TYPICAL PAVEMENT DISTRESSES

(CLAYEY SUBGRADE???)
Dr. Venkaiah Chowdary
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology, Warangal
Email: vc@nitw.ac.in

Construction Practices of Pavements on Clayey Subgrade

G. Pulla Reddy Engineering College, Kurnool

Overview
Pavement cross-section
Distresses in flexible pavements
Distresses in rigid pavements

Expansive soils as subgrade

Drainage measures

Geosynthetics
Classification

Functions
Applications

Overview
Pavement cross-section
Distresses in flexible pavements
Distresses in rigid pavements

Expansive soils as subgrade

Drainage measures

Geosynthetics
Classification

Functions
Applications

Flexible Pavement (MORTH, 2001)

Rigid Pavement (MORTH, 2001)

Conventional Flexible Pavements (Huang, 2004)

Overview
Pavement crosscross-section
Distresses in flexible pavements
Distresses in rigid pavements

Expansive soils as subgrade

Drainage measures

Geosynthetics
Classification

Functions
Applications

Distresses in Flexible Pavements

Fatigue or Alligator Cracking

Bleeding
Block Cracking
Corrugation and Shoving
Depression
Joint Reflection Cracking
Longitudinal Cracking
Polished Aggregate
Potholes
Ravelling
Rutting
Transverse (Thermal) Cracking

Fatigue or Alligator Cracking

Series of interconnected cracks caused by fatigue failure of HMA
surface under repeated traffic loading
In thin pavements, crack initiates at the bottom of the HMA layer
where the tensile stress is high and propagates to the surface as one
or more longitudinal cracks (Bottom-up cracks!!!)
In thick pavements, the cracks
initiate from the top in areas of
high localized tensile stresses
resulting from tyre-pavement
interaction and asphalt binder
aging (Top-down cracks!!!)

Bleeding
A film of asphalt binder on the pavement surface
Usually creates a shiny, glass-like reflecting surface that can become
sticky
Bleeding occurs when asphalt binder fills the aggregate voids during
hot weather and then expands onto the pavement surface
This can be due to:
Excess asphalt in HMA
Less air voids in HMA

Block Cracking
Interconnected cracks dividing the pavement into rectangular pieces
Larger blocks are classified as longitudinal and transverse cracks
Block cracking normally occurs over a large portion of pavement
area but sometimes will occur only in non-traffic areas
Caused due to HMA shrinkage
and daily temperature cycling
Typically caused by an inability of
asphalt binder to expand and
contract with temperature cycles
because of asphalt binder aging

Corrugation and Shoving

A form of plastic movement typified by ripples (corrugation) or an
abrupt wave (shoving) across the pavement surface
The distortion is perpendicular to the traffic direction
Usually occurs at points where traffic starts and stops (corrugation)
or areas where HMA touches a rigid object (shoving)
Caused by starting and stopping
of vehicles combined with an
unstable HMA layer (or) excessive
moisture in the subgrade

Depression
Localized pavement surface areas with slightly lower elevations than
the surrounding pavement
Depressions are very noticeable after a rain when they fill with water

Caused due to frost heave or

subgrade settlement resulting
from inadequate compaction
during construction

Joint Reflection Cracking

Cracks in a flexible overlay of a rigid pavement
Cracks occur directly over the underlying rigid pavement joints

Caused due to movement of the

PCC slab beneath the HMA
surface because of thermal and
moisture changes
Generally not load initiated,
however loading can accelerate
deterioration

Longitudinal Cracking
Cracks parallel to the pavement centreline
Usually a type of fatigue cracking
Caused due to poor joint construction/location; joints should be
constructed outside wheel path so that they are not frequently loaded

Polished Aggregate
Areas of HMA pavement where the portion of aggregate extending
above the asphalt binder is either very small or there are no rough or
angular aggregate particles
Causes decrease in skid resistance
Caused due to repeated traffic
applications
As the pavement ages, the
protruding rough, angular
particles becomes polished
This can occur quicker if the
aggregate is susceptible to
abrasion

Potholes
Small, bowl-shaped depressions in the pavement surface that
penetrate all the way through the HMA layer down to the base
course
They generally have sharp edges and vertical sides near the top of
the hole
Potholes are most likely to occur
on roads with thin HMA surfaces
(25 to 50 mm) and may not occur
on roads with 100 mm or deeper
HMA surfaces
End result of alligator cracking

Ravelling
The progressive disintegration of an HMA layer from the surface
downward as a result of the dislodgement of aggregate particles
Caused due to loss of bond between aggregate particles and asphalt
binder
Ravelling may also be due to
mechanical dislodging by certain
type of traffic (studded-tyres,
tracked vehicles, snowplow
blades, etc.)

