Edmund Husserl (Auth.) - The Idea of Phenomenology-Springer Netherlands (1973)

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY
EDMUND HUSSERL
THE IDEA OF
PHENOMENOLOGY
Translated by
WILLIAM P. ALSTON
AND
GEORGE NAKHNIKIAN
Introduction by
GEORGE NAKHNIKIAN
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PREFACE
This translation is concluded in our Readings in TwentiethCentury Philosophy, (N.Y., The Free Press of Glencoe, Inc.,
1963). We owe thanks to Professors W. D. Falk and William
Hughes for helping us with the translation. We also owe thanks
to Professor Herbert Spiegelberg, Dr. Walter Biemel and the
Husser! Archives at Louvain for checking it and we are especially
indebted to Professor Dorion Cairns, many of whose suggestions
we incorporated in the final draft.
WILLIAM
P.
ALSTON
GEORGE NAKHNIKIAN
January 1964
CONTENTS
Preface
Introduction
The train of thoughts in the lectures
Lecture I
Lecture II
Lecture III
Lecture IV
Lecture V
IX
I
13
22
33
43
52
INTRODUCTION
From April 26 to May 2, 1907, Husserl delivered five lectures

in Gottingen. They introduce the main ideas of his later phenomenology, the one that goes beyond the phenomenology of the
Logische Untersuchungen. These lectures and Husserl's summary
of them entitled "The Train of Thoughts in the Lectures" were
edited by Dr. Walter Biemel and first published in 1950 under the
title Die Idee der Phiinomenologie. 1 Husserl wrote the summary on
the night of the last lecture, not for formal delivery but for his
own use. This accounts for the fact that the summary contains
incomplete sentences. There are some discrepancies between
Lecture V and the corresponding passages in the summary. We
may suppose that the passages in the summary are a closer
approximation to what Husserl wanted to say.
This introduction is an attempt to explain the significance of
these Gottingen lectures in Husserl's philosophical development.
To the student reared in the English-speaking tradition in
philosophy, Husserl's phenomenology may seem bizarre. But the
same student will have no trouble seeing that Husserl is squarely
in the mainstream of recent philosophy in one important respect. A dominant and recurring motif in recent philosophical
thought is the conviction that philosophy is not a factual science,
it cannot ground itself in the findings of the factual sciences, and
it cannot use the methods of investigation characteristic of the
factual sciences. This much binds together thinkers as different
from one another in other respects as the logical positivists and
1 Husserliana - Edmund Husseri, Gesammelte Werke. Auf Grund des Nachlasses
veriittentlicht mit dem Husserl-Archiv an de, UniversiUU Kiiln 110m Husser/-Archill
(Louvain) unter Leitung von H. L. Van Breda, Band II: Die Idee der PMinomen%gie.
Funl Vorlesungen, herausgegeben von Walter Biemel, Haag, Martinus Nijhoff, 1950,
2. A ullage 1958.
Moore, Russell and Sartre, Wittgenstein and Heidegger, Bergson

and Husserl. In HusserI's case, this motif finds expression in his
attack on psychologism and in his conception of philosophy as
phenomenology.
HusserI's phenomenology is an outgrowth of his attack on
psychologism. Psychologism is a species of the view that philosophy is reducible to a factual science, in this case to psychology.
HusserI is just as strongly against "biologism" and "anthropologism" as he is against psychologism. His critique of psychologism first appeared in 1900, in the prolegomena to the six
essays in the Logische Untersuchungen. Prior to this, in 1891, in
The Philosophy of Arithmetic HusserI himself had endorsed psychologism. So that in 1900, HusserI is also criticizing himself as
he had been in 1891, much as Wittgenstein in the Investigations
criticizes the earlier ideas of the Tractatus.
To put it more exactly, psychologism is the attempt to reduce
the fundamental laws or rules of logic and mathematics to
psychological generalizations about the ways in which people
actually think. Take the statement:
(1) If all men are mortal and Socrates is a man, then Socrates
is mortal.
A psychologistic rendering of (1) is:
(2) As a matter of fact, anyone who believes that all men are
mortal and that Socrates is a man will inevitably believe that
Socrates is mortal.
This is likening (1) to a scientific generalization such as one of
the laws of motion. The trouble with this interpretation is that it
simply does not account for the difference in the sort of certainty
between (I) and (2). Noone can be sure that (2) is true, unless he
has made many observations, and even at that he will have only
a certain degree of probability, a practical certainty, but not the
absolute certainty that (1) seems to inspire. Of course, if the only
difference was this difference in "feel," we could not prove
anything either way. But there are explanations of why (1)
inspires the certainty that it does. HusserI's explanation, one
INTRODUCTION
XI
which few philosophers in the English-speaking tradition would

accept as either complete or illuminating, is that pure rational
intuition reveals that the complex all men being mortal and Socrates being a man comprehends the fact that Socrates is mortal.
To get at this logical "fact," says Husserl, we need no empirical
observation such as we need if we are ever to know whether (2) is
true. Suppose we did find a man who said that he believed the
complex but not what the complex is said to comprehend.
Husser! would say of such a man that he was simply unreasonable. Husser! would not allow that the possibility of finding such
a man would in any way refute (1). A psychologistic philosopher
might next try to interpret (1) as:
(3) Anyone who believes that all men are mortal and Socrates
is a man will inevitably believe that Socrates is mortal, provided
that he reasons in accordance with the laws of thought.
Against this Husser! says that the notion of laws of thought is
ambiguous. It can mean the matter-of-fact regularities exhibited
by human thinking or it can mean the standards that determine
whether a man is thinking as he ought to think. In the former
sense of "laws of thought," (3) is an empirical (psychological)
generalization, and it is not equivalent to (1) for the same reasons
that (2) is not equivalent to (1). In the latter sense of "laws of
thought," (3) is not equivalent to (2), but then (3) is not a
psychological statement either.
Husserl also has arguments which, he thinks, will dispose of
psychologism wholesale. He argues that any theory that reduces
logic to psychology is viciously circular. We cannot derive
(deduce, infer, conclude) anything from anything unless we
employ some rules of inference. In other words, we cannot
reason in psychology without presupposing some rule of logic or
other; in fact, we cannot reason at all, in any subject matter,
unless we use the laws of logic. Or, to say the same thing in still
another way, we cannot derive any rule of logic without assuming the rules of logic.
Husser! also criticizes psychologistic theories of evidence (see,
for example, Lecture IV of The Idea 01 Phenomenology, below).
Here he finds the same sorts of difficulties as occur in
psychologism as such. Evidence, according to Husserl, consists
XII
neither in the degree of conviction with which we believe, nor in

the strength of our feelings, nor in our inclinations to take for
granted. The evident is that which discloses itself to pure
intuition, and evidence consists of self-givenness.
What Husserl says about the logical relations among statements he also says about the logical relations among concepts.
For instance, (4) "All cats are mammals" is an "analytic" statement. It is necessarily true, and its truth is determined by the
logical relation obtaining between the concept of being a cat and
the concept of being a mammal. According to Husserl, an intuitive grasp of the cat concept reveals that being a mammal is
necessarily involved in being a cat. Husserl divides a priori
judgments into those that are analytic and those that are synthetic. The judgment is a priori if the object of the judgment does
not have to be given in a perception. In the analytic judgment
what is predicated of the object is "contained" in the subjectdetermination, that is, the predicate does not introduce anything
materially new. In the synthetic a priori judgment, the predicated determinations are not "contained" in those of the subject;
still, they are necessarily connected with them and are known to
be so connected. The interested reader may study the original 1 ;
for a lengthy exposition in English, see Marvin Farber's The
Foundation 01 Phenomenology. 2
Thus, both in the case of logical relations among statements
and among concepts, we are dealing with "essences," "universals," "abstract" entities, these being the sorts of entities that
are not be identified with perceptual objects. They are given to
pure intuition, provided that "intuition" is not understood in the
Kantian sense. In what sense, then, are we to understand it?
The answer comes in two stages, corresponding to the two
stages in the development of Husserl's phenomenology. At the
earlier stage of the Logische Untersuchungen intuition is a direct
inspection of the essence of this or that type of mental act, for
example, seeing, imagining, believing. Phenomenology is at this
stage "descriptive psychology," differing from empirical psychology in that the latter is concerned with causal explanation but
1 Edmund Hussed, "Bericht tiber deutsche Schriften zur Logik in den Jahren
1895-99," Archiv /. syst. Phil., IX (1903).
a Marvin Farber, The Foundation 0/ Phenomenology, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard
University Press, 1943, chap. VI.
INTRODUCTION
XIII
not with describing the essence of types of psychological acts,

