Leadership

For other uses, see Leadership (disambiguation).

1.1 Early western history
Leader redirects here. For other uses, see Leader
The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders
(disambiguation).
has continued for centuries. Philosophical writings from
Platos Republic[6] to Plutarchs Lives have explored the
Leadership is both a research area and a practical skill,
question What qualities distinguish an individual as a
regarding the ability of an individual or organization to
leader?" Underlying this search was the early recognition
lead or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organiof the importance of leadership and the assumption that
zations . Controversial viewpoints are present in the litleadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain inerature, among Eastern and Western approaches to leaddividuals possess. This idea that leadership is based on
ership, and also within the West, on US vs. European
individual attributes is known as the "trait theory of leadapproaches. In US academic environments leadership is
ership".
dened as a process of social inuence in which a person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accom- A number of works in the 19th century when the tradiplishment of a common task".[1][2] Leadership seen from tional authority of monarchs, lords and bishops had begun
a European and non-academic perspective encompasses to wane explored the trait theory at length: note espea view of a leader who can be moved both by communi- cially the writings of Thomas Carlyle and of Francis Galtarian goals but also by the search for personal power. As ton, whose works have prompted decades of research. In
Heroes and Hero Worship (1841), Carlyle identied the
the European researcher Daniele Trevisani states:
talents, skills, and physical characteristics of men who
rose to power. Galtons Hereditary Genius (1869) examined
leadership qualities in the families of powerful
Leadership is a holistic spectrum that can
men.
After
showing that the numbers of eminent relaarise from: (1) higher levels of physical power,
tives
dropped
o when his focus moved from rst-degree
need to display power and control others, force
to
second-degree
relatives, Galton concluded that leadersuperiority, ability to generate fear, or groupship
was
inherited.
In other words, leaders were born, not
members need for a powerful group protector
developed.
Both
of
these notable works lent great initial
(Primal Leadership), (2) superior mental ensupport
for
the
notion
that leadership is rooted in characergies, superior motivational forces, perceivteristics
of
a
leader.
able in communication and behaviors, lack
of fear, courage, determination (Psychoenergetic Leadership), (3) higher abilities in managing the overall picture (Macro-Leadership),
(4) higher abilities in specialized tasks (MicroLeadership), (5) higher ability in managing the
execution of a task (Project Leadership), and
(6) higher level of values, wisdom, and spirituality (Spiritual Leadership), where any Leader
derives its Leadership from a unique mix of
one or more of the former factors.[3]

Cecil Rhodes (18531902) believed that public-spirited

leadership could be nurtured by identifying young people
with moral force of character and instincts to lead, and
educating them in contexts (such as the collegiate environment of the University of Oxford) which further developed such characteristics. International networks of
such leaders could help to promote international understanding and help render war impossible. This vision
of leadership underlay the creation of the Rhodes Scholarships, which have helped to shape notions of leadership
since their creation in 1903.[7]

Studies of leadership have produced theories involving traits,[4] situational interaction, function, behavior, 1.2 Rise of alternative theories
power, vision and values,[5] charisma, and intelligence,
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, however, a series of
among others.[2]
qualitative reviews of these studies (e.g., Bird, 1940;[8]
Stogdill, 1948;[9] Mann, 1959[10] ) prompted researchers
to take a drastically dierent view of the driving forces
behind leadership. In reviewing the extant literature,
1 Theories
Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies, the overall evidence
1

suggested that persons who are leaders in one situation

may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Subsequently, leadership was no longer characterized as an
enduring individual trait, as situational approaches (see
alternative leadership theories below) posited that individuals can be eective in certain situations, but not others. The focus then shifted away from traits of leaders
to an investigation of the leader behaviors that were effective. This approach dominated much of the leadership
theory and research for the next few decades

THEORIES

Do not distinguish between those leader attributes

that are generally not malleable over time and those
that are shaped by, and bound to, situational inuences.
Do not consider how stable leader attributes account
for the behavioral diversity necessary for eective
leadership.

1.4 Attribute pattern approach

1.3

Reemergence of trait theory

New methods and measurements were developed after

these inuential reviews that would ultimately reestablish
trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership. For example, improvements in researchers use of
the round robin research design methodology allowed researchers to see that individuals can and do emerge as
leaders across a variety of situations and tasks.[11] Additionally, during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses, in which they could
quantitatively analyze and summarize the ndings from a
wide array of studies. This advent allowed trait theorists
to create a comprehensive picture of previous leadership
research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the
past. Equipped with new methods, leadership researchers
revealed the following:
Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a
variety of situations and tasks.[11]

Considering the criticisms of the trait theory outlined

above, several researchers have begun to adopt a dierent
perspective of leader individual dierencesthe leader
attribute pattern approach.[18][20][21][22][23] In contrast to
the traditional approach, the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists arguments that the inuence
of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated totality
rather than a summation of individual variables.[22][24] In
other words, the leader attribute pattern approach argues
that integrated constellations or combinations of individual dierences may explain substantial variance in both
leader emergence and leader eectiveness beyond that
explained by single attributes, or by additive combinations of multiple attributes..

