Class Notes

EE04 704: POWER SYSTEMS III
Resource Materials
By
Sasidharan Sreedharan
(www.sasidharan.webs.com)
MODULE - I
Circuit Breakers
Vidya Academy of Science and Technology

Trissur, Kerala, India
(August- 2011)
8/3/2011
SUBJECT INTRODUCTION
EE 09 506 ELECTRICAL MATERIAL SCIENCE

CLASS 1: MODULE 1
EE04 704: POWER SYSTEM III
Class 1
Module I
Circuit Breakers : Principles of operation, different
types and their operations, ABCB, oil CB, SF6,vacuum
CB, circuit breaker ratings, cause of over voltages,
surges and traveling waves, voltage waves on
transmission line, reflection and attenuation,
protection against lightning, earth wires, lightning
diverters, surge absorbers, arcing ground, neutral
earthing , basic concepts of insulation levels and their
selection, BIL, coordination of insulation
Module II
Module III
Protective Relays: Protective zones, requirement of

protective relaying, different types of relays and their
applications, generalized theory of relays, protection
scheme for generator, transformers, lines and bus bars,
static relays, amplitude and phase comparators, lock
diagrams of static relays, microprocessor based
protective relaying- overcurrent & impedance relays
Electric Traction: Systems of traction, speed

time curve, mechanics of traction, braking,
power supply, systems of current collection.
Electric Heating : Advantage of electric
heating, resistance and induction arc furnaces,
construction and field of application, high
frequency power supply and the principle and
application of dielectric heating - .
Module IV
Books
Introduction to SCADA systems - block

diagram -communication between various
control centers three level control systems functions and features. . Introduction to HVDC
transmission kinds of DC links comparison
with HVAC systems PQ problems introduction to FACTS FACTS controllers
SVC - STATCOM - UPFC
1. Sunil S Rao :Switch gear protections ; Khanna

Publishers(11th edition)
2. 2. Soni, Gupta & Bhatnagar :A course in Electrical Power ;
Dhanpat Rai & Sons.
3. A.R.Van.C.Warrington :Protective Relays Vol 1 & 2 ;
Chappman & Hall
4. Ravindranath M. Chander:Power System Protection and
Switchgear.
5. G. T. Haydt :Electric Power Quality.
6. Badriram : D.N Viswakarma : Power system protection &
switchgear .Tata McGraw Hill
7. Narain .G. Hingorani: Understanding FACTS. IEEE PRESS.
8/3/2011
Exam Scheme and Pattern

Sessional work assessment
2Assignments 30%
2 tests 60%
Regularity &Participation in class 10%
Total marks = 50
Exam Pattern
Q I - 8 short type questions of 5 marks, 2 from each module
Q II - 2 questions A and B of 15 marks from module I with choice to answer
any one
Q III - 2 questions A and B of 15 marks from module II with choice to answer
any one
Q IV - 2 questions A and B of 15 marks from module III with choice to answer
any one
Q V - 2 questions A and B of 15 marks from module IV with choice to answer
any one
Contents
1. Circuit Breakers
2. Protective Relays
Power System Protection
Resource Materials
All resource materials including class power points,
selected notes, reference books, assignments, doubt
clearings etc will be regularly posted in the website.
Students are requested to go through the same.
www.sasisreedhar.webs.com
sasisreedhar@vidyaacademy.ac.in
Disturbances: Light or Severe

The power system must maintain acceptable
operation 24 hours a day
Voltage and frequency must stay within certain limits
3. Electric Traction
4. Introduction to SCADA Systems
Small disturbances
The control system can handle these
Example: variation in transformer or generator load
Severe disturbances require a protection system

They can put in danger the entire power system
They cannot be overcome by a control system
Power System Protection
Electric Power System Exposure to External

Agents
Operation during severe disturbances:

System element protection
System protection
Automatic reclosing
Automatic transfer to alternate power supplies
Automatic synchronization
8/3/2011
Damage to Main Equipment
Protection System
A series of devices whose main
purpose is to protect persons and
primary electric power equipment from
the effects of faults
Short Circuits Produce High Currents
Blackouts
Characteristics
Main Causes
Loss of service in a large Overreaction of the

area or population
protection system
region
Bad design of the
protection system
Hazard to human life
May result in enormous
economic losses
Three-Phase Line
a
b
c
I
Thousands of Amps
Wire
Mechanical Damage During

Short Circuits
Electrical Equipment Thermal Damage

t
Very destructive in busbars, isolators, supports,

transformers, and machines
Damage is instantaneous
Damage Curve
Damage
Time
Fault
Substation
Mechanical
Forces
f1
f2
i1
I
Rated Value
In
Imd Short-Circuit
Current
i2
Rigid Conductors
f1(t) = k i1(t) i2(t)
8/3/2011
The Fuse
Protection System Elements
Fuse
Transformer
Protective relays
Circuit breakers
Current and voltage transducers
Communications channels
DC supply system
Control cables
DC Tripping Circuit
Three-Phase Diagram of the Protection Team

+
Circuit Breakers
Current Transformers
Very High Voltage CT
Medium-Voltage CT
8/3/2011
Voltage Transformers
Protective Relays
Medium Voltage
Note: Voltage transformers

are also known as potential
transformers
High Voltage
Examples of Relay Panels
How Do Relays Detect Faults?

When a fault takes place, the current, voltage,
frequency, and other electrical variables behave in a
peculiar way. For example:
Current suddenly increases
Voltage suddenly decreases
MicroprocessorBased Relay
Old Electromechanical
The Future
Improvements in computer-based protection
Highly reliable and viable communication
systems (satellite, optical fiber, etc.)
Integration of control, command, protection,
and communication
Improvements to human-machine interface
Relays can measure the currents and the voltages

and detect that there is an overcurrent, or an under
voltage, or a combination of both
Many other detection principles determine the
design of protective relays
Diesel Traction - 1912
The diesel engine was invented in the year 1893, by a

young German Engineer, called Rudolf Diesel. But it was
only nineteen years later, that the first Diesel locomotive
came into existence.
Since then, diesel traction has grown from strength to strength. Over 89,000
Diesel locomotives have been built in the world so far, the General Motors,
USA alone contributing to as many as 56,000 Locomotives.
8/3/2011
Electric Traction - 1881
After many decades of satisfactory performance, the steam

engines were to give way to more modern locomotives.
The year 1881 saw the birth of the first electric Railway run
by a German Engineer Werner Van Siemens using both
the rails to carry the current. Finding this a little too
dangerous, Siemens soon adopted the overhead electric
wires. Electric locomotives today raun on Rail roads in
many countries.
SCADA
What is SCADA
Where and Why are SCADA systems used
What do SCADA systems Provide?
Evolution
Benefits
Traditional Control
Traditional Control
Dedicated Consoles
Point to point communication
No network
No remote access
No remote diagnostic
Distributed Control
Distributed Control
Advantages:
Network Protocol
PLCs
Field Bus
Field Bus-Integrator
Distributed databases/ programs created from a

single development environment (also in front
end processor)
Distributed access
Distributed diagnostic
Display everything everywhere
Difficult:
Integration of various field bus components
8/3/2011
SCADA ?SCADA ?
Supervisory
Control
And
What, Where and Why

Data
Acquisition
Archiving, Logging,
Access Control, Alarms
Graphics and Batch processing
Distributed database
Data Server
Data Server
What is SCADA and where is it used

Supervisory Controls And Data Acquisition
Application area :
Industrial
processes:
chemical,
power
generation and distribution, metallurgy etc.
Nuclear processes: reactors, nuclear waste, ...
PLCs
Field Bus
Control Programs
What do SCADA Provide?
SCADA functions MMI
Flexible and open architecture

Basic SCADA functionality
MMI
Alarm Handling and Trending
Access Control
Automation
Logging, Archiving, Report
Generation
Interfaces to H/W and S/W
Development Tools
Is SCADA the only Future ? ...
Configuration
of SCADA Systems
New Technology: JetWeb

Each node is an individual Web Server
All nodes and all I/O hooked up to the Ethernet
Data Server
Data Server
PLCs
8/3/2011
SCADA functions
Kerala Load Dispatch
SCADA functions
FACTS Devices
Type
Parameter Controlled
FACTS Devices
Series Controllers
Series P
TCSC, SSSC, TCPAR
Shunt Controllers
Shunt Q
SVC, STATCOM
Combined Series-Shunt
Controllers
Series P & Shut Q
UPFC
Functions
To alleviate OLL
Increase TC
Compensate V
by injecting Q
Combination of series
& shunt controller
Types of FACTS Devices

FACTS
devices
are
solid-state
converter that have the capability of
control
of
various
electrical
parameters in transmission circuit [13,
15,16]:
Thyristor
Controlled
Compensator (TCSC)
tcr
Regards
Series
Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
etc
sasidharan.webs.com
Unified Power Flow Controller

(UPFC)
Static Compensator (STATCOM)
Static
Syncronous
Compensator (SSSC), etc
Series
47
8/3/2011

EE04
704:1:POWER
SYSTEM
CLASS
MODULE
1 III
Fundamentals of Fault Clearing
Module I
House Wiring
Distribution Board
Miniature Circuit Breakers
8/3/2011
Why we need a circuit breaker