whereas phenomenology is concerned with describing types of
psychological acts, but not with causal explanation. There is
as yet no machinery of phenomenological and transcendental
reduction. In the later stage of phenomenology, heralded by The
Idea 01 Phenomenology, these reductions give the concept of
"intuition" a new slant. "Intuition" is still to be understood in
the Cartesian sense of a direct awareness of what is given, but
with important modifications in both method and application.
The Idea 01 Phenomenology marks the transition from HusserI's
earIier phenomenology in the Investigations to the later more
radically Husserlian phenomenology. In these lectures HusserI
introduces for the first time many of the major themes of his
later phenomenology. These include: phenomenological reduction
(the bwxf) , the phenomenological "bracketing out"), eidetic
abstraction, the pure phenomenon, the different kinds of
immanence and transcendence, and the theory about the
"constitution" of objects of cognition.
According to Walter Biemel, the editor of the German edition
of the five lectures, HusserI underwent a crisis in the year 1906. 1
He was then having doubts about his own philosophical importance. These doubts were compounded by his failure to be
appointed full professor in Gottingen. Biemel intimates that these
five lectures were the beginning of a new phase, the characteristically Husserlian phenomenology, a phase initiated by HusserI's determination to take stock of himself as a philosopher. The
task he set himself was no less than the critique of theoretical and
practical reason. The Kantian statement of the problem suggests
that HusserI was preoccupied by the same sorts of problems that
plagued Kant. HusserI, however, found more inspiration in
Descartes and Brentano than he did in Kant.
From Brentano, his teacher, HusserI had absorbed the intentional theory of mind. 2 According to it, intentionality characterizes mental acts such as judgments, beliefs, meanings, valu1 See editor's Introduction to Die I dee der Phtinomenologie (Husserliana II), The
Hague, Nijhoff, 1958, 2nd ed.
2 For comparison in the details of Brentano's, Husserl's, and the scholastic theory
of intentionality, see Herbert Spiegelberg, "Der Begriff der Intentionalitiit in der
Scholastic, bei Brentano und bei Husserl," Philosophische Hefle, Prag-Dejvice, vol.
V, pp. 75-95. Also, Marvin Farber (see note 2, p. XII).
XIV
ations, desires, loves, hatreds, and so on. An intentional act, said

Brentano, is always "about" or "0." I think of or about. I desire
this or that. And the peculiarity of intentional acts is that their
objects do not have to exist. An intentional act may have as its
object an existentially mind-dependent entity, for example, the
idea of a mermaid; or its object may be something physical; or it
may be an impossible thing such as the round square; or it may
be something possible but unactualized, such as a golden mountain. Any mode of mentality (loving, desiring, believing) may
have as its object an "intentionally inexistent" entity, namely, an
entity that is neither physical nor existentially mind-dependent.
The idea of a mermaid is, being an idea, existentially minddependent. But the mermaid which is the intention of the idea is
neither a physical thing nor is it existentially mind-dependent. In
contrast to this, no physical action requiring an object can be
performed upon an intentionally inexistent entity. Kicking a
football requires a football; but thinking of a football does not.
I may think of a football that never existed. Brentano identified
the mental with any intentional state, that is, with any state that
could be directed to an intentionally inexistent entity. * Some
such conception of the mental is presupposed in the Logische
Untersuchungen.
The essences studied in the early phase of phenomenology are
unreduced. In the later phenomenology these unreduced objects
give way to phenomenologically and transcendentally reduced
and eidetically abstracted pure phenomena present to conscious This, however, is only one possible interpretation of Brentano's view of intentionality as presented in Chapter I of Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt. 1 It is
also possible to interpret Brentano as saying that on every occasion of a mental act,
whether there be a physical thing as referent or not, there is an intentionally inexistent
entity; so that, for example, when I desire the apple in front of me, the apple i~ the
object of my desire in one sense of "object," namely, as the thing that could satisfy
my desire; but there is also another object, the intentionally inexistent apple which
is the common and peculiar element in all desires of apples. My colleague, Robert
Sleigh, Jr., suggested the following analogy that would be helpful to thO!,e familiar
with the sense-datum theory. The sense-datum is to the intentionally inexistent object
what the perceptual object, if there is one, is to the material referent, if there is one,
of the intentional act. There are Brentano scholars who believe that the second interpretation is what Brentano intended. Husserl's work, at least from the Idea of
Phenomenology on, strongly suggests that his conception of the mental is in line with
the second interpretation. See abo R. M. Chisholm, Perceiving. 2
1 English translation in R. M. Chisholm, Realism and the Background of Phenomenology, N, Y., The Free Press of Glencoe, Inc., 1960.
R. M. Chisholm, Perceiving, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1957.
INTRODUCTION
xv
ness. They are essences and they are intentionally inexistent objects. Descartes's method of doubt, says Husserl, is the exactly
right beginning toward locating the objects of philosophical,
namely, phenomenological, inquiry. In The Idea 0/ Phenomenology
Husserl avers that the problem for the critique of knowledge is
to locate the absolutely bare, presuppositionless data on which
to build the whole of knowledge; more precisely, the problem is
to intuit the essence of knowledge, and thereby to "see" how
valid cognition is an unquestionable fact. But, says Husserl,
Descartes did not use the method of doubt to the end to which it
is eminently suited, namely, to locate the pure data required by
the critique of knowledge. Even worse, Husserl implies, Descartes
misconceived the problem of knowledge. Let me try to explain
what I think Husserl has in mind.
The problem of knowledge, as Descartes posed it, simply comes
to this. How can I, the critical philosopher, justify my "natural"
beliefs about the existence and nature of all sorts of entities, from
God to the kitchen sink, entities which, by hypothesis, are not
given to me "immediately"? How can I validly move from that
which is immanent to that which is transcendent, from that
which is a content of a cogitatio, of a mental act, to that which lies
outside a cogitatio? The Cartesian method of doubt, Husserl
suggests, requires that we locate pure data, themselves independent of all presuppositions and logically adequate for the
critical reconstruction of knowledge.
According to Husserl, however, we shall fail to locate what we
need if we equate the immanent with that which is "in me" and
the transcendent with that which is "outside of me." Thus, if we
say that the content of the Cartesian cogitatio is a psychological
ingredient in it, a "piece of furniture" located "in me," and the
transcendent is a different reality existing "outside of me," then
we reduce to paradox the theory that the contents of the mind
are reliable indexes, veridical representations, of the entirely
different (because extramental) transcendencies that our empirical and a priori knowledge is supposed to be about. The paradox
is that, according to the theory, in order to validate knowledge
we must see that the mental content veridically represents the
extramental reality. But, as Berkeley asked, how can we ever
compare a mental content with something that, by hypothesis, is
XVI
never itself given? Descartes resorted to God to validate our

"natural" beliefs. Apart from the inconclusiveness of the arguments for God's existence and the suspicion of circularity that this
part of Descartes's procedure arouses, God can be used for diametrically opposed purposes: witness Berkeley. Whereas Descartes had argued that God's existence and goodness are incompatible with the nonexistence of material substance, Berkeley
argued that the contrary is the case. The perceptive reader will
see that according to the above, which is my interpretation of
some things Hussed says about "epistemology" leading to
scepticism and paradox (see The Idea 01 Phenomenology), Descartes himself would be one of the sceptical "epistemologists."
Now in the Untersuchungen there is no problem about justifying
our "natural" belief in the independent reality of the world. The
phenomenology of 1901 is not interested either in the actual
existence or in the transcendently posited characteristics of
things. It is interested only in their status as "phenomena" for
consciousness. For example, in analyzing seeing as a mental act
phenomenology (descriptive psychology) is to concern itself not
with the question of the actual existence of the object seen but
rather with the question of what an object would have to be in
order to be an object for seeing. It would have to have color,
hence extension, shape, size, and so on. These features would be
the essence of being a visible object even if there were no actually
existing colored or extended things. Later, in the post-1907
period, Hussed did worry about the problem of the independent
reality of bodies and other minds, but not even then did he pose
the problem in the manner that Berkeley found objectionable in
Descartes.
Beginning with The Idea 01 Phenomenology, the first task of the
critique of knowledge is to locate the pure data of phenomenological inquiry. To get at them, Hussed submits, we have first to
notice that there are two sorts of immanences with their correlative transcendencies. On the one hand, the immanent-transcendent dichotomy covers the precritical dualism, "in me - outside
of me." The crucial sense of immanence, on the other hand, is the
sense in which it is intentionally inexistent essences that are
immanent. They are the referents of intentional acts. Their
immanence consists in their self-givenness (Selbstgegebenheit) to
INTRODUCTION
XVII
pure intuition. At the same time, they are transcendent in that

