The Dunhuang Chinese Sky
The Dunhuang Chinese Sky
The Dunhuang Chinese Sky
24/03/2016 19:05
Abstract
This paper presents an analysis of the star atlas included in the medieval Chinese
manuscript Or.8210/S.3326 discovered in 1907 by the archaeologist Aurel Stein at the
Silk Road town of Dunhuang and now housed in the British Library. Although partially
studied by a few Chinese scholars, it has never been fully displayed and discussed in
the Western world. This set of sky maps (12 hour-angle maps in quasi-cylindrical
projection and a circumpolar map in azimuthal projection), displaying the full sky visible
from the Northern Hemisphere, is up to now the oldest complete preserved star atlas
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known from any civilisation. It is also the earliest known pictorial representation of the
quasi-totality of Chinese constellations.
This paper describes the history of the physical object a roll of thin paper drawn
with ink. We analyse the stellar content of each map (1,339 stars, 257 asterisms) and
the texts associated with the maps. We establish the precision with which the maps
were drawn (1.5-4 for the brightest stars) and examine the type of projections used.
We conclude that precise mathematical methods were used to produce the Atlas. We
also discuss the dating of the manuscript and its possible author, and we confirm the
date +649-684 (early Tang Dynasty) as most probable based on the available
evidence. This is at variance with a prior estimate of around +940. Finally, we present a
brief comparison with later sky maps, both from China and Europe.
Contents
1. Introduction
The Dunhuang star atlas is one of the most spectacular documents of the history of
astronomy. It is a complete representation of the Chinese sky including numerous stars
and asterisms depicted in a succession of maps covering the full sky (Figure 1). Apart
its aesthetic appeal, the document found on the Silk Road is remarkable as it is the
oldest star atlas known today from any civilization.
The Dunhuang star atlas is unique in the information it gives, which is discussed in
more detail below: a) more than 1300 individual stars in the total sky are represented,
as could be observed by eye from the Chinese imperial observatory; b) the sky is
displayed as in the most modern charts with twelve hour-angle maps, plus a North
polar region; c) the Chinese constellations are indicated with their names; d) the atlas
is drawn in two inks on the finest paper and accompanied with complementary text; e)
the document is shown to date from the early Tang period (618-907), while the oldest
other star atlases in China date from the eleventh century.
The manuscript is very often quoted in encyclopaedic and popular publications as an
illustration of Chinese astronomical knowledge. However, despite its crucial historical
and scientific importance, we realized that no extensive description and analysis of the
atlas existed in Western literature. Needham reproduced part of the manuscript and
gave only a very short description (Needham, 1959, 264). Since then it has received
only brief mentions in other studies (Sun Xiaochun and Kistemaker, 1997, 29; Deng
Wenkuan and Liu Lexian, 2003, 76).
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We decided to undertake a detailed study of the star atlas after the exhibition on the
Silk Road organised in 2004 by the British Library where the document was shown and
a preliminary analysis was given (Bonnet-Bidaud and Praderie, 2004). In the present
paper, we shall first give a full review of the Chinese sources (sect. 2), then give a
general description of the star atlas (sect. 3), examine the accuracy and the type of
planar projection used and also present a method to give a date from astronomical
arguments (sect. 4). We then discuss the date of the star atlas, compare the Dunhuang
star atlas to other Chinese atlases and further comment on the status of these
documents (sect. 5). In a monographic appendix, we also include the in-depth
description of two representative sections of the document. This study was made
possible by the use of high resolution digital copies of the star atlas made available to
us by the International Dunhuang Project. This first publication in Western language is
aimed at making available basic information on this important document.
Figure 1: The complete Dunhuang Star Atlas, the last section of the Or.8210/S.3326
British Library manuscript, showing the twelve star maps (as seen above, from right to
left), followed by the circumpolar map and ending with the drawing of a bowman in
traditional clothes. The total dimensions are 2100 mm in length and 244 mm in width.
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work on his catalogue, although it was still unpublished, and could have directed
Needham to the astronomy-related manuscripts.
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from the Greek tradition. Beside the equatorial region, the rest of the sky is divided in
very numerous small asterisms (nearly three hundred), most associated with practical
objects or persons of the Chinese empire, leading to astrological predictions. Lists of
the Chinese constellations were maintained all through Chinese history and did not
change much over time. They form the basis of the astronomical Chinese tradition (Ho,
1966; Sun and Kistemaker, 1997).
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Pan Nai (1989, 148) also produced a description of S.3326 with a valuable discussion
on its date. , there is a possible reference to Li Chunfeng. He refutes the claim (Xia,
1982) that S.3326 was inspired by Songs of Pacing the Heavens (Bu Tian Ge (
)
(Iannaccone, 2002; Zhou, 2004), a book in verses including some sky illustrations
which is dated +590-600. Pan Nai supports the idea that there was an original star
atlas prepared by Li Chunfeng from which S.3326 was copied. Considering the style of
writing of the accompanying text, he proposes without any further argument that the
copy may date from the tenth century, thus concurring with Needham (see also sect.
5.1).
Deng Wenkuan (1996: 58ff), in the context of a study of astronomical texts and
calendars found in Dunhuang, reproduces the S.3326 star atlas with explanatory notes
and punctuated versions of the text. In a more recent book (Deng, 2002), he dedicates
a chapter to S.3326 and finds similarity with several other texts such as the
astronomical chapters of the Jinshu, another text by Li Chunfeng (Yisi Zhan
)
and the Kaiyuan Zhanjing.
In a book on ancient Chinese star atlases, Feng Shi also gives a brief survey of S.3326
(Feng, 2001, 330).
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the beginning of the document. In some parts, there are traces of replication marks by
contact due to the long conservation in a rolled state. The document is divided in two
different parts. From right to left, the first section is an uranomancy/meteoromancy
text containing 80 extant columns of text below 26 drawings of clouds of different
shapes. In this part there is an interesting citation under column 43 which can be
translated as "'according to your servant Chunfeng'" (Pan, 1989; Deng and Liu, 2003),
a possible direct reference to the astronomer Li Chunfeng. L Buwei
(c.291
235), advisor to the First Emperor of China, Qin Shihuangdi, is also mentioned (Figure
2; see also sect. 5.1).