1. During the operation of the power systems, it is often desirable and
necessary to switch on or off the various circuits (e.g., transmission lines,
distributors, generating plants etc.) under both normal and faulty
conditions.
2. Previously this function was performed by a switch and a fuse in series
with the circuit.
3. However, such method has two disadvantages.
Firstly, when fuse blows out, it takes quite sometime to replace it and restore the supply
to the customers.
Secondly, a fuse cannot successfully interrupt the heavy fault currents that occur on the
modern high voltage power systems and large capacity circuits.
Devices used for circuit breaking

1.Fuse and ironclad switches
2.Isolators
3.Circuit breakers
Fuses
4. Therefore, with the advancement in power systems, there was a need to

develop a more reliable means of control.
5. The circuit breaker was developed to switch on and off the various circuits
of a power system
Air Circuit Breaker
1. Fuses and Iron Clad Switches

Fuse is an over current switch which operates when
the current exceeds a preassigned value
When the limit exceeds, it melts and causes the
current interruption.
The supply is restored only when a healthy fuse
replaces the damaged (melted) one in the line.
To permit this without any danger of shock to the
operator, fuses are connected on the load side of an
ironclad switch.
SF6 Circuit Breaker
Fuses
8/3/2011
Distribution Board
Iron Clad Cut Outs
Fuse Cut Outs
Metal Clad Switch Fuses
Switch Disconnector
2. Isolators
An isolator is a switch connected after a circuit
breaker.
When a circuit or a busbar is taken out of service by
tripping the circuit breaker, the isolator is then open
circuited and the isolated line is earthed through
earth switch so that the trapped line charges are
safely conducted to ground.
Isolators
3. Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker is a complex circuit-breaking device with the
following duties:
I. Makes or breaks both normal and abnormal currents
II. Appropriately manages the high-energy arc associated with
current interruption.
III. The problem has become more acute due to interconnection
of power stations resulting in very high fault levels.
IV. Effects current interruption only when it is called upon to do
so by the relay circuits. In fact they are required to trip for a
minimum of the internal fault current and remain
inoperative for a maximum of through fault current
V. Rapid and successive automatic breaking and making to aid
stable system operation
VI. Three pole (3-pole) and single pole (1-pole) auto-reclosing
arrangement
Fuses/ Circuit Breakers

Difference between fuse/circuit breaker protection
and overload protection:
Fuses and circuit breakers protect circuit from
grounds and short circuits only.
Protect Motor Circuit and Power system from a
short in the motor Circuit.
C.B.s are more expensive but can be reset, Fuses
are less expensive but can be real pain to
replace.
Basic Elements of Circuit Breaker

1.Contact.
3.Operating
Mechanism.
2.Insulation.
4.Arc quenches medium.
110 KV Isolator
8/3/2011
Circuit Breaker - Switching
What are Relays?
In addition to the making and breaking

capabilities, a circuit breaker is required to do
following tasks under the following typical
conditions:
Relays are electrical

switches that open or
close another circuit
under
certain
conditions.
Short-circuit interruption
Interruption of small inductive currents
Capacitor switching
Interruption of short-line fault
Asynchronous switching
Circuit Breaker - Duties

A circuit breaker is a switching i.e. current interrupting or
making device in switchgear.
It is defined as a piece of equipment which can do any
one of the following tasks:
Makes or breaks a circuit either manually or by
remote control under normal conditions.
Breaks a circuit automatically under fault conditions
Makes a circuit either manually or by remote control
under fault conditions
Thus a circuit breaker is used for incorporating manual as well

as automatic control for the switching function.
Automatic control of the circuit breaker is incorporated with
the help of relays
The main advantage associated with the use of circuit breaker
is that, unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be
replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or
automatically) to resume normal operation.
Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices
that protect an individual household appliance up to large
switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding
an entire city.
Relay Purpose

Isolate controlling circuit from controlled

circuit.
Control high voltage system with low
voltage.
Control high current system with low
current.
Logic Functions
Relay Types
Electromagnetic Relays (EMRs)
EMRs consist of an input coil that's wound to accept a
particular voltage signal, plus a set of one or more
contacts that rely on an armature (or lever) activated
by the energized coil to open or close an electrical
circuit.
Solid-state Relays (SSRs)
SSRs use semiconductor output instead of mechanical
contacts to switch the circuit. The output device is
optically-coupled to an LED light source inside the
relay. The relay is turned on by energizing this LED,
usually with low-voltage DC power.
Microprocessor Based Relays
Use microprocessor for switching mechanism.
Commonly used in power system monitoring and
protection.
8/3/2011
The Fault Clearing Process
How a Relay Works
The primary function of the circuit breakers

mechanism is to provide the means for opening and
closing the contacts.
When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the
trip coils of the circuit breaker get energized and the
moving contacts are pulled apart by some
mechanism, thus opening the circuit.
When the contacts of a circuit break are separated
under fault conditions, an arc is struck between
them.
The production of the arc generates enormous heat
Therefore, the main problem in the circuit breaker is
to extinguish the arc within the shortest possible
time
The fault clearing process
Arcing Phenomena
When the current-carrying contacts are being separated, arc starts.

This phenomena of arcing is common to both dc and ac circuit breakers.
Arc gets extinguished every time the current wave passes through zero
Arc can restrike only if the transient recovery voltage across the
electrodes already separated and continuing to separate, reaches a
sufficiently high value causing breakdown.
The function of an ac circuit breaker is to prevent restriking of the arc,
which depends upon the following important factors:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Arc Extinction
The nature and pressure of the medium of arc

The external ionizing and de-ionizing agents present
The voltage across the electrodes and its variation with time
The material and configuration of the electrodes
The nature and configuration of the arcing chamber
Types of Arc
Arcs in the circuit breakers are categorized as:
Arc Voltage:
The Voltage drop
across the arc is
called Arc Voltage.
a) High-pressure arcs: with ambient pressures of 1

atm and above
b) Vacuum arcs
8/3/2011
Principle of Arc Extinction

Prior to discussing the methods of arc
extinction, it is essential to scrutinize the
factors accountable for the maintenance of
arc between the contacts. These are:
Potential difference between the contacts
Ionized particles between the contacts
During the arcing period, the current flowing

between the contacts depends upon the arc
resistance.
The greater the arc resistance, the smaller is
the current that flows between the contacts.
The arc resistance depends upon the
following factors:
Degree of Ionization
Length of the Arc
Cross-section of the Arc
a. Degree of Ionization
The arc resistance increases with the decrease in
the number of ionized particles between the
contacts.
b. Length of the Arc
The arc resistance increases with the length of
the arc i.e., separation of contacts.
c. Cross-section of the Arc
The arc resistance increases with the decrease in
the area of cross-section of the arc.
Potential Difference between the

Contacts
When the contacts have small separation, the
potential difference between them is sufficient to
maintain the arc.
One way to extinguish the arc is to separate the
contacts to such a distance that potential
difference becomes inadequate to maintain the
arc.
However this method is impracticable in high
voltage systems where a separation of many
meters may be required.
Ionized Particles between the

Contacts
The ionized particles between the contacts
tend to maintain the arc.
If the arc path is de-ionized, the arc extinction
will be facilitated.
This may be achieved by cooling the arc
removing the ionized particles from the space
between the contacts.
8/3/2011
Methods of Arc Interruption
Recovery Voltage and restriking

voltage
1. High Resistance Interruption:

Arc resistance is increased with time so that
the current is reduced to a value insufficient
to maintain it.
Used in DC Circuit breakers
(1) Arc lengthening.
(2) Arc cooling.
(3) Arc splitting.
(4) Arc constraining.
Methods of Arc Interruption

2. Low Resistance Interruption/current zero
interruption:
Arc resistance is kept at low value until the
current zero.
At current zero Arc gets extinguishes by itself
naturally
Used in AC circuit breakers
(1) Cooling.
(2) Gap lengthening.
(3) Blast effect.
Regards
sasidharan.webs.com
Recovery Voltage and restriking

voltage
Recovery Voltage
The normal frequency rms voltage that appears
across the breaker poles after final arc extinction
has occurred is termed as recovery voltage.
Restriking Voltage
The transient voltage that appears across the
contacts at the instant of arc extinction is called
the restriking voltage.
8/3/2011
Based on Voltage

EE04
704:
SYSTEM
III
CLASS
1:POWER
MODULE
1
Class 3: June 28,2011
Types of Circuit Breakers
Module I
Based on Location
Indoor Circuit Breaker:
Medium and low voltage breakers are
categorized as Indoor circuit breakers,
Outdoor circuit breaker
Circuit breakers which have air as external
insulating medium are classified as outdoor
circuit breakers.
Based on External Design

Dead tank circuit breakers
In the dead tank circuit breakers, the switching device is located,
with suitable insulator supports , inside a metallic vessel at ground
potential and filled with insulating medium.
In dead tank circuit breakers, the incoming and outgoing conductors
are taken out through suitable insulator bushings, and low voltage
type current transformers are located at lower end of both insulator
bushings, i.e. at the line side and the load side.
Live tank circuit breaker
In live tank circuit breakers, the interrupter is located I an insulator
bushing, at a potential above ground potential.
The live tank circuit breakers are cheaper (with no current
transformer), and require less mounting space.
8/3/2011
Based on Interrupting Media

air and oil was predominant interrupting media till late 70s.
But today, vacuum and SF6 are the only dominant interrupting
technologies, for medium and high voltage segments of circuit
breaker
The medium used for the arc extinction can be:
Oil
Air
Vacuum
Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6)
Accordingly, the circuit breakers may be classified into following
categories (which will be treated in detail in the present report):
Oil Circuit Breakers
Air-blast Circuit Breakers
Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Circuit Breakers
Vacuum Circuit Breakers
Method of arc extinction in circuit breaker.