their nature and reality are independent of their being actually
in commerce with mind via some mode of mental activity or
other, for example, being imagined, desired, believed, and so on.
(This, however, is the doctrine in The Idea 01 Phenomenology.
Later on, when Husserl became preoccupied with transcendental
subjectivity, which I shall mention below, he moved from this
Platonic realism to a form of subjective idealism.)
The pure datum, the one to be located by the properly refined
Cartesian method of doubt, is the immanent thing, in the "critical" sense of "immanent." To get to it, we need to go through
several steps, each of which will be a refinement of Descartes's
method of doubt. First, we need phenomenological reduction.
This means suspending all beliefs characteristic of the "natural
attitude," the attitude of common sense and science; in short,
everything that is not "apodictic." Our perception of a chair, for
instance, involves the belief that a physical chair is present "out
there." This belief is neither necessarily true nor necessarily false.
In the phenomenologically reduced state of the given, we are
to hold in abeyance every such belief. And the same for mathematical objects. When we want to take a phenomenological look
at say the number two, we are not to include in our thought of it
that the number two has an objective, extramental though not
physical, existence. The h,oX~' the exclusion of transcendencies
posited by the "natural attitude," is the first step of phenomenological analysis.
The second step is to perform an eidetic reduction, whereby in
the particular occasion of say the perception of a chair, we bring
ourselves to grasp perception as a universal; we make the pure
essence of perception give itself to our pure intuition. The universals that become objects of phenomenological investigation
cannot be had except through actual experience. A blind man, for
instance, could never "get at" the essence of seeing because he
cannot see. The phenomenologist must be in a position to "take a
look" at what is going on when he is actually seeing something.
Only then can he describe what seeing is as such as against this
occasion of his seeing that object. What is more, phenomenological
description is, as of old, not interested in causal or genetic ac-
XVIII
counts about the conditions under which the universals "give

themselves" to pure intuition.
The third step is to discern the manner in which objects of
cognition are constituted in cognition. This, says Hussed, requires
much more than simply "looking" at the reduced phenomena. It
requires a very careful scrutiny of the manner in which, within
cognition, objects are compounded or synthesized according to
stable regularities that are not psychological laws of association
but are rather the forms of cognitive acts. For example, Hussed
takes up sound as a phenomenon and suggests that the momentarily perceived tone is distinct from sound as a phenomenon.
Sound is perceived as having time-phases, yet the phases are not
given at any moment. They are formally constitutive of what
sound is essentially (which is to be distinguished from sound as
described in physics).
To put it in a simple and summary fashion, the phenomenologist is in search of a "pure" or "reduced" object, the essence of a
special thing or of a process, such as seeing. He supposes that the
process is unclear and indistinct in its everyday context. In the
case of seeing, the "pure" or "reduced" phenomenon would be
seeing plus a cogitatio, an act of attention focused upon seeing,
to find out what seeing is. In the natural, everyday context, there
is simply seeing. Wittgenstein, in his Philosophical Investigations,l makes certain devastating observations against the
phenomenological program. For instance, seeing plus an effort
to find out what seeing is is different from seeing as it ordinarily
occurs. But the reader should read the above-mentioned references for the rewarding details.
In The Idea of Phenomenology Husser! hints at a doctrine that
was later to become very important in his thought - the centrality of the transcendental ego. In the fourteenth edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica Husser! has an article on Phenomenology. In it he describes transcendental subjectivity as follows:
Psychical subjectivity, the "I" and "we" of everyday intent, may be as
it is in itself under the phenomenological-psychological reduction, and
being eidetically treated, may establish a phenomenological psychology.
But the transcendental subjectivity which for want of language we can
1 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, Oxford, Blackwell, 1953. Cf.
Part I, Sections 153, 165-172,202,232. See also Paul Feyerabend, "Wittgenstein's
Philosophical Investigations," Philosophical Revue, LXIV (July, 1955), esp. 456-460.
INTRODUCTION
XIX
only call again, "I myself," "we ourselves," cannot be found under the
attitude of psychological or natural science, being no part at all of the
objective world, but that subjective conscious life itself, wherein the world
and all its content is made for "us," for "me." We that are, indeed, men,
spiritual and bodily, existing in the world, are, therefore, "appearances"
unto ourselves, parcel of what "we" have constituted, pieces of the
significance "we" have made. The "I" and the "we," which apprehend,
presuppose the hidden "I" and "we" to whom they are "present."
Transcendental subjectivity, Husserl continues, requires a

further reduction, the transcendental reduction. In this we not
only hold in abeyance the things and features of things we posit
through the "natural attitude" (cf. Santayana's "animal faith")
but also "bracket out" the phenomenal selves, including our
own self. The idea is to reduce the whole of reality to transcendentally reduced data. Otherwise put, the idea is to construct
the whole reality from transcendentally reduced data. This is his
way of taking up Descartes's problem about the reality of "the
external world," the world of bodies and other minds. The philosophical motivation, one may safely suppose, is the one common
to all forms of subjective idealism. It is to avoid the paradox
Berkeley saw in Descartes.
Husserl's theory of transcendental subjectivity is not original
with him. He is cognizant of the sorts of considerations that Hume
and Kant were trying to take account of. Hume said: " ... when
I enter most intimately into what I call myself, I always stumble
on some particular perception or other, of heat or cold, light or
shade, love or hatred, pain or pleasure. I never catch myself at any
time without a perception, and never can observe anything but
the perception." Consistent with his brand of empiricism, Hume
took this correct observation to imply that there is no such thing
as a self. But his denial is paradoxical at least in the sense that the
denial presupposes the existence of that which is being denied.
Kant came to the opposite conclusion from Hume. We have to
admit the reality of the transcendental self, said Kant, and
Husserl follows Kant in this.
Thus, having been an antipsychologistic "realist" in the
Logical Investigations, and having passed through a period of
Platonic realism, Husserl ended as a radical SUbjectivist. For
transcendental subjectivity led Husserl to a sort of subjective
idealism. Husserl thought of his "transcendental-phenomenolo-
xx
gical idealism" as a strictly demonstrable position. He seems to

have reasoned as follows: "The world" cannot be thought of except as being "constituted" by the transcendental ego's intentional acts. It follows, says Husserl, that nothing can exist if it
is not dependent for its existence on the transcendental self. This
implies that the essences emerging as residues at the end of
phenomenological and transcendental reduction as well as bodies
and other minds are eJcistentially dependent upon the transcendental ego.
This sort of inference is characteristic of subjective idealism,
and it is obviously invalid without further supplementation.
There is an ambiguity in the phrase "being constituted." If it
means being brought into existence, the premise is a patent falsehood. Many people think of "the world" as existing before there
were any transcendental selves. Husserl needs a correct argument,
nowhere given by him or any SUbjective idealist, to prove that to
think this is logically inconsistent. If, however, the phrase "being
constituted" means being knowable, then from the tautology that
to be thought of as knowable is to be thought of as being capable
of being accessible to a knower, it does not follow that nothing
can exist if it is not dependent for its existence on the transcendental self. So far, then, Husserl has not created a "scientific"
and unassailable "phenomenological idealism." Husserl carries
his argument further. He says that the transcendental self itself
is not existentially dependent upon anything else; and, therefore,
the only real absolute is the transcendental ego, all else being
existentially dependent on it (relative to it). But the final
conclusion that the real absolute is transcendental subjectivity
does not follow from the argument. For we have not been shown
that everything else in the world is existentially dependent upon
the transcendental self. The final phase of Husserl's philosophy
is thus subject to the standard criticisms against classical forms
of subjective idealism.
There are basic difficulties in the philosophical method Husserl
preaches. One is his ultimate reliance on intuiting essences. This
erects needless barriers to fruitful philosophical communication.
Whenever Husserl asks us to take an intuitive "look" at some
object, say "seeing as such," many a philosopher would be
stymied. It has been suggested that "Husserl's fundamental
INTRODUCTION
XXI
contributions are much simpler than they at first appear

to be. Thus there is little more to his transcendental enox~ and
examination of essences than a determination to examine the
meaning of common concepts and ordinary beliefs rather than to
add factual detail to our knowledge. His program is, in fact, not
very different from that of modern British and United States
analytic philosophy." 1 There is some truth in these remarks.
Husserl's detailed and valuable analyses of perceiving, believing,
valuing, feeling, consciousness, and evidence in the early Logische
Untersuchungen and the later Ideen zu einer reinen Phiinomenologie und phiinomenologischen Philosophie 2 may, without distortion,
be taken as making conceptual points, that is, points about the
logic of discourse. Thus, in practice, a good deal of Husserl's work
is not unlike that of English-speaking analysts. But Husserl's
theory of philosophical method, the phenomenological method,
with its ultimate reliance on intuiting the essence of this or that
entity is radically different from what philosophical method is
conceived to be by many British or United States philosophers.
The phenomenological method with its ultimate appeal to
intuition, not to the logic of language, makes argument impossible.
As a way of proving anything, it is simply inadequate. In this
connection it is worth recalling the remarks made earlier about
Husserl's attack on psychologism in the Logische Untersuchungen.
His appeals to intuiting necessary connections among abstract
entities such as essences and propositions are weak in comparison
with the argument that psychologism is viciously circular. That
argument is not connected with the phenomenological attitude
as such.
Husserl's theory of philosophical method involves two further
and related difficulties. First, it is rather uncritical of Husserl to
assume that there are, independently of any linguistic context,
objects that are epistemologically absolute data. This is the
Husserlian counterpart of logical atomism's assumption of ultimate absolute simples out of which "the world" is to be "logically
1 See J. N. Findlay's article on phenomenology in Encyclopaedia Britannica, London, 1959, 14th edition.
2 An English transcription of the Logische Untersuchungen, together with a dis
cussion of Husserl's ideas, form the bulk of Marvin Farber's The Foundations 01
Phenomenology (see note 2, p. XII). This is a basic source book on Husser!. A more recent
and equally basic source book is Farber's Naturalism and Subjectivism, Springfield,
II!., Charles C. Thomas, 1959.
XXII
constructed." The generic view that there are absolute rockbottom elements has been powerfully criticized in the recent
literature, for example, in Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations. Second, the shifting of the burden away from language
and upon the self-evidently given indicates a somewhat naive
view of the role of language: "we can make our speech conform in
a pure measure to what is intuited in its full clarity," writes
Hussed, (Lecture II, p. 24, The Idea 01 Phenomenology) as if
language were the sort of thing that the phenomenologist could
create at will in the image of ultimate facts.
That Hussed's work should be controversial and not altogether lucid is not an anomaly in philosophy. But it is no less
philosophically interesting for these reasons. Moreover, his work
has exerted an enormous influence on major philosophical
movements current in Latin-America and Western Europe.
Indirectly phenomenology has also given direction to some
European psychologists, for example, Binswanger and Buytendijk. So that anyone who hopes to achieve a comprehensive view
of the contemporary philosophical scene needs to study
Husserl. 1
G. N.
1 I wish to thank Prof. R. M. Chisholm for letting me see, prior to publication, his
introduction to Realism and the Backg1'otmd of Phenomenology (see note I, p. XIV).
THE TRAIN OF THOUGHTS IN THE LECTURES
Natural thinking in science and everyday life is untroubled by