The star atlas follows this first section without a break. The atlas is 2100mm in length
and consists of 12 vertical maps, each with accompanying texts in columns on the left,
followed with one map of the circumpolar region with no text, and one column at the
end, making 50 columns and 13 maps in total. The full star atlas is presented in Figure
1. The very last part of Figure 1 is the drawing of a bowman shooting an arrow in
traditional clothes and, judging by the caption to his right, this depicts the god of
lightning. He is followed by what appears to be a title (to his left). It is common in
Chinese manuscripts to note the title at the beginning and end of the document so it is
probable, therefore, that this text refers to the previous parts. However, the meaning of
this title remains a mystery and it has not yet been possible to make sense of it;
moreover a survey of Chinese historical and bibliographical sources failed to reveal a
similar title.
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drawn. We have counted 1339 stars grouped in 257 asterisms, although some
overlapping or some non-encircled dots prevent an accurate census. Xi Zezong (1966)
gives for the same chart a number of stars of 1359. We were able to identify all but
fifteen asterisms as their Chinese names are given on the map.
Out of the 28 mansions, 27 are shown on S.3326, as a belt roughly following the
celestial equator, and all show up with their leading star. The only missing one is Wei
( ) or belly which may be present in the east part of map 3 but with a character
including a mistake. As in the description given by Li Chunfeng in the astronomical
chapters of the Jinshu (Ho, 1966), the Chinese sky exhibited by S.3326 displays the
three yuan ( enclosures or wall systems), namely Ziwei (
), Taiwei (
) and
Tianshi (
), which encircle different groups of stars. These are regions of the
present pole star ! UMi and stars in Draco and Cassiopeia for Ziwei; " Vir and stars in
Virgo for Taiwei; # Oph and stars in Ophiucus for Tianshi. All the bright stars visible
from latitude 34N are found on the map. As to the faintest ones, they correspond to
eye observations of astronomers with very sharp eyesight. It is puzzling, and noted for
a long time, that Chinese astronomers did not pay attention to visual magnitudes when
drawing star atlases. This is the case in S.3326, where we estimate that stars as faint
as visual magnitude 6.5 are present.
The document, drawn by hand and possibly a copy, shows the positions of the stars
with, in general, good precision (see sect. 4.1). In Chinese astronomy, the large number
of asterisms (257 as compared to the 88 modern constellations) allows to specify fairly
well the 'co-ordinates' of mobile heavenly bodies such as the Sun, Moon and five
planets or of unexpected events such as 'guest stars' (comets or novae). None of the
latter appears on S.3326.
We have noted some misplacements of stars or asterisms, which are either errors or
show lack of attention on the part of the copyist. For instance on map 6, the asterism
Liu
(part of Hydra) should be at the same declination as Nanhe
(containing !
CMi) while on the map Liu is too far to the North. We also note that the same name
appears for different groups of stars, but this is in accordance with the Chinese
tradition. For instance, Tiantian
denotes an asterism south of the mansion Niu
(map 12) as well as an asterism of 3 stars north of the mansion Jiao
(map 9). On
map 13, there are also two groups of 3 stars with the same name, Sangong
(Three
excellencies), one to the south of the handle of Beidou
, the other near the star !
UMa also in Beidou, but this appears here to be a faulty duplication. Finally there is
some confusion between left (zuo ) and right (you ) when denoting east and west
relative to a given star or asterism. An example is found on map 3, with Yougeng
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element in the enumeration of days in the Chinese calendar) associated with the
Jupiter station and the name of the state within the Chinese empire supposedly
influenced by that region of the sky (see Table 1). As an example, the first map refers to
the Jupiter station Xuan Xiao. The text reads:
From the 8th degree of N to the 15th degree of Wei, associated with [the terrestial
branch] zi, is [the Jupiter station] Xuan Xiao. The colour of the North direction is
the black. When Xu [appears], [it will be] a bad harvest. At the 11th month, the spirit
yang contracts, the spirit yin expands, the ten thousand beings [all the creation]
disappears into the darkness, there is no life, sky and earth are without
consistence, the Sun [goes] into Xuan Xiao. This division corresponds to [the state
of] Qi.
These texts are mainly of astrological use but the scientific notation in degrees reveals
that they are based on astronomical observations and have been produced with the
attempt to be as precise as possible for this period. Interestingly, a reduced version of
similar texts is found in the astronomical chapters of the Jinshu with a later redaction
commonly attributed to Li Chunfeng. This shortened version includes only the station
extensions in degrees, the terrestrial branch and a more detailed association with
Chinese states but without any astrological predictions (Ho, 1966: 113-120). We have
checked the S.3326 extensions and found them almost exactly the same to those of
the Jinshu, with only very minor one-degree variations in three cases (Table 1).
We also note that in five cases (maps 1, 4, 5, 7 and 9), the texts refer to a lunar month
different from the corresponding map, in reference with the long astrological tradition
of considering a 'shadow planet' moving in the opposite direction of Jupiter (see
Needham, 1959, 402).
The astrological comments were found by previous authors analogous to texts in the
section Fenye Lueli (
) of the astronomical treatise (chapter 64) of the later
Kaiyuan Zhanjing. Based on this complementary information, a completed version in
Chinese of the twelve calendar texts was produced, restoring the punctuation and the
missing characters since some of the texts seem abbreviated on S.3326 (Xi, 1966;
Deng, 1996, 58). The S.3326 texts appear therefore more developed than those found
in Jinshu but also a somewhat earlier preliminary version of those of the Kaiyuan
Zhanjing.
Analysis of the stations equatorial extensions on S.3326 shows that their lengths are
approximately equal, with a mean value of 29.0 and a total range from 27.1 to 31.4
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(for an equator at date +700). A major difference occurs however for the Jupiter
stations Chun Huo (month 6) and Chun Wei (month 7) with respectively an extension of
36.7 and 19.7 (Table 1). This appears to be an error of 10 in the extension of the
mansion Zhang that is given as 18 while the mansion total extension is only 8 (the
effect of the precession will not vary this value by more than a fraction of a degree
even for dates back to 500).
Table 1 shows that the correspondence between Jupiter stations and Chinese
mansions on the Dunhuang atlas is almost exactly the same as that found on Figure 91
and Table 34 (Needham, 1959). Actually the repartition of the mansions with respect to
the Jupiter stations is conventional and seems to go back to a very old tradition (de
Saussure, 1930). As these calendar texts are based on Jupiter cyclic behaviour, they
do not provide useful astronomical information on the production date of the
document.
