The process of constructing machines and structures from raw materials is

called metal fabrication. Metal fabricators (companies that specialize in this

process) are called fab shops. Metal fabricators are referred to as a value added
processes because they add additional value at a certain stage of production.
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The process of converting raw materials, components, or parts into finished
goods that meet a customer's expectations or specifications. Manufacturing
commonly employs a man-machine setup with division of labor in a large scale
production.
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Fabrication Process Steps

The fabrication of integrated circuits consists basically of the following process steps:

Lithography: The process for pattern definition by applying thin uniform layer of
viscous liquid (photo-resist) on the wafer surface. The photo-resist is hardened by
baking and than selectively removed by projection of light through a reticle
containing mask information.

Etching: Selectively removing unwanted material from the surface of the wafer. The
pattern of the photo-resist is transferred to the wafer by means of etching agents.

Deposition: Films of the various materials are applied on the wafer. For this purpose
mostly two kind of processes are used, physical vapor deposition (PVD) and chemical
vapor deposition (CVD).

Chemical Mechanical Polishing: A planarization technique by applying a chemical

slurry with etchant agents to the wafer surface.

Oxidation: In the oxidation process oxygen (dry oxidation) or H O (wet oxidation)

molecules convert silicon layers on top of the wafer to silicon dioxide.

Ion Implantation: Most widely used technique to introduce dopant impurities into
semiconductor. The ionized particles are accelerated through an electrical field and
targeted at the semiconductor wafer.

Diffusion: A diffusion step following ion implantation is used to anneal

bombardment-induced lattice defects.

Models describing the steps used in fabricating ICs have also been incorporated into process
simulators. It is therefore quite possible today to ``build'' new semiconductor structures and
predict their performance using these computer tools. The state of the art in such simulators is

that they are indeed very useful, but can not completely replace real laboratory experiments,
because the models used in the simulators are not complete in some cases, or are purely
empirical in other cases.
As the models are improved with ongoing research, the simulators will become more robust
and therefore more generally useful. There is great motivation to do this, because real
laboratory experiments are very expensive and very time consuming, especially as chip
technology continuates to advance.
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Fabrication is the act of taking raw stock material and turning it into a part for use in an
assembly process. There are many different types of fabrication processes. The most
common are
1. Cutting
2. Folding
3. Machining
4. Punching
5. Shearing
6. Stamping
7. Welding

Lets look at the types of fabrication processes in greater detail:

1. Cutting. There are many ways to cut nowadays. The old standby is the
saw. Others now include plasma torches, water jets, and lasers. There is a
wide range of complexity and price, with some machines costing in the
millions.
2. Folding. Some parts need to be bent. The most common method is a
press brake (or brake press). It has a set of dies that pinches the metal to
form a crease. This operation can only be performed in very specific cases
due to the movement of the part and the possible shape of the dies.
Designing for Lean manufacturing, though, can help prevent complex
shapes that slow down production. Sometimes using two different types of
fabrication processes or two different pieces fastened together work better
than one complicated piece.
3. Machining. This is the process of removing metal from a piece of
material. It might be done on a lathe, where the material rotates against a
cutting tool, or in some other cutting machine where a rotating tool is
moved in a variety of ways against a stationary piece. Drills fall into this
latter category. The range of motion of the cutting head is defined by the
number of axes (i.e. a 3-axis machine).

4. Punching. Punching is the act of a punch and a die forming a scissor

effect on a piece of metal to make a hole in it. Obviously, the punch and
die must be the same shape and size of the desired hole. In some cases,
the main piece of material is kept, as in when holes are added for
fasteners. In other cases, the piece that is removed is the desired productthis is called blanking.
5. Shearing. Shearing is the process of making a long cut on a piece of
metal. It is, in effect, just like the action of one of those paper cutters with
the long chop-handle. This is done on sheet metal.
6. Stamping. Stamping is very similar to punching, except the material is
not cut. The die is shaped to make a raised portion of material rather than
penetrating.
7. Welding. Welding is the act of joining two pieces of metal together. A
variety of types of welding exist for use in different applications and for
the range of metals used in manufacturing.

There are many other types of fabrication processes that are less common than the ones in the
list above. There are also constantly new types of fabrication methods being developed.
One such new type is called additive technology. In effect, a machine layers materials to form
a part-something like a three dimensional printer that prints in plastic or other materials.
Fabrication processes are particularly well matched to Lean. The motion of operators, their
interaction with machines, and the need to manage inventory are all right in Leans power
alley.
Fabrication processes are particularly well suited to implementing jidoka (autonomation)
and hanedashi devices (autoejectors). Both of those devices are prerequisites of the chakuchaku line (load-load).
But there is one area where Lean can struggle. Some extremely large machines are well
matched to the products they are making. But far too many big machines with too long of a
changeover time drive up inventory and promote overproduction. It is best to right-size
machines and put them into work cells if possible. That helps create flow.
The biggest impediment to making flow in a fabrication shop is the preponderance of large,
multi-function machines that take a long time to change between parts. This drives up the lot
size, creating inventory. It also means that a machine may be used to produce many different
components for several product lines. Deciding where to put it is a challenge. If you include it
in flow of one line, even the biggest line, it would be a problem for all the other lines.
The task in this case is first and foremost to reduce the changeover time so that the machine
does not run large lots. At that point, you can keep reducing the amount of inventory that the
machine creates. The second task is to get away from buying large, expensive machines when

smaller, dedicated ones will suffice. In many cases, a small machine can be automated with
jidoka and hanedashi to make their efficiency rival that of large CNC machines.
One challenge with linking fabrication and assembly processes tends to be the painting
process. In many cases, parts leave the fabrication shop to go out for painting, or go right to
an in-house paint center. In either case, the flow is disrupted, and the delays cause more
inventory. Again, use the CI tools at your disposal to minimize this impactreduce cure
time, reduce the changeover, make smaller batches, go to smaller, dedicated paint booths. Do
what you can to keep coming closer to flow.
Fabrication processes are generally target-rich environments for continuous improvement.
There are great chances for visual management and 5S to make processes run more smoothly.
There are immense chances to reduce setup time to help lower lot sizes. Kanban helps with
knowing what to makeespecially on the extremely large machines. Right-sizing machines
can help make flow bettersmaller machines fit in smaller spaces that can be set up as
dedicated lines for higher volume products.
Fabrication processes tend to have another great opportunity in continuous improvement
people. Fab processes tend to be hot and grimy. Small metal shavings are everywhere, as are
coolants and lubricants. Parts are often heavy. Smoke and debris is in the air. Safety concerns
abound. To top it off, machines are unforgiving. They are designed to work with metal
hands and other body parts dont even slow them down. They are extremely loud. Unless you
have experienced it, is it hard to imagine the volume of the rapid punching of a piece of
quarter inch sheet metal. In short, fabrication processes often contain the lions share of the
dirty, dumb, and dangerous work in a company.
Continuous improvement in general, and Lean specifically, provide you with a great avenue
to focus making your fabrication processes less disrespectful to your team.
Take a close look at your fabrication processes and identify all the issues that pose safety
risks or that are generally frustrating to your team. Rank order the problems. (Note: The
safety issues should be at the top of the list.)
Begin applying your Lean toolkit to removing these issues. It might sound a bit like a
haphazard approach, but the goal is one that aligns with the big picture. You are attempting to
build support for the problem solving processes that continuous improvement demands. Once
team members see that there is some benefit to them, they will be more willing to take on the
bigger projects that improve flow.
Those types of changesrunning smaller lots and arranging by product line rather than
functiongenerate much more resistance. Having a solid track record of success makes
people more accepting of change.
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