the difficulties concerning the possibility of cognition. Philosophical thinking is circumscribed by one's position toward the
problems concerning the possibility of cognition. The perplexities
in which reflection about the possibility of a cognition that "gets
at" the things themselves becomes entangled: How can we be
sure that cognition accords with things as they exist in themselves, that it "gets at them"? What do things in themselves
care about our ways of thinking and the logical rules governing
them? These are laws of how we think; they are psychological
laws - Biologism, psychological laws as laws of adaptation.
Absurdity: to begin with, when we think naturally about
cognition and fit it and its achievements into the natural ways
of thinking which pertains to the sciences we arrive at theories
that are appealing at first. But they end in contradiction or
absurdity - Inclination to open scepticism.
Even this attempt to look at these problems scientifically we
can call "theory of knowledge." At any rate what emerges is the
idea of a theory of knowledge as a science which solves the abovementioned difficulties, gives us an ultimate, clear, therefore inherently consistent insight into the essence of cognition and the
possibility of its achievements. The critique of cognition in this
sense is the condition of the possibility of a metaphysics.
The method of the critique of cognition is the phenomenological
method, phenomenology as the general doctrine of essences,
within which the science of the essence of cognition finds its place.
What sort of method is this? How can a science of cognition be
established if cognition in general, what cognizing means and
can accomplish, is questioned? What method can here reach
the goal?
<3>
A. The First Step in the Phenomenological Orientation

1) Right away we become dubious whether such a science is at
all possible. If it questions all cognition, every cognition chosen as
a starting point is questioned. How then can it ever begin?
This, however, is only a specious difficulty. In "being called
into question," cognition is neither disavowed nor regarded as in
every sense doubtful. The question is about some accomplishments imputed to cognition, whereas in fact it is even an open
question whether the difficulties pertain to all possible types of
cognition. At any rate, if the theory of knowledge is to concern itself with the possibility of cognition it must have cognitions of
the possibilities of cognition which, as such, are beyond question;
indeed, cognitions in the fullest sense, cognitions about which
absolutely no doubt of their having reached their objects is
possible. If we are uncertain or unclear as to how it is possible
for cognition to reach its object, and if we are inclined to doubt
that such a thing is possible, we must, first of all, have before us
indubitable examples of cognitions or possible cognitions which
really reach, or would reach, their respective objects. At the outset we must not take anything as a cognition just because it
seems to be one; otherwise we would have no possible, or what
comes to the same thing, no sensible objective.
Here the Cartesian method 0/ doubt provides a starting point.
Without doubt there is cogitatio, there is, namely, the mental
process during the [subject's] undergoing it and in a simple
reflection upon it. The seeing, direct grasping and having of the
cogitatio is already a cognition. The cogitationes are the first
absolute data.
2) What follows naturally is our first question in the theory 0/
knowledge: What distinguishes the certainty in these examples
from the uncertainty in other instances of alleged cognition? Why
is there in certain cases a tendency toward scepticism and toward
asking the sceptical question: How can cognition reach a being,
and why is there not this doubt and this difficulty in connection
with the cogitationes?
<5>
People answer at first - that is indeed the answer ready at
hand - in terms of the pair of concepts or words immanence and
transcendence. The "seeing" cognition of the cogitatio is immanent.
<4>
The cognition belonging to the objective sciences, the natural

sciences and the sciences of culture (Geisteswissenschaften) and on
closer: inspection also the mathematical sciences, is transcendent.
Involved in the objective sciences is the doubtfulness of transcendence, the question: How can cognition reach beyond itself?
How can it reach a being that is not to be found within the confines of consciousness? There is not this difficulty with the
"seeing" cognition of the cogitatio. 1
3) Next, one is inclined to interpret, as if this were obvious,
immanence as genuine immanence (reelle I mmanenz) 2 and even
perhaps to interpret it psychologically, as immanence in something
real (reale Immanenz) : the object of cognition too, is within the
cognitive process as a real actuality, or in the [stream of] egoconsciousness of which the mental process is a part. That the
cognitive act can hit upon and find its object in the same [stream
of] consciousness and within the same real here and now, that is
what is taken for granted. The neophyte will say, at this point,
that the immanent is in me, the transcendent outside of me.
On a closer view, however, genuine immanence (reelle Immanenz) differs from immanence in the sense of self-givenness as
constituted in evidence (Evidenz). The genuinely immanent (reell
Immanente) is taken as the indubitable just on account of the
fact that it presents nothing else, "points" to nothing "outside"
itself, for what is here intended is fully and adequately given in
itself. Any self-givenness other than that of the genuinely immanent (reell Immanente) is not yet in view.
4) So for the moment no distinction is made. The first step
toward clarity now is this: the genuinely immanent (reell I mmanentes), or what would here mean the same, the adequately selfgiven, is beyond question. I may make use of it. That which is
transcendent (not genuinely immanent) I may not use. Therefore,
1 Tr. note: we have rendered Husser!'s word schauen as "see," the point of the
double quotes being that this use of "see" is broader than simply seeing with one's
eyes.
Z Tr. note: reelle Immanenz has no straightforward translation. The distinction
Husser! has in mind is the immanence of universals (essences) vs.the (reelle) immanence
of mental occurrences and their contents, e.g., cogitationes, their contents; also, psychological occurrences such as toothaches. Everything (reell) immanent is existentially
mind-dependent. Essences, on the other hand, are neither mental occurrences nor
contents. They are intentionally inexistent obiects of cognitive acts, specifically of
"seeings," but they are not ingredients of such acts. Their immanence is simply their
gillenness to "seeing."
I must accomplish a phenomenological reduction: I must exclude all

that is transcendently posited.
Why? [Because] if I am in the dark as to how cognition can
reach that which is transcendent, not given in itself but "intended
<6> as being outside," / no cognition or science of the transcendent
can help to dispel the darkness. What I want is clarity. I want to
understand the possibility of that reaching. But this, if we examine
its sense, signifies: I want to come face to face with the essence
of the possibility of that reaching. I want to make it given to me
in an act of "seeing." A "seeing" cannot be demonstrated. The
blind man who wishes to see cannot be made to see by means
of scientific proofs. Physical and physiological theories about
colors give no "seeing" (schauende) clarity about the meaning of
color as those with eyesight have it. If, therefore, the critique of
cognition is a science, as it doubtless is in the light of these considerations, a science which is to clarify all species and forms of
cognition, it can make no use of any science of the natural sort. It
cannot tie itself to the conclusions that any natural science has
reached about what is. For it they remain in question. As far as
the critique of cognition is concerned, all the sciences are only
phenomena of science. Every tie of that sort signifies a defective
fleT(J.{JQ(]'~ (foundation). This comes about only by way of a
mistaken but often seductive shifting between problems: between
explaining cognition as a fact of nature in psychological and
scientific terms and elucidating cognition in terms of its essential
capabilities to accomplish its task. Accordingly, if we are to
avoid this confusion and remain constantly mindful of the
meaning of the question concerning these capabilities, we need
phenomenological reduction.
This means: everything transcendent (that which is not given
to me immanently) is to be assigned the index zero, i.e., its
existence, its validity is not to be assumed as such, except at most
as the phenomenon of a claim to validity. I am to treat all sciences
only as phenomena, hence not as systems of valid truths, not as
premises, not even as hypotheses for me to reach truth with. This
applies to the whole of psychology and the whole of natural
science. Meanwhile, the proper meaning of our principle is in the
constant challenge to stay with the objects as they are in question
here in the critique of cognition and not to confuse the problems
here with quite different ones. The elucidation of the ways in