Table 1 : Correspondence between Jupiter stations and Chinese mansions according to the S.3326
Map1
Month
12
S.3326
Jupiter
Stations
S.3326
Jupiter
Stations
Extensions
Xuan
Xiao
from 8th
of N to
15th of
Wei
Zou Zi
S.3326
Month/Branch/State3
Needham
Jupiter
Stations
Xu, Wei(12)
11 / zi / Qi
5. Xuan
Xiao
om 16th
of Wei to
4th of Kui
Shi, Bi(14)
- / hai/Wei
6. Qu Zi
Jiang
Lou
from 5th
of Kui to
6th of
Wei
Kui, Lou
- / xu/Lu
7. Jiang
Lou
Da Liang
from 7th
of Wei to
11th of Bi
Mao, Bi(19)
8 / yu / Zhao
8. Da
Liang
7 / shen/ Wei
9. Shi
Chen
Gui, Liu
- / wei / Qin
10.Chun
Shou
Xing, Zhang
5 / wu / Zhou
11. Chun
Xin
Shi Chen
from 12th
of Bi to
15th of
Jing
Chun
Shou
from 16th
of Jing to
8th of Liu
Chun
Huo
S.3326
Chinese
mansions2
(from West to
East)
from 9th
of Liu to
17th of
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Zhang6
7
Chun
Wei
from 18th
of Zhang to
11th of
Zhen
Shou
Xing
from 12th
of Zhen to
4th of Di
Jiao, Kang
3/chen/Zheng
1. Shou
Xing
10
Da Huo
from 5th
of Di to 9th
of Wei
Di,Fang,Xin,Wei(6)
- / mao / Song
2. Da Huo
Ji, Dou
- / yin / Yan
3. Xi Mu
Niu, N
-/chou/Wu-Yue
4. Xing Ji
11
10
Xi Mu
from 10th
of Wei to
12th of
Dou7
12
11
Xing Zhi
from 12th
of Dou6 to
7th of N
Yi, Zhen
- / si / Chu
12. Chun
Wei
1. The Dunhuang S.3326 maps are numbered 1 to 12, according to their order in the document, map 1
corresponding to the Winter solstice.
2. Chinese mansions (xiu) with same pinyin names [as Bi(14), Bi(19)] are distinguished by their order nu
as in Needham (1959), Fig. 91, p. 243.
3. Lunar month used for predictions and name of the corresponding state as indicated in the astrologic
text.
4. Correspondence between Jupiter stations (ci) and Chinese mansions (xiu) from Needham (1959), Fi
(p. 243) and Table 34 (p. 403).
5. The xiu Wei(17) is absent from the S.3326 map.
6. Apparent copyist error introducing a very unequal station (see text).
7. Between month 10 and 11, the station extension is noted with the same degree on the map (from 12t
Dou) instead of increasing by one degree as in the other extensions.
labelled '12th lunar month'. For three maps (8, 10 and 12), these indications are absent
or erased.
The twelfth (lunar) month, the Sun meets the mansions N and Xu; at dusk the
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Lunar Month
12
Major
Western
Constellations
on S.3326
CygnusPegasusAquarius
AndromedaPegasusPisces
AriesCetusAndromeda
PerseusTaurusEridanus
AurigaOrionLepus
CancerCanis
MajorGemini
Xu
Wei (12)
Shi
Bi (14)
Kui
Lou
Mao
Bi (19)
Zui
Shen
Jing
Gui
Liu
Sun
conjunction
N
Xu
Shi
Kui
Wei (17)2
Mao
Bi (19)
Zui
Jing
Gui
Dusk
culmination
Kui
Lou
Shen
Liu
Xing
erased?
Yi
??
Kang
Di
Wei (6)
Niu
erased?
Wei (12)
S.3326
Chinese
mansions
(xiu)1 on
S.3326
Dawn
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culmination
YUELING4
Sun
conjunction
(Ying)Shi
Kui
Wei (17)
Bi (19)
Jing
Dusk
Lou
Shen
??
Yi
Kang
Dawn
Di
Wei (6)
Dou
Niu
Wei (12)
Map
10
11
12
Lunar Month
10
11
Major
Western
Constellations
on S.3326
LeoHydra
Virgo
Corvus
Canes
Venatici
BootesVirgoLupus
SerpensOphiucusScorpius
HerculusOphiucusSagittarius
LyraAquilaCapricornus
Xing
Zhang
Yi
Zhen
Jiao
Kang
Di
Fang
Xin
Wei (6)
Ji
Dou
Niu
N
Sun
conjunction
no text
Jiao
no text
Wei (6)
Ji
no text
Dusk
culmination
Fang
no text
Niu
no text
Kang3
no text
Dawn
culmination
Kui
no text
Zui
no text
no text
Liu
Yi
Jiao
Fang
Wei (6)
Dou
Dusk
Huo/Xin5
JianXing
Niu
Xu
Wei (12)
Bi (14)
Dawn
Kui
Bi (14)
Zui
Liu
Zhen
S.3326
Chinese
mansions
(xiu)1 on
S.3326
YUELING4
Sun
conjunction
1. Chinese mansions (xiu) in pinyin transcriptions are given from West to East on the maps
(right to left). Mansions with same pinyin names [as Bi(14), Bi(19)] are distinguished by
their order number as in Needham (1959), Fig. 91, p. 243.
2. Wei (17) is the only xiu missing graphically in the star atlas. A character in the eastern part
of panel 3 could be Wei but with a mistake.
3. Does not correspond to a possible astronomical configuration, possible copying error.
4. From J. Legge, The Li Chi , (1885, new edition 1967), Univ Books, New-York ; see also
F. Couvreur (1913), Le Li Ki , ed. Ho Kien Fu.
5. The term huo ( ) also designates the xiu xin ( ).
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Figure 4: The North circumpolar region (Map 13). The map displays
from the polar region down to a celestial latitude of about +50.
The circumpolar map is fully described in the Appendix and shown in Figure 3. As was
usual in the Chinese sky representations, the North Polar region features the central
Purple Palace with the Celestial Emperor at the pole, surrounded by his family,
servants, military officers and the corresponding housing.
According to Gaubil, also quoted by de Saussure (Gaubil, 1819; de Saussure, 1930), the
star " UMi was adopted as polar star by the Chinese about -1000, and named Di (the
first ancestor), but it was distant by 630' from the real pole. Due to the precession of
equinoxes, the astronomical North pole describes a circle around the ecliptic pole in
25800 years. Recognising the North polar star would therefore be a means of dating
the sky map. On S.3326 the asterism Beiji is clearly drawn, with four stars red encircled
by a black line ($ U Mi, " UMi, 5 UMi, 4 UMi). Another star is red and pale, not encircled
in black, and is located near 4 UMi. It is not easily identifiable in modern terms. The
polar star is not indicated as such on the map. It could be that red, pale spot, but it
would be strange that the star figuring the supreme ruler be so little prominent on the
map. At the difference of the Suzhou sky map (see sect. 5.2), the polar star on S.3326
cannot be seen within the asterism Sifu (the four advisors). We therefore conclude that
for some reason the polar star is not shown on S.3326. However, the type of projection
used to represent the polar region in S.3326 allows to date the map, even if there is no
graphic representation of the pole itself (see sect. 4.1).