1.5 Behavioral and style theories

Signicant relationships exist between leadership Main article: Managerial grid model
emergence and such individual traits as:
In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach,
Intelligence[12]
theorists began to research leadership as a set of behav[12]
iors, evaluating the behavior of successful leaders, deter Adjustment
mining a behavior taxonomy, and identifying broad lead Extraversion[12]
ership styles.[25] David McClelland, for example, posited
Conscientiousness[13][14][15]
that leadership takes a strong personality with a welldeveloped positive ego. To lead, self-condence and high
Openness to experience[14][16]
self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential.[26]
[17][18]
General self-ecacy
Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed
While the trait theory of leadership has certainly regained in 1939 the seminal work on the inuence of leadership
popularity, its reemergence has not been accompanied styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the
by a corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exerframeworks.[19]
cised his inuence regarding the type of group decision
Specically, Zaccaro (2007)[19] noted that trait theories making, praise and criticism (feedback), and the managestill:
ment of the group tasks (project management) according to three styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as faire.[27]
Big Five personality traits, to the neglect of cognitive
abilities, motives, values, social skills, expertise, and The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral
theory. The model was developed by Robert Blake and
problem-solving skills.
Jane Mouton in 1964 and suggests ve dierent leader Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple ship styles, based on the leaders concern for people and
attributes.
their concern for goal achievement.[28]

1.6

Situational and contingency theories

3
Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to the trait
theory of leadership. Social scientists argued that history was more than the result of intervention of great men
as Carlyle suggested. Herbert Spencer (1884) (and Karl
Marx) said that the times produce the person and not the
other way around.[31] This theory assumes that dierent
situations call for dierent characteristics; according to
this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic
prole of a leader exists. According to the theory, what
an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in
large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation
in which he functions.[32]

A graphical representation of the managerial grid model

1.5.1

Positive reinforcement

B.F. Skinner is the father of behavior modication and

developed the concept of positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to a behavior, increasing the likelihood
of that behavior in the future.[29] The following is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in a
business setting. Assume praise is a positive reinforcer
for a particular employee. This employee does not show
up to work on time every day. The manager of this employee decides to praise the employee for showing up on
time every day the employee actually shows up to work
on time. As a result, the employee comes to work on
time more often because the employee likes to be praised.
In this example, praise (the stimulus) is a positive reinforcer for this employee because the employee arrives at
work on time (the behavior) more frequently after being
praised for showing up to work on time.
The use of positive reinforcement is a successful and
growing technique used by leaders to motivate and attain desired behaviors from subordinates. Organizations
such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell, and
Emery Air Freight have all used reinforcement to increase
productivity.[30] Empirical research covering the last 20
years suggests that reinforcement theory has a 17 percent
increase in performance. Additionally, many reinforcement techniques such as the use of praise are inexpensive,
providing higher performance for lower costs.

Some theorists started to synthesize the trait and situational approaches. Building upon the research of Lewin
et al., academics began to normalize the descriptive models of leadership climates, dening three leadership styles
and identifying which situations each style works better
in. The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is
approved in periods of crisis but fails to win the hearts
and minds of followers in day-to-day management; the
democratic leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building; nally, the laissezfaire leadership style is appreciated for the degree of freedom it provides, but as the leaders do not take charge,
they can be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny
organizational problems.[33] Thus, theorists dened the
style of leadership as contingent to the situation, which
is sometimes classied as contingency theory. Four contingency leadership theories appear more prominently in
recent years: Fiedler contingency model, Vroom-Yetton
decision model, the path-goal theory, and the HerseyBlanchard situational theory.
The Fiedler contingency model bases the leaders eectiveness on what Fred Fiedler called situational contingency. This results from the interaction of leadership style
and situational favorability (later called situational control). The theory dened two types of leader: those who
tend to accomplish the task by developing good relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those
who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented).[34] According to Fiedler, there is no
ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented
leaders can be eective if their leadership orientation
ts the situation. When there is a good leader-member
relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a favorable situation. Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more
eective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations,
whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability.

Victor Vroom, in collaboration with Phillip Yetton

(1973)[35] and later with Arthur Jago (1988),[36] devel1.6 Situational and contingency theories
oped a taxonomy for describing leadership situations,
which
was used in a normative decision model where
Main articles: Fiedler contingency model, Vroom
leadership
styles were connected to situational variables,
Yetton decision model, pathgoal theory and situational
dening
which
approach was more suitable to which
leadership theory
situation.[37] This approach was novel because it sup-

ported the idea that the same manager could rely on different group decision making approaches depending on
the attributes of each situation. This model was later referred to as situational contingency theory.[38]
The path-goal theory of leadership was developed by
Robert House (1971) and was based on the expectancy
theory of Victor Vroom.[39] According to House, the
essence of the theory is the meta proposition that leaders, to be eective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinates environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deciencies and is instrumental
to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit
performance.[40] The theory identies four leader behaviors, achievement-oriented, directive, participative, and
supportive, that are contingent to the environment factors
and follower characteristics. In contrast to the Fiedler
contingency model, the path-goal model states that the
four leadership behaviors are uid, and that leaders can
adopt any of the four depending on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classied both as a
contingency theory, as it depends on the circumstances,
and as a transactional leadership theory, as the theory emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and
the followers.
The situational leadership model proposed by Hersey and
Blanchard suggests four leadership-styles and four levels
of follower-development. For eectiveness, the model
posits that the leadership-style must match the appropriate level of follower-development. In this model, leadership behavior becomes a function not only of the characteristics of the leader, but of the characteristics of followers as well.[41]

THEORIES

job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs

is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done
their job well when they have contributed to group eectiveness and cohesion (Fleishman et al., 1991; Hackman
& Wageman, 2005; Hackman & Walton, 1986). While
functional leadership theory has most often been applied
to team leadership (Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001),
it has also been eectively applied to broader organizational leadership as well (Zaccaro, 2001). In summarizing literature on functional leadership (see Kozlowski et
al. (1996), Zaccaro et al. (2001), Hackman and Walton (1986), Hackman & Wageman (2005), Morgeson
(2005)), Klein, Zeigert, Knight, and Xiao (2006) observed ve broad functions a leader performs when promoting organizations eectiveness. These functions include environmental monitoring, organizing subordinate
activities, teaching and coaching subordinates, motivating others, and intervening actively in the groups work.
A variety of leadership behaviors are expected to facilitate these functions. In initial work identifying leader
behavior, Fleishman (1953) observed that subordinates
perceived their supervisors behavior in terms of two
broad categories referred to as consideration and initiating structure. Consideration includes behavior involved
in fostering eective relationships. Examples of such
behavior would include showing concern for a subordinate or acting in a supportive manner towards others.
Initiating structure involves the actions of the leader focused specically on task accomplishment. This could
include role clarication, setting performance standards,
and holding subordinates accountable to those standards.

