Ammonia Synthesis for Fertilizer Production

A Major Qualifying Project Report

submitted to the Faculty
of the Chemical Engineering Department
WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of Bachelor of Science

MQP Report

Written by
Khalid T. Alkusayer (Inventor)
Andrew Ollerhead

Advised by
Professor Stephen J. Kmiotek

This report represents the work of WPI undergraduate students submitted to the faculty as
evidence of completion of a degree requirement. WPI routinely publishes these reports on its
website without editorial or peer review. For more information about the projects program at
WPI, please see http://www.wpi.edu/academics/ugradstudies/project-learning.html

Contents:
Abstract: ........................................................................................................................................................ 4
Chapter 1: .................................................................................................................................................. 5
Introduction:.............................................................................................................................................. 6
Background: .............................................................................................................................................. 7
Chapter 2: ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
Ammonia Synthesis: ............................................................................................................................... 10
Economics of Ammonia: ........................................................................................................................ 13
Environmental Impact of Ammonia Sythesis: ......................................................................................... 14
Chapter 3: .................................................................................................................................................... 16
Process Description:................................................................................................................................ 18
Economics:.............................................................................................................................................. 22
Capital Cost......................................................................................................................................... 22
Operating Cost .................................................................................................................................... 24
Environmental Considerations: ............................................................................................................... 27
Chapter 4: .................................................................................................................................................... 29
Coupling of Water-Gas Shift & NH3 Reactions: .................................................................................... 31
Steady-State Option ............................................................................................................................ 33
Batch Option ....................................................................................................................................... 34
Centrifugal Approach: ............................................................................................................................ 35
Chapter 5 ..................................................................................................................................................... 37
Discussion: .............................................................................................................................................. 38
Conclusion: ............................................................................................................................................. 40
Recommended Future Research: ............................................................................................................ 41
References:.................................................................................................................................................. 42
Appendix A.1 .............................................................................................................................................. 45
Appendix A.2 .............................................................................................................................................. 46
Appendix A.3 .............................................................................................................................................. 47
Appendix A.4 .............................................................................................................................................. 48
Appendix A.5 .............................................................................................................................................. 49
Appendix A.6 .............................................................................................................................................. 50
Appendix B.1 .............................................................................................................................................. 51
2

Appendix B.2 .............................................................................................................................................. 52

Appendix B.3 .............................................................................................................................................. 53
Appendix C ................................................................................................................................................. 54
Appendix D ................................................................................................................................................. 55
Appendix E ................................................................................................................................................. 56

Abstract:
This reviews the history of the ammonia industry and its use as a nitrogen rich fertilizer.
Current ammonia industries were analyzed economically and environmentally, and the
specifications from current ammonia plants were compared with the patented process illustrated
in Chapter 3 of the paper. The economic comparison shows a breakeven point for a current
medium-scale ammonia plant to be five years with a production cost of $600/ton, where the
patented process plant can break even in less than two years and has a relative production cost of
$232/ton. It was found in the environmental comparison that the patented process, if scaled
globally, would address and eliminate 7% of the total CO2 emissions on the planet. Lab works as
well as calculations were made to predict and recommend continuing research to further
optimize the industrial production of ammonia and related fertilizers.

Chapter 1:
Introduction and Background

Introduction:
In solid or liquid states, ammonia salts and solutions are the active components of most
synthetic fertilizers used in agriculture, which consume 83% of the worlds ammonia and
warrant higher demands for ammonia production.1 The primary industrial method for ammonia
synthesis is the Haber-Bosch process, created by Fritz Haber in 1905 and developed for industry
by Carl Bosch in 1910. The overall process synthesizes ammonia from molecular nitrogen and
hydrogen by feeding the reactants over iron catalysts at a high pressure and temperature,
requiring bulky, well-insulated reactors to house the process. The Haber process synthesizes
approximately 150 million tons of ammonia each year and has allowed the earth to sustain a
population nearly five times larger than before the procedures invention. However, the use of
natural gas as a source of hydrogen and energy needed to derive nitrogen from atmospheric air
have been the subjects of environmental concern.2 The industrial use and geological extraction of
natural gas are known to contribute to carbon dioxide emissions and water pollution,
respectively, and today an estimated 59% of natural gas produced in the United States is used in
ammonia synthesis to meet the high demand of gaseous hydrogen.3 Approximately 80% of
ammonia synthesized today is eventually converted into urea fertilizer, a dense nitrate that is
more stable at room temperature, allowing easier storage and transportation than ammonia.
To truly understand the significance of ammonia and urea as fertilizers, one should
understand the impact of treating soil with an effective fertilizer. Plants generally require soil
containing high amounts of available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, as well as other minor
nutrients.4 Synthetic and organic fertilizers can be used to successfully obtain this nutrient
balance and optimize plant growth, though synthetic fertilizers tend to work more consistently
than organic fertilizers, which are typically made from plant and animal wastes and tend to vary
in composition. Thus, the global demand for synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers has reached new
heights, with the 2012 global market generating over $98.6 billion and estimated to reach $114
billion by 2018.5 Considering that, in 2012, the industrial production of ammonia in the United
States alone was responsible for 9.4 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions, it is obvious that
the worldwide production of ammonia and urea must be monitored and reformed to handle the
expected increase in usage.6 However, in order to make necessary changes to these industries,
different options for ammonia and urea synthesis, as well as any potential environmental and
economic effects that may result from these options, should be assessed.

Background:
Due to their usage in the manufacturing of gunpowder and explosives, European chemists
in the late 1700s developed an interest in obtaining and synthesizing diverse nitrogenous
compounds such as nitric acid, sodium nitrate and ammonia, beginning research into the
synthesis of these compounds that would last for over a century. In the 1840s, German chemist
Justus von Liebig discovered nitrogen to be one of several nutrients essential to plant growth,
leading to the widespread use of nitrogenous compounds in fertilizers.7 Nitrogen was originally
taken from natural deposits in the earth, such as the Atacama Desert of Peru and Chile (rich in
Chilean saltpeter that could be converted to nitric acid). However, in the 1870s, ammonia was
first created industrially as a byproduct in the production of coke, though this method of
ammonia synthesis could yield only two-thirds of the nitrogen exported from South America.8
In the late 1800s, chemists agreed that the demand for nitrogenous compounds would
likely soon exceed the natural supply, catalyzing the search for more effective industrial
processes.9 The creation of the Haber process in 1905, and its subsequent industrial scale-up by
Carl Bosch in 1910, marked the first practical procedure for synthesizing anhydrous liquid
ammonia from hydrogen and atmospheric nitrogen. This process is still used industrially today.
This procedure has proven sufficient for meeting synthetic ammonia demands and the abundance
of both reactants suggests that the Haber process may be the most sustainable option possible,
though increased demands and a scarcity of resources may encourage the development of
alternative methods.
To increase the rate of ammonia synthesis to produce the necessary amount of product,
the temperature must be raised to the range of 400 - 500C, with pressure increased to 15 25
MPa to compensate for the high temperature. The Haber process also relies on heated iron
catalysts to break the bonds of molecular nitrogen, and requires frequent cooling phases to
maintain a manageable equilibrium constant and repeated recycling of unreacted hydrogen and
nitrogen to achieve a higher overall conversion (approximately 18% of reactants are converted to
ammonia in each pass).10 These conditions can only be met with the protection of expensive
reaction vessels, that are strengthened and insulated to withstand the necessary pressures and