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where (RA, DEC) are the star predicted position, (X,Y) the star measured position and
(a,c) and (b,d) respectively the zero points and scale factors for each projection.
Table 3 gives representative results of the fits for three selected hour-angle maps
(maps 1, 2 and 5) and for the circumpolar map (map 13).
The general quality of the document is illustrated by the mean residuals (in degrees)
and the associated correlation factor R. For the hour-angle maps, the regression factor
is always quite good ranging from 0.91 to 0.99 with a marked better correlation in the
vertical (declination). The residuals are of the order of a few degrees only, with the best
accuracy (~ 1.6) achieved in map 5. One notices also a significant difference between
the horizontal (right ascension) and the vertical (declination) scales, the last one being
always larger. This means that the projection is not strictly conformal (equal scales) but
the scales are consistent from one map to another. The typical scale is ~ 4.5/cm
(horizontal) and ~ 5.5/cm (vertical). The extensions and the geometrical centre of the
maps have been computed from the star extreme fit positions. From one map to the
other, they are very similar (~50) in right ascension but more variable in declination
(70 to 100) though more or less centred at the horizon. The comparison of the
different types of projection, pure cylindrical vs Mercator does not yield a significant
difference in the quality of the fit as shown by the corresponding similar regression
factors. Within the uncertainties, both projections are therefore in equal agreement
with the maps. For illustration, Figure 5 gives the correlation results for the map 5 as
well as the reconstructed positions using the fitted scales.
Figure 5: The regression factors and residuals (Orion, Map 5). Least-square fit of the
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measured X-Y positions with a pure cylindrical-projection. Note the very good
correlation in the vertical scale (Y-declination).
For the circumpolar map (map 13), the results are also given in Table 3 in terms of the
azimuthal fit (hour-angle) and radial fit (polar distance). The azimuthal fit is extremely
good with a correlation factor of 0.995 and mean residuals of 1.7. With a scale factor
of 1.050.03, there is also no significant distortion from the theoretical value (1.0) for
the azimuthal projection. Comparatively, the radial fit is notably poorer (R=0.92) with
mean residuals at 33 and significant distortions in the polar distances (see Table 3
and Figure 7). The comparison of the pure equidistant projection with the
stereographic gives a slightly better fit to the stereographic (R=0.93) but not strictly
significant with respect to the statistics. Though some distortions obviously exist (Fig.
7, see also the Appendix), the overall accuracy of the projection is well preserved.
Interestingly, the correlation study also provides an indication of the expected position
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of the pole on the map with respect to the reference position at date +700. The
measured shift in polar distance of the pole reference point (0, 90) between the
S.3326 map and the sky at date +700 is only marginally significant with a difference of
(3.92.9). This position and associated uncertainty is compared in Figure 5 to the
stars close to the pole at different dates, ! UMi (~ +2000), % Dra or " UMi (~ 1000)
and ! Dra (~ -2500). Within the above uncertainties, the pole is fully consistent with a
+ 700 date.
Figure 7: The regression factors and residuals (North polar region, Map 13). Leastsquare fit of the measured polar distance (radius) and azimuth with an azimuthal
equidistant projection. Note the good azimuth correlation.
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The numerical study of the S.3326 document yields important results. The atlas is not
a simple hastily hand-made reminder but is established according to precise
geometrical rules. The projection methods used are consistent with either a pureequidistant or the Mercator projection for the rectangular maps and with the
azimuthal-equidistant or stereographic projection for the circular one. This is in line
with similar results obtained on two later Song period maps, the Suzhou
planisphere and the Xin yixiang fayao
In all cases, the correlations are very good, which eliminates any random coincidence.
Based on the brightest stars, the general positional accuracy of the maps is of the
order of ~ 1.5 to 4. The layout of the rectangular maps is reasonably good with similar
scales from one to another but with 5 variation in the location of the equator. The
map appears therefore as a probable hand copy of a previous more accurate document
although the method of reproduction is not clear. The fineness of the original paper
might have allowed for the maps to be traced from a clear original. It has nevertheless
preserved a remarkable accuracy. It should be noted however that this accuracy study
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is based on selected bright stars only. The overall accuracy is well preserved but with
local significant differences in the positions of individual stars (see for instance " CMa
in map 5 or ! Car (Laoren) in map 6). In some parts, the geometrical shape of
numerous asterisms appears also highly approximate and even fantastical.
Table 3. Computed scales and projections of the Dunhuang maps
Map 1
Map 2
Map 5
Map 13
Input stars1
19
12
17
22
Selected stars2
16
10
15
19
Horizontal
Horizontal
4.40
4.24
4.56
1.05
3.54
4.63
2.26
1.67
Correlation factor3
0.947
0.957
0.907
0.995
Vertical
Horizontal
Vertical
Azimuthal
Vertical
Radial
5.40
7.66
5.28
5,10
3.57
4.07
1.61
3.29
Correlation factor
0.974
0.975
0.996
0.919
0.972
0.974
0.994
0.932
308
344
73
284 to 332
321 to 366
49 to 97
48
45
48
+0.3
+10
+8
87.6
-44 to +45
-41 to +61
-27 to +43
+90to +52
89
102
70
48
-14
-8
+5
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Temporal information can also be extracted from the Dunhuang maps using the
culmination data contained in the texts added to at least 8 out of 12 maps. In these
texts, the given information is the number of the month, the name of the mansions
through which the Sun passes during that month, and the names of the mansions
which culminate (i.e. cross the meridian) at dusk and dawn during the month. This
information does not change appreciably from one year to another but on longer
timescale, the slow effect of the precession of the equinoxes introduces a significant
shift in the position of the stars defining the mansions with respect to the Sun.
We have calculated the effect of the precession in a period ranging from -500 to +900,
which corresponds to the most likely interval where the information could have been
produced. The definition of the mansions and more precisely their leading stars, have
been taken from the list by Needham (table 24, Needham, 1959, 234-237). Standard
precession has been applied without introducing proper motion, which is negligible for
this list of stars.