Rutting
Surface depression in the wheel path; pavement uplift (shearing) may
occur along the sides of the rut
Ruts are particularly evident after a rain when they are filled with
water (hydroplaning); can be hazardous because ruts tend to pull a
vehicle towards the rut path as it is steered across the rut
Caused due to permanent
deformation in any of the
pavement layers or subgrade
usually caused by vertical
compression or consolidation or
lateral movement of the materials
due to traffic loading

Transverse (Thermal) Cracking

Cracks perpendicular to the pavement centerline
A type of thermal cracking caused due to shrinkage of the HMA
surface due to low temperatures or asphalt binder hardening
May also be due to reflective cracking

Overview
Pavement crosscross-section
Distresses in flexible pavements
Distresses in rigid pavements

Expansive soils as subgrade

Drainage measures

Geosynthetics
Classification

Functions
Applications

Distresses in Rigid Pavements

Blowup (buckling)
Corner break
Durability cracking (D cracking)
Faulting
Linear (panel) cracking
Popouts
Pumping
Patching
Polished aggregate
Reactive aggregate distresses
Shrinkage cracking
Spalling

Blowup (Buckling)
A localized upward slab movement at a joint or crack
Usually occurs in summer and is the result of insufficient room for
slab expansion during hot weather

Corner Break
A crack that intersects the PCC slab joints near the corner
Near the corner is typically defined as within about 2 m
A corner break extends through the entire slab and is caused by high
corner stresses.
It is due to severe corner stresses
caused by load repetitions
combined with a loss of support,
poor load transfer across the
joint, curling stresses and warping
stresses

Durability Cracking (D Cracking)

Series of closely spaced, crescent-shaped cracks near a joint, corner
or crack; caused by freeze-thaw expansion of the large aggregate
within the PCC slab
Durability cracking is a general PCC distress and is not unique to
PCC pavements

Faulting
A difference in elevation across a joint or crack usually associated
with undoweled JPCP
Faulting is noticeable when the average faulting in the pavement
section reaches about 2.5 mm
Most commonly, faulting is a
result of slab pumping
Faulting can also be caused by
slab settlement, curling and
warping

Linear ( Panel) Cracking

Linear cracks not associated with corner breaks or blowups that
extend across the entire slab
These cracks divide an individual slab into two to four pieces.

Caused due to a combination of

traffic loading, thermal gradient
curling, moisture stresses and loss
of support

Popouts
Small pieces of PCC that break loose from the surface leaving small
divots or pock marks
Popouts range from 25-100 mm in dia. and from 25 - 50 mm deep

Popouts usually occur as a result

of poor aggregate durability
Poor durability can be a result of
a number of items such as: (i)
poor aggregate freeze-thaw
resistance, (ii) expansive
aggregates, and (iii) alkaliaggregate reactions

Pumping
Movement of material underneath the slab or ejection of material
from underneath the slab as a result of water pressure
Water accumulated underneath a PCC slab will pressurize when the
slab deflects under load
Caused due to water
accumulation underneath the slab
This can be caused by: a high
water table, poor drainage, and
panel cracks or poor joint seals
that allow water to infiltrate the
underlying material

Patching
An area of pavement that has been replaced with new material to
repair the existing pavement
A patch is considered a defect no matter how well it performs

Caused due to previous localized

pavement deterioration that has
been removed and patched
Also caused due to utility cuts

Polished Aggregate
Areas of PCC pavement where the portion of aggregate on the
surface contains few rough or angular aggregate particles
Caused due to repeated traffic applications

Generally, as a pavement ages the

protruding rough, angular
particles become polished
This can occur quicker if the
aggregate is susceptible to
abrasion or subject to excessive
studded tyre wear

Reactive Aggregate Distress

Pattern or map cracking (crazing) on the PCC slab surface caused by
reactive aggregates
Reactive aggregates are those that either expand or develop expansive
byproducts when introduced to certain chemical compounds
This type of distress is indicative
of poor aggregate qualities
Most commonly, it is a result of
an alkali-aggregate reaction

Shrinkage Cracking
Hairline cracks formed during PCC setting and curing that are not
located at joints; they do not extend through entire depth of the slab
Shrinkage cracks are considered a distress if they occur in an
uncontrolled manner (e.g., at locations outside of contraction joints
in JPCP or too close together in CRCP)
PCC will shrink as it sets and
cures, therefore shrinkage cracks
are expected in rigid pavement
and provisions for their control
are made

Spalling
Cracking, breaking or chipping of joint/crack edges
Usually occurs within about 0.6 m of joint/crack edge
Caused due to excessive stresses at the joint/crack caused by
infiltration of incompressible materials and subsequent expansion
(can also cause blowups)
Caused due to disintegration of
the PCC from freeze-thaw action
or D cracking
May also be due to misalignment
or corroded dowel
Also due to heavy traffic loading

Overview
Pavement crosscross-section
Distresses in flexible pavements
Distresses in rigid pavements

Expansive soils as subgrade

Drainage measures

Geosynthetics
Classification

Functions
Applications

Expansive Soils as Subgrade (IRC:37, 2001)

Top 500 mm portion of the roadway.