temperatures, and the high consumption of electricity, and in many cases, the reaction byproduct
carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere where it is detrimental as a greenhouse gas.
Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, the developers of the Haber-Bosch process were each
awarded Nobel prizes for their work, on the basis that they had overcame many difficulties
associated with reliable fertilizer manufacturing and high-pressure technology at an industrial
scale. The significance of their contribution became clear as agriculture improved across the
world, allowing the global population to increase from 1.6 billion people in 1900 to over 7
billion alive today.11 However, many suspect that, if population increases at the same rate as it
has over the past century, the carrying capacity of earth will be tested and earths population
could expand to the point where food demand exceeds supply, ensuring death for many who will
starve due to insufficient food. Even today, the global population relies greatly on a consistent
supply of food being produced, and any large instability in crop yields is capable of leaving a
noticeable percentage of the population without food.12 Due to the dependence of crop prices on
fertilizer prices, it can be assumed that the first people to lose access to food will be those who
can no longer afford to feed themselves.
Modern agricultural yields are similar from season to season due to the consistent
performance of synthetic fertilizers and their unchanging composition, making nitrogenous
fertilizers a more reliable choice than organic fertilizers which vary in nutrient content. About
50% of nitrogen applied to crops is absorbed while the remainder is lost to the soil and because
this nitrogen is easily manufactured, fertilizer is abundantly reapplied to assure that the minimum
required nitrogen will be available to all plants. However, nitrogenous compounds such as
ammonia and nitric acid can pollute soil and groundwater when used in excess, and the runoff is
potentially harmful to plants and animals depending on the nitrogen concentration. Humans,
particularly small children, have been known to suffer health complications from living in areas
with heavy use of synthetic fertilizer due to the excess nitrogen in the areas soil and water, or
from eating fish that were contaminated.13
The environmental consequences of fertilizer manufacturing consist not only of ground
pollution, but include emissions into the atmosphere. The agricultural industry is responsible for
10% of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide, according to the EPA, not including the
release of carbon dioxide as a byproduct or any pollutants emitted due to ammonia synthesis.

Chapter 2:
Current Ammonia Industry

Today, the processes by which ammonia and urea are synthesized can be summarized as
simplified stoichiometric equations:
Ammonia

N2 + 3H2 2NH3

Then in another plant:

Urea

2NH3 + CO2

(NH2)2CO + H2O

While this project focuses on the production of ammonia, 80% of the ammonia manufactured
today becomes feedstock for the manufacture of urea, a more stable nitrate used for fertilizer.
However, the modern syntheses of ammonia and urea require several necessary and costly
processes and treatments to achieve the highest yield possible, which must be considered to
accurately assess their effectiveness, as well as their impacts on the environment and industry.14

Ammonia Synthesis:
The leading method for the industrial production of ammonia has been the Haber-Bosch
process for nearly a century worldwide. The overall process requires high temperatures and
pressures and utilizes nitrogen fixation (reacting atmospheric nitrogen), continuous flow and the
frequent recovery of unreacted gases, resulting in a method capable of producing large amounts
of ammonia more efficiently than earlier methods of synthesis. Development of the process was
accompanied by advancements in large-scale, continuous-flow, high-pressure technology and
today, approximately 159 million tons of ammonia are produced annually through similar or
slightly-modified industrial processes.15
Stoichiometrically, the reaction of one mole of nitrogen with three moles of hydrogen
produces two moles of ammonia in an exothermic process. The reaction, however, is unfavorable
on its own and is made possible through the manipulation of physical factors. To lower the
activation energy required for synthesis, the reactants (both in gas phase) are passed over an iron
catalyst with an added potassium hydroxide promoter for increased efficiency. The reaction is
10

reversible in nature, though the production of ammonia can be made favorable using Le
Chateliers Principle, which dictates that an increase in pressure makes the reaction favor the
side with fewer moles, ammonia in this case. However, the pressures required to optimize
ammonia synthesis are very high and expensive to use industrially at a large scale, so a
compromised pressure of typically 200 atm is often used. While Le Chateliers Principle also
suggests that low temperatures would cause the reaction to favor ammonia production, low
temperatures slow the reaction to impractical rates, leading manufacturers to apply a
compromised temperature of 400-450C. Each time the reactants undergo this process, only 1018% of the potential ammonia is converted, but by recycling unreacted gas, no reactants are
wasted or lost and, after muliple passes, 97% of the reactants can be converted overall. While
nitrogen is reacted from air (reducing the amount of feedstock to be purchased or transported and
stored), hydrogen gas must be produced, most often through the catalytic steam reforming of
natural gas: the process by which steam is reacted with natural gas (methane) at high
temperatures from 700-1100C to produce bulk hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Approximately
98% of ammonia is currently produced with natural gas as feedstock using steam shifting,
though a minority obtain hydrogen from coal or through the catalytic reforming of naptha.
Interestingly, as hydrogen is mixed with air at the start of the reaction, many molecules of
atmospheric oxygen react with hydrogen to form water, removing the oxygen gas which
comprises 21% of air.14
Having been in practical use for over a century, the Haber-Bosch process has undergone
countless modifications and adaptations. Not only would the industrial equipment used in the
1910s be considered outdated today, advancements in technology have allowed manufacturers to
experiment with altering the process or equipment to optimize production. As a result, not all
ammonia plants worldwide use an identical process or facility, though the general process has
remained largely consistent. Among plants that use catalytic steam reforming, six general steps
are taken to produce synthetic ammonia: Natural gas desulferization, catalytic steam reforming,
carbon monoxide shift, carbon dioxide removal, methanation and ammonia synthesis. A process
flow diagram of a typical ammonia plant can be seen in Figure 2.1.15

11

Figure 2.1: Ammonia Production Process Flow Diagram16

The Haber-Bosch process has remained the most common industrial method of ammonia
manufacturing since its development, and though the most common commercial fertilizers
contain ammonium sulfate, ammonium phosphate and urea as ingredients, these chemicals are all
converted industrially from ammonia. Of the 150 million tonnes of ammonia synthesized each
year, approximately 83% goes to the manufacture of fertilizers needed for agriculture.2 Given the
high demand of ammonia and the high production capacity of plants that synthesize it, one might
assume that the Haber-Bosch process and, by extension, the ammonia and fertilizer industries,
occupy a niche market in all nations, and are not likely to change due to a lack of feasible
alternatives. However, practices within these industries have been called into question by
environmentalists, many of whom believe the current process of ammonia production leads to
greenhouse gas emissions and the release of toxic chemicals.