1.8 Integrated psychological theory

1.7

Functional theory

Main article: Three Levels of Leadership model

Main article: Functional leadership model

Functional leadership theory (Hackman & Walton, 1986; The Integrated Psychological theory of leadership is an
attempt to integrate the strengths of the older theories
(i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional)
while addressing their limitations, largely by introducing
a new element the need for leaders to develop their
leadership presence, attitude toward others and behavioral exibility by practicing psychological mastery. It
also oers a foundation for leaders wanting to apply the
philosophies of servant leadership and authentic leadership.[42]

General Petraeus talks with U.S. soldiers serving in Afghanistan

McGrath, 1962; Adair, 1988; Kouzes & Posner, 1995) is

a particularly useful theory for addressing specic leader
behaviors expected to contribute to organizational or unit
eectiveness. This theory argues that the leaders main

Integrated Psychological theory began to attract attention

after the publication of James Scoullers Three Levels
of Leadership model (2011).[43] Scouller argued that the
older theories oer only limited assistance in developing
a persons ability to lead eectively.[44] He pointed out,
for example, that:
Traits theories, which tend to reinforce the idea that
leaders are born not made, might help us select leaders, but they are less useful for developing leaders.

1.9

Transactional and transformational theories

An ideal style (e.g. Blake & Moutons team style) 1.9

would not suit all circumstances.
Most of the situational/contingency and functional
theories assume that leaders can change their behavior to meet diering circumstances or widen their
behavioral range at will, when in practice many nd
it hard to do so because of unconscious beliefs, fears
or ingrained habits. Thus, he argued, leaders need
to work on their inner psychology.

Transactional and transformational

theories

Main articles:
Transactional
Transformational leadership

leadership

and

Bernard Bass and colleagues developed the idea of two

dierent types of leadership, transactional that involves
exchange of labor for rewards and transformational which
is based on concern for employees, intellectual stimula None of the old theories successfully address the tion, and providing a group vision.[47][48]
challenge of developing "leadership presence"; that
The transactional leader (Burns, 1978)[49] is given power
certain something in leaders that commands attento perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the
tion, inspires people, wins their trust and makes folteams performance. It gives the opportunity to the manlowers want to work with them.
ager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his
lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for
Scouller therefore proposed the Three Levels of Lead- something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluership model, which was later categorized as an Inte- ate, correct, and train subordinates when productivity is
grated Psychological theory on the Businessballs educa- not up to the desired level, and reward eectiveness when
tion website.[45] In essence, his model aims to summa- expected outcome is reached.
rize what leaders have to do, not only to bring leadership
to their group or organization, but also to develop themselves technically and psychologically as leaders.
1.10 Leadermember exchange theory
The three levels in his model are Public, Private and PerMain article: Leadermember exchange theory
sonal leadership:
The rst two public and private leadership are
outer or behavioral levels. These are the behaviors that address what Scouller called the four dimensions of leadership. These dimensions are:
(1) a shared, motivating group purpose; (2) action, progress and results; (3) collective unity or
team spirit; (4) individual selection and motivation.
Public leadership focuses on the 34 behaviors involved in inuencing two or more people simultaneously. Private leadership covers the 14 behaviors
needed to inuence individuals one to one.
The third personal leadership is an inner level
and concerns a persons growth toward greater leadership presence, knowhow and skill. Working on
ones personal leadership has three aspects: (1)
Technical knowhow and skill (2) Developing the
right attitude toward other people which is the
basis of servant leadership (3) Psychological selfmastery the foundation for authentic leadership.
Scouller argued that self-mastery is the key to growing
ones leadership presence, building trusting relationships
with followers and dissolving ones limiting beliefs and
habits, thereby enabling behavioral exibility as circumstances change, while staying connected to ones core values (that is, while remaining authentic). To support leaders development, he introduced a new model of the human psyche and outlined the principles and techniques of
self-mastery, which include the practice of mindfulness
meditation.[46]

Another theory that addresses a specic aspect of

the leadership process is the leadermember exchange
(LMX) theory,[50] which evolved from an earlier theory
called the vertical dyad linkage (VDL) model.[51] Both
of these models focus on the interaction between leaders and individual followers. Similar to the transactional
approach, this interaction is viewed as a fair exchange
whereby the leader provides certain benets such as task
guidance, advice, support, and/or signicant rewards and
the followers reciprocate by giving the leader respect,
cooperation, commitment to the task and good performance. However, LMX recognizes that leaders and individual followers will vary in the type of exchange that develops between them.[52] LMX theorizes that the type of
exchanges between the leader and specic followers can
lead to the creation of in-groups and out-groups. In-group
members are said to have high-quality exchanges with
the leader, while out-group members have low-quality exchanges with the leader.[53]

1.10.1 In-group members

In-group members are perceived by the leader as being
more experienced, competent, and willing to assume responsibility than other followers. The leader begins to
rely on these individuals to help with especially challenging tasks. If the follower responds well, the leader rewards
him/her with extra coaching, favorable job assignments,
and developmental experiences. If the follower shows
high commitment and eort followed by additional re-