Heavy compaction recommended for Expressways, NHs,

SHs, and MDRs.

Shall be compacted to 97% of dry density achieved with

heavy compaction.

Material used for subgrade shall have dry density not less
than 1.75 g/cm3.

CBR at most critical moisture conditions likely to occur in

the field.

Use of expansive clay is not allowed for subgrade.

If unavoidable, following procedure shall be adopted.

Expansive Soils as Subgrade (IRC:37, 2001)

Expansive soils (black cotton soils, montmorillonite clays)

are characterized by extreme hardness and deep cracks
when dry and tendency to heave during wetting.

Moisture changes due to seasonal wetting and drying

causes volumetric changes and leads to pavement
distortion, cracking, and unevenness.

Volume changes in these soils depends on (i) dry density

of compacted soil, (ii) moisture content, and (iii) structure
of soil and method of compaction.

Expansive soils swell very little when compacted at low

densities and high moisture content; recommended to
compact the soils to slightly wet of OMC.

Expansive Soils as Subgrade (IRC:37, 2001)

Thickness design shall be based on 4-day soaked CBR.

Buffer Layer:

Buffer layer made of non-expansive cohesive soil cushion

of 0.6 to 1.0 m thickness:

i.

prevents ingress of water into the underlying

expansive soil,

ii. counteracts swelling and if the underlying expansive

soil heaves, movement will be more uniform.

If buffer layer is not economically feasible, blanket

course made of suitable material and thickness shall be
provided.

Expansive Soils as Subgrade (IRC:37, 2001)

Blanket Course:

At least 225 mm thickness.

Composed of coarse/medium sand (or) non-plastic

moorum with PI less than 5%.

Provided above expansive soil to serve as sub-base.

Extended over entire formation width.

Alternatively, lime-stabilized black cotton sub-base

extending over entire formation width may be provided
together with measures for efficient drainage.

Improvement of drainage can significantly reduce the

magnitude of seasonal heaves.

Expansive Soils as Subgrade (IRC:37, 2001)

Drainage Measures:

Provision must be made for lateral drainage of the

pavement section.

Granular sub-base/base shall be extended across the

shoulders.

Camber of 1:40 for BT surface and cross-slope of 1:20

for berms to shed-off surface run-off quickly.

Standing water not allowed on either side of

embankment.

Expansive Soils as Subgrade (IRC:37, 2001)

Drainage Measures:

Difference between subgrade level and highest water

table shall be at lest 1 m.

40 mm thick BT surfacing shall be provided to prevent

ingress of water through surface.

Shoulders shall be made of impervious material.

Lime stabilized black cotton soil shoulder of 150 to 200

mm thickness is an economical option.

Overview
Pavement crosscross-section
Distresses in flexible pavements
Distresses in rigid pavements

Expansive soils as subgrade

Drainage measures

Geosynthetics
Classification

Functions
Applications

Sub-Base Course (IRC:37, 2001)

From drainage considerations, GSB shall be extended over entire

formation width in case the subgrade soil has relatively low
permeability

Subgrade CBR shall be at least 2%

If CBR of subgrade is less than 2%, design shall be based on

subgrade CBR of 2% and a capping layer of 150 mm thickness
of material with a minimum CBR of 10% shall be provided in
addition to sub-base

If stage construction is adopted, thickness of sub-base shall be

provided for ultimate pavement section for the full design life

In frost affected areas, the material to be used in sub-base shall

not be susceptible to frost action

Drainage Measures (IRC:37, 2001)

Performance of a pavement can be affected by accumulation

of moisture in pavement
Measures to guard against poor drainage:
i. Proper camber
ii. Provision of surface and sub-surface drains
Important when road is in cutting (or) built on low permeable
soils (or) situated in heavy rainfall/snowfall areas
Difference between bottom of subgrade level and level of
water table or high flood level should not be less than 0.6 to
1.0 m.
In water logged areas where subgrade is within the capillary
saturation zone, suitable capillary cut-off may be installed

Drainage Measures (IRC:37, 2001)

When pavement is constructed over low permeable subgrade,

GSB layer shall be extended over entire formation width
Exposed ends of GSB layer should not be covered by soil