12

Economics of Ammonia:
Similar to any industrial process, ammonia manufacturing has undergone decades of
development to optimize production and reduce prices wherever possible. Many large-scale
plants across the world are built near natural gas reserves to reduce the cost of transporting
feedstock, but because of the centralization of plants in many countries, ammonia must be
transported to all corners of the country to satisfy agricultural needs. Currently, ammonia can be
sold from a factory at an average cost of $750/ton, but due to the process reliance on natural gas,
fluctuations in natural gas prices could significantly increase production costs for ammonia
manufacturing. Therefore, the cost of ammonia is susceptible to rapid change in the event of a
scarcity of natural gas, which is a fossil fuel of which an assumedly finite amount is available.
Subsquent fluctuations in ammonia price may have significant consequences at larger scales,
such as large farms limited by the increased cost of fertilizer.17
Faced with higher feedstock costs, ammonia plants are given the option to reduce
production or cut costs in other facets of production where affordable alternatives are available.
Recent decades have shown minor adjustments made to the current industrial method of
ammonia synthesis without drastic changes to the overall process, though some plants continue
to apply experimental techniques to substitute for a more commonly-used process within the
broader process of ammonia production, for the purpose of reducing either costs or pollution. A
modern ammonia plant is expected to continue production for up to 15 years of operation,
reaching a break-even point after about five years.18 The largest costs involved in ammonia
production are operating costs which include the recurring cost of natural gas, accounting for
75% of a plants operating costs. This and other aspects of the process are eligible for
replacement, leaving a variety of options available for lowering costs. Experimentation into
alternative affordable feedstock has been common in the past and will likely remain a consistent
pursuit throughout the development of all major ammonia synthesis processes.

13

Environmental Impact of Ammonia Sythesis:

The majority of greenhouse gases emitted as a result of ammonia synthesis are released
through the preparation of hydrogen from the feedstock. A dramatic example would be the
ammonia manufacturing plants in China, 80% of which use coal as feedstock as oppoosed to
natural gas or naptha. Hydrogen is produced from coal through gasification (or partial oxidation),
in which the coal is reacted with oxygen and steam at high temperatures and pressures. The
reaction produces a synthesis gas containing hydrogen and carbon monoxide, the latter of which
is reacted with excess hydrogen to form carbon dioxide which can then be removed. While plants
that use coal as feedstock make up the minority of plants worldwide, China currently produces
more ammonia than any other country in the world. Of the 70 million tons of ammonia produced
in China annually, an estimated 80% was synthesized with hydrogen from coal - this accounts
for a sizable fraction of the worlds total ammonia production.19
For most plants worldwide, natural gas is much more affordable than coal or heavy oil as
a feedstock, and natural gas is considered to be the most sustainable of these fuels. However, the
use of a cleaner feedstock does not render manufacturers unable to release the same potentially
harmful compounds. In processes using the catalytic steam forming of natural gas (the vast
majority of existing plants), carbon monoxide formed from the catalytic steam reforming step is
reacted with excess hydrogen to form carbon monoxide, which is more easily removed from the
system, similar to the process used for coal gasification. Through scrubbing, any residual carbon
dioxide can be heated and purged from the system, occasionally through vents releasing it into
the atmosphere. Plants have designed methods of capturing the carbon dioxide produced through
steam forming, preventing the gas from entering the atmosphere and potentially repurposing the
compound by feeding it into another process in which carbon dioxide is a reactant. Considering
the majority of ammonia is converted to urea before it is used in fertilizers, it seems practical for
carbon dioxide to be captured from steam forming and used as a reactant in urea synthesis.
However, many smaller ammonia plants and plants that operate independently of urea
production simply vent these fumes to the atmosphere, and even plants that recycle carbon
dioxide emissions in the synthesis process where the gas is not as easily captured. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) notes that the only plants that do not release

14

carbon dioxide during the synthesis process are those that use a pure hydrogen feedstock rather
than natural gas, which makes up a very marginal percentage of plants.
Though carbon dioxide emissions are a primary concern, several other compounds
produced in ammonia synthesis are considered harmful pollutants if released into the
environment. Vented regeneration steam from regeneration of the desulfarized bed contains
sulfer oxides and hydrogen sulfide, both of which are hazardous air and water pollutants. The
same step can potentially emit carbon monoxide as well as many combustion products (i.e.
nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, particulates) that reduce air quality in high concentrations.
Throughout nearly all ammonia synthesis processes, scrubbers and strippers are used in an
attempt to isolate and remove any hazardous compounds before they can be emitted. However,
the emission of pollutants is evident in this industry, and if such preventative measures are
ineffective then process modification should be considered.15

15

Chapter 3:
Patented Ammonia Process

16

The invention and development of the Haber-Bosch process had a remarkably unique
impact on the shaping of modern science and human history. Due to worldwide industrial use of
the Haber-Bosch process throughout the 20th Century, crops were grown and produced at
quantities large enough to sustain growing populations, resulting directly in an exponential rise
in the earth's population. However, this impressive contribution should not absolve the process of
its shortcomings: As the human race continues to grow rapidly in population and potentially test
the earth's carrying capacity, it becomes increasingly necessary to evaluate current and proposed
agricultural processes.
Though the Haber-Bosch process has been used and adapted to produce extensive
quantities of nitrogenous fertilizers and satisfy agricultural demands for the past several decades,
the threat of further population growth and harmful chemical emissions has inspired engineers to
seek and design alternative methods for fertilizer production with the goal of increased or more
steady agricultural yields One novel process, which was filed for a provisional patent, has been
optimized by its patent-holder to be employed within this project and evaluated as a potential
ammonia production alternative for the near future. Designed for use in Saudi Arabia, the
process aims to utilize and repurpose the byproducts from other industrial processes. This
patented process synthesizes ammonia from exhaust gas leaving a carbon black refinery, using
liquid water and atmospheric air as sources for molecular hydrogen and nitrogen, respectively.
Carbon black possesses a range of unique properties that have made it desirable for a
variety of applications. Today, the carbon compound is used most commonly as a reinforcing
agent in plastic and rubber products, as pigment in paints and inks, and occasionally as
automobile and aerospace coating, due to the improved conductivity and UV protection provided
by the compound. In the United States, 90% of carbon black is manufactures through the oil
furnace process in which a liquid hydrocarbon is heated, continuously pumped into the
combustion zone of a natural gas furnace and quickly cooled, ultimately producing carbon black
through the incomplete combustion of the feedstock hydrocarbon.20 The exhaust gas from this
process contains mostly CO with variable concentrations of sulfides SO2 and H2S, and is fed into
a scrubber where the exhaust contaminants are mixed with water and dissolved CO is separated
from the mix. A water-gas shift reaction can then be undergone with the addition of excess