2 STYLES

wards, both parties develop mutual trust, inuence, and

support of one another. Research shows the in-group
members usually receive higher performance evaluations
from the leader, higher satisfaction, and faster promotions
than out-group members.[52] In-group members are also
likely to build stronger bonds with their leaders by sharing
the same social backgrounds and interests.
1.10.2

people experience and express mood, they send signals to others. Leaders signal their goals, intentions,
and attitudes through their expressions of moods.
For example, expressions of positive moods by leaders signal that leaders deem progress toward goals
to be good. The group members respond to those
signals cognitively and behaviorally in ways that are
reected in the group processes.[55]

Out-group members

In research about client service, it was found that expressions of positive mood by the leader improve the perforOut-group members often receive less time and more dis- mance of the group, although in other sectors there were
tant exchanges than their in-group counterparts. With other ndings.[57]
out-group members, leaders expect no more than adequate job performance, good attendance, reasonable re- Beyond the leaders mood, her/his behavior is a source
spect, and adherence to the job description in exchange for employee positive and negative emotions at work.
for a fair wage and standard benets. The leader spends The leader creates situations and events that lead to emoless time with out-group members, they have fewer devel- tional response. Certain leader behaviors displayed duropmental experiences, and the leader tends to emphasize ing interactions with their employees are the sources of
his/her formal authority to obtain compliance to leader re- these aective events. Leaders shape workplace aecquests. Research shows that out-group members are less tive events. Examples feedback giving, allocating tasks,
satised with their job and organization, receive lower resource distribution. Since employee behavior and properformance evaluations from the leader, see their leader ductivity are directly aected by their emotional states, it
employee emotional responses
as less fair, and are more likely to le grievances or leave is imperative to consider [58]
to
organizational
leaders.
Emotional intelligence, the
the organization.[52]
ability to understand and manage moods and emotions
in the self and others, contributes to eective leadership
within organizations.[57]

1.11 Emotions

See also: Emotional intelligence

1.12 Neo-emergent theory

Leadership can be perceived as a particularly emotionladen process, with emotions entwined with the social inuence process.[54] In an organization, the leaders mood
has some eects on his/her group. These eects can be
described in three levels:[55]

Main article: Functional leadership model

1. The mood of individual group members. Group

members with leaders in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members
with leaders in a negative mood. The leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the
mechanism of emotional contagion.[55] Mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms
by which charismatic leaders inuence followers.[56]
2. The aective tone of the group. Group aective tone
represents the consistent or homogeneous aective
reactions within a group. Group aective tone is an
aggregate of the moods of the individual members
of the group and refers to mood at the group level
of analysis. Groups with leaders in a positive mood
have a more positive aective tone than do groups
with leaders in a negative mood.[55]

The neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford

school of leadership) sees leadership as created through
the emergence of information by the leader or other stakeholders, not through the true actions of the leader himself.
In other words, the reproduction of information or stories
form the basis of the perception of leadership by the majority. It is well known that the naval hero Lord Nelson
often wrote his own versions of battles he was involved
in, so that when he arrived home in England he would receive a true heros welcome. In modern society, the press,
blogs and other sources report their own views of leaders,
which may be based on reality, but may also be based on
a political command, a payment, or an inherent interest
of the author, media, or leader. Therefore, one can argue
that the perception of all leaders is created and in fact
does not reect their true leadership qualities at all.

2 Styles
Main article: Leadership styles

3. Group processes like coordination, eort expenditure, and task strategy. Public expressions of mood A leadership style is a leaders style of providing direcimpact how group members think and act. When tion, implementing plans, and motivating people. It is the

2.5

Sex dierences

result of the philosophy, personality, and experience of

the leader. Rhetoric specialists have also developed models for understanding leadership (Robert Hariman, Political Style,[59] Philippe-Joseph Salazar, L'Hyperpolitique.
Technologies politiques De La Domination[60] ).
Dierent situations call for dierent leadership styles. In
an emergency when there is little time to converge on an
agreement and where a designated authority has signicantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the
team, an autocratic leadership style may be most eective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with
a homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic
or Laissez-faire style may be more eective. The style
adopted should be the one that most eectively achieves
the objectives of the group while balancing the interests
of its individual members.[61]

7
are generally more concerned with producing a step-bystep solution for given problem or goal, strictly making
sure these deadlines are met, results and reaching target
outcomes.[62]
Relationship-oriented leadership is a contrasting style
in which the leader is more focused on the relationships amongst the group and is generally more concerned with the overall well-being and satisfaction of
group members.[63] Relationship-oriented leaders emphasize communication within the group, shows trust and
condence in group members, and shows appreciation for
work done.