High resistance interruption.
(1) Arc lengthening.
(2) Arc cooling.
(3) Arc splitting.
(4) Arc constraining.
Low resistance interruption.
(1) Cooling.
(2) Gap lengthening.
(3) Blast effect.
Regards
sasidharan.webs.com
8/3/2011
Fixed
contact
Fixed
contact
ARC
Moving
contact

EE04
704:
SYSTEM
III
CLASS
1:POWER
MODULE
1
SF6 and Vacuum Circuit Breaker
Module I
OPERATING
PRINCIPLE OF
BREAKER
ARC IS QUENCHED
BY
ARC
MEDIUM
Moving
contact
IN A CIRCUIT BREAKER
OVERVIEW OF ARCS IN BREAKERS-:

During the separation
of contacts, due to
large fault current and
high current density
at the contact region
the
surrounding
medium ionizes and
thus a conducting
medium is formed.
This is called the ARC.
Introduction
Only SF6 and vacuum circuit breakers are
currently being installed, but some air-blast
and oil circuit breakers are still in place in
distribution substations
Vacuum CBs are used for distribution voltages
SF6 CBs with the puffer mechanism are used
for transmission voltages.
8/3/2011
CLASSIFICTION OF CIRCUIT
BREAKERS
OIL
AIR
VACCUM
SF6
OVERVIEW OF SF6 GAS:Electrical properties

1. High dielectric strength
2. Excellent arc quenching ability
SF6
OIL
AIR
VACCUM
CIRCUIT BLAST
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT
BREAKER CIRCUIT BREAKER BREAKER
BREAKER
3. Excellent thermal stability

4. Good thermal conductivity
Physical & Chemical properties

1. Chemically inert
SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER
2. NonNon-toxic
3. NonNon-corrosive
4. NonNon-flammable
5. High density
6.High electro-negativity
Dielectric properties of SF6 gas:DS of sf6 is 2.5 times of air

DS of sf6 is 30% less than oil
DS of sf6 is equal to oil at
63700 N/m2
And 15% higher at 122500

N/m2
(D S - Dielectric Strength)
8/3/2011
Advantages of SF6 gas:1. Increased safety

2. Reduced size
3. Easy installation
4. Low maintenance
SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER
SF6 DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS
OPERATION
SF6
SPARK
SF4 + 2F
H2O
MFn
SOF2 + 2HF
H2O
SO2 + HF
SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER

OPERATION
SiO2
SiF4 + 2 H2O
Amount of each decomposition product

depends on :-
magnitude & duration of discharge

materials of construction of equipment
contamination levels of moisture and air inside the
equipment
8/3/2011
VACCUM CIRCUIT BREAKER
REMOVAL OF SF6 BYPRODUCTS:Byproducts are corrosive & likely to affect the

organic materials.
Absorbent materials used in circuit breakers
activated alumina( effective for SOF2,H2S,SF2)

molecular sieves( sodalime-CaO.NaOH)-removes
stable gases such as SF4,SiF4 & S2F2
So suggested mix is 50/50 of sodalime & alumina.

The suggested weight of absorbent is 10% of the
weight of the gas
ADVANTAGES OF SF6 CIRCUIT

BREAKERS
Very short arcing period
Can interrupt much larger
currents as compared to
other breakers
No risk of fire
Low maintenance, light
foundation, minimum
auxiliary equipments
No over voltage problem
SF6 PUFFER TYPE CIRCUIT BREAKER
The green/blue block does not move

The blue outline piston moves right
The arc is blown away by the blast of SF6
Vacuum is used as the arc quenching medium.

Basic principle is that arc wont sustain in vacuum
Employs the principle of contact separation
There is no ionization due to medium.
The initial arc caused by field and thermionic emissions during
the contacts separation, will die away soon, since there is no
further ionization because of vacuum.
Since vacuum offers the highest insulating strength and far
superior arc quenching properties than any other medium.
When the contacts in the vacuum circuit breakers are opened
in vacuum, an arc is produced between the contacts by the
ionization of metal vapors of contacts.
However, the arc is quickly extinguished because the metallic
vapors, electrons and ions produced during arc rapidly
condense on the surface of the circuit breaker contacts.
8/3/2011
Advantages
Compact and Durable.
Low Operating energy since mechanism need to drive only small
masses at moderate speed for very short distances.
Because of the very low voltage across the metal vapor arc, energy
is very low.
(Arc voltage is between 50 and 100V.)
Metal vapor re-condenses on the contact and hence contact
erosion is extremely small.
No generation of gases during and after the circuit breaker
operation.
It can break any heavy fault current
They can successfully withstand lightning surges.
Regards
Sasisreedhar.webs.com
Construction
The vacuum circuit breaker consists of fixed contact,
moving contact and arc shield mounted inside the
vacuum chamber.
The movable member is connected to the control
mechanism by stainless steel bellows.
This enables the permanent sealing of the vacuum
chamber so as to eliminate the possibility of leak.
A glass vessel or ceramic vessel is used as the outer
insulating body.
The arc shield prevents the deterioration of the
internal dielectric strength by preventing metallic
vapors falling on the inside surface of the outer
insulating cover.
8/3/2011

EE04
704:
SYSTEM
III
CLASS
1:POWER
MODULE
1
ABCB and Oil Circuit Breaker
Introduction
High pressure air-blast is used as arc quenching medium.
The contacts are opened in a flow of air-blast established
by the opening of the blast valve.
The air-blast cools the arc and sweeps away the arcing
products.
Consequently, the arc is extinguished and flow of current is
interrupted.
Whenever current at high voltages needs to be interrupted,
more breaking units are used, in series.
Dry and clean air supply is one of the most essential
requirements for the operation of the air-blast circuit
breakers.
Sequence of Operation of ABCB
8/3/2011
Conclusion
AXIAL BLAST ABCB
Advantages
Other gases such as Nitrogen, Carbon dioxide, and

Hydrogen can also be used. But air is preferred because
of the fact that the Carbon dioxide tends to freeze, and
the hydrogen gas is very expensive.
This type of circuit breaker has been used earlier for
open terminal HV applications, for voltages of 245 kV,
and 400 kV up to 765 kV, especially where faster
breaker operation was required.
The interrupting capability of air circuit breaker is
usually increased by increasing the normal pressure
range. Normally, the pressure level is around 30 to 35
bars.
In order to maintain the insulation level and reliability
of operation, it is required that the air to be very dry.
Currently, ABCBs are replaced by SF6 circuit breakers
Oil Circuit Breaker
The risk of fire is eliminated in these circuit breakers.

The arcing products are completely removed by the
blast whereas the oil deteriorates with successive
operations.
The size of these breakers is reduced, as the
dielectric strength grows so rapidly
Due to the rapid growth of the dielectric strength,
the arcing time is also very small.
The arc extinction is independent of the fault current
to be interrupted.
Disadvantages
Plain Oil Circuit Breaker
These circuit breakers are very sensitive to the

variations in the rate of rise of restriking
voltage.
The air-blast is supplied by the compressor
plant that needs considerable maintenance
8/3/2011
Advantages
1. Oil absorbs the arc energy to produces
hydrogen gas during arcing.
2. The hydrogen has excellent cooling properties
and helps to extinguish the arc. (In addition to hydrogen gas, a small
Minimum
Oil
Circuit Breaker
Insulating oil (i.e., transformer oil) is used as an arc quenching

medium.
The contacts are opened under oil and an arc is struck between
them.
The surrounding oil dissociates into hydrogen.
The large volume of the hydrogen gas pushes the oil away from the
arc.
In an oil circuit breaker, the arc quenching process is entirely
dependent on arc energy generated.
The arc drawn across the contacts is contained inside the
interrupting pot, and thus the hydrogen gas formed by the vaporized
oil (gas) is also contained inside the chamber.
As the contacts move, and the moving contact separates, nozzle exit
allows escape of the hydrogen gas trapped inside the interrupting
chamber.
The escaping high pressure hydrogen gas, having a high thermal
conductivity, takes away the heat, thus making the contact gap cool
and free from ionization, immediately after current zero.
The arc extinction is facilitated by two processes:

1. Firstly, the hydrogen gas cools the arc, aiding
the de-ionization of the medium between the
contacts.
2. Secondly, the gas sets up turbulence in the oil
and forces it into the space between contacts, there
by eliminating the arcing products from the arc
path.
proportion of methane, ethylene, and acetylene are also generated in oil decomposition.)
3. The oil provides insulation for the live exposed

contacts from the earthed portions of the
container.
4. Oil provides insulation between the contacts
after the arc has been extinguished.
5. The oil close to the arc region provides cooling
Disadvantages
1. Oil is inflammable and may cause fire hazards.
2. When a defective circuit breaker fails under
pressure, it may cause explosion.
3. The hydrogen gas generated during arcing,
when combined with air, may form an explosive
mixture.
4. During arcing, oil decomposes and becomes
polluted by carbon particles, which reduces its
dielectric strength.
5. Requires
periodic
maintenance
and
replacement.
Types of Oil Circuit Breakers