The Sun position through the Chinese zodiac formed by the mansions was computed
for each chart at mid-month and a common Chinese year starting on 5 February was
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assumed. This is the exact middle date for the variable Chinese luni-solar calendar
(see Aslaksen 2003, 27). For each month, the equatorial Sun coordinates (right
ascension RA, declination DEC) were computed from astronomical formulae as well as
using a planetarium software (Voyager v. 4.0.3) and three different indicators have
been computed.
The Sun position indicator, Hsun, was defined as the difference in RA between the Sun
and the leading star of the mansions indicated in the map. In the case when two
mansions are indicated in the map, the mean RA of the two mansions was used. Two
other parameters, the rise (Hrise) and set (Hset) indicators, are defined as the difference
in RA between the culminating RA and the mansions indicated respectively for the
rising and setting time in the maps.
The culminating RA is simply the sidereal time (ST) at sunrise and sunset and can be
computed using standard formulae as:
where RA and DEC are the Sun equatorial coordinates at date and & is the observers
latitude. In the following, a latitude of 34 was used, corresponding to the city of
Changan (present-day Xian) but also compatible with Luoyang, the eastern capital of
China. For each epoch, from -500 to +900 with a 100 year step, the indicators were
computed for each month and their mean value and standard deviation for each epoch
was evaluated.
The Hsun mean value is shown in Figure 9 along time. Due to the effect of precession, it
shows a continuous decrease, starting from +0.25 hr at -500 to -0.27hr at +900. A
best date for a minimum shift can therefore be interpolated and is computed to be +85
with an interval (-40 to +220) according to the mean statistical errors. An important
dispersion around the mean value is present from month to month (up to 0.5hr) which
is reflected in the significant error bars.
Some caution has to be made about this absolute dating of the chart texts since there
is no clear indication that our basic assumptions that the Sun position is considered at
mid-month and that the mansions are given by their leading star (the starting point of
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the mansions) are correct. In other situations however, if the mansion positions are
identified with their mid-extension or the Sun considered at beginning of the month,
the absolute dates will be shifted in the past by quite a large amount, not consistent
with the supposed period.
(b) The date indicated by its possible author. The scroll S.3326 lacks its original front
cover that could have guided us for this purpose. However, there is a phrase in the
initial uranomancy section which reads: "'chen Chunfeng yan '" (
).This
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). As Li
Chunfeng was also a highly skilled mathematician, it is quite reasonable to think that he
had all the expertise to design the projection methods used in the chart. The mention
of Li Chunfeng would therefore put the period of the document to about +650-670,
when he was active.
(c) The date suggested by the style and form of the writing. Just as for European
manuscripts, the style of the handwriting can be used to help date Chinese
manuscripts. Pan (1989), in the article discussed above, suggests that the manuscript
is a tenth-century copy, but Galambos (personal communication, 2008) suggests that
the handwriting is more typical of an earlier period, fitting with a seventh or early
eighth-century date and Ma (1983), in the article discussed above, also follows this
view. The handwriting is not that of a professional scribe who would have written in a
much neater and more regular hand and might, if required, have copied an earlier style.
It is individualistic and this suggests that the writer was using his own hand and
following the conventions of his time. This is relevant to the use of taboo characters,
another clue to dating (see below).
(d) The date suggested by the taboo form or spelling of the Chinese characters.
Taboo characters are particular to Chinese texts (see footnote 9). As discussed above,
Ma (1983) points out the use in the Star Chart of the taboo form of min, one part of
emperor Taizongs personal name, confirming a date after the end of his reign (+649
onwards). He also points out that the character dan, forming the emperor Ruizongs
personal name, is in its standard, non-taboo form. This suggests a date before this
emperor came to the throne. Ma gives this as +710. However, Ruizong also ruled briefly
in 684 (e.g. see Fairbanks and Twitchett, 1979) and the taboo form should have been in
effect from this earlier date. There are no other characters from later emperors or
empresss names appearing in the manuscript in either standard or taboo form. This is
fairly strong evidence that the manuscript dates from between +649 and +684. The
individualistic style of the handwriting supports this conclusion: it is not the
handwriting of a scribe paid to make an exact copy of an earlier manuscript. These two
pieces of evidence seriously challenge Needhams +940 date.
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Figure 10: The last section of the S.3326 document showing the image
of a bowman in traditional clothes shooting an arrow. Judging by the
caption to the right of the image, the figure is the god of lightning
(Dian Shen
). The drawing is followed by what appears to be a title
(to the left). The clothing is typical of an imperial functionary and the
official hat provides some evidence of the epoch. After the tenth
century it became common for officials to starch their hat flaps so that
they stuck out horizontally. This image shows unstarched hat flaps,
which suggests an earlier date.
(e) The date suggested by the drawing, which Ma Shichang argues is a style common
during Empress Wu Zetians reign. The clothing is fairly generic, but the official hat
does provide some useful supporting evidence (see Figure 10). From the tenth century,
it became common for officials to starch their hat flaps so that they stuck out
horizontally. This image shows unstarched hat flaps, also suggesting an earlier date.
(f) The date of the sky epoch as it is graphically represented in the maps. This is
provided by the astronomical analysis presented here. The sky configuration may be
dated using a) the location of the Celestial Equator in the stellar maps, and b) the
position of the Pole in the circumpolar map. On the short stretch of each hour-angle
map, the location of the Celestial Equator is too imprecise to give useful constraint (see
Table 3). However, the projection analysis of the circumpolar chart gives however a
meaningful constraint on the position of the Pole (Fig. 6). The configuration is fully
consistent with a date around +650.
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(g) The date corresponding to the additional culmination texts. The analysis of the
Sun's position among the mansions as indicated in the maps, points to a configuration
at dates -40 and +220, which puts these texts at an earlier epoch than the maps. This
indicates that the texts on the document may be a compilation of different sources.
From our analysis, it is likely that both the original document and its possible copies
were produced in the interval +649-684, at the beginning of the Tang dynasty, a
period rich in significant works in astronomy. The precise range is provided by the
taboo characters and is consistent will all other estimates. This date range
encompasses a time contemporary with Li Chunfeng and is earlier than the period
when the important astronomical text Kaiyuan Zhanjing was produced. It also
corresponds to the full apogee of the Tang domination in the Gobi region where the
manuscript was found. The preliminary date of about +940 initially provided by
Needham, on grounds that we were unable to trace, is certainly not confirmed by our
analysis though it was still compatible with the closing date of the Dunhuang sealed
library (c.+1000). At this time China was divided and so the conditions were certainly
less favourable for production of such a sophisticated scientific document.