Task-oriented leaders are typically less concerned with

the idea of catering to group members, and more concerned with acquiring a certain solution to meet a production goal. For this reason, they typically are able to make
sure that deadlines are met, yet their group members
well-being may suer.[62] Relationship-oriented leaders
2.1 Autocratic or authoritarian
are focused on developing the team and the relationships
in it. The positives to having this kind of environment are
Under the autocratic leadership style, all decision-making that team members are more motivated and have support,
powers are centralized in the leader, as with dictators.
however, the emphasis on relations as opposed to getting
Leaders do not entertain any suggestions or initiatives a job done might make productivity suer.[62]
from subordinates. The autocratic management has been
successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making, as only one per- 2.5 Sex dierences
son decides for the whole group and keeps each decision
to him/herself until he/she feels it needs to be shared with Another factor that covaries with leadership style is
whether the person is male or female. When men and
the rest of the group.[61]
women come together in groups, they tend to adopt different leadership styles. Men generally assume an agentic
leadership style. They are task-oriented, active, deci2.2 Participative or democratic
sion focused, independent and goal oriented. Women,
The democratic leadership style consists of the leader on the other hand, are generally more communal when
sharing the decision-making abilities with group mem- they assume a leadership position; they strive to be helpbers by promoting the interests of the group members and ful towards others, warm in relation to others, underby practicing social equality. This has also been called standing, and mindful of others feelings. In general,
when women are asked to describe themselves to othshared leadership.
ers in newly formed groups, they emphasize their open,
fair, responsible, and pleasant communal qualities. They
give advice, oer assurances, and manage conicts in an
2.3 Laissez-faire or Free-rein
attempt to maintain positive relationships among group
In Laissez-faire or free-rein leadership, decision-making members. Women connect more positively to group
is passed on to the sub-ordinates. The sub-ordinates are members by smiling, maintaining eye contact and regiven complete right and power to make decisions to es- spond tactfully to others comments. Men, conversely,
describe themselves as inuential, powerful and procient
tablish goals and work out the problems or hurdles.
at the task that needs to be done. They tend to place more
focus on initiating structure within the group, setting stan2.4 Task-oriented
and
relationship- dards and objectives, identifying roles, dening responsibilities and standard operating procedures, proposing sooriented
lutions to problems, monitoring compliance with procedures, and nally, emphasizing the need for productivity
Main article: Task-oriented and relationship-oriented and eciency in the work that needs to be done. As leadleadership
ers, men are primarily task-oriented, but women tend to
be both task- and relationship-oriented. However, it is
Task-oriented leadership is a style in which the leader is important to note that these sex dierences are only tenfocused on the tasks that need to be performed in order dencies, and do not manifest themselves within men and
to meet a certain production goal. Task-oriented leaders women across all groups and situations.[64]

4 TRAITS

Performance

In the past, some researchers have argued that the actual inuence of leaders on organizational outcomes is
overrated and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about leaders (Meindl & Ehrlich, 1987). Despite
these assertions, however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership
is important, and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key organizational outcomes (Day &
Lord, 1988; Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008). To facilitate
successful performance it is important to understand and
accurately measure leadership performance.
Job performance generally refers to behavior that is expected to contribute to organizational success (Campbell,
1990). Campbell identied a number of specic types of
performance dimensions; leadership was one of the dimensions that he identied. There is no consistent, overall denition of leadership performance (Yukl, 2006).
Many distinct conceptualizations are often lumped together under the umbrella of leadership performance, including outcomes such as leader eectiveness, leader advancement, and leader emergence (Kaiser et al., 2008).
For instance, leadership performance may be used to refer to the career success of the individual leader, performance of the group or organization, or even leader emergence. Each of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct. While these aspects may be related, they
are dierent outcomes and their inclusion should depend
on the applied or research focus.
A toxic leader is someone who has responsibility over a
group of people or an organization, and who abuses the
leaderfollower relationship by leaving the group or organization in a worse-o condition than when he/she joined
it.

Traits

Julius Caesar, one of the worlds greatest military leaders

inance. People with these traits often tend to wholeheartedly pursue their goals, work long hours, are ambitious,
and often are very competitive with others. Cognitive
capacity includes intelligence, analytical and verbal ability, behavioral exibility, and good judgment. Individuals with these traits are able to formulate solutions to
dicult problems, work well under stress or deadlines,
adapt to changing situations, and create well-thought-out
plans for the future. Howell provides examples of Steve
Jobs and Abraham Lincoln as encompassing the traits of
determination and drive as well as possessing cognitive
capacity, demonstrated by their ability to adapt to their
continuously changing environments.[65]

Self-condence encompasses the traits of high selfesteem, assertiveness, emotional stability, and selfassurance. Individuals that are self-condent do not
doubt themselves or their abilities and decisions; they also
have the ability to project this self-condence onto others,
building their trust and commitment. Integrity is demonstrated in individuals who are truthful, trustworthy, principled, consistent, dependable, loyal, and not deceptive.
Leaders with integrity often share these values with their
followers, as this trait is mainly an ethics issue. It is often
said that these leaders keep their word and are honest and
open with their cohorts. Sociability describes individuals
who are friendly, extroverted, tactful, exible, and interpersonally competent. Such a trait enables leaders to be
accepted well by the public, use diplomatic measures to
solve issues, as well as hold the ability to adapt their social
Determination and drive include traits such as initiative, persona to the situation at hand. According to Howell,
energy, assertiveness, perseverance and sometimes dom- Mother Teresa is an exceptional example that embodies
Most theories in the 20th century argued that great leaders were born, not made. Current studies have indicated
that leadership is much more complex and cannot be
boiled down to a few key traits of an individual. Years of
observation and study have indicated that one such trait
or a set of traits does not make an extraordinary leader.
What scholars have been able to arrive at is that leadership traits of an individual do not change from situation
to situation; such traits include intelligence, assertiveness,
or physical attractiveness.[65] However, each key trait may
be applied to situations dierently, depending on the circumstances. The following summarizes the main leadership traits found in research by Jon P. Howell, business
professor at New Mexico State University and author of
the book Snapshots of Great Leadership.

6.1

Organizations

integrity, assertiveness, and social abilities in her diplo- the informal organization that underlies the formal strucmatic dealings with the leaders of the world.[65]
ture. The informal organization expresses the personal
Few great leaders encompass all of the traits listed above, objectives and goals of the individual membership. Their
but many have the ability to apply a number of them to objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those
succeed as front-runners of their organization or situation. of the formal organization. The informal organization
represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize human life the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves.