17

water, converting carbon monoxide and water to carbon dioxide and molecular hydrogen, the
latter of which provides a suitable feedstock for ammonia synthesis.
There is no reason to doubt that the CO feedstock needed to match the current worldwide
production of ammonia synthesis would be fully satisfied by the emissions from carbon black
manufacturing and the manufacture of related products. Currently, the production of plastics
reinforced with carbon black yields over 18 billion pounds of plastic, forming 1,400 pounds of
CO for each pound of plastic.20 Assuming the earliest full-scale ammonia manufacturing plants
using this patented process could be built and in operation by the year 2020, the amount of CO
formed from carbon black plastic production already provides enough feedstock to satisfy the
years ammonia production projected of 250 million tons, assuming exhaust CO is effectively
captured and saved and/or immediately processed. Considering the requirements of the water-gas
shift reaction and the worldwide availability of water, this ammonia synthesis process will be
available for use and adaptation wherever carbon black production is sufficient, potentially
raising the maximum amount of ammonia that can be produced yearly while widening the range
of areas where ammonia synthesis can be performed industrially.

Process Description:
N2
Separator

Air
Recycle

5
Water

CO, SO2,
H2S, other

CO2,
Water

Water

Scrubber
1

CO,
other
(trace)

Mixer
2

Water,
CO

N2

WGS
reactor

H2

N2, H2

N2, H2

Mixer
4

Ammonia
Reactor

N2, H2
NH3

Ammonia
Separator
7

Waste
water

NH3
(Product 1)

CO2

Urea
Plant
F

Figure 3.1: Patented Process block diagram (simple PFD)

18

Urea
(Final Product)

19

Table 3.1: Stream Data for PFD in Figure 3.2

Stream Stream Description

Number
1 Gas feed to Scrubber
2 Water feed to Scrubber
3 CO exit from Scrubber
4 Sulfur Recovery input
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

Water feed to Heater

Heated water feed to Mixer 1
Mixer exit
Pre-WGS Compressor exit
Pre-WGS Cooler exit
Hydrogen produced from WGS
WGS Purge
Air input to N2 Compressor
Air input to Air Cooler
Air input to N2 Membrane
Air exit from N2 Membrane
Nitrogen feed to Mixer 2
Feed to 1st stage Compressor
Feed to intermediate Cooler
Feed to 2nd stage Compressor
Feed to Mixer 3
Feed to Ammonia Reactor
Ammonia Reactor outlet
Ammonia Product
Recycle kettle gas outlet
Recycle Compressor outlet
Recycle Heater outlet
Purge

Contents
CO, SO2, HS2,
other
H2O
CO
H2O, SO2,
H2S, other
H2O
H2O
CO, H2O
CO, H2O
CO, H2O
H2
CO, H2O
Air
Air
Air
Air
N2
H2, N2
H2, N2
H2, N2
H2, N2
H2, N2
H2, N2, NH3
NH3
H2, N2
H2, N2
H2, N2

20

Temp
(C)

Pressure Mass Flow

(psi)
Rate (kg/hr)
25
20
116,600
25
25
25

20
17
17

958,000
105,105
966,495

25
127
110
700
400
400
400
25
380
50
50
50
170
650
185
600
450
480
100
100
115
415
450

20
17
15
780
777
20
730
14.7
240
237
235
20
18
295
290
2955
2950
2650
2645
2645
2960
2955
2640

139,000
139,000
247,100
247,100
247,100
7,355
239,745
275,500
275,500
275,500
223,960
51,485
58,840
58,840
58,840
58,840
294,200
294,200
58,800
235,360
235,360
235,360
40

As indicated in Figure 3.2 and Table 3.1 above, the plant design uses a total of five
compressors, six heat exchangers, four vessels, one water-gas shift membrane, one nitrogen
membrane, and one ammonia reactor, all of which fall under the category of capital costs. The
equations preceding the design of each piece of equipment can be found in Appendix A. Initially,
exhaust gas from a carbon black refinery or manufacturing plant enters a scrubber at a
temperature and pressure of 25C and 1 ATM where the gas components are mixed with water
and the useful CO is separated from contaminants SO2 and H2S. Exiting the scrubber, the waste
water stream of sulfides in water can be saved and used for sulfur recovery while product stream
containing CO is mixed with fresh water at a 2:1 molar ratio of water to CO, then heated to
450C in preparation for the water-gas shift reaction. This sulfur recovery is performed using
lime, precipitating the contaminant sulfur. Lime is a very inexpensive compound, and the
resulting solid can be repurposed as a filler in cement production plants.
For the WGS reaction, the heated stream of water and CO enters an Iron-Chromium
catalyzed membrane reactor. With the help of palladium plating to improve and promote proton
transfer, the reaction is undergone and pure hydrogen is separated and recovered while water and
CO2 in a 1:1 molar ratio comprise the waste stream. With the H2 feedstock secured, a nitrogen
membrane separator is used to isolate high-purity molecular N2 from the air. H2 gas is mixed
with N2 at a 3:1 molar ratio, heated and pressurized to 450C and 200 bar, respectively,
preparing the stream for the ammonia synthesis reaction. The reaction is similar to that of the
Haber-Bosch process: A reactor, operating at a high temperature and pressure and equipped with
an Iron-Chromium catalyst, reacts H2 and N2 and achieves a single-pass yield of approximately
18%, though the product ammonia is isolated using a membrane separator and the unreacted
gases are fed back into the reactor until a total yield of approximately 98% of the reactant gases
have been reacted.10
In the final steps of the designed process, the ammonia (still at a high temperature and
pressure) is mixed with excess CO2 produced in the carbon black refinery and reacted at a
temperature and pressure of about 180C and 150 bar, respectively. This stream is intended to be
reacted into urea, a common nitrate, though the manufacture of urea is not detailed in the scope
of this project. However, if the stream of NH3 and CO2 was used as the feedstock to a nearby
urea synthesis plant, this would eliminate or alleviate the need to heat and pressurize the stream
before synthesis, and the CO2 formed as a byproduct in the WGS reaction could be saved and fed
into the process, both improving urea yield efficacy and preventing the emission of a greenhouse
gas.
21