Oil Circuit Breakers can be classified based on
the quantity of oil used. The two popular types
are:
i. Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers
ii. Minimum Oil Circuit Breakers
This results in extinguishing the arc and as a result

the circuit current is interrupted.
8/3/2011
Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker

These circuit breakers use a large quantity of oil. The oil
has to serve two purposes:
1. It extinguishes the arc during opening of contacts.
2. It insulates the current conducting parts from one
another and from the earthed tank.
In the bulk oil circuit breakers, the interrupting unit is
placed in a tank of oil at earth potential and the incoming
and outgoing conductors are connected through insulator
bushings.
Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker (MOCB)

These circuit breakers (MOCB) uses only a
small quantity of oil.
In such circuit breakers, oil is used only for arc
extinction; the current conducting parts
insulated by air or porcelain or organic
insulating material.
In these circuit breakers, the oil requirement
can be minimized by placing the interrupting
units, in insulating chambers at live potential,
on an insulator column.
Regards
sasidharan.webs.com
8/3/2011
Breaking Capacity
Breaking capacity is defined as the r.m.s. current that a circuit breaker is

capable of breaking at given recovery voltage and under specified
conditions (i.e. power factor, rate of rise of restriking voltage).
The breaking capacity is always stated at the r.m.s. value of fault current
at the instant of contact separation.
When the fault occurs, there is a considerable asymmetry in the fault
current due to the presence of a d.c. component.
(In the Britain, it is a usual practice to take breaking current equal to the symmetrical
breaking current. However, in America, the practice is to take breaking current equal
to asymmetrical breaking current. Therefore, the American rating given to a circuit
breaker is higher than the British rating.)

EE04
704:
SYSTEM
III
CLASS
1:POWER
MODULE
1
Circuit Breaker Ratings
Introduction
A circuit breaker must operate under all
conditions, but its operation becomes critical
when there is a fault in the system where
breaker is used.
During fault conditions, a circuit breaker must
open the faulty circuit and break the fault
current.
The ratings of the circuit breakers are also for
breaking and making capabilities.
Breaking capacity in MVA in terms of the rated breaking current (I) and
rated service voltage (V) in three-phase circuit is:
Breaking Capacity = sqrt 3 x V x I x 10-6 MVA
However, the agreed international standard of specifying breaking
capacity is defined as the rated symmetrical breaking current at a rated
voltage.
Making Capacity
It is the peak value of current (including d.c. component) during
the first cycle of current wave after the closure of circuit breaker.
There is always a possibility of closing or making the circuit
breaker under the short circuit conditions.
The capacity of a circuit breaker to make current depends upon
its ability to withstand and close successfully against the effects of
electromagnetic forces.
Making capacity is stated in terms of a peak value of current
instead of r.m.s. value.
Making Capacity = 2.55 x symmetrical breaking capacity
Short Time Rating
Circuit Breaker Ratings

There are three ratings for breakers as:
1. Breaking Capacity
2. Making Capacity
3. Short-time Rating
The circuit breaker ratings carefully selected
based on a particular application.
The period for which the circuit breaker is able to carry fault
current while remaining closed is known as short-time rating.
This rating is needed because sometimes a fault on the system is
of temporary nature and persists only for a second or two after
which the fault is automatically cleared (transient fault). For the
sake of continuity of the supply, the breaker should not trip in
such situations.
This means that the circuit breakers should be able to carry high
current safely for some specified period while remaining closed.
Circuit Breakers should have a specified short-time rating.
If the fault persists for a duration longer than the specified time
limit, the circuit breaker will trip, disconnecting the faulty section.
The short-time rating of a circuit breaker depends upon its ability
to withstand:
The electromagnetic force effects
The temperature rise
8/3/2011
Arc Voltage
Arc voltage is defined as the voltage that appears
across the contacts of the circuit breaker during the
arcing period (the period in which the arc persists).
[As soon as the contacts of the circuit breaker are
separated, an arc is formed between them. The voltage
that appears across the contacts during this period,
until the arc is extinct, is called the arc voltage. The
value of this voltage is highest at the zero current point.
This peak value of the arc voltage helps maintain the
current flow in the form of arc].
Rate of Rise of Restriking Voltage

It is the rate of increase of restriking voltage and is
abbreviated by R.R.R.V. its unit is kV/m sec
It is R.R.R.V, which decides whether the arc will restrike.
If R.R.R.V is greater than the rate of rise of dielectric
strength between the contacts, the arc will restrike.
The value of R.R.R.V depends on:
1. Recovery voltage
2. Natural frequency of oscillations
Recovery Voltage
Recovery voltage is defined as the normal (50 Hz) voltage that
appears across the contacts of the circuit breaker immediately after
the final arc extinction. It is approximately equal to the system
voltage.
[When the contacts of the circuit breaker are opened, current drops to
zero after every half cycle. At some current zero, the contacts are
separated adequately apart and dielectric strength of the medium
between the contacts attains high value due to the elimination of
ionized particles. At such an instant, the medium between the contacts
is strong enough to prevent the breakdown by restriking voltage.
Consequently, the final arc extinction takes place and circuit current is
interrupted. Immediately after the final current interruption, the
voltage that appears across the contacts has a transient part. However,
these transient oscillations cave in rapidly due to the damping effect of
the system resistance and normal circuit voltage appears across the
contacts. The voltage across the contacts is of normal frequency and is
identified as recovery voltage].
Regards
Restriking Voltage
Restriking voltage is the transient voltage that appears
across the contacts at or near current zero during the
arcing period.
[The current interruption in the circuit depends upon the
high frequency transient voltage, the restriking voltage. If
the restriking voltage rises more rapidly than the
dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts,
the arc will persist for the next half-cycle. On the other
hand, if the dielectric strength of the medium builds up
more rapidly than the restriking voltage, the arc fails to
restrike and the current will be interrupted].
8/3/2011

EE04
704:
SYSTEM
III
CLASS
1:POWER
MODULE
1
Over Voltages in Power Systems
Module I
types and their operations, ABCB, oil CB,
SF6,vacuum CB, circuit breaker ratings, cause of
over voltages, surges and traveling waves, voltage
waves on transmission line, reflection and
attenuation, protection against lightning, earth
wires, lightning diverters, surge absorbers, arcing
ground, neutral earthing , basic concepts of
insulation levels and their selection, BIL,
coordination of insulation
Lightning Over Voltage

Lightning is an attempt by nature to maintain a
dynamic balance between the positively charged
ionosphere and the negatively charged earth.
Over fair-weather areas there is a downward transfer
of positive charges through the global air-earth
current.
This is then counteracted by thunderstorms, during
which positive charges are transferred upward in the
form of lightning.
During thunderstorms, positive and negative charges
are separated by the movements of air currents
forming ice crystals in the upper layer of a cloud and
rain in the lower part.
The cloud becomes negatively charged and

has a larger layer of positive charge at its top.
As the separation of charge proceeds in the
cloud, the potential difference between the
centers of charges increases and the vertical
electric field along the cloud also increases.
The total potential difference between the
two main charge centers may vary from l00
to 1000 MV.
Only a part of the total charge-several
hundred coulombs-is released to earth by
lightning.
Causes of Over Voltages
8/3/2011
STREAMERS
Lightning Protection System
STEPPED LEADER
Lightning Discharge
The channel to earth is first established by a stepped
discharge called a leader stroke.
The leader is initiated by a breakdown between polarized
water droplets at the cloud base caused by the high electric
field, or a discharge between the negative charge mass in the
lower cloud and the positive charge pocket below it.
As the downward leader approaches the earth, an upward
leader begins to proceed from earth before the former
reaches earth.
The upward leader joins the downward one at a point
referred to as the striking point.
This is the start of the return stroke, which progresses upward
like a travelling wave on a transmission line.
8/3/2011
Lightning Phenomenon
At the earthing point a heavy impulse current
reaching the order of tens of kilo amperes
occurs, which is responsible for the known
damage of lightning.
The velocity of progression of the return stoke is
very high and may reach half the speed of light.
The corresponding current heats its path to
temperatures up to 20,000C, causing the
explosive air expansion that is heard as thunder.
The current pulse rises to its crest in a few micro
seconds and decays over a period of tens or
hundreds of microseconds.
Lightning FACTS
A strike can average 100 million volts of
electricity
Current of up to 100,000 amperes
Can generate 54,000 Degree F
Lightning strikes somewhere on the Earth
every second
Kills hundreds of people every year.
Protection Against Lightning

1) Air terminal
2) Conductors
3) Ground termination
4) Surge protection
Switching Over Voltage

With the increase in transmission voltages, switching
surges have become the governing factor in the design
of insulation for EHV and UHV systems.
Overvoltage produced on transmission lines by
lightning strokes are only slightly dependent on the
power system voltages.
According to the International Electro-technical
Commission (IEC) recommendations, all equipment
designed for operating voltages above 300 kV should be
tested under switching impulses (i.e., laboratorysimulated switching surges).
Origin of Switching Over Voltage