which cognition is possible does not depend upon the ways of
objective science. / To bring knowledge to evident self-givenness <7>
and to seek to view the nature of its accomplishment does not
mean to deduce, to make inductions, to calculate, etc. It is not
the same as eliciting, with reasons, novel things from things
already given or purportedly given.
B. The Second Level of the Phenomenological Orientation
We now need a new stratum of considerations in order to achieve
a higher level of clarity about the nature of phenomenological
research and its problems.
1) First, the Cartesian cogitatio already requires the phenomenological reduction. The psychological phenomenon in psychological apperception and objectification is not a truly absolute
datum. The truly absolute datum is the pure phenomenon, that
which is reduced. The mentally active ego, the object, man in
time, the thing among things, etc., are not absolute data; hence
man's mental activity as his activity is no absolute datum either.
We abandon finally the standpoint of psychology, even of descriptive

psychology. And so what is also reduced is the question which
initially drove us: no longer how can I, this man, contact in my
mental processes something existing in itself, perhaps out there,
beyond me; but we now replace this hitherto ambiguous question,
unstable and complex, because of its transcendent burden, with
the pure basic question: How can the pure phenomenon of cognition reach something which is not immanent to it? How can
the absolute self-givenness of cognition reach something not
self-given and how is this reaching to be understood?
At the same time the concept of genuine immanence (reellen
I mmanenz) is reduced. It no longer signifies immanence in something real (reate I mmanenz), the immanence in human consciousness and in the real (realen) psychic phenomenon.
2) Once we have the "seen" phenomena, it seems that we
already have a phenomenology, a science of these phenomena.
But as soon as we begin there, we notice a certain constriction. / <8>
The field of absolute phenomena - taken one at a time - does
not seem to be enough to fulfill our intentions. What good are
single "seeings" to us, no matter how securely they bring our

cogitationes to self-givenness? At first it seems beyond question
that on the basis of these "seeings" we can undertake logical
operations, can compare, contrast, subsume under concepts,
predicate, although, as appears later, -behind these operations
stand new objectivities. But even if what here seems beyond
question were taken for granted and considered no further, we
could not understand how we could here arrive at universally
valid findings of the sort we need.
But one thing seems to help us along: eidetic abstraction. It
yields inspectable universals, species, essences, and so it seems to
provide the redeeming idea: for do we not seek "seeing" clarity
about the essence of cognition? Cognition belongs to the sphere of
cogitationes. Accordingly, we must through "seeing" bring its
universal objects into the consciousness of the universal. Thus it
becomes possible to have a doctrine about the essence of cognition.
We take this step in agreement with a tenet of Descartes's
concerning clear and distinct perceptions. The "existence" of the
cogitatio is guaranteed by its absolute sell-givenness, by its
givenness in pure evidence (Evidenz). Whenever we have pure
evidence (Evidenz), the pure vie~ng and grasping of something
objective directly and in itself, we have the same guarantees, the
same certainties.
This step gave us a new objectivity as absolutely given, i.e.,
the objectivity 01 essences; and as to begin with the logical acts
which find expression in assertions based upon what is intuited
remain unnoticed, so now we get the field of assertions about
essences, viz., of what is generally the case as given in pure
"seeing." That is to say at first undifferentiated from the individually given universal objects.
3) Yet do we now have everything; do we have the fully
delineated phenomenology and the clear self-evidence to put us in
the position of having what we need for the critique of cog<9> nition? / And are we clear about the issues to be resolved?
No, the step we took leads us further. It makes clear to us in
the first place that genuine (reell) immanence (and the same is true
of transcendence) is but a special case of the broader concept 01
immanence as such. No longer is it a commonplace and taken on
face value that the absolutely given and the genuinely immanent
are one and the same. For that which is universal is absolutely
given but is not genuinely immanent. The act of cognizing the
universal is something singular. At any given time, it is a moment
in the stream of consciousness. The universal itself, which is given
in evidence (Evidenz) within the stream of consciousness is
nothing singular but just a universal, and in the genuine (reeUen)
sense it is transcendent.
Consequently, the idea of phenomenological reduction acquires a
more immediate and more profound determination and a clearer
meaning. It means not the exclusion of the genuinely transcendent (perhaps even in some psychologico-empirical sense), but the
exclusion of the transcendent as such as something to be accepted
as existent, i.e., everything that is not evident givenness in its
true sense, that is not absolutely given to pure "seeing." But, of
course, everything of what we said remains. Inductive or deductive scientific conclusions or facets, etc., from hypotheses, facts,
axioms, remain excluded and are allowed only as "phenomena";
and the same with all reference to any "knowing" and "cognition": inquiry must concern itself always with pure "seeing"
and, therefore, not with the genuinely immanent. It is inquiry
within the sphere of pure evidence, inquiry into essences. We also
said that its field is the a priori within absolute self-givenness.
Thus the field is now characterized. It is a field of absolute
cognitions, within which the ego and the world and God and the
mathematical manifolds and whatever else may be a scientifically
objective matter are held in abeyance, cognitions which are,
therefore, also not dependent on these matters, which are valid
in their own right, whether we are sceptics with regard to the
others or not. All that remains as it is. The root of the matter,
however, is to grasp the meaning of the absolutely given, the absolute
clarity of the given, which / excludes every meaningful doubt, in a < 10>
word, to grasp the absolutely "seeing" evidence which gets hold of
itself. To a certain extent in the discovery of all this lies the
historical significance of the Cartesian method of doubt. But for
Descartes to discover and to abandon were the same. We do
nothing but clearly formulate and develop consistently what was
always implicit in this age-old project. We part company in this
connection with psychologistic interpretations of evidence in
terms of feelings.
C. The Third Level of the Phenomenological Orientation

Once more we need a new level of considerations, to give us
greater clarity about the meaning of phenomenology and to
develop further its problems.
How far does self-givenness reach? Is it contained in the
givenness of the cogitatio and in the ideations which grasp it in its
generality? Our phenomenological sphere, the sphere of absolute
clarity, of immanence in the true sense, reaches no farther than
self-givenness reaches.
We are once again led somewhat deeper, and in depths lie the
obscurities and in the obscurities lie the problems.
Everything seemed at first simple and hardly requiring hard
work. The prejudice about immanence as genuine immanence, as
if the latter were what mattered, one may cast off, and yet one
remains at first wedded to genuine immanence, at least in a
certain sense. It seems, at first, that in "seeing" essences we have
only to grasp in its generality the genuinely immanent in the
cogitationes and to establish the connections rooted in essences.
This, too, seems an easy matter. We reflect; we look back at
our own acts; we appraise their genuine contents, as they
are, only under phenomenological reduction. This appears to
be the sole difficulty. And now, of course, there is nothing
further than to lift that which is "seen" into consciousness of
universality.
The matter, however, becomes less cozy when we take a closer
<11> look at the data. First, the cogitationes, which I we regard as
simple data and in no way mysterious, hide all sorts of transcendencies.
If we look closer and notice how in the mental process, say of
[perceiving] a sound, even after phenomenological reduction,
appearance and that which appears stand in contrast, and this in
the midst of pure givenness, hence in the midst of true immanence,
then we are taken aback. Perhaps the sound lasts. We have there
the patently given unity of the sound and its duration with its
temporal phases, the present and the past. On the other hand,
when we reflect, the phenomenon of enduring sound, itself a
temporal phenomenon, has its own now-phase and past phases.
And if one picks out a now-phase of the phenomenon there is not
only the objective now of the sound itself, but the now of the
sound is but a point in the duration of a sound.
Detailed analyses will be given in the course of our special
tasks. The above suggestion is enough to call attention to a new
point: that the phenomenon of sound perception, even as evident
and reduced, demands within the immanent a distinction between appearance and that which appears. We thus have two
absolute data, the givenness of the appearing and the givenness
of the object; and the object within this immanence is not immanent in the sense of genuine immanence; it is not a concrete
part (Stuck) of the appearance, i.e., the past phases of the
enduring sound are now still objective and yet they are not
genuinely contained in the present moment of the appearance.
Therefore, we also find in the case of the phenomenon of perception what we found in the case of consciousness of universals,
namely, that it is a consciousness which constitutes something
self-given which is not contained within what is occurring [in the
world] and is not at all found as cogitatio.
At the lowest level of reflection, the naive level, at first it
seems as if evidence were a matter of simple "seeing," a mental
inspection without a character of its own, always one and the
same and in itself undifferentiated: the "seeing" just "sees" the
things (Sachen), / the things are simply there and in the truly <12>
evident "seeing" they are there in consciousness, and "seeing" is
simply to "see" them. Or, to use our previous simile: a direct
grasping or taking or pointing to something that simply is and is
there. All difference is thus in the things that exist in themselves
and have their differences through themselves.
And now how different the "seeing" of things shows itself to
be on closer analysis. Even if we retain under the heading of
attention the notion of an undifferentiated and in itself no
further describable "seeing," it is, nevertheless, apparent that it
really makes no sense at all to talk about things which are
"simply there" and just need to be "seen." On the contrary, this
"simply being there" consists of certain mental processes of
specific and changing structure, such as perception, imagination,
memory, predication, etc., and in them the things are not contained as in a hull or vessel. Instead, the things come to be
constituted in these mental processes, although in reality they are
10
not at all to be found in them. For "things to be given" is for