Economics:
It is assumed that any capital costs associated with the plants construction must be paid
only once, as most equipment is expected to remain functional for fifteen to twenty years before
being replaced and updated, though accidents or hardware problems may make it necessary to
replace select pieces of equipment earlier to allow production to continue efficiently. In addition
to the price of equipment, capital costs include the cost of land (if the land is purchased), the cost
of labor to construct the plant, and any fees and taxes associated with construction and operation.
Operating costs such as the costs of water, electricity usage and labor are separate from capital
costs and calculated based on the plants production rate because the cost of water or electricity
reflects usage of these resources which depends on how much ammonia is manufactured.21 22

Capital Cost
In order to estimate the cost of all equipment, the common engineering software Capcost
was used (a screenshot of which is shown with other cost-deciding tools Appendix B). Using the
design of a theoretical plant, the volumetric, temperature and pressure requirements were
calculated for each piece of equipment and each unit was then selected through Capcost based on
these specifications, as well as the material of construction. The software searches its own index
of equipment and outputs the predicted price of each individual piece of equipment and the total
price of all equipment added.
Of the five compressors needed to carry out this patented process, C-101 had an
estimated price of $65.7 million, C-102 and C-103 were both estimated at $28.1 million, C-104
at $22.8 million and C-105 at $500,000, adding up to $145.2 million. For heat exchangers, HE101 and HE-105, both heaters, are valued at $1.5 million and $2.2 million, respectively. HE-102,
HE-103 and HE-106 are all coolers, valued at $2.5 million, $1.5 million and $3.8 million,
respectively. HE-104, a kettle heater, is valued at $30.5 million, bringing the total estimated
price of heat exchangers to $42 million. The first vessel (V-101) is a scrubber with an estimated
cost of $670,000. The remaining vessels are all mixers, with V-102 and V-104 valued at
$670,000 each and V-103 valued at $422,000, resulting in a total price of $2.43 million for all
22

vessels. Capcost was also used to estimate the price of the ammonia reactor needed for this
process, and using the estimation that the cost of catalyst reflects 10% of the reactor price, the
reactor and embedded iron-catalyst were valued at $650,000.
The prices of the water-gas shift and nitrogen membranes were unattainable using
Capcost. To predict the price of the desired nitrogen membrane, a vendor specializing in
membrane separators was contacted, and the necessary membrane was given an estimated price
of $15 million. For the WGS membrane, faculty of the WPI Chemical Engineering department
were consulted, 200 Palladium plated membranes were needed at a price of $20 million was
estimated including the cost of the membrane and catalyst. All equipment prices estimated using
Capcost depend on the current Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI). The prices
generated by Capcost for this plant were estimated using a CEPCI value of 500, whereas the
most recent annual average was calculated at 576.1, meaning the total cost of equipment
predicted using Capcost had to be multiplied by a ratio of 1.15 to predict a more accurate value.
Given that the sum of all equipment prices from Capcost is equal to $190.3 million, the CEPCIadjusted price is valued at $219 million. Adding the predicted membrane prices, the full cost of
equipment for the plant is estimated at $255 million.
Table 3.2: Percent added to Equipment Cost
Expense

Percent added to
Equipment Cost (%)

Installation

50

Controls

20

Piping

30

Electricity

20

Extras

15

Insulation

10

Engineering

10

Legal Fees

10

Contingency

10

Total

175

23

As seen in Table 3.2, it was estimated that 175% of the calculated equipment cost was to
be added to the equipment cost, resulting in a multiplier of 2.75 that, when applied to the
equipment cost, provides the fixed capital cost. The fixed capital cost calculated for this process
was $702 million. To determine these individual percentages, Monte Carlo simulations were run
to gather results and indicate the minimum and maximum percentages that should be considered
when calculating fixed capital cost. These published minimum and maximum percentages for
each applicable cost were considered, and a likely percentage within range was chosen based on
expected costs, as shown in Appendix A.1. From this analysis, it was estimated that the fixed
instillation costs (which include foundation, construction materials and labor) should account for
50% more than previously predicted. The cost of controls, including sensors, wires and
installation, are estimated at an additional 20%, as well as electricity, which includes the cost of
circuit breakers, wiring and installation. Piping costs, accounting for the cost of pipes, pipe racks
and valves, are expected to increase 30%, and extras, including minor costs such as valve
fittings, are expected to increase 15%. A 10% cost increase was anticipated for the insulation of
piping and heat-sensitive units, the cost of engineering labor and consultation, legal fees
regarding permits and patents, and contingency as a buffer in the event of unforeseen
circumstances.

Operating Cost
Apart from the cost of equipment and other initial purchases, the operating costs for this
process depend on the amount of utilities consumed and the rate at which they are consumed,
thereby reflecting the amount of ammonia produced by a plant. Considering this process was
designed for ammonia production in Saudi Arabia, the costs of individual utilities were
calculated based on the nations standard costs for industrial use.
When operated at full scale, this patented process is designed to consume 1517 tons of
water per hour, fed into the system through streams 1 and 5 in Figure 3.2, and additional cooling
water must be purchased by the plant to serve as an energy conduit in heat exchangers, though
the cost is kept lower by recycling cooling water between two pairs of heat exchangers: HE-101
sharing water with HE-102 and HE-104 with HE-105. At a standard utility cost of $0.10/ton and
assuming constant production (24 hours per day for 365 days), the annual cost of water for this
24

process is estimated at $1.5 million/year.23 Production varies from one month to another based
on ammonia demand, which fluctuates based on the products agricultural application however,
for consistency, these utility costs were calculated or estimated using the assumption that overall
production is steady and constant throughout a given year. At a cost of $0.032/kwh, the plants
electricity usage is estimated at $74.5 million/year, accounting for the plants largest utility.24 In
Saudi Arabia, a plant can rent the land on which it operates from the government at a cost of
$0.25/m2, making the cost of land an operating cost that must be paid yearly.23 The designed
plant requires an estimated 250,000 m2 of land which can be rented for $62,500 annually. Other
utility costs must be considered, such as the cost of lime for sulfur recovery and the cost of waste
disposal. A wide array of utilities are necessary for the plant to operate fully, but their individual
costs are much smaller than that of water or electricity. For these miscellaneous operating costs,
$1 million/year should be allotted.
Operating costs are not limited to tangible or consumable utilities. Employees must be
paid to operate and maintain the plant, and the number of employees must satisfy the plants
labor requirements. For this process to operate at full scale, a team of three engineers and five
technicians working year-round should suffice, and paying a yearly salary of $100,000 to all
engineers and $50,000 to all technicians costs the plant $550,000/year for labor.25 Besides the
cost of labor for these employees, additional technicians and engineers must be hired
occasionally to service or repair equipment, typically costing the plant 10% of its fixed capital
cost every three to five years, as necessary. In order to better account for these expenses, the
operating cost for servicing equipment can be recalculated to obtain an annual expense, costing
the plant 4% of its fixed capital costs per year. With an equipment cost of $255 million, servicing
should cost the plant $10 million/year. A plant must also pay royalties yearly for the right to use
and profit from a patented process, costing the plant 3% in revenue from its yearly total
production. This plant is designed to produce 515,000 tons/year of anhydrous ammonia, and
assuming the product can be sold at $750/ton, sales will generate a total of $386 million per year,
resulting royalty fees of $11.5 million per year.17