There is a great variety of events that would initiate a switching surge
in a power network.
The switching operations of greatest relevance to insulation design can
be classified as follows
1. Energization of transmission lines and cables.
a. Energization of a line that is open circuited at the far end
b. Energization of a line that is terminated by an unloaded transformer
c. Energization of a line through the low-voltage side of a transformer
2. Reenergization of a line.
This means the energization of transmission line carrying charges trapped
by previous line interruptions when high-speed reclosures are used.
8/3/2011
Origin of Switching Over Voltage

3. Load rejection.
This is affected by a circuit breaker opening at the far end of the
line.
This may also be followed by opening the line at the sending end in
what is called a line dropping operation.
4. Switching on and off of equipment.
All switching operations involving an element of the transmission
network will produce a switching surge.
a. Switching of high-voltage reactors
b. Switching of transformers that are loaded by a reactor on their
tertiary winding
c. Switching of a transformer at no load
Events leading to the generation of temporary

overvoltage
1. Load Rejection:
When a transmission line or a large
inductive load that is fed from a power station is
suddenly switched off, the generator will speed
up and the bus bar voltage will rise.
5. Fault initiation and clearing
Load Rejection
Temporary Over voltage
Ferranti Effect
Temporary overvoltage's (sustained overvoltage)

differ from transient switching overvoltage in that
they last for longer durations, typically from a few
cycles to a few seconds.
They take the form of undamped or slightly
damped oscillations at a frequency equal or close
to the power frequency.
The classification of temporary overvoltage as
distinct from transient switching overvoltage is
mainly due to the fact that the responses of power
network insulation and surge arresters to their
wave shapes are different.
8/3/2011
Ground Fault
A single line-to-ground fault will cause the voltages to
ground of the healthy phases to rise.
In the case of a line-to-ground fault, systems with neutrals
isolated or grounded through high impedance may develop
over voltages on healthy phases higher than normal lineto line voltages.
Solidly grounded systems will only permit phase-toground overvoltage well below the line-to-line value.
An earth fault factor is defined as the ratio of the higher of
the two sound phase voltages to the line-to-neutral voltage
at the same point in the system with the fault removed.
Harmonic Overvoltage Due to

Magnetic Saturation
Harmonic oscillations in power systems are
initiated by system nonlinearities whose primary
source is that of the saturated magnetizing
characteristics of transformers and shunt
reactors.
The magnetizing current of these components
increases rapidly and contains a high percentage
of harmonics for voltages above the rated
voltage.
Saturated transformers inject large harmonic
currents into the system.
Regards
8/3/2011

CLASS 1: MODULE 1
EE04 704: POWER SYSTEM III
Protection Against External Over Voltages
Module I
What is a Voltage Surge?

High amplitude, short duration overvoltage
Any voltage level that is short in duration and is
also 10% greater than the systems normal
operating AC, RMS or DC voltage level. A voltage
surge is also known as a voltage transient.
Types of Voltage Disturbances
The
most
common
voltage
disturbance is a surge or spike in
voltage
Less common types of disturbances

are:
Swell An increase in the
power frequency AC voltage
with durations from one half
cycle to a few seconds
Sag A rms reduction in the
power frequency AC voltage
with durations from one half
cycle to a few seconds (also
known as dip)
Surge / Spike
88%
Sw ell / Sag
11%
Outages
1%
Protective Ratio and Protective

Margin
Protective Ratio:
Impulse withstand level of equipment
-----------------------------------------------------Protective level of surge arrestor
Protective ratios are usually above 1.2
Protective Margin = Equipment withstand level protective level of surge
arrestor
Protective levels are different for lightning impulse and switching impulse
Lightning Impulse withstand
------------------------------------------------------ = 1.2
Switching Impulse with stand level
8/3/2011
The Enemy
Types of Lightning Stokes
A Type Stroke: Discharge between a charged cloud and earth

B Type Stroke: If cloud 1 discharges to cloud 2, there is a sudden
change in the charge on cloud 3. The discharge between cloud 3 and
earth is called B type stroke
B Type Stroke does not hit earth conductor or earth wire and hence no
protection can be provided to the OH line against such strokes
Protection Against Lightning

Power Stations and substations from direct
strokes
Overhead transmission lines from direct
strokes
Electrical Apparatus from Travelling Waves
8/3/2011
Protection devices against lightning
Traveling Wave/ Overvoltage Protection
Device
Where Applied
Remarks
Lightning Arrestors
(Surge Arrestors)
On incoming line in each

substation
Near
Terminals
of
transformers and generators
Diverts over voltage to earth

with out causing short
circuit.
Used at every voltage level
in every substation for each
line
Surge Absorbers
Near motor and generator

terminals
Near rotating machines or
switch gear
Resistance
Capacitance
combination absorbs the
over voltage surge and
reduces steepness of the
wave
Lightning Shielding of Substation

Ground
wires above Substation
Frequently equipped by
are
1. Lightning rods above structural steel work.

(Earthing Rods/MASTS, lightning conductors)
Lightning hits mid-span

Current divides and then
propagates
2. O/H ground cage solidly bounded to Ground

mat
to provide a low resistance ground
economically.
V=IxR
Protection devices against lightning

Device
Where Applied
Remarks
Rod Gaps
Across Insulator string ,

bushing insulators
Difficult to Coordinate
Create dead short circuit
Cheap
Over Head Ground Wire
Above Over head lines

Above the sub station area
Provide effective protection

against direct stroke on the
line
conductors
tower
substation equipment's
Vertical Masts in Substation
In Substations
Instead of providing over

head shielding wires
Lightning Masts/Rods
(Earthed)
Above Tall buildings
Protect buildings against

direct strokes
Angle of Protection = 30
8/3/2011
Lightning
Rod
Over Head Shielding Screen
Earth rods are installed in tall building and are also connected to
earth
Positive charges accumulate on the sharp points of the lightning
rods there by lightning strokes are attracted to them
Transmission Tower Earthing
At every tower earth wire is grounded

Positive charges accumulate on the wire
In the absence of earth wire lightning stroke would strike the line conductors
causing
Lightning Stroke on Overhead Lines
Lightning Masts and Over Head

Shielding Screens
Lightning Masts are installed in strategic location in the
switchyard
The tower top is earthed.
Lightning Masts are preferred for outdoor switchyards up to 33kV
For 66kV and above, lightning masts become too tall and
uneconomical.
Over head Shielding screens protect the outdoor substation and
overhead lines approaching substation
The entire switchyard is provided with earthed overhead
shielding screens with conductor of 7/9 SWG.
Over head shielding screens are preferred because they provide
adequate protection and the height of the structures in the
substation
provided with
overhead shielding wires is
comparatively less than that of lightning masts.
The shielding angle is maintained as 30 45 degrees
Direct stoke on line conductor

Harmful; voltage of the order of several million volts
Insulation flash over
Travelling waves spreads in both directions shattering
line insulators
Direct stroke in Tower Top
e = L
di
+ Ri
dt
L is the inductance of the tower; I is the current in tower; R is the effective

resistance of the tower and e is the voltage between tower top and earth
Direct stroke on Ground Wire

Can cause flash over between line conductor and earth
wire or line conductor and tower
Indirect stroke or B Stroke on OH Line Conductor
Same effect as direct stroke on conductor
Over head shielding wires does not offer 100% protection
8/3/2011
Rod Gaps or Spark Gaps

It is a very simple type of diverter and consists of two 1.5 cm rods,
which are bent at right angles.
One rod is connected to the line circuit and the other rod is connected
to earth.
The distance between gap and insulator must not be less than one
third of the gap length so that the arc may not reach the insulator and
damage it.
Generally, the gap length is so adjusted that breakdown should occur
at 80% of spark-voltage in order to avoid cascading of very steep wave
fronts across the insulators.
The string of insulators for an overhead line on the bushing of
transformer has frequently a rod gap across it.
Under normal operating conditions, the gap remains non-conducting.
On the occurrence of a high voltage surge on the line, the gap sparks
over and the surge current is conducted to earth.
In this way excess charge on the line due to the surge is harmlessly
conducted to earth
Visit http://www.arresterworks.com/resources/photo.php for more photos
132 KV SF 6 CIRCUIT BREAKER
LA
HV BUSHING
Horn Gap
BUCHHLOZ RELAY
RADIATORS
The gap between horns is less at the bottom and large at the top
An arc is produced at the bottom during high voltage surge
The arc commutes along the horn due to electromagnetic field action and
length increases
Impulse Ratio:
Impulse ratio of a protective device is the ratio of breakdown voltage
on specified impulse wave to break down voltage at power frequency
TAP CHANGER
MARSHALLING BOX
132/25 KV TRANSFORMER
8/3/2011
ARCING HORN
MOVING ROAD
FIX JAW
Traditional Lightning Arresters
25 KV SINGLE POLE ISOLATOR
Traditional lightning arresters uses nonlinear

resistance elements as before
However have a gap or gaps series with them
So resistor is isolated from circuit under normal
conditions & is introduced when a surge appears by
spark over of gap
It is possible to design resistor element from energy
dissipation
& voltage-limiting under surge
conditions
Surge Suppressors & Lightning Arresters
Types/Classifications
PEDASTAL INSULATOR
TIE-ROD INSULATOR
Definition
Originally, there were three types of surge arresters. They are:
A protective device for limiting surge voltages by discharging or bypassing surge

current, and it also prevents the flow of follow current while remaining capable of
repeating these functions.
(a) Surge diverter,
(b) Surge suppressor,
(c) Lightning arrester
These are placed in parallel & permanently connected by Spark over of a series gap .
Usually connected between phase and ground
Usually near the terminals of the large medium voltage rotating machines and in
HV/EHV.HVDC substations to protect the apparatus insulation from lightning and
switching surges
Discharges current impulse surge to earth and dissipates energy in the form of heat
Provides protection against impulse voltage wave
SUB SECTIONONG AND PARRALING POST