them to be exhibited (represented) as so and so in such phenomena.
And this is not to say that the things once more exist in themselves and "send their representatives into consciousness." This
sort of thing cannot occur to us within the sphere of phenomenological reduction. Instead, the things are and are given in appearance and in virtue of the appearance itself; though they are,
or are taken as, individually separable from the appearance, they
are essentially inseparable from it insofar as the single appearance (the consciousness of the given) is not in question.
Thus this marvelous correlation between the phenomenon of
cognition and the obiect of cognition reveals itself everywhere.
Now let us notice that the task of phenomenology, or rather the
area of its tasks and inquiries, is no such trivial things as merely
looking, merely opening one's eyes. Already in the first and
simplest cases, in the lowest forms of cognition, the greatest
difficulties confront pure analysis and the inspection of essences.
It is easy to talk of correlation in general but it is very difficult
to clarify the way in which an object of cognition constitutes itself
<13> in cognition. / And the task is just this: within the framework of
pure evidence (Evidenz) or self-givenness to trace all forms 01
givenness and all correlations and to conduct an elucidatory
analysis. Of course, to do this we need to take account not only of
single acts but also of their complexities, of the consistency or
inconsistency of their connections and of the intentions (Teleologien) apparent in them. These connections are not conglomerations but distinctively connected and as it were congruent
unities, and unities of cognition, which, as unities of cognition
have also their unitary objective correlates. Thus they belong
themselves to the cognitive acts, their types are cognitive types,
their native forms are forms of thought and forms of intuition
(the word not here to be taken in its Kantian sense).
It now remains to trace step by step the data in all their
modifications, those that are, properly speaking, data and those
that are not, the simple and the compounded ones, those that so
to say are constituted at once and those that essentially are built
up stepwise, those that are absolutely valid and those that in the
process of cognition acquire givenness and validity in an unlimited progression.
11
We finally arrive in this way at an understanding of how the

transcendent real object can be met (can be known in its nature)
in the cognitive act as that which one primarily means by it, and
how the sense of this meaning is filled out step by step in a
developing cognitive context (if only it has the proper forms
which belong to the constitution of the object of experience). We
then understand how the object of experience is progressively
constituted, and how this manner of being constituted is prescribed. We understand that such a stepwise constitution is
required by the very essence of the experienced object.
Along this path one approaches the methodological forms
which determine all the sciences and are constitutive of all
scientifically given objects, and so also the elucidation of the
theory of science and with it implicitly the elucidation of all the
sciences; however, only implicitly, i.e., it is only once this
enormous work of elucidation has been accomplished that the
critique of cognition will be fit to become I a critique of the dh
specialized sciences and thereby to evaluate them metaphysically.
These then are the problems of givenness, the problems of the
constitution of objects of all sorts within cognition. The phenomenology of cognition is the science of cognitive phenomena in two
senses. On the one hand it has to do with cognitions as appearances, presentations, acts of consciousness in which this or
that object is presented, is an object of consciousness, passively
or actively. On the other hand, the phenomenology of cognition
has to do with these objects as presenting themselves in this
manner. The word "phenomenon" is ambiguous in virtue of the
essential correlation between appearance and that which appears.
tl>atVO{l81 01 (phenomenon) in its proper sense means that which
appears, and yet it is by preference used for the appearing itself,
for the SUbjective phenomenon (if one may use this expression
which is apt to be misunderstood in the vulgar psychological
sense).
In reflection, the cogitatio, the appearing itself, becomes an
object, and this encourages the rise of ambiguity. Finally, we
need not repeat once more that in speaking about investigating
the objects and modes of cognition, we always mean investigation
into essences, which, in the sphere of the absolutely given, exhibits in a general way the ultimate meaning, the possibility, the
J
12
essence of the objectivity of cognition and of the cognition of

objects.
It goes without saying that the general phenomenology 01 reason
has to solve also the parallel problems of the correlation between
valuing and the things valued, etc. If the word "phenomenology"
were used so broadly as to cover the analysis of everything selfgiven, the incoherent data would become coherent: analyzing
sense-given entities according to their various kinds, etc. - the
common element is then in the methodology of the analysis of
essences within the sphere of immediate evidence.
LECTURE I
<15>
[THE NATURAL ATTITUDE IN THINKING AND SCIENCE OF THE NATURAL SORT.

THE PHILOSOPHIC (REFLECTIVE) ATTITUDE IN THINKING. THE CONTRADICTIONS OF REFLECTION ON COGNITION, WHEN ONE REFLECTS IN THE
NATURAL ATTITUDE, THE DUAL TASK OF TRUE CRITICISM OF COGNITION.
TRUE CRITICISM OF COGNITION AS PHENOMENOLOGY OF COGNITION. THE
NEW DIMENSION BELONGING TO PHILOSOPHY; ITS PECULIAR METHOD IN
CONTRAST TO SCIENCE.]
In earlier lectures I distinguished between science 01 the natural <17>

sort and philosophic science. The fonner originates from the natural, the latter from the philosophic attitude of mind.
The natural attitude 01 mind is as yet unconcerned with the
critique of cognition. Whether in the act of intuiting or in the act
of thinking, in the natural mode of reflection we are turned to
the objects as they are given to us each time and as a matter of
course, even though they are given in different ways and in
different modes of being, according to the source and level of
our cognition. In perception, for instance, a thing stands before
our eyes as a matter of course. It is there, among other things,
living or lifeless, animate or inanimate. It is, in short, within a
world of which part is perceived, as are the individual things
themselves, and of which part is contextually supplied by memory from whence it spreads out into the indetenninate and the
unknown.
Our judgments relate to this world. We make (sometimes
singular, sometimes universal) judgments about things, their
relations, their changes, about the conditions which functionally
detennine their changes and about the laws of their variations.
We find an expression for what immediate experience presents.
en line with our experiential motives we draw inferences from the
Iirectly experienced (perceived and remembered) to what is not
dxperienced. We generalize, and then apply again general knowledge to particular cases or deduce analytically new generalizations from general knowledge. Isolated cognitions do not
simply follow each other in the manner of mere succession. They
enter into logical relations with each other, they follow from
one another, they "cohere" with one another, they support
one another, thereby strengthening their logical power.
14
On the other hand, they also clash and contradict one another.
They do not agree with one another, they are falsified by assured
<18> cognition, I and their claim to be cognition is discredited.
Perhaps the contradictions arise in the sphere that belongs to
laws governing the pure predicational form: we have equivocated,
we have inferred fallaciously, we have miscounted or miscomputed. In these cases we restore formal consistency. We
resolve the equivocation and the like.
Or the contradictions disturb our expectation of connections
based on past experience: empirical evidence conflicts with
empirical evidence. Where do we look for help? We now weigh
the reasons for different possible ways of deciding or providing
an explanation. The weaker must give way to the stronger,
and the stronger, in turn, are of value as long as they will stand
up, i.e., as long as they in turn do not have to come into a similar
logical conflict with new cognitional motives introduced by a
broader sphere of cognition.
Thus, natural knowledge makes strides. It progressively takes
possession of a reality at first existing for us as a matter of course
and as something to be investigated further as regards its extent
and content, its elements, its relations and laws. Thus the
various sciences of the natural sort (naturlichen Wissenschaften)
come into being and flourish, the natural sciences (Naturwissenschaften) as the sciences of physics and psychology, the sciences
of culture (Geisteswissenschaften) and, on the other side, the
mathematical sciences, the sciences of numbers, classes, relations,
etc. The latter sciences deal not with actual but rather with
ideal objects; they deal with what is valid per se, and for the rest
with what are from the first unquestionable possibilities.
In every step of natural cognition pertaining to the sciences of
the natural sort, difficulties arise and are resolved, either by
pure logic or by appeal to facts, on the basis of motives or reasons
which lie in the things themselves and which, as it were, come
from things in the form of requirements that they themselves
make on our thinking.
Now let us contrast the natural mode (or habit) of reflection
with the philosophical.
With the awakening of reflection about the relation of cogni<1.9> tion to its object, abysmal difficulties arise. / Cognition, the
LECTURE I
15
thing most taken for granted in natural thinking, suddenly