Table 3.3: Operating Costs for Patented Process

25

Item

Cost $M/year
1.5
60
10
1
0.1
0.6
11.5
84.7

Water
Electricity
Maintenance
Random
Land
Labor
Royalties
Total

The price per ton of ammonia has risen steadily over the past several years, increasing at
an average rate of 3% per year.19 However, for these calculations, it was assumed that ammonia
will continue to be sold at $750/ton for the next quarter century, compensating for inflation that
would also lead to slightly increased capital costs. To calculate the return on investment (ROI),
the expected profit made by the plant during its lifetime was divided by the plants capital costs
and operational costs, adjusted for each year the plant is estimated to continue production. Given
an expected plant life of twenty years, ammonia sales will yield $7.72 billion (accumulating
$386.25 million yearly) while operating costs will account for $1.69 billion ($84.7 million per
year), with a fixed capital cost of $702 million. The profit made in this time would account for a
current value of $5.33 billion which, divided by the combined capital and operating costs ($2.39
billion), gives a ROI of 223%, essentially earning the plant $2.23 for every dollar invested in its
construction and operation. The cost of production of ammonia using this process is about
$232/ton.
While production sales and operating costs remain linear throughout the life of the plant,
expensive capital costs prevent the plant from achieving a significant profit during its first few
years of operation. The break-even point, at which the plants revenue from production exactly
affords its capital and operating costs, signals the time at which the plant will begin accumulating
profit, having paid off the initial capital costs. It was calculated that, after approximately 2.3
years of production, the plant will reach a break-even point, after which the plant will continue to
profit from production for as long as it operates.

26

Environmental Considerations:
Many major considerations have been made regarding the plants emissions and disposal
of waste, in an effort to reduce the pollution released worldwide as a result of ammonia
production. With the need for natural gas feedstock eliminated, the patented process encounters
much less CO and CO2 than the current process for ammonia synthesis, using only stored CO
imported from a carbon black manufacturer. This CO is fed into the WGS membrane where it is
consumed entirely, limiting the chances that this plant will emit CO into the atmosphere. The
plants sulfur recovery system also aims to remove sulfides SO2 and H2S and prevent their
emission, and by donating the waste lime for cement manufacturing, the plant secures a safe
disposal method for sulfides that also recycles sizable amounts of waste.
This process differs significantly from the current process in that much less CO2 will be
generated as a byproduct. The catalytic steam reforming of natural gas currently used to obtain
H2 feedstock contributes to over half of a plants CO2 emissions, and in 2009 alone, the use of
natural gas feedstock in the United States was responsible for the release of 7.6 million tons of
CO2.25 The substitution of a water-gas shift membrane over steam reforming suggests that any
greenhouse gases produced or emitted by a current plant due to the use of natural gas feedstock
will not be produced using this patented method. While typical plants emit CO2 produced from
the use of natural gas for heat exchangers (in addition to H2 feedstock), the designed plant takes
advantage of recycled water between heat exchangers, eliminating much of the need for external
heating. Not only is the plant expected to yield substantial amounts of ammonia yearly with
significantly reduced CO2 emissions, the process makes use of greenhouse gas wastes recycled
from carbon black plants and refineries while exporting its own CO2 waste to be recycled in the
production of urea (where all ammonia produced in this plant is expected to be used). The
capture and reuse of greenhouse gases between plants and processes reduces the need for new
feedstock to be collected or produced, while nearly eliminating the possibility that these waste
gases will be emitted into the atmosphere where they could cause harm.
As with any, this patented process true environmental and economic impact will come to
light as the process is implemented and operated, and may prove less efficient and financially
sustainable in reality than calculated. However, the process design suggest that its global
implementation would drastically reduce the emission of greenhouse gases compared to the
27

current process. Emissions will still be produced by automobiles in the export of recycled wastes
between plants however, most current ammonia plants are located in close proximity to natural
gas wells, and with water feedstock more widely available worldwide and less centralized than
natural gas reserves, plants will be less limited geographically, making the local production of
carbon black, ammonia and urea economically feasible. The manufacture of nitrogen fertilizers,
including ammonia, urea and their derivatives, account for approximately 7% of the 9.9 billion
tons of CO2 emitted globally per year.27 This supports the assumption that, if this process were to
be developed for global use and successfully avoid the emission of CO and CO2 as designed, the
switch in ammonia manufacturing processes could potentially allow a 7% drop in global
greenhouse gas emissions.

28

Chapter 4:
Future of Ammonia synthesis

29

In Chapter 3 of this report, the designed process relied on the coupling of ammonia and
urea synthesis reactions to recycle and prevent the emission of greenhouse gases, making it
practical to design the two processes with this collaboration in mind. In an effort to explore the
potential benefits of coupling reactions in an ammonia synthesis process, this chapter addresses
the possibility of running two reactions within close proximity: A reactor is placed in a pipe and
designed to allow a WGS reaction to take place around the reactor, which contains an ammonia
synthesis reaction driven by the hydrogen feedstock produced from the WGS. The broad purpose
of these experiments is to generate reaction data that can be compared to a current process,
demonstrating the potential benefits or shortcomings associated with coupling reactions.
Evidence suggesting that this setup conserves reactor space, requires less energy or requires less
human involvement can be helpful in the design of future processes as resources such as area and
labor are exhausted. This chapter outlines innovative approaches or alternatives to the current
industrial synthesis of ammonia, assessing options that have not yet been used for major
production. These processes, if further developed, can prove to be practical alternatives for
ammonia synthesis and, because the future availability of water, electricity and land worldwide
is yet unclear, such innovative processes may prove to be necessary for large-scale synthesis in
the coming century.