DC SECTION
LA
BUS BAR
CT
PT
1. Expulsion type
2. Nonlinear resistor type with gaps (currently silicone-carbide
gap type)
3. Gapless metal-oxide type.
There are four (3) classifications of surge arresters. They
are:
1. Station Type : Highest capacity for energy dissipation
2. Line Type (Intermediate type) : Generally used for protecting
large transformers, intermediate substations (>5000A Rating)
3. Distribution class (heavy, normal, and light duty) Secondary
type: Intended for pole mounting in distribution circuits for the
protection of distribution transformers
Expulsion types are no longer being used .

Nonlinear resistor type with gaps was utilized
through the middle of the 1970s and is
currently being phased out
The conventional gap type with siliconecarbide blocks/discs are still being used and
the gapless metal-oxide type are the most
widely used today.
Gapless metal-oxide surge arrester (MOSA),
since it provides the best performance and
reliability
CB
8/3/2011
Magnetically Blown Surge arrestor
The gap assembly of magnetically blown out gaps comprises of

Zircon Porcelain plates forming a chamber which encloses correctly
spaced electrodes.
Blow out coils are connected such that during spark over the coils
come into the circuit.
The magnetic field due to the blow out coil current extends the
arc in the gap to cool and elongate it and the arc gets quenched
within half cycle.
In mutli stage surge arrestors there is a need to equalize the power
frequency voltage distribution between units in series
For this purpose, main gaps are shunted by ceramic , non linear
grading resistors.
These resistors is high enough at normal service and just before
spark over , the voltage across the grading resistors become very
high and assists in the sparking process.
The surge arrestor is filled with nitrogen and is hermetically sealed
in order to avoid ingress of moisture and dirt.
A pressure relief diaphragm is provided at each end in order to
avoid pressure build up during discharge so as to protect the
porcelain housing.
Surge arrestor Popular Types
Surge Arresters (Lightning Arrestors)
Surge causes traveling voltage wave

Voltage would be enough to flash-over the insulation
Surge arrester high resistance at L-G voltage
Surge arrester low resistance at surge voltage
Surge is diverted to ground
Surge arrester high resistance again after surge
Conduction time is too short for breakers to react.
Surge arrestors are usually connected between phase
and ground in the distribution system near the terminals
of large medium voltage rotating machines and in
HV,EHV,HVDC sub station to protect the apparatus
insulation from lightning and switching surges.
SiC Surge Arrestors

(Gapped Arrestors)
1. Gapped Silicon Carbide (SiC) arrestor

Commonly called as valve type or conventional
Gapped arrestors
Consists of silicon carbide discs in series with the gap
units.
2. Zinc Oxide Gapless Arrestor

Called Zno arrestors or Metal oxide arrestors
These are gapless arrestors and consists of Zinc oxide
discs in series
They have superior voltage current characteristics and
are preferred in EHV and HVDC installations
8/3/2011
SiC Surge Arresters

(Gap Arrestors)
Metal Oxide Surge Arrestor
Developed in the 1930s.

The silicon carbide (SiC) surge arrester consists of a series
combination of silicon carbide non-linear resistive blocks with a
set of spark gaps .
On application of a surge the gaps spark over allowing surge
current to flow through the SiC blocks that limit the voltage
produced across the arrester.
Apart from dissipating some surge energy the primary purpose
of the spark gaps is to ensure the resistive blocks are not
damaged by continuous power frequency current.
Arresters vary depending on their voltage class & duty
They are stacked in series & hermetically sealed in a porcelain
housing .
x
I = KV ( x = 5)
Metal Oxide Arresters

(Gapless arrestor)
Developed in 70s'
Made of zinc oxide varistor
Consists of zinc oxide discs in series
ZNO arrestors have superior VI Characteristics and
higher energy absorption level
Preferred for EHV and HVDC installation
The material used is Zinc oxide, Bismuth oxide and
cobalt oxide
.
I = KV x ( x = 40)
Parts of Metal Oxide Arresters

1. ZnO, (Zinc Oxide) varistors
2 Silicone housing
3 Flame retardant structure
4 Corrosion resistant aluminum
fittings
High Value of x gives superior characteristics for the surge

arrestor
8/3/2011
Comparison of Surge Arrestors
Surge Absorber
Metal oxide arrestors have superior V-I

Characteristics
Preferred Type of Arrester

Preferred material for application is Zinc Oxide
(ZnO)
However traditionally SiC used
Traditional type still in a vast number are in service
A different approach relates to a type of surge
suppressor, in which when suppressor operates and
an arc is established in gap this arc must be
quenched when surge passed or resistor will be
destroyed by current that flow
Surge Absorber/Surge Absorber

Power surges, both voltage and current, are
occurring continually in todays power systems
Whether they occur naturally, such as from
lightning and static electricity; or are man made,
such as inductive surges from motor,
transformers, solenoids, etc. power surges are a
fact of life.
These power surges have a very high voltage
and current level as compared to electrical
noise
Surge suppressors reduces

the steepness of the wave
front.
A capacitance connected
between line and earth or
an inductor connected in
series with the line results
in reduction of steepness
of the wave front.
An oscillatory condition can
be
eliminated
by
resistor
connecting a
across the inductor.
Lightning surges have precipitous dv/dt values and huge
electrical charge.
Surge absorbers must assimilate this surge.
This limiting voltage capability varies depending upon the type
of absorber.
Ferranti Surge Absorber
Ferranti surge absorber consists of an inductor which is coupled

magnetically to metal tank enclosure
The coil of the inductor has a metal shield inside it in which
current is induced
The terminal bushings are made or porcelain
The tank is filled with transformer oil
The steep wave can be considered to be combination of high
frequency waves
8/3/2011
The surge absorber reduced the steepness of

the wave front and the energy is transferred to
the tank by mutual induction.
Pure condenser used as surge absorber cannot
dissipate the energy in the wave The energy is
dissipated in the resistance connected in series
with the condenser
Current Surge Absorber
Lightning Diverter
10
8/3/2011
Arcing grounds

EE04
704:
SYSTEM
III
CLASS
1:POWER
MODULE
1
Arcing Grounds and Neutral Earthing
Module I
Introduction
Consider a high voltage line connected to supply with out
load
Even if no currents are drawn by the load, the conductors
of the system continue to charge the system capacitance
alternatively to positive and negative polarity.
The distributed capacitance between the phases and earth
draw charging currents from the source
For high voltage systems the charging currents are
significant and the reactive KVA may be of the order of
hundred of KVA and the reactive KVA influences the total
KVA of the system.
The reactive KVA causes substantial flow of capacitance
current with a ground as return path
Neutral grounding is a simple method of controlling such
currents
A temporary fault caused by falling on a

branch, lightning surge etc. creates an arc
between an over head line and ground.
The arc extinguishes and restrikes in a
repeated regular manner .The phenomena is
called arcing ground.
Arcing grounds are common in ungrounded
systems.
Charging currents IR
and IY are neutralized
by IL
The current flowing
through the neutral
connection is
I R + IY + I L = 0
There by the arc is
extinguished
Each line has an inherent distributed capacitance with respect

to earth.
Consider an earth fault on line B. the distributed capacitance
discharges through the fault when the gap between F and
ground breaks down.
The capacitance again gets charged and again discharged.
Such repeated charging and discharging of the line to ground
capacitance resulting in repeated arcs between line and
ground is called arcing grounds.
Arcing ground produces several voltage oscillations reaching
to three to four times normal voltage.
A temporary fault grows into a permanent fault due to arcing
grounds
The problem of arcing grounds can be solved by earthing the
neutral through a coil called Peterson coil or Arc suppression
coil connected between neutral and earth.
8/3/2011
Neutral Earthing
All modern power systems operate with
grounded neutrals.
Neutral point of the generator, transformer
system ,circuit, rotating machines etc is
connected to earth either directly or indirectly
through reactance.
Why
Limit the potential of current carrying conductor
with respect to the general mass of earth
Provide a current return path for earth faults in
order to allow protective devices to operate.
Terms and Definitions

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Earthing/Ground: Connecting to earth or ground