emerges as a mystery. But I must be more exact. What is taken
lor granted in natural thinking is the possibility of cognition.
Constantly busy producing results, advancing from discovery
to discovery in newer and newer branches of science, natural
thinking finds no occasion to raise the question of the possibility
of cognition as such. To be sure, as with everything else in the
world, cognition, too, will appear as a problem in a certain
manner, becoming an object of natural investigation. Cognition
is a fact in nature. It is the experience of a cognizing organic
being. It is a psychological fact. As any psychological fact, it
can be described according to its kinds and internal connections,
and its genetic relations can be investigated. On the other hand
cognition is essentially cognition 01 what objectively is; and it
is cognition through the meaning which is intrinsic to it; by
virtue of this meaning it is r~lated to what objectively is. Natural
thinking is also already active in this relating. It investigates
in their lormal generality the a priori connections of meanings
and postulated meanings and the a priori principles which
belong to objectivity as such; there comes into being a pure
grammar and at higher stages a pure logic (a whole complex
of disciplines owing to its different possible delimitations), and
there arises once more a normative and practical logic in the
form of an art of thinking, and, especially, of scientific thinking.
So far, we are still in the realm of natural thinking.
However, the correlation between cognition as mental process,
its referent (Bedeutung) and what objectively is, which has
just been touched upon in order to contrast the psychology
of cognition with pure logic and ontology, is the source of the
deepest and most difficult problems. Taken collectively, they
are the problem of the possibility of cognition.
Cognition in all of its manifestations is a psychic act; it is the <20>
cognition of a cognizing subject. The objects cognized stand
over and against the cognition. But how can we be certain of
the correspondence between cognition and the object cognized?
How can knowledge transcend itself and reach its object reliably?
The unproblematic manner in which the object of cognition is
given to natural thought to be cognized now becomes an enigma.
In perception the perceived thing is believed to be directly
16
given. Before my perceiving eyes stands the thing. I see it, and
I grasp it. Yet the perceiving is simply a mental act of mine,
of the perceiving subject. Likewise, memory and expectation
are subjective processes; and so are all thought processes built
upon them and through which we come to posit that something
really is the case and to determine any truth about what is.
How do I, the cognizing subject, know if I can ever really know,
that there exist not only my own mental processes, these acts
of cognizing, but also that which they apprehend? How can
I ever know that there is anything at all which could be set
over against cognition as its object?
Shall I say: only phenomena are truly given to the cognizing
subject, he never does and never can break out of the circle of
his own mental processes, so that in truth he could only say:
I exist, and all that is not-I is mere phenomenon dissolving into
phenomenal connections? Am I then to become a solipsist?
This is a hard requirement. Shall I, with Hume, reduce all
transcendent objectivity to fictions lending themselves to
psychological explanation but to no rational justification? But
this, too, is a hard requirement. Does not Hume's psychology,
along with any psychology, transcend the sphere of immanence?
By working with such concepts as habit, human nature, senseorgan, stimulus and the like, is it not working with transcendent
existences (and transcendent by its own avowal), while its aim
is to degrade to the status of fictions everything that transcends
actual "impressions" and "ideas"?
But what is the use of invoking the specter of contradictions
<21> when / logic itself is in question and becomes problematic. Indeed,
the real meaning of logical lawfulness which natural thinking
would not dream of questioning, now becomes problematic and
dubious. Thoughts of a biological order intrude. We are reminded
of the modern theory of evolution, according to which man has
evolved in the struggle for existence and by natural selection,
and with him his intellect too has evolved naturally and along
with his intellect all of its characteristic forms, particularly the
logical forms. Accordingly, is it not the case that the logical
forms and laws express the accidental peculiarity of the human
species, which could have been different and which will be different in the course of future evolution? Cognition is, after all, only
LECTURE I
17
human cognition, bound up with human intellectual forms, and

unfit to reach the very nature of things, to reach the things in
themselves.
But at once another piece of absurdity arises. Can the cognitions by which such a view operates and the possibilities which
it ponders make any sense themselves if the laws of logic are
given over to such relativism? Does not the truth that there is
this and that possibility implicitly presuppose the absolute
validity of the principle of non-contradiction, according to which
any given truth excludes its contradictory?
These examples should suffice. The possibility of cognition has
become enigmatic throughout. If we immerse ourselves in the
sciences of the natural sort, we find everything clear and comprehensible, to the extent to which they have developed into
exact sciences. We are certain that we are in possession of objective truth, based upon reliable methods of reaching (objective)
reality. But whenever we reflect, we fall into errors and confusions. We become entangled in patent difficulties and even selfcontradictions. We are in constant danger of becoming sceptics,
or still worse, we are in danger of falling into anyone of a number
of scepticisms all of which have, sad to say, one and the same
characteristic: absurdity.
The playground of these unclear and inconsistent theories as
well as the endless quarrels associated with them / is the theory <22>
of knowledge, and metaphysics which is bound up with it historically and in subject matter. The task of the theory of knowledge or
the critique of theoretical reason is, first of all, a critical one. It
must brand the well-nigh inevitable mistakes which ordinary
reflection makes about the relation of cognition, its meaning and
its object, thereby refuting the concealed as well as the unconcealed sceptical theories concerning the essence of cognition
by demonstrating their absurdity.
Furthermore, the positive task of the theory of knowledge is to
solve the problems of the relations among cognition, its meaning
and its object by inquiring into the essence of cognition. Among
these, there is the problem of explicating the essential meaning
of being a cognizable object or, what comes to the same thing,
of being an object at all: of the meaning which is prescribed (for
being an object at all) by the correlation a priori (or essential
18
correlation) between cognition and being an object of cognition.

And this naturally applies also to all basic fonns of being an
object which are predetennined by the nature of cognition. (To the
ontological, the apophantic 1 as well as the metaphysical fonns.)
Precisely by solving these problems the theory of knowledge
qualifies as the critique of cognition, more exactly, as the critique
of natural cognition in all the sciences of a natural sort. It puts us,
in other words, in a position to interpret in an accurate and
definitive way the teachings of these sciences about what exists.
For the confusions of the theory of knowledge into which we are
led by natural (pre-epistemological) reflection on the possibility
of cognition (on the possibility of cognition's reaching its object)
involve not just false views about the essence of cognition, but
also self-contradictory, and, therefore, fundamentally misleading
interpretations of the being that is cognized in the sciences of the
natural sort. So, one and the same science is interpreted in materialistic, spiritualistic, dualistic, psychomonistic, positivistic
and many other ways, depending upon what interpretation is
thought to be the necessary consequence of those pre-epistemological reflections. Only with epistemological reflection do we
<23> arrive at the distinction between I the sciences of a natural sort
and philosophy. Epistemological reflection first brings to light
that the sciences of a natural sort are not yet the ultimate
science of being. We need a science of being in the absolute sense.
This science, which we call metaphysics, grows out of a "critique"
of natural cognition in the individual sciences. It is based on what
is learned in the general critique of cognition about the essence of
cognition and what it is to be an object of cognition of one basic
type or other, i.e., in accordance with the different fundamental
correlations between cognizing and being an object of cognition.
If then we disregard any metaphysical purpose of the critique
of cognition and confine ourselves purely to the task of clarifying
the essence of cognition and of being an object of cognition, then this
will be phenomenology of cognition and of being an object of cognition and will be the first and principal part of phenomenology
as a whole.
Phenomenology: this denotes a science, a system of scientific
1 Tr. note: In Husser! the word "apophantic" refers to predicative judgments or to
the theory of such judgments.
LECTURE I
19
disciplines. But it also and above all denotes a method and an

attitude of mind, the specifically philosophical attitude of mind,
the specifically philosophical method.
In contemporary philosophy, insofar as it claims to be a serious
science, it has become almost a commonplace that there can be
only one method for achieving cognition in all the sciences as
well as in philosophy. This conviction accords wholly with the
great philosophical traditions of the seventeenth century, which
also thought that philosophy's salvation lay wholly in its taking
as a model of method the exact sciences, and above all, mathematics and mathematical natural science. This putting philosophy methodologically on a par with the other sciences goes hand
in hand with treating them alike with respect to subject matter.
It is still the prevailing opinion that philosophy and, more
specifically, ontology and the general theory of knowledge not
only relate to all the other sciences, but also that they can be
grounded upon the conclusions of those other sciences: / in the <24>
same way in which sciences are built upon one another, and the
conclusions of one of them can serve as premises for the others.
I am reminded of the favorite ploy of basing the theory of knowledge on the psychology of cognition and biology. In our day,
reactions against these fatal prejudices are multiplying. And
prejudices they are.
In the sphere of ordinary inquiry one science can readily build
upon another, and the one can serve the other as a model of
method even though to a limited extent determined by the nature
of the areas of inquiry in question. But philosophy lies in a wholly
new dimension. It needs an entirely new point of departure and an
entirely new method distinguishing it in principle from any
"natural" science. This is why the logical procedures that give the
sciences of a natural sort unity have a unitary character in
principle in spite of the special methods which change from one
science to another: while the methodological procedures of
philosophy have by contrast and in principle a new unity. This is
also why pure philosophy, within the whole of the critique of
cognition and the "critical" disciplines generally, must disregard,
and must refrain from using, the intellectual achievements of
the sciences of a natural sort and of scientifically undisciplined
natural wisdom and knowledge.
20
To anticipate, this doctrine, the grounds for which will be