30

Coupling of Water-Gas Shift & NH3 Reactions:

FIGURE 4.1: Diagram of Dual Reaction Approach

This proposed process, mentioned in the above paragraph and outlined in Figure 4.1 and
Figure 4.2, is intended to take place within a pipe that houses a smaller reactor. In the process, a
water-gas shift reaction is catalyzed on the outside of the reactor, providing heat and hydrogen
feedstock for the ammonia synthesis reaction housed within the reactor. These reactions are
summarized by the following simplified stoichiometric equations:

Water-Gas Shift:
Ammonia Synthesis:

CO + H2O
N2 + 3H2

CO2 + H2
2NH3

This combined process, if operated for commercial ammonia production, would make use of an
iron catalyst for the WGS reaction and ammonia synthesis reaction, as well as palladium for
increased proton transfer. However, this project is limited by a WPI project budget (allotting a
two-member project group a total budget of $1,000) and, as a result, the use of palladium was
omitted from the corresponding reactions. This omission was suggested by a lab advisor due to
palladiums susceptibility to cracking from temperature change to replicate the procedure and
measure production at varying temperatures, a new bed of Pd would be needed for each reaction,
making experimentation economically infeasible. However, given the volume of published data
detailing the effect of Pd on production yield, a small-scale reaction was chosen for
experimentation, with results focusing primarily on the ammonia yield under WGS conditions.

31

An analysis of the data produced from this reaction at variable temperatures would serve
as the basis for many calculations and predictions regarding the process feasibility as a
commercial industrial process, including the potential rate at which ammonia can be produced,
and the associated residence time. From these data, one can analyze the efficiency and
practicality of the process and estimate whether a large-scale adaptation of this process is
commercially feasible, also considering factors such as a plants land requirements and the
availability of needed utilities. Even if the process is not concluded to be feasible or appropriate
for modern use, the findings of this experiment can be recorded and the process can be recreated
in the future to explore further applications or adapted for industrial use if necessary.

Figure 4.2: Simplified P&ID Design

Before the process could was designed or tested, the advisor of this project was contacted
to discuss the concept of coupling reactions within ammonia production, resulting in the design
of a process that could reasonably be operated and tested in the available lab space, outlined in
Figure 4.2 as well as Appendix C. From the simple design, the lab manager for WPIs Chemical
Engineering department helped to compile a full list of needed materials and equipment, shown
in Appendix D. All materials from the list were reviewed and ordered by the departments
administrative assistants and, upon the arrival of these materials, the reactor was built and all
pipes and valves were secured in WPIs machine shop with the aid of the project advisor. The
fully constructed reactor was moved to the lab station, lab safety precautions were reviewed, the
reactor was placed in an oven within the lab area, two tanks of hydrogen and nitrogen were
secured to their respective feed lines, the reactors product stream was aligned to exit into an
ammonia recovery vessel and the gaseous waste stream was vented to the lab hood,
demonstrated in the photographs shown in Appendix E. The reactor was flushed multiple times
32

with N2 gas to test for leaks or blockages and also to purge any substance that could contaminate
the sample. It was decided the reaction would be operated both as a steady-state and batch
process, measuring the results of the steady-state reaction after 24 hours at three different
temperatures and the batch results after one hour, also at three temperatures. Besides a graduated
flask and clock, all data was measured using a pH meter, a hydrometer and a pressure gauge.

Steady-State Option
The first set of reactions, following the precautionary flush of the reactor, were operated
at steady-state in three trials at a constant pressure, all measured after 24 hours of production. At
this time, the liquid product (which was dissolved in a flask of 250 mL) was transferred to a tall
graduated cylinder and the liquids specific gravity was measured using a hydrometer. For every
2.5 mL of ammonia added to the flask, the specific gravity is reduced 1 g/cm3 through
experimentation, it was determined that the solution remains stable until dropping over three
marks, assuring accuracy in the collected data. The pH of the water in the reactor was also
measured recorded before and after each trial using a digital pH meter. While a constant pressure
was maintained for the gaseous N2 and H2 feeds, the experiment was limited by the valves
controlling their flow, which could not exceed a pressure of 8 atm.
Table 4.1: Results of steady-state trials

Trial Temperature (C)

Result (mL NH3)

450

1.25

200

1.25

25

The result of each steady-state run is recorded in Table 4.1 above. In the first trial,
operated at 450C, the specific gravity of the stock water was measured initially at 96 marks and,
after its 24 hour run, was reduced to 95.5 marks. With every 2.5 mL of ammonia resulting in a
drop of one mark, the product solution is measured to contain 1.25 mL of ammonia. In the
second trial, operated at 200C under otherwise identical circumstances, the product measured a
similar drop of one half of a mark, indicating a yield of 1.25 mL of ammonia after 24 hours of
production. The final run, operated at 25C, produced little or no ammonia and did not result in a

33

change in specific gravity. The product flasks from the first and second trials both demonstrated
a pH of 6.4, measured using a digital pH meter.

Batch Option
After the completion of all steady-state trials, the system was once again flushed and
prepared for a series of batch reaction trials. These trials differed from the steady-state trials in
that all reactants were fed into the system at once rather than being continuously fed, and the
total product was measured within one hour, allowing the trials to be operated within the same
day. In each trial, as the ammonia exited the reactor, the pressure gauge of the product stream
was used to record exit pressure, and the pressure drop in the reaction was calculated by
subtracting the exit pressure from the entering pressure. The ideal gas equation indicates that, at
a constant temperature and volume, the pressure drop of a system is proportional to the number
of moles.
Table 4.2: Results of batch trials

Trial Temperature (C)

Residence Time

Total yield mol%

450

30 seconds

200

1 hour

10

75

1 hour

Table 4.2 contains the results of each batch reaction trial. The first trial was monitored for
over 30 minutes, no additional product was converted after the first 30 seconds due to the
activation of the Fe catalyst at high temperatures. In that first trial, a pressure of 2% was
calculated, indicating a 2% yield. The second (200C) and third (75C) trials demonstrated much
slower reactions and, after one hour, displayed a pressure drop of 10% and 1%, respectively.
Following the completion of all trials, measurements and calculations, the data was
analyzed and interpreted to determine whether this type of reaction, steady-state or batch, could
potentially be used for commercial production if further developed. The conclusion had been
made that this process could easily prove useful for supplementing ammonia production, even at
a small scale. The batch trials measured product yields between 1% and 10% - with a yield of
10%, this process could be used in parallel with current ammonia production, increasing the
standard 20% single-pass conversion to 30%.
34

Centrifugal Approach:
When considering alternative approaches to industrial ammonia production, a process costs,
yield and environmental impact are some of the most important factors. As a result of the rise in
concern over limited resources, plants may need to raise ammonia prices to compensate for the
increased cost of feedstock. However, alterations in the process could potentially lower the
plants capital costs and help avoid the need to increase prices. One innovative approach,
outlined in Figures 4.3 and 4.4, aims to replace the membranes needed in the processes detailed
in Chapters 2 and 3 with a centrifugal membrane. These processes, operated at industrial scale,
require 200 WGS membranes at an average cost of $100,000 each.25 This centrifugal approach
requires only one centrifugal membrane, eliminating these membrane costs while also increasing
yield. A diagram of the centrifugal membrane is shown in Figure 4.3:

