit Purchases /Average Creditors

Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio: A high fixed asset turn over ratio indicates
better utilization of the firm fixed assets. A ratio of around 5 is considered
ideal.

= Net Sales / Fixed Assets

Working Capital Turnover Ratio: A high working capital turn over ratio
indicates efficiency utilization of the firms funds.

29

=CGS/Working Capital
=W.C=C.A C.L.
3. Leverage Ratio: These ratios are mainly calculated to know the long term
solvency position of the company.

Debt Equity Ratio: The debt-equity ratio shows the relative contributions of
creditors and owners.

= outsiders fund/Share holders fund

Ideal ratios 2:1

Proprietary ratio or Equity ratio: It expresses the relationship between

networth and total assets. A high proprietary ratio is indicativeof strong
financial position of the business.

=Share holders funds/Total Assets

= (Equity Capital +Preference capital +Reserves Fictitious
assets) / Total Assets

Fixed Assets to net worth Ratio: This ratio indicates the mode of financing
the fixed assets. The ideal ratio is 0.67
=Fixed Assets (After Depreciation.)/Shareholder Fund

4. Profitability Ratios: Profitability ratios measure the profitability of a concern

generally. They are calculated either in relation to sales or in relation to
investment.

Return on Capital Employed or Return on Investment (ROI): This ratio

reveals the earning capacity of the capital employed in the business.
=PBIT /Capital Employed

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Return on Proprietors Fund / Earning Ratio: Earn on Net Worth

=Net Profit (After tax)/Proprietors Fund

Return on Ordinary shareholders Equity or Return on Equity Capital: It

expresses the return earned by the equity shareholders on their
investment.

=Net Profit after tax and Dividend / Proprietors fund or Paid up equity Capital

Price Earning Ratio: It expresses the relationship between marketprice of

share on a company and the earnings per share of that company.
=MPS (Market Price per Share) / EPS

Earning Price Ratio/ Earning Yield:

= EPS / MPS

EPS= Net Profit (After tax and Interest) / No. Of Outstanding Shares.

Dividend Yield ratio: It expresses the relationship between dividend

earned per share to earnings per share.

Dividend per share (DPS) / Market value per share

Dividend pay-out ratio: It is the ratio of dividend per share to earning per
share.

= DPS / EPS
DPS: It is the amount of the dividend payable to the holder of one equity share.
=Dividend paid to ordinary shareholders / No. of ordinary shares
C.G.S=Sales- G.P
G.P= Sales C.G.S
G.P.Ratio =G.P/Net sales*100
Net Sales= Gross Sales Return inward- Cash discount allowed
31

Net profit ratio=Net Profit/ Net Sales*100

Operating Profit ratio=O.P/Net Sales*100
Interest Coverage Ratio= Net Profit (Before Tax & Interest) / Fixed Interest
Classes
Return on Investment (ROI): It reveals the earning capacity of the capital
employed in the business. It is calculated as,
EBIT/Capital employed.
The return on capital employed should be more than the cost of capital
employed.
Capital employed =EquityCapital+Preference sharecapital+Reserves+Longterm
loans and Debentures - Fictitious Assets Non OperatingAssets

32