The
phenomenological
leadership

ontologicalmodel for

One of the more recent denitions of leadership comes

from Werner Erhard, Michael C. Jensen, Steve Zaron,
and Kari Granger who describe leadership as an exercise
in language that results in the realization of a future that
wasnt going to happen anyway, which future fullls (or
contributes to fullling) the concerns of the relevant parties.... This denition ensures that leadership is talking
about the future and includes the fundamental concerns
of the relevant parties. This diers from relating to the
relevant parties as followers and calling up an image of
a single leader with others following. Rather, a future that
fullls on the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties indicates the future that wasnt going to happen is not
the idea of the leader, but rather is what emerges from
digging deep to nd the underlying concerns of those who
are impacted by the leadership.[66]

6
6.1

Contexts
Organizations

An organization that is established as an instrument or

means for achieving dened objectives has been referred
to as a formal organization. Its design species how goals
are subdivided and reected in subdivisions of the organization. Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs,
and tasks make up this work structure. Thus, the formal
organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard
to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Webers denition, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Employees receive a salary
and enjoy a degree of tenure that safeguards them from
the arbitrary inuence of superiors or of powerful clients.
The higher ones position in the hierarchy, the greater
ones presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that
may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower
levels of the organization. It is this bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for the appointment of heads
or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their
position.[67]
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of

In prehistoric times, humanity was preoccupied with personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival.
Now humanity spends a major portion of waking hours
working for organizations. The need to identify with
a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging has continued unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by
the informal organization and its emergent, or unocial,
leaders.[68][69]
Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization. Their personal qualities, the demands
of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within
one or several overlay structures. Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the
emergent leader wields inuence or power. Inuence is
the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others
by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is
a stronger form of inuence because it reects a persons
ability to enforce action through the control of a means
of punishment.[68]
A leader is a person who inuences a group of people towards a specic result. It is not dependent on title or formal authority. (Elevos, paraphrased from Leaders, Bennis, and Leadership Presence, Halpern & Lubar.) Ogbonnia (2007) denes an eective leader as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given
condition and be viewed as meeting the expectations of
an organization or society. Leaders are recognized by
their capacity for caring for others, clear communication,
and a commitment to persist.[70] An individual who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to command
and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of their
position. However, she or he must possess adequate personal attributes to match this authority, because authority
is only potentially available to him/her. In the absence of
sucient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge her/his
role in the organization and reduce it to that of a gurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields
personal inuence and power can legitimize this only by
gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, with commensurate authority.[68] Leadership can be dened as ones
ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level.[71]

10

6.2

Management

Over the years the philosophical terminology of

"management" and leadership have, in the organizational context, been used both as synonyms and with
clearly dierentiated meanings. Debate is fairly common
about whether the use of these terms should be restricted,
and generally reects an awareness of the distinction
made by Burns (1978) between transactional leadership (characterized by e.g. emphasis on procedures,
contingent reward, management by exception) and
transformational leadership (characterized by e.g.
charisma, personal relationships, creativity).[49]

6.3

Group

In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations

have adopted group leadership. In this situation, more
than one person provides direction to the group as a
whole. Some organizations have taken this approach in
hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boss
as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the team members best able to handle any given
phase of the project become the temporary leaders. Additionally, as each team member has the opportunity to
experience the elevated level of empowerment, it energizes sta and feeds the cycle of success.[72]

CONTEXTS

Roles: Members know their roles in getting tasks

done and when to allow a more skillful member to
do a certain task.
Decisions: Authority and decision-making lines are
clearly understood.
Conict: Conict is dealt with openly and is considered important to decision-making and personal
growth.
Personal traits: members feel their unique personalities are appreciated and well utilized.
Norms: Group norms for working together are set
and seen as standards for every one in the groups.
Eectiveness: Members nd team meetings ecient and productive and look forward to this time
together.
Success: Members know clearly when the team
has met with success and share in this equally and
proudly.
Training: Opportunities for feedback and updating
skills are provided and taken advantage of by team
members.

6.4 Self-leadership

Leaders who demonstrate persistence, tenacity, determination, and synergistic communication skills will bring
Self-leadership is a process that occurs within an individout the same qualities in their groups. Good leaders use
ual, rather than an external act. It is an expression of who
their own inner mentors to energize their team and orgawe are as people.[75]
nizations and lead a team to achieve success.[73]
According to the National School Boards Association
6.5
(USA):[74]

Primates

These Group Leaderships or Leadership Teams have speMark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in Naturally Selected:
cic characteristics:
The Evolutionary Science of Leadership present evidence
Characteristics of a Team
of leadership in nonhuman animals, from ants and bees
to baboons and chimpanzees. They suggest that leader There must be an awareness of unity on the part of ship has a long evolutionary history and that the same
all its members.
mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans can be
found in other social species, too.[76] Richard Wrang There must be interpersonal relationship. Members
ham and Dale Peterson, in Demonic Males: Apes and the
must have a chance to contribute, and learn from and
Origins of Human Violence, present evidence that only
work with others.
humans and chimpanzees, among all the animals living
Earth, share a similar tendency for a cluster of behavon
The members must have the ability to act together
iors:
violence, territoriality, and competition for uniting
toward a common goal.
behind the one chief male of the land.[77] This position
is contentious. Many animals beyond apes are territoTen characteristics of well-functioning teams:
rial, compete, exhibit violence, and have a social struc Purpose: Members proudly share a sense of why ture controlled by a dominant male (lions, wolves, etc.),
the team exists and are invested in accomplishing suggesting Wrangham and Petersons evidence is not empirical. However, we must examine other species as well,
its mission and goals.
including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an
Priorities: Members know what needs to be done alpha female), meerkats (who are likewise matriarchal),
next, by whom, and by when to achieve team goals. and many others.