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Later, i.e. after 700, the production of star atlases continued, in China, Korea and finally
in Europe. Different known Chinese maps immediately follow S.3326. They of course
largely benefited from the improvement of observation methods during the Song
dynasty (960-1279). Two outstanding Chinese star charts with a complete coverage of
the observable sky are quoted by Needham (1959: 277-279) and are still the only
available ones from the Song period.
The Su Song atlas, included in the book Xin Yixiang Fa Yao (
, New Design
in +1247 and is still visible in a temple in Suzhou (Jiangsu). Astronomer Huang Shang
prepared it in +1193 for the instruction of a future emperor of the Song dynasty. It is
remarkable since it is accompanied by an explanatory text which is a full astronomical
treaty. This text has been translated by Chavannes (1913). The Suzhou planisphere is
more elaborate than S.3326 in the sense that it shows radial grids converging on the
North Pole and corresponding to the equatorial mansions. It also displays the equator,
the ecliptic and the Milky Way. Like S.3326, it extends up to the declination limit
beyond which stars are no more visible from the observing place.
Those two star atlases allow an assessment of the astronomical quality of S.3326,
which is 400 and 500 years earlier respectively. It is interesting that all three maps are
based on the same 'Three Schools' list of stars and asterisms. Progress in sky
observation under the Song but within the frame of the same objects observed as
before the Han originates from documents like S.3326. It is a valuable witness of the
advancement of ancient Chinese astronomy.
In western civilisations, there are no known extant sky charts before the early Islamic
work by the Persian astronomer, Al-Sufi (+903986), the Book of Fixed Stars,
illustrated with constellation pictures with stars. Unfortunately, apart from a unique
copy kept in Oxford possibly dated from (1009-1010) (Wellesh 1959, Brend 1994), no
contemporary documents survived and the earliest other copies are from the twelfth
century. The sky is displayed through independent panels showing stars in separate
constellations but without indication of the constellation relative positions. Among the
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other related works in Europe, only the Farnese globe is older than the above
documents. It is considered to be a Roman copy of the second century AD of a Greek
original dating from before the modern era (Schaefer, 2005; Duke, 2006). Though the
major constellations of the Greek sky are carved on marble, no individual stars are
positioned on the sphere; therefore it is hardly comparable to a full star atlas such as
S.3326. Similarly, the other most famous source, the Denderah zodiac, dated -50
(Aubourg, 1995) and preserved in the Louvre Museum, shows only constellations with
no identifications and no individual stars. In the same way, a Carolingian manuscript
(dated +818), drawn according to Aratus, and sometimes referred as the earliest
European star atlas, shows only nave drawings of a few constellation figures, without
stars (Whitfield, 1995).
The tradition of representing the sky finally came to Europe during the early
Renaissance. The oldest true star atlas in Europe is probably the Vienna manuscript
(Oesterreichische Nationalbibliotek MS 5415) dating ca. +1440, which contains the
main northern constellations with a limited number of stars, plotted in a polar
projection from the ecliptic pole (Whitfield, 1995), dating some seven centuries after
the Dunhuang Star Atlas.
An extensive compendium of astronomical maps, mostly from the western world can
be found in Gingerich (1983). As to Chinese star atlases, they are collected by Feng Shi
(Feng, 2001).
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Library Cave, a Buddhist library. Documents like S.3326 with no Buddhist text on the
back could have been kept there for future use.
A manuscript such as S.3326 contains however very important and valued official
knowledge. Astronomy in China was an essential imperial science as the divination
based on the sky events taking place in the celestial mirror image of the empire was
the way to rule the state. S.3326 was either copied in Dunhuang or originally produced
at the Imperial Observatory, and brought to Dunhuang. There is no evidence that Li
Chunfeng, a possible author of the original of S.3326, ever went to Dunhuang. As a
high official under the early Tang dynasty he would have lived in Changan, the capital.
He remained in office in the Imperial Observatory to at least +664, occupying from
about +648 the position of Taishiling (
6. Conclusion
At the end of this paper, it is legitimate to underline again the importance of the
Dunhuang star atlas, S.3326.
It has a special position in the history of astronomy, as it is the oldest extant graphical
star atlas known from any civilisation. There is no equivalent either in Western Europe
or in any other civilisation. Though it was found at the edge of the central Chinese
empire, a region open to different influences and not always controlled by the Chinese,
the precious document is conceived in the purest Chinese astronomical tradition. It is
probably one of the most synthetic documents that encompasses information of
different origins for the use of scientific astronomy as well as divination purposes.
First, it is the first known pictorial presentation of the traditional Chinese constellations.
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Individual stars, more numerous than in Ptolemy catalogues, are represented and
grouped in constellations. It gives us a full representation of the Chinese sky, in strict
accordance with all previous known catalogues, retaining, by use of different colours,
the old tradition of attributing to three different schools the naming and description of
the different asterisms. The information on the star positions is delivered using a
careful systematic method that makes use of accurate projection methods. This is
unique considering the period of the document and in all points similar to present-day
techniques. The overall accuracy (of the order of a few degrees) is surprising for a
document from an early epoch and considering the relatively small dimension of the
paper roll.
It also includes additional texts with information relative to a conventional calendar (the
position of each lunar month in the seasons and within the Jupiter cycle) as well as
some specific astronomical conjunctions within each month. These texts are also part
of the ancient Chinese astronomical tradition as they are only slightly different versions
of known separated sources, respectively the Yueling (not older than -240), the Jinshu
(with a redaction around +635) and the probably later Kaiyuan Zhanjing (dated +729).
The source of S.3326 is probably the early Chinese lists of stars such as those
compiled in the third century Chen Zhuo catalogue. Based on different arguments, the
dating of the star atlas (649-684) shows that it could have been originally drawn by Li
Chunfeng around ~+650, though the lack of its front cover and any other evidence
does not allow us to confirm this.
Nonetheless S.3326 as we have it today was serendipitously preserved in a hidden
cave for almost a millennium and this makes it a unique witness of the sky as it was
represented under the Tang.
7. Appendix
7.1 The Orion stellar region (map 5)
The sky region displayed on map 5 (fourth lunar month) extends from 30 to + 40 in
declination (Fig. 3 and Table 4). Right ascension increases from ~50 to 100, right to
left, i.e. west is to the right of the map, east to the left. At the difference of most of the
other maps, a major constellation can be recognised: Shen
or Orion, a rare case
where a constellation seen by the ancient Chinese is similar to what we are used to in
the Western world.