Neutral earthing/system neutral earthing (grounding). Connecting
to earth the neutral point or the star point of generator,
transformer, rotating machine, neutral point of a grounding
transformer.
Reactance earthing: Connecting the neutral point to earth through
a reactance
Resistance earthing: Connecting the neutral point through a
resistance.
Non effective earthing: When an intentional resistance or
reactance is connected between neutral point and earth
Solid earth or effective earthing: Connecting the neutral point to
earth without intentional resistance or reactance
Resonant earthing: Earthing through a reactance of such a value
that power frequency current in the neutral to ground
connection is almost equal and opposite to power frequency
capacitance current between unfaulted line and the earth.
Importance of neutral earthing

Earth Fault protection is based on neutral earthing
System voltage during earth fault depends on
neutral earthing
Neutral earthing has associated switchgear
Neutral earthing is provided basically for the
purpose of protection against arcing grounds,
unbalanced voltages with respect to earth,
protection from lightning and for the improvement
of the system.
The term earthing and grounding have same
meaning (Earthing in UK and grounding in USA)
Equipment Earthing
Equipment earthing is connecting to earth the non current
carrying metallic parts in the neighborhood of electrical
circuits.
The non current carrying parts include
Motor body, switchgear metal enclosure, transformer tank,
conduits of wiring etc.
Support structures, tower, poles etc.
Sheath of cables
Body of portable equipment such as iron, oven etc
The potential of earthed body does not reach to dangerously
high value above earth since it is connected to the earth.
Secondly the earth fault current flows through the earthing
and may readily cause operation of fuse or an earth fault
protection
Equipment earthing is a safety measure.
8. Petersen coil , arc suppression coil, ground fault

neutralizer
Adjustable reactor connected between neutral and earth
The reactance is such that power frequency current
between line and earth due to capacitance of healthy lines
and earth is equal and opposite to the current in the earth
connection
The reactor used in the resonant earthing is called
Peterson coil or arc suppression coil or earth fault
neutralizer.
9. Un grounded system:
System whose neutral points are not earthed.
8/3/2011
10. Earth Fault Factor

It is calculated at the selected point of the
system.
V
EFF = 1
V2
V1 is the highest rms phase to phase power frequency
voltage of sound phases during earth fault on another
phase
V2 is the rms phase to earth power frequency voltage at the
same location with fault on the faulty phase removed.
3. In ungrounded systems earth fault cannot be

sensed and the earth fault relaying becomes
complicated.
In grounded system earth fault is enough to
operate the earth fault relay.
The current in neutral circuit can be used to
operate the earth fault relay.
Disadvantages of Ungrounded Systems

1. Arcing ground.
2. In ungrounded systems, the voltage of the
healthy line above earth is increased by
3
times when an earth fault occurs on a line.
This causes stress on the insulation of all the
machines and equipment connected to the
system.
The voltage rise of the line above earth is
sustained and there by insulation failure is
likely to occur through fault current.
4. Over Voltages due to induced static charges

are not conducted to earth in ungrounded
systems.
The voltages due to lightning surges do not
find path to earth.
8/3/2011
Advantages of Neutral Grounding
Arc Suppression Coil

(Ground Fault Neutralizer)
Arcing grounds are reduced or eliminated

The voltage of healthy lines with respect to earth remains at the harmless
value.
3. The life of the insulation is long due to prevention of voltage surges or
sustained over voltages. There by maintenance, repairs, breakdowns and
hence improved continuity.
4. Stable neutral point
5. The earth fault relaying is relatively simple. Useful amount of earth fault
current is available to operate the earth fault relay.
6. The over voltages due to lightning are discharged to earth.
7. By employing resistance or reactance in earth connection , the earth fault
current is available to operate the earth fault relay.
8. Improved service reliability due to limitation of arcing grounds and
prevention of unnecessary tripping of circuit breakers
9. Greater safety to personnel and equipment due to operation of fuses or
relays on earth fault and limitation of voltages
10. Life of equipment's, machines, installation is improved due to limitation of
voltage. Hence overall economy.
1.
2.
Types of Grounding
1. Ungrounded System: The neutral is not connected to
earth. Also called insulated neutral system.
2. Solid Grounding or Effective Grounding: The neutral is
directly connected to ground with out intentional
impedance between neutral and ground.
3. Reactance grounding: Reactance is connected
between neutral and ground.
4. Resonant Grounding: Adjustable reactor of correctly
selected value to compensate the capacitive earth
currents is connected between neutral and earth.
The coil is called Petersen coil or Arc suppression coil
or Earth Fault Neutralizer.
Reactance in Neutral Connection
Earthing Transformer
The neutral point (star point) is usually
available at every voltage level from the
generator or transformer neutral.
If neutral point is not available the alternative
is to go for a zigzag transformer.
Such transformer have no secondary.
If grounding transformer is not available a star
delta transformer can be used.
8/3/2011
Earthing Transformer
Additional Concepts
Earth Mat: Mesh of steel pipes or rods laid at
depth of 0.5m in the entire substation area
(Excluding foundations)
Touch Potential: Touch potential is defined as the
potential between the figures of a raised hand
(2m from the ground) touching a sub-station
structure and the feet.
Step Potential: Step potential is defined as the
potential difference between two steps of a
person standing on the ground with feel apart
during the flow of earth fault current.
Regards
8/3/2011
Insulation coordination deals with the selection

of the following.

EE04
704:
SYSTEM
III
CLASS
1:POWER
MODULE
1
Lightning Diverter & Surge Absorber
Selection of voltage levels

Selection of impulse withstand levels
Selection of protective levels for each voltage levels
Coordination of protective levels between
consecutive voltage levels
Choice of protective level characteristics of surge
arrester with respect to basic impulse withstand level
of the apparatus at each voltage level
Module I
Basic Insulation Level (BIL)
Circuit Breakers : Principles of operation,

different types and their operations, ABCB, oil
CB, SF6,vacuum CB, circuit breaker ratings,
cause of over voltages, surges and traveling
waves, voltage waves on transmission line,
reflection and attenuation, protection against
lightning, earth wires, lightning diverters, surge
absorbers, arcing ground, neutral earthing ,
basic concepts of insulation levels and their
What is insulation coordination

Insulation Coordination is the process of
determining the proper insulation levels of various
components in a power system as well as their
arrangements.
It is the selection of an insulation structure that
will withstand voltage stresses to which the
system, or equipment will be subjected to,
together with the proper surge arrester.
The process is determined from the known
characteristics of voltage surges and the
characteristics of surge arresters.
This is the reference

insulation level expressed as
an impulse crest (or peak)
voltage with a standard
wave not longer than a 1.2 x
50 microsecond wave.
A 1.2 x 50 microsecond
wave means that the
impulse
takes
1.2
microseconds to reach the
peak and then decays to 50%
of the peak in 50
microseconds.
Terms and Definitions

1. Withstand Voltage This is the BIL level that can repeatedly applied to an equipment
without flashover, disruptive charge or other electrical failure under test conditions.
2. Chopped Wave Insulation Level
This is determined by using impulse waves that are of the same shape as that of the BIL
waveform, with the exception that the wave is chopped after 3 microseconds.
Generally, it is assumed that the Chopped Wave Level is 1.15 times the BIL level for oil
filled equipment such as transformers.
However, for dry type equipment, it is assumed that the Chopped Wave Level is equal
to the BIL level.
3. Critical Flashover Voltage
This is the peak voltage for a 50% probability of flashover or disruptive charge.
4. Impulses Ratio
This is normally used for Flashover or puncture of insulation.
It is the ratio of the impulse peak voltage to the value of the 60 Hz voltage that causes
flashover or puncture.
Or, it is the ratio of breakdown voltage at surge frequency to breakdown voltage at
normal system frequency (60 Hz).
8/3/2011
Insulation Coordination
The protective level of the surge arresters are
selected such that these are below the impulse
withstand level of the protected apparatus.
The insulation level of the equipment or machine
is expressed in terms of curve value of the
specified impulse withstand level and rms value
of the one minute power frequency voltage
which is the apparatus can withstand and during
the tests made under specified conditions.
The rms value of this voltage is called power
frequency voltage withstand level
Explanation
Correlation of insulation characteristics P with characteristics Q of the protective

device.
The lightning arrester will spark over at a voltage less than the insulation withstand
voltage of the equipment if curve Q lies below curve P.
Protective device must have a lower protective level characteristics of the
protective equipment
Basic insulation level of 550 kV is chosen

The line insulation can withstand standard impulse
wave of 860kV Crest.
The breakdown voltage of line lightning arrester is
500kV
Transformer impulse voltage withstand level is 650kV
High voltage surge coming from transmission line will
be discharged to earth by lightning arrester
The residual voltage being less than breakdown voltage
, the transformer insulation is protected.
The surge arrestor should have the lowest spark over
voltage.
Selection of surge arrestor

1. Determine the continuous arrester voltage. This is usually the system rated
voltage.
2. Select a rated voltage for the arrester.
3. Determine the normal lightning discharge current. Below 36kV, 5kA rated
arresters are chosen. Otherwise, a 10kA rated arrester is used.
4. Determine the required long duration discharge capability.
For rated voltage < 36kV, light duty surge arrester may be specified.
For rated voltage between 36kV and 245kV, heavy duty arresters may be
specified.
For rated voltage >245kV, long duration discharge capabilities may be
specified.
5. Determine the maximum prospective fault current and protection tripping
times at the location of the surge arrester
and match with the surge arrester duty.
6. Select the surge arrester having porcelain creepage distance in accordance
with the environmental conditions.
7. Determine the surge arrester protection level and match with standard IEC
99 recommendations.
8/3/2011
Regards
8/3/2011
Types of Transmission Lines