11
By comparison, bonobos, the second-closest speciesrelatives of humans, do not unite behind the chief male
of the land. The bonobos show deference to an alpha or
top-ranking female that, with the support of her coalition of other females, can prove as strong as the strongest
male. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the greatest number of followers, then among the bonobos, a female almost always exerts the strongest and most eective leadership. However, not all scientists agree on the
allegedly peaceful nature of the bonobo or its reputation
as a "hippie chimp.[78]

Historical views

object to such models as patriarchal and posit against

them emotionally attuned, responsive, and consensual
empathetic guidance, which is sometimes associated with
matriarchies.
Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of
Confucianism on right living relate very much to the
ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule,
buttressed by a tradition of lial piety.
Leadership is a matter of intelligence,
trustworthiness, humaneness, courage, and discipline ... Reliance on intelligence alone results
in rebelliousness. Exercise of humaneness
alone results in weakness. Fixation on trust results in folly. Dependence on the strength of
courage results in violence. Excessive discipline and sternness in command result in cruelty. When one has all ve virtues together,
each appropriate to its function, then one can
be a leader. Sun Tzu[80]
Machiavellis The Prince, written in the early 16th century, provided a manual for rulers (princes or tyrants
in Machiavellis terminology) to gain and keep power.
In the 19th century the elaboration of anarchist thought
called the whole concept of leadership into question.
(Note that the Oxford English Dictionary traces the word
leadership in English only as far back as the 19th century.) One response to this denial of litism came with
Leninism, which demanded an lite group of disciplined
cadres to act as the vanguard of a socialist revolution,
bringing into existence the dictatorship of the proletariat.

Niccol Machiavelli's The Prince argues that it is better to be

feared rather than to be loved.

Other historical views of leadership have addressed the

seeming contrasts between secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of Caesaro-papism have recurred
and had their detractors over several centuries. Christian
thinking on leadership has often emphasized stewardship
of divinely provided resourceshuman and material
and their deployment in accordance with a Divine plan.
Compare servant leadership.[81]

Sanskrit literature identies ten types of leaders. Dening

For a more general take on leadership in politics, compare
characteristics of the ten types of leaders are explained
the concept of the statesperson.
with examples from history and mythology.[79]
Aristocratic thinkers have postulated that leadership depends on ones blue blood or genes. Monarchy takes an
extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanction (see the divine right of kings). Contrariwise, more democratically inclined theorists have
pointed to examples of meritocratic leaders, such as
the Napoleonic marshals proting from careers open to
talent.

8 Myths

Leadership, although largely talked about, has been described as one of the least understood concepts across
all cultures and civilizations. Over the years, many researchers have stressed the prevalence of this misunderstanding, stating that the existence of several awed asIn the autocratic/paternalistic strain of thought, tradition- sumptions, or myths, concerning leadership often interalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman pater feres with individuals conception of what leadership is
familias. Feminist thinking, on the other hand, may all about (Gardner, 1965; Bennis, 1975).[82][83]

12

8.1

9 ACTION-ORIENTED ENVIRONMENTS

Leadership is innate

among members, individual personality traits, group context, the nature or orientation of the work, as well
According to some, leadership is determined by distinc- as behavioral norms and established standards inuence
tive dispositional characteristics present at birth (e.g., group functionality in varying capacities. For this reaextraversion; intelligence; ingenuity). However, accord- son, it is unwarranted to assume that all leaders are in
ing to Forsyth (2009) there is evidence to show that complete control of their groups achievements.
leadership also develops through hard work and careful
observation.[84] Thus, eective leadership can result from
nature (i.e., innate talents) as well as nurture (i.e., ac- 8.5 All groups have a designated leader
quired skills).
Despite preconceived notions, not all groups need have
a designated leader. Groups that are primarily com[91][92]
are limited in size, are free from
8.2 Leadership is possessing power over posed of women,
stressful decision-making,[93] or only exist for a short peothers
riod of time (e.g., student work groups; pub quiz/trivia
teams) often undergo a diusion of responsibility, where
Although leadership is certainly a form of power, it is not
leadership tasks and roles are shared amongst memdemarcated by power over people rather, it is a power
bers (Schmid Mast, 2002; Berdahl & Anderson, 2007;
with people that exists as a reciprocal relationship beGuastello, 2007).
tween a leader and his/her followers (Forsyth, 2009).[84]
Despite popular belief, the use of manipulation, coercion,
and domination to inuence others is not a requirement 8.6 Group members resist leaders
for leadership. In actuality, individuals who seek group
consent and strive to act in the best interests of others can Although research has indicated that group members
also become eective leaders (e.g., class president; court dependence on group leaders can lead to reduced selfjudge).
reliance and overall group strength,[84] most people ac-

8.3

Leaders are positively inuential

The validity of the assertion that groups ourish when

guided by eective leaders can be illustrated using several
examples. For instance, according to Baumeister et al.
(1988), the bystander eect (failure to respond or oer
assistance) that tends to develop within groups faced with
an emergency is signicantly reduced in groups guided
by a leader.[85] Moreover, it has been documented that
group performance,[86] creativity,[87] and eciency[88] all
tend to climb in businesses with designated managers or
CEOs. However, the dierence leaders make is not always positive in nature. Leaders sometimes focus on fullling their own agendas at the expense of others, including his/her own followers (e.g., Pol Pot; Josef Stalin).
Leaders who focus on personal gain by employing stringent and manipulative leadership styles often make a difference, but usually do so through negative means.[89]