Figure 4.3: Diagram of Centrifugal Membrane

This process is designed to centrifugally separate gases in the membrane. With the use of
a palladium-silver membrane for improved hydrogen separation, a centripetal feed forces the
gases to separate in order of density, effectively isolating a stream of hydrogen (the lightest
molecule present) while forcing heavier molecules through the membrane. This results in a
boundary layer of pure hydrogen surrounding the membrane. In this design, isolated hydrogen
35

provides better yields than the traditional feedstock of mixed H2 and N2, as demonstrated in the
following calculations:
= 0.0015 /

50% 2, 50% 2 = 0.00025/

= 50/50 100% = 600% efficacy

The flux achieved with a feed of pure hydrogen, separated by a centrifugal membrane, could lead
to yields six times as large as the current feedstock.14
The gases being forced through the membrane would be contained in a waste recovery
system while the hydrogen stream would likely be fed through a compressor or heat exchanger,
then into an ammonia reactor. If developed for commercial use, this centrifugal membrane
process could replace the N2 membranes used in current ammonia synthesis, reducing the plants
capital cost while operating at up to 600% efficacy.
Further development must be undergone before a prototype may be built. Hence, no
qualitative data has been collected, leaving a number of questions that must be answered before
the centrifugal membrane is scaled up for implementation. As with any piece of equipment, it is
necessary to calculate or test the optimal flow rate for gas entering the centrifuge, as well as an
optimal size proportional to that of the system. At this time, due to its current lack of association
with ammonia manufacturing, it is still possible that the centrifugal membrane may be better
applied elsewhere, in a different part of the process where it serves more useful. This project
chose a centrifugal design for the separation of hydrogen feedstock due to its associated increase
in flux and as an alternative to a costly current design, however, further alteration and
experimentation may lead to a more practical use for this process.
It is predicted the use of a centrifugal membrane can potentially improve yield up to
600%, resulting in an obvious increase in supply and decrease in production costs. The
substitution of a centrifugal membrane for the standard nitrogen membranes would also account
for a lower capital cost, eliminating the need from 200 to about 34 membranes at a total cost of
$3.4 million instead of 20.

36

Chapter 5

Discussion, Conclusions and Recommended Future Research

37

Discussion:
In the interest of developing future options for ammonia production, this paper presents
the current industrial process (discussed in Chapter 2) alongside the patented process designed
for this project and discussed in Chapter 3, comparing the two methods in terms of their
environmental impact and economic feasibility, as well as their effect on the cost of ammonia
production and sales. Because the patented process in Chapter 3 has not yet been built, results
concluding the production, cost and efficiency of a plant are based on simplified calculations,
while results concerning the price and environmental impact of current ammonia production are
found empirically.
According to the project advisor, additional factors must be taken into consideration to
predict more accurate capital costs for the patented process: All capital costs recorded in Chapter
3 of this paper were calculated by the software Capcost based on the input of several variables.
However, according to industry experts: Capcost is known to overvalue, and it is expected that
the software consistently overestimates the cost of equipment by up to 30%. Software like
Capcost is designed to predict the cost needed to build a plant and, because of the variety of
equipment that displays a large price range, the software gives the highest estimated price to
assure that this value could afford all capital costs. If the software calculated only average or
lower prices, users would risk calculating a capital cost less than the actual cost, putting the
plants budget and expected profit in jeopardy. As a result, the $702 million fixed capital cost of
the plant could in reality account for as little as $491.4 million. This reduction in capital costs
would result in a break-even point at approximately 1.6 years of operation. According to the
project advisor, commercial process designs estimated to reach a break-even point within two
years are typically approved for implementation by commercial manufacturers with minimum
review, due to optimization standards having already been achieved. Such processes are also
highly profitable in commercial production compared to processes that require more time to
break-even, paying off capital costs soon after the start of operation and turning a larger profit
for each year that the process is used.
Chapter 4 of this paper concerns novel ideas and approaches designed to increase the
yield and efficiency of commercial ammonia synthesis. The first approach involved coupling the
WGS reaction and ammonia synthesis reaction used in the processes described in Chapters 2 and
38

3, conducting both within a closed, heated vessel and allowing the hydrogen released in the
WGS reaction to serve as feedstock for ammonia synthesis, while the second approach involved
the use of a centrifugal membrane, intended to reduce membrane costs and increase yield. The
former approach has been demonstrated to improve yield in ammonia synthesis, though further
optimization is necessary before this approach can be modeled or constructed for commercial
use. The latter approach is calculated to increase yield by up to 600%, though without a
functioning prototype, this claim cannot be verified.

39

Conclusion:
Through extensive research and calculation, the processes described in Chapters 2 and 3
were analyzed and compared based on their associated costs, production value and
environmental impact. The results produced throughout the project indicate that the process
illustrated in Chapter 3 is less expensive and more environmentally responsible than current
ammonia synthesis processes. The current process described in Chapter 2 has an affiliated
production cost of $600 per ton of ammonia, resulting in a break-even point after approximately
five years. The patented process from Chapter 3, however, is expected to reach a break-even
point after less than two years of operation, with an affiliated production cost of $232 of per ton.
The present value for the plant detailed in Chapter 3 is $5.33 billion with a calculated ROI of
223%. It has been predicted that, if the patented process were used to replace current processes
for ammonia synthesis, the change could account for a 7% reduction in global greenhouse gas
emissions.
The results of Chapter 4 provide direction for research regarding the optimization of
future ammonia and fertilizer production, indicated in the Recommended Future Research
section of this chapter.

40

Recommended Future Research:

The technology mentioned in Chapter 3 can be directly implemented to industry; proper
data and experimentation were run on the suggested technologies. However, Chapter 4
recommends that a number of recently-developed techniques and industrial processes be
integrated into commercial ammonia synthesis, further research, modelling and experimentation
are needed before successful implementation can be achieved. Steps that can be taken to further
pursue the methods discussed in this paper are included in the following recommendations:

Optimize flow conditions and design for centrifugal membrane design.

Optimize conditions for the coupled WGS and NH3 synthesis reactions to achieve best
yield.

Consider the low-pressure reaction of ammonia synthesis for additional 10% single-pass
conversion (discussed briefly in Chapter 4).

Couple the production of ammonia with that of urea to increase efficiency and reduce the
emission of greenhouse gases.

Research the effects of water dependence on ammonia synthesis compared to the effects
of natural gas dependence if scaled for global production.

Thoroughly assess the environmental impact of water-dependent ammonia production at

a global scale.

41

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Appendix A.1

45

Appendix A.2

46

Appendix A.3

47

Appendix A.4

48

Appendix A.5

49

Appendix A.6

50

Appendix B.1

51

Appendix B.2

52

Appendix B.3

53

Appendix C

54

Appendix D

55

Appendix E

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