The map contains 109 stars, grouped in 20 Chinese asterisms (see Table 4). The
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and Sanzhu
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mansions Zui
and Jing
are easily found south of it. Shenqi
and, more South,
Shen (also a xiu) comprise the brightest stars of Orion. Three not encircled, hazy, red
stars form the group named Fa
multiple star ' Ori and maybe also the M 42 (Orion) nebula visible by naked eye. To the
southeast of Shen, but located too far north by about 10, one finds the star Yeji ("
CMa), surrounded by a crown of 11 stars. It is noticeable that this crown (asterism
Junshi
) is formed of faint stars that a modern naked eye could hardly distinguish
(visual magnitude around 6). However the very bright star Lang
(! CMa or Sirius) is
not related to Yeji and is found on map 6. The modern constellation Lepus is here
spread into several small asterisms, all at about the same declination, which is not
correct. Finally two groups of two stars (Zi
and Zhangren
) are identified as
belonging to constellation Columba, but in this case they are also drawn too far north
as compared to Ce
, Junjing
and Ping
This chart, the drawing of which is quite clear, shows nevertheless that the author had
difficulties placing the southernmost stars of the zone. The constellations which are
best represented are those along the celestial equator (declination 0). Several stars
and asterisms which are described in the Jinshu are absent from this map: within
Wuche the asterisms Tianhuang
and Xianchi
; south of Wuche the star
Tianguan
and Wuzhuhou
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Note : R= red, list of Shi shi (I); B= black, list of Gan shi (II) ; W = white, list of Wu Xian shi (III). The
I,II,III are found in the book by Sun Xiaochun et Kistemaker (The Chinese Sky during the Han). This
abbreviated as SXC. IAU= International Astronomical Union.
Asterism
(pinyin)
by !
and from
N to S
Asterism
(common
Chinese
name)
Identification
in SXC
Colour
(R,B,W)
On
map
Nb of
*
(SXC)
Nb
of *
on
map
Ident.
of
one
star
(SXC)
IAU
Constellation
Wuche +
Sanzhu
Five
chariots +
three
poles
Aur
I 37
14
14
( Aur
Zhuwang
Several
princes
II 60
) Tau
Zuoqi
Left
banner
Aur
II 62
% Aur
Tian zun
Celestial
wine cup
Gem
II 59
*
Gem
Tiangao
Celestial
high
terrace
Tau
II 63
97
Tau
Jing
Eastern
well
Gem
I 114
Gem
Shenqi
Shen
banner
Ori
I 82
, Ori
Zui
Bird beak
Ori
I 112
& Ori
Shuifu
Water
palace
Mon
II 106
- Ori
10
Sidu
Four
rivers
Ori
II 107
. Mon
Warriorhttp://bonnetbidaud.free.fr/chine/articles/index_a4d.html#section10
R
circled
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11
Shen
hunter
Ori
I 113
black
and red
alone
10
10
* Ori
12
Jiuliu
Nine flags
Ori
I 104
54
Eri?
13
Yujing
Jade well
I 83
" Eri
14
Yeji
Pheasant
cock
C Ma
I 88
"C
Ma
15
Junshi
Soldiers
market
Lep
I 87
13
11
17
Lep
16
Ping
Toilet
screen
I 84
Lep
17
Junjing
Soldiers
well
Lep
II 105
% Lep
18
Ce
Toilet
with a
shed
Lep
I 85
" Lep
19
Zhangren
Husband
man
Col
II 110
. Col
20
Zi
Son
Col
II 111
" Col
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Emperor is close to this spot, on its west side, but does not surround it. The emperor
sits in the Purple Palace (Zigong). The palace is surrounded by an eastern (7 stars, left
on the map) and a western (8 stars, right on the map) wall, constituting Ziwei, one of
the three enclosures (yuan) of the Chinese sky. A number of high officials,
commodities such as grains, or rooms such as kitchens or bedrooms are also
represented in the sky (see Table 5). Over the three asterisms named kitchen (chu) in
the Chinese sky, two are found on the circumpolar map: Tianchu
and Neichu
and Taiyangshou
, which are not located accurately south of the Dipper if they are identified with / and
0 UMa respectively, as suggested by Sun & Kistemaker (Sun and Kistemaker, 1997).
They are better identified respectively with 5 CVn and / UMa as proposed by Ho (Ho,
1966).
Near the Southern gate of Ziwei, a group of six stars raises a question: they are
labelled Tianyi (
) and Taiyi (
North of . UMa, translated literally as 'celestial unique or celestial unity' and 'great
unique or supreme unity' respectively. Their names refer to a supreme quality,
indicating they were once polar stars. Two stars, Tai and Tian, North East of . UMa, are
not mentioned in previous catalogues. Is the confusion on the Dunhuang atlas a
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copying error? Suggestions have been made of an inversion with two other asterisms
but also of a misinterpretation with two different positions of the pole in the past
(Maeyama, 2002).
An unnamed asterism is located between Tianhuang
and Gouchen
(upper
part of the map), it is red, circled in black. Thus it may belong to the Shi Shi catalogue,
and is likely * UMi. The name Gouchen on the map refers to a single star (in red), !
UMi, (the present-day polar star) and not, as usual, to an asterism of 5 stars. Within
Beiji
, an important asterism since it represents the North Pole office, the second
red star, named Di (emperor) by the Chinese, but without name on the map, is
identified with " UMi, which was also once approximately the polar star (together with
% Dra) around -1000.
Altogether, the S.3326 circumpolar map is well documented. There are however
several imperfections:
(a) the shape of Beidou with respect to the Ziwei walls differs from that displayed on
the Suzhou map or from any modern map of the sky. The largest displacements affect
the extreme stars, 1 UMa and ! UMa (see Figure 8). It is because of this wrong position
that the alignment ! - " UMa is poorly oriented.
(b) the asterism Gouchen is not represented in full and the star we identify with ! UMi
is here the bottom star of the handle (Gang) of Huagai
instead of being the
brightest star of Gouchen. Some asterisms (Wudi
, Zaofu
XIU:
(The fourth lunar month), the Sun meets with the mansions (xiu) Bi and Zhi (Zui), at dusk the mans
dawn the mansion N culminates.
Note: R= red, list of Shi shi (I); B= black, list of Gan shi (II) ; W = white, list of Wu Xian shi (III). The l
found in the book by Sun Xiaochun et Kistemaker (The Chinese Sky during the Han). This book na
SXC. IAU= International Astronomical Union.