8.4

Leaders entirely control group outcomes

In Western cultures it is generally assumed that group

leaders make all the dierence when it comes to group inuence and overall goal-attainment. Although common,
this romanticized view of leadership (i.e., the tendency to
overestimate the degree of control leaders have over their
groups and their groups outcomes) ignores the existence
of many other factors that inuence group dynamics.[90]
For example, group cohesion, communication patterns

tually prefer to be led than to be without a leader

(Berkowitz, 1953).[94] This need for a leader becomes
especially strong in troubled groups that are experiencing some sort of conict. Group members tend to be
more contented and productive when they have a leader to
guide them. Although individuals lling leadership roles
can be a direct source of resentment for followers, most
people appreciate the contributions that leaders make to
their groups and consequently welcome the guidance of a
leader (Stewart & Manz, 1995).[95]

9 Action-oriented environments
In most cases these teams are tasked to operate in remote and changeable environments with limited support
or backup (action environments). Leadership of people
in these environments requires a dierent set of skills
to that of front line management. These leaders must
eectively operate remotely and negotiate the needs of
the individual, team, and task within a changeable environment. This has been termed action oriented leadership. Some examples of demonstrations of action oriented leadership include extinguishing a rural re, locating a missing person, leading a team on an outdoor expedition, or rescuing a person from a potentially hazardous
environment.[96]
Other examples include modern technology deployments
of small/medium-sized IT teams into client plant sites.
Leadership of these teams requires hands on experience
and a lead-by-example attitude to empower team members to make well thought out and concise decisions inde-

13
pendent of executive management and/or home base decision makers. Zachary Hansen was an early adopter of
Scrum/Kanban branch development methodologies during the mid 90s to alleviate the dependency that eld
teams had on trunk based development. This method
of just-in-time action oriented development and deployment allowed remote plant sites to deploy up-to-date software patches frequently and without dependency on core
team deployment schedules satisfying the clients need to
rapidly patch production environment bugs as needed.[97]

10

Critical thought

Noam Chomsky[98] and others[99] have brought critical

thinking to the concept of leadership and have provided
an analysis that asserts that people abrogate their responsibility to think and will actions for themselves. While
the conventional view of leadership is rather satisfying to
people who want to be told what to do, these critics say
that one should question why they are being subjected to
a will or intellect other than their own if the leader is not
a subject-matter expert (SME).
Concepts such as autogestion, employeeship, common
civic virtue, etc. challenge the fundamentally antidemocratic nature of the leadership principle by stressing individual responsibility and/or group authority in the
workplace and elsewhere and by focusing on the skills and
attitudes that a person needs in general rather than separating out leadership as the basis of a special class of
individuals.
Similarly, various historical calamities are attributed to a
misplaced reliance on the principle of leadership.
The idea of leaderism paints leadership and its excesses
in a negative light.

11

Executives

Omnipotence fallacy: Believing they are all powerful

and therefore entitled to do what they want
Invulnerability fallacy: Believing they can get away
with doing what they want because they are too
clever to get caught; even if they are caught, believing they will go unpunished because of their importance.

12 See also
Adaptive performance
Crowd psychology
Leadership accountability
Leadership school
Meeting Roles
Modes of leadership
Multiteam system
Narcissistic leadership
Nicomachean Ethics
Professional development
Super-team
Three theological virtues

13 References
Notes
[1] Chemers M. (1997). An integrative theory of leadership.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. ISBN 978-08058-2679-1

[100]

Executives are energetic, outgoing, and competitive.

They can be visionary, hard-working, and decisive. However, managers need to be aware of unsuccessful executives who once showed management potential but who
are later dismissed or retired early. They typically fail because of personality factors rather than job performances.
Terms fallacies in their thinking are:

[2] Chin, Roger (2015). Examining teamwork and leadership in the elds of public administration, leadership, and
management. Team Performance Management.
[3] Trevisani, Daniele (2015), Semiotics for Leaders. The
Exa-Leadership Model for Leadership and Human Potential Development. Medialab-Research Publishing. ISBN
9781329590076

Unrealistic optimism fallacy: Believing they are so

smart that they can do whatever they want

[4] Locke et al. 1991

Egocentrism fallacy: Believing they are the only ones

who matter, that the people who work for them don't
count

[6] Benjamin Jowetts translation of Platos Republic does not

use the word leadership"; Plato discusses primarily a
"guardian" class. See Plato (1892). The Dialogues of
Plato translated into English with Analyses and Introductions by B. Jowett, M.A. 3. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2014-09-12.

Omniscience fallacy: Believing they know everything and seeing no limits to their knowledge

[5] (Richards & Engle, 1986, p. 206)

14

[7] See Donald Markwell, Instincts to Lead":

On
Leadership,
Peace,
and Education,
Connor
Court: Australia, 2013.
ISBN 9781922168702
http://www.connorcourt.com/catalog1/index.php?main_
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[8] Bird, C. (1940). Social Psychology. New York: AppletonCentury.
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Personal factors associated with leadership:
A survey of the literature.
Journal of Psychology 25:
3571.
doi:10.1080/00223980.1948.9917362.
PMID
18901913.

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18

14

14
14.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Leadership Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership?oldid=710502523 Contributors: Eloquence, The Anome, Ap, Ed Poor,

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Pearle, Stephen Bain, Mdd, Alansohn, Foant, Qwe, Arthena, Riana, Wdfarmer, Cjnm, Snowolf, Hyperlink~enwiki, Wtmitchell, Velella,
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14.2

Images

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Qrsdogg, Ajmalikbal, Hjepkes, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Abchotty, Matterhorn33, Cecody, Thecheesykid, ZroBot, John Cline, F, Acategory, Lussyna, AOC25, Access Denied, JudgeNot71, Richie.lukas, Shadowchb, Wayne Slam, Erianna, Gerra mae, Commenzky, Donner60,
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14.2

Images

File:0092_-_Wien_-_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_-_Gaius_Julius_Caesar-edit.jpg Source:
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wikipedia/commons/1/12/0092_-_Wien_-_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_-_Gaius_Julius_Caesar-edit.jpg License:
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