Two-Wire Line (Twisted Pair)
I(z,t)
V(z,t) -

EE04
704:
SYSTEM
III
CLASS
1:POWER
MODULE
1
Surges and Travelling Waves
I(z,t)
Coaxial Line
V(z,t) -
Module I
Electric and magnetic fields around single-phase
transmission line

Transmission Lines
Properties of Transmission Lines

Transmission Line Equations for a Lossless Line
Two wires having a uniform cross-section in one

(z) dimension
Electrical quantities consist of voltage V(z,t) and
current I(z,t) that are functions of distance z along
the line and time t
Lines are characterized by distributed capacitance
C and inductance L between the wires
The transmission line consists of two parallel and uniform conductors, not
necessarily identical.
C and L depend on the shape and size of the

conductors and the material between them
8/3/2011
Transmission Line Equations
Capacitance of a Small Length of Line
Taking the limit as z 0 gives the Transmission Line Equations
V (z,t)
I(z,t)
= L
z
t
Open circuit
I(t)
These are coupled, first order, partial differential equations whose solutions
are in terms of functions F(t - z/v) and G(t + z /v) that are determined by
V(t) l
the sources. The solutions for voltage and current are of the form
The two wires act as a capacitor. Voltage applied to the wires

induces a charge on the wires, whose time derivative is the current.
Since the total charge, and hence the current, is proportional to
the length l of the wires. Let the constant of proportionality be
C Farads/meter. Then
I (t ) = Cl
dV (t )
dt
1
[F (t - z/v) - G(t + z /v)]
Z
Direct substitution into the TL Equations, and using the chain rule gives
V(z,t) = F(t - z/v) + G(t + z /v)
Short circuit
1
1
[F'(t - z/v) - G'(t + z /v)] = L [F '(t - z/v) - G'(t + z /v)]
Z
v
1
[F'(t - z/v) +G'(t + z /v)] = C[F'(t - z/v) +G'(t + z /v)]
vZ
where the prime (' ) indicates differentiation with respect to the total variable
inside the parentheses of F or G.
Conditions for Existence of TL Solution

For the two equations to be satisfied
1 L
=
v Z
V(t) -
The wire acts as a one - turn coil. Current applied to the wires induces
a magnetic field throught the loop, whose time derivative generates the
voltage. The amount of magnetic flux (magnetic field area), and hence
the voltage, is proportional to the length l of the wires. Let the constant
of proportality be L Henrys/meter. Then
dI(t)
V(t) = Ll
dt
v=
1
=C
vZ
1
LC
=
or
v 2Z
Z
1
m/s
LC
Dividing both sides of the two equations gives
vZ
L
=
or
v ZC
C
v and Z are interpreted as the wave velocity and wave impedance.
Z=
Two-Port Equivalent Circuit
Junctions Between Two Regions
+
Terminal condtions for the
Junction of two TL' s
V(z,t)
z
I(z,t)
and
Multiplying both sides of the two equations gives
I(z,t)
I(z,t) =
Inductance of a Small Length of Line
I(t)
I(z,t)
V (z,t)
= C
z
t
z+z
+
V(z,t)
Lz
Kirchhoff circuit equations
I(z,t)
V(z,t) = Lz
+ V (z + z,t)
t
or
V(z + z,t) V (z,t)
I(z,t)
= L
z
t
V(0 ,t) = V (0 +, t)
z
+
C z
I(z +z,t)
V(z+z,t)
V (z + z,t)
+ I(z + z,t)
t
I(z + z,t) I(z,t)

V (z + z,t)
= C
z
t
I(0+,t)
+
V(0+,t)
TL 2
0
Boundary conditions at the
z
x
interface of two media
I(z,t) = Cz
V(0-,t)
I(0 , t) = I (0 ,t)
E x (0, t) = E x (0+ , t)
I(0-,t)
TL 1
Ex(0-,t)
Ex(0+,t)
Hy(0-,t)
Hy(0+,t)
H y (0 ,t) = H y (0 , t)
Plane wave propagation and
boundary conditions are analogus
Medium 1
Medium 2
to junctioning of two TL' s
8/3/2011
Reflection and Transmission

Incident wave
Termination of a Transmission Line
Terminal condtions
ExIn(z,t)=F1(t-z/v1)
HyIn(z,t)
Transmitted wave
z
Reflected wave
v1 and 1
v2 and 2
A source creates an incident wave whose electric field is given by the known
function F1 (t - z/v1 ). Using the boundary conditions we solve for the unknown
functions G1 (t + z/v 1 ) and F2 (t - z/v 2 ) for the electric fields of the reflected
E x (0,t) = F1 (t) + G1 (t) = F2 (t) = E x (0+ ,t)
1
1
H y (0 ,t) = [F1 (t) - G1 (t) ] = F2 (t) = H y (0 +,t)
and transmitted waves :
V(0,t) = RL I(0,t)
I(0-,t)
R
TL
V(0-,t) + RL
F(t) + G(t) = L {F(t) G(t)}
Z
Solving for G(t) in terms of F (t),
0 z
G(t) = F(t) where the reflection
RL Z
coefficient is =
RL + Z
Special cases :
1. Matched termination, RL = Z and = 0. Simulates a semi - infinite TL
2. Open circuit, RL and = 1. Total reflection with V (0,t) = 2F (t).
3. Short circuit, RL = 0 and = 1. Total reflection with V (0,t) = 0.
Reflection and Transmission Coefficients

Solution of the boundary condition equations forG1 (t) and F2(t) in terms of F1 (t)
G1 (t) = F1 (t)
F2 (t) = F1 (t)
The reflection coefficient and transmission coefficient are given by:

2 2
= 2 1
=1+ =
2 + 1
2 + 1
Examples:
Regards
www.sasisreedhar.webs.com
I. Suppose medium 1 is air so that 1 = o o = 377 and medium 2 has

relative dielectric constant r = 4 so that 2 = o ro = 0.5. Then going
from air- to - dielectric ad =
0.5
1
1 2
= and ad =1 =
3
3 3
0.5 +
Reflection and Transmission, cont.

II. Now suppose the wave is incident from the dielectric onto air so that medium 1
is the dielectric (1 = 0.5 ) and medium 2 is air (2 = ). Then going from
dielectic- to - air, da =
1
1 4
0.5
= + and ad = 1+ =
3
3 3
+ 0.5
Note that :
1. da = ad
2. Since T is the ratio of fields,not power, it can be greater than 1.
VIDYA ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AN TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
EE04 704: POWER SYSTEM - III
ASSIGNMENT- 1
Date of Submission: 10/08/2011

Short Answer Type:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Explain voltage time curves in power system studies

Discuss the principle of arc interruption in circuit breakers
Give the classification of circuit breakers
Explain in detail DC current breaking
Explain the phenomenon of arc formation in circuit breakers in case of abnormal conditions
Explain the following
a) Restriking Voltage
b) Recovery Voltage
c) RRRV
Explain the following terms
a) Symmetrical breaking current
b) Making Current
Compare the merits of SF6 circuit breaker over air blast circuit breaker
What are the causes of over voltages in power system
Describe the working principle of SF6 circuit breaker
Compare the relative performance of the following
a) Rod Gap
b) Expulsion Gap
c) Value Type LA
What is BIL? Explain its significance in power system studies
What is a ground wire? Discuss the location with respect to power conductors
Differentiate between surge arrestor and surge diverter.
Explain the process of arc extinction in high vaccum. What is current chopping?
State the difference between equipment earthing and neutral earthing
What are the merits and demerits of reactance earthing compared to the solid earthing?
Write short notes on substation earthing
List out the characteristics of ideal surge diverter.
Essay Type:
20. Discuss the principle of arc interruption in a) Oil Circuit breaker b) SF6 circuit breaker and
compare between them.
21. Describe with near sketches the principle of medium voltage air blast circuit breaker by
incorporating resistance switching.
22. Describe the construction principle of operation of a) Rod Gap b) Explusion gap c) Value type
lightning arrestor.
23. What is neutral earthing? With the help of suitable diagrams explain the various neutral
earthing schemes.
24. Explain the phenomena of arcing ground on overhead transmission lines. How neutral earthing
does opposes arcing ground currents.
25. What are the basic requirements of lightning arrestor? Differentiate between
a) Lightning arrestor and lightning Conductor
b) Surge Arrestor and surge diverter
Student Question Distribution
Student Class Number
1-10
11-20
21-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
61-70
71-80
Short Answer Question

No:
1-6
7-13
14-19
1-6
7-13
14-19
1-6
7-13
Essay Type question

No:
20,21
22,23
24,25
20,21
22,23
24,25
20,21
22,23
Note:
1. Each student has to answer 6 short answer type and 2 essay type question approximately
2. All the students are to discuss and study the questions from other groups so that no student
misses any question.
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EE04 704: POWER SYSTEMS III

Vidya Academy of Science and Technology

EE 09 506 ELECTRICAL MATERIAL SCIENCE

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