If GSB is of softer variety which may get crushed during

rolling leading to denser gradation and low permeability, the
top 100 to 150 mm shall be substituted by open graded
crushed stone layer to ensure proper drainage

Drainage Measures (IRC:37, 2001)

Requirements of drainage layer:
Criteria for high permeability drainage layer:

D15 of drainage layer

5
D15 of subgrade
To prevent entry of soil particles into drainage layer:
D15 of drainage layer
D50 of drainage layer
5, and
5
D85 of subgrade
D50 of subgrade

Following materials are considered as good for drainage:

D85 4 D15 , and D2 2.5 mm

where, D85 is the size of sieve that allows 85% by weight of

material passing through it

Drainage Measures (IRC:37, 2001)

Permeable sub-base when placed on soft erodible soils shall be

underlain by a layer of filter material to prevent intrusion of
soil fines into the drainage layer
Non-woven geosynthetic can be used as filter

Drainage Measures (IRC:37, 2001)

Base course shall be constructed 300 to 450 mm wider than

the bituminous surfacing so that run-off water disperses well
clear off the carriageway
Shoulders shall have requisite cross-fall
Shoulders shall not be at higher level than carriageway

Overview
Pavement crosscross-section
Distresses in flexible pavements
Distresses in rigid pavements

Expansive soils as subgrade

Drainage measures

Geosynthetics
Classification

Functions
Applications

Overview
Pavement crosscross-section
Distresses in flexible pavements
Distresses in rigid pavements

Expansive soils as subgrade

Drainage measures

Geosynthetics
Classification

Functions
Applications

Classification of Geosynthetics

Geotextiles

Geogrids

Geonets

Geomembranes

Geocomposites

Geosynthetic clay liners

Geopipes

Geocells

Geofoam

Source: http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/Resources.aspx?pg=Education

Overview
Pavement crosscross-section
Distresses in flexible pavements
Distresses in rigid pavements

Expansive soils as subgrade

Drainage measures

Geosynthetics
Classification

Functions
Applications

Functions of Geosynthetics
Separation
Separates two layers of soil
that have different particle
size distributions
Used to prevent road base
materials from penetrating
into underlying soft subgrade
soils
Prevents fine grained
subgrade soils from being
pumped into permeable
granular road bases

Source: http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/Resources.aspx?pg=Education

Functions of Geosynthetics
Reinforcement
Geotextiles and geogrids are
used to add tensile strength
to a soil mass in order to
create vertical or nearvertical changes in grade
(reinforced soil walls)

Source: http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/Resources.aspx?pg=Education

Functions of Geosynthetics
Filtration
Acts similar to a sand filter
by allowing water to move
through the soil while
retaining all upstream soil
particles
Geotextiles are used to
prevent soils from migrating
into drainage aggregate or
pipes while maintaining flow
through the system

Source: http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/Resources.aspx?pg=Education

Functions of Geosynthetics
Drainage
Acts as a drain to carry fluid
flows through less permeable
soils
Geotextiles are used to
dissipate pore water
pressures at the base of
roadway embankments

Source: http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/Resources.aspx?pg=Education

Functions of Geosynthetics
Type of
Geosynthetics

Separation Reinforcement Filtration

Drainag
Containment
e

Geotextiles

Geogrids

Geonets

Geomembranes

Geocomposites

Overview
Pavement crosscross-section
Distresses in flexible pavements
Distresses in rigid pavements

Expansive soils as subgrade

Drainage measures

Geosynthetics
Classification

Functions
Applications

Geosynthetics Applications in Pavements

can be effectively used to reduce or avoid reflective cracking

Source: http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/Resources.aspx?pg=Education

Geosynthetics Applications in Pavements

works as a barrier to avoid pumping of soil fines

Source: http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/Resources.aspx?pg=Education

Geosynthetics Applications in Pavements

can be effectively used to reduce asphalt cap thickness

Source: http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/Resources.aspx?pg=Education

Geosynthetics Applications in Pavements

can be effectively used to reduce pavement thickness

Source: http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/Resources.aspx?pg=Education

Geosynthetics Applications in Pavements

can be effectively used to increase the life of the pavement

can be effectively used to decrease the rut depth

Source: http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/Resources.aspx?pg=Education

Geosynthetics Applications in Pavements

Dust particulate originates from the fines of the subgrade,

which migrate upward into the unbound surface over time.
Vehicular traffic causes the fines in the unbound layer to be
mobilized into the atmosphere.
Geotextile separators limit the migration of fines into the
overlying aggregate and also the intrusion of aggregate into the
subgrade.

Source: http://www.geosyntheticssociety.org/Resources.aspx?pg=Education

Thank You