Asterism
(pinyin) by
! and
from N to S
Tianchu
Asterism
(common
Chinese
name)
Celestial
IAU
Constellation
Identification
in SXC
Colour
(R,B,W)
On
map
Nb of
*
(SXC)
Nb
of *
on
map
Dra
II 15
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kitchen
Wudizuo
Seats of five Di
Chuanshe
Guest rooms
Tianzhu
Celestial pillars
Liujia
Huagai
II 4
II 17
Dra
II 6
Six jia
Cam
II 5
Canopy of the
emperor
Cas
II 3
7 (+
6)
Gouchen
UMi
I 60
NI 1
UMi
Tianhuang
High God of
Heaven
UMi
II 1
Ziwei
Celestial
purple palace
wall
Dra
I 59
14 R, 1
B
15
15
10
Cep
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THE DUNHUANG CHINESE SKY: A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF THE OLDEST KNOWN STAR ATLAS
11
Zhuxiashi
12
Nshi
13
Officer in
charge of
communication
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Dra
II 7
Woman officer
Dra
II 8
Tianpei
Celestial flail
Dra
I7
5 R, 1B?
5 or
6
14
Shangshu
Secretary
Dra
II 9
15
Beiji
North Pole
Office
UMi
I 60
16
Sifu
Four advisors
II 2
17
Neijie
Inner steps
UMa
II 14
18
Bagu
Eight species
of grains
Cam
II 65
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THE DUNHUANG CHINESE SKY: A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF THE OLDEST KNOWN STAR ATLAS
19
Tianchuang
Celestial bed
20
Taiyi
21
Tianyi
22
Dra
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II 11
Supreme unity
(L'archipremire)
I 62
Heavenly unity
(La premire
du ciel)
I 61
Tai
Not in SXC
23
Tian
Not in SXC
24
Sangong(2)
Three
excellencies
UMa
Not in SXC
25
Tianqiang
Celestial spear
Boo
I6
26
Beidou
Northern
Dipper
UMa
I 58
27
Tianli
Great Judge
for Nobility
UMa
II 12
28
Wenchang
Administrative
center
UMa
I 57
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29
Xuange
Halberd
Boo
I5
30
Sangong(1)
Three
excellencies
CVn
II 39
31
Xiang
Prime minister
UMa
I 54
32
Taiyangshou
General in
charge of the
yang valve
UMa
I 55
33
Shi
Eunuch Official
UMa
II 55
34
Tianlao
Celestial
Prison
UMa
I 56
Total : 34 astrisms among which 1 unidentified. 142 toiles (+ 3 in Beiji). All stars on this circumstellar ma
Gan Shi.
Notes:
4. Astrisms are listed from North to South and going from East to West.
5. NI = Unidentified, SXC = Sun Xiaochun.
6. Confidence index: from 1 to 5. 5 = very good, 1 = bad.
8. Acknowledgments
We are indebted for their remarks and contributions to: Barbara Borghese, Karine
Chemla, Vincent Durand-Dastets, Imre Galambos, Isaia Iannaccone, Marc Kalinowski,
Zhang Guangda, Bernadette Zhu.
9. Notes
The International Dunhuang Project (IDP) was started in 1994 to promote the study and
preservation of the archaeological legacy of the Eastern Silk Road through international
cooperation. Its UK directorate is based at the British Library.
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The dates are given in the so-called astronomical system where year -1 corresponds to
2 BC (or 2 BCE) and year +1 to AD 1 (or 1 CE).
The Chinese government cleared only the Chinese manuscripts leaving the remaining
Tibetan manuscripts behind, and they are now in collections throughout Gansu
Province. The Stein collection was divided between the British Museum and the
Government of India, co-sponsors of his expedition, and part of the Dunhuang
collection is in the National Museum, India. The Japanese collections were dispersed
and a large part are now in the National Museum of Korea in Seoul.
The manuscripts in the British Museum became part of the British Library collection at
the establishment of the latter institution in 1972. S.3326 is now preserved in the Asian,
Pacific and African Collections of the British Library.
Following Giless retirement in 1940 and the initial offering of the manuscript for
publication in 1947, see Frances Wood, Two Thousand Years at Dunhuang in S.
Whitfield and F. Wood (eds.), 1996. Dunhuang and Turfan: contents and conservation
of ancient documents from Central Asia. The British Library Publishing Division,
London.
Chinese characters are given here in their simplified form together with their standard
pinyin transcription in latin alphabet (marked in italics)
Their precise origin is still an enigma and their relation to the Moon is not documented.
However, these constellations are constantly used throughout Chinese history as
precise markers of the positions of heavenly bodies during the seasons.
For those not familiar with the convention, during the reign of any emperor, characters
that made up the emperors personal name were not allowed to be used in their
standard form. The characters were changed slightly usually by omitting or adding a
stroke. This is known as the taboo form of the character. After this death, the taboo
forms of any of the characters in his name not just his whole name were used
until the end of the dynasty. The consistent use of taboo characters in all documents is
not absolutely certain, but the fact that a taboo form is used in this document suggests
the rule was being followed.
From a study carried out by Anna-Grethe Rischel (National Museum of Denmark) who
remarks that the fibres are "'particularly long and fine'". Complete images of the
manuscript are shown on IDP.
"'The roller has been lined with acid-free Japanese tissue paper to protect the object
from acid migration. The Kraft lining extends to both end maps. Due to the lack of
written surviving documentation it is impossible to trace the history of conservation of
the object, so our remarks can only be based on transmitted knowledge and visual
observation. Using transmitted light it is possible to observe a long patch running
along the whole length of the scroll. This patch has an irregular shape with nonhttp://bonnetbidaud.free.fr/chine/articles/index_a4d.html#section10
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defined margins. This might suggest that the patch is contemporary with the object,
and was obviously not removed when the lining was applied. Other evidence to
support this is represented by the fold lines, which can be observed in some areas.
This fold runs through the patch and along the objects in a continuous manner
suggesting that the patch has indeed been in place for a long time although not
conclusive in respect to a precise dating. There is evidence of other small patches
along the manuscripts although some were removed as we could only observe their
shape in the imprint they left in the paper.'" Description by Barbara Borghese, IDP UK
and European Project Manager (private communication).
This title has been transliterated in some recent Chinese publications as Qi jie meng ji
dian jing yi juan with the suggested translation of Interpreting Dreams and Book of
Lightning in One Chapter (Deng and Liu, 2003). However, this interpretation is very
problematic. Firstly, it ignores the first character qi, which makes no sense in this
context. Secondly, it reads the third character, which is in a non-standard form, as
meng dreams even though this is not a attested variant of meng. A more probably
reading would be
or mie (scorn, villify). And two titles like this joined with ji (and) is
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