given in more detail in the sequel, is recommended by the following considerations.
In the sceptical mood which critical reflection about cognition
necessarily begets (I mean the reflection that comes first, the
one that comes before the scientific critique of cognition and
which takes place on the natural level of thought) every science
of the natural sort and every method characteristic of such a
science ceases to count as something we properly possess. For
cognition's reaching its object has become enigmatic and dubious
as far as its meaning and possibility are concerned, and exact
cognition becomes thereby no less enigmatic than inexact,
<25> scientific knowledge no {less than the pre-scientific. The possibility of cognition becomes questionable, more precisely, how it
can possibly reach an objectivity which, after all, is in itself
whatever it is. Behind this lies the following: What is in question
is what cognition can accomplish, the meaning of its claim to
validity and correctness, the meaning of the distinction between
valid real and merely apparent cognition; on the other hand, also
the meaning of being an object which exists and exists as what it
is whether it is cognized or not and which as an object is an object
of possible cognition, in principle cognizable, even if in fact it has
never been and never will be cognized, but is in principle perceptible, imaginable, determinable by predicates in a possible
judgment, etc.
However, it is impossible to see how working with presuppositions which are taken from natural cognition, no matter how
"exactly founded" they are in it, can help us to resolve the misgivings which arise in the critique of cognition, to find the answers to its problems. If the meaning and value of natural cognition as such together with all of its methodological presuppositions and all of its exact foundations have become problematic,
then this strikes at every proposition which natural cognition
presupposes in its starting-point and at every allegedly exact
method of giving a foundation. Neither the most exact mathematics nor mathematical natural science has here the slightest
advantage over any actual or alleged cognition through ordinary
experience. It is then clear that there can be no such talk as that
philosophy (which begins in the critique of cognition and which,
LECTURE I
21
whatever else it is, is rooted in the critique of cognition) has to

model itself after the exact sciences methodologically (or even as
regards subject matter!), or that it has to adopt as a standard
their methodology, or that it is philosophy's task to implement
and to complete the work done in the exact sciences according to
a single method, in principle the same for all the sciences. In
contradistinction to all natural cognition, philosophy lies, I
repeat, within a new dimension; and what corresponds to this new
dimension, even if, as the phrase suggests, it is essentially connected with the old dimensions, is a new and radically new method
which / is set over against the "natural" method. He who denies <26>
this has failed to understand entirely the whole of the level at
which the characteristic problem of the critique of cognition lies,
and with this he has failed to understand what philosophy
really wants to do and should do, and what gives it its own
character and authority vis-a-vis the whole of natural cognition
and science of the natural sort.
<27>
LECTURE II
[THE BEGINNING OF THE CRITIQUE OF COGNITION; TREATING AS QUESTIONABLE EVERY (CLAIM TO) KNOWING. REACHING THE GROUND OF ABSOLUTE
CERTAINTY IN PURSUANCE OF DESCARTES'S METHOD OF DOUBT. THE SPHERE
OF THE THINGS THAT ARE ABSOLUTELY GIVEN. REVIEW AND AMPLIFICATION: REFUTATION OF THE ARGUMENT AGAINST THE POSSIBILITY OF A
CRITIQUE OF COGNITION. THE RIDDLE OF NATURAL COGNITION: TRANSCENDENCE. DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE TWO CONCEPTS OF IMMANENCE AND
TRANSCENDENCE. THE INITIAL PROBLEM OF THE CRITIQUE OF COGNITION:
THE POSSIBILITY OF TRANSCENDENT COGNITION. THE PRINCIPLE OF
EPISTEMOLOGICAL REDUCTION.]
< 29>
At the outset of the critique of cognition the entire world of

nature, physical and psychological, as well as one's own human
self together with all the sciences which have to do with these
objective matters, are put in question. Their being, their validity
are left up in the air.
Now the question is: How can the critique of cognition get under
way? The critique of cognition is the attempt of cognition to find
a scientific understanding of itself and to establish objectively
what cognition is in its essence, what is the meaning of the relation to an object which is implicit in the claim to cognition and
what its objective validity or the reaching of its object comes to
if it is to be cognition in the true sense. Although the bwX~,l
which the critique of cognition must employ, begins with the
doubt of all cognition, its own included, it cannot remain in such
doubt nor can it refuse to take as valid everything given, including that which it brings to light itself. If it must presuppose
nothing as already given, then it must begin with some cognition
which it does not take unexamined from elsewhere but rather
gives to itself, which it itself posits as primal.
This primal cognition must contain nothing of the unclarity
and the doubt which otherwise give to cognition the character of
the enigmatic and problematic so that we are finally in the
embarrassing position of having to say that cognition as such is a
problem, something incomprehensible, in need of elucidation
and dubious in its claims. Or, to speak differently: If we are not
allowed to take anything as already given because our lack of
clarity about cognition implies that we cannot understand what
1 Tr. note: epoche, the excluding of transcendencies posited by the "natural
attitude."
LECTURE II
23
it could mean for something to be known in itself yet in the context

of cognition, then it must after all be possible to make evident
something which we have to acknowledge as absolutely given and
indubitable; / insofar, that is, as it is given with such complete <30>
clarity that every question about it will and must find an immediate answer.
And now we recall the Cartesian doubt. Reflecting on the
multifarious possibilities of error and deception, I might reach
such a degree of sceptical despair that I finally say: Nothing is
certain, everything is doubtful. But it is at once evident that not
everything is doubtful, for while I am judging that everything is
doubtful, it is indubitable that I am so judging; and it would be
absurd to want to persist in a universal doubt. And in every case
of a definite doubt, it is indubitably certain that I have this
doubt. And likewise with every cogitatio. Howsoever I perceive,
imagine, judge, infer, howsoever these acts may be certain or
uncertain, whether or not they have <?bjects that exist as far as
the perceiving itself is concerned, it is absolutely clear and certain that I am perceiving this or that, and as far as the judgment
is concerned that I am judging of this or that, etc.
Descartes introduced these considerations for other purposes.
But with suitable modifications, we can use them here.
If we inquire into the essence of cognition, then whatever status
it and our doubts about its reaching the object may have one
thing is clear: that cognition itself is a name for a manifold
sphere of being which can be given to us absolutely, and which
can be given absolutely each time in the particular case. The
thought proceses which I really perform are given to me insofar
as I reflect upon them, receive them and set them up in a pure
"seeing." I can speak vaguely about cognition, perception,
imagination, experience, judgment, inference, etc.; but then,
when I reflect, all that is given, and absolutely given at that, is
this phenomenon of vaguely "talking about and intending
cognition, experience, jUdgment, etc." Even this phenomenon
of vagueness is one of those that comes under the heading of
cognition in the broadest sense. I can, however, have an actual
perception and inspect it. I can, moreover, represent to myself in
imagination or memory a perception and survey it as so given to
imagination. In that case I am no longer / vacuously talking <31 >
24
about perception or having a vague intension or idea of it.

Instead, perception itself stands open to my inspection as actually
or imaginatively given to me. And the same is true of every
intellectual process, of every form of thinking and cognizing.
I have here put on the same level the "seeing" [act of] reflective
perception and [the "seeing" act of reflective] imagination. If
one followed the Cartesian view, one would have to emphasize
perception first; it would in some measure correspond to the socalled inner perception of traditional epistemology, though this
is an ambivalent concept.
Every intellectual process and indeed every mental process whatever, while being enacted, can be made the obiect 01 a pure "seeing"
and understanding, and is something absolutely given in this
"seeing." It is given as something that is, that is here and now,
and whose being cannot be sensibly doubted. To be sure, I can
wonder what sort of being this is and how this mode of being is
related to other modes. It is true I can wonder what givenness
means here, and reflecting further I can "see" the "seeing" itself
in which this givenness, or this mode of being, is constituted. But
all the same I am now working on an absolute foundation:
namely, this perception is, and remains as long as it lasts, something absolute, something here and now, something that in itself
is what it is, something by which I can measure as by an ultimate
standard what being and being given can mean and here must
mean, at least, obviously, as far as the sort of being and being
given is concerned which a "here and now" exemplifies. And that
goes for all specific ways of thinking, whenever they are given.
All of these, however, can also be data in imagination; they can
"as it were" stand before our eyes and yet not stand before them
as actualities, as actually accomplished perceptions, judgments,
etc. ; even then, they are, in a certain sense, data. They are there
open to intuition. We talk about them not in just vague hints and
empty intention. We inspect them, and while inspecting them
we can observe their essence, their constitution, their intrinsic
character, and we can make our speech conform in a pure
measure to what is "seen" in its full clarity. But this requires to
<32> be supplemented I by a discussion of the concept and cognition of
essences.
For the moment we keep it firmly in mind that a sphere of
LECTURE II
25
the absolutely given can be indicated at the outset; and this is

just the sphere we need if it is to be possible to aim at a theory of
knowledge. Indeed, lack of clarity with regard to the meaning or
essence of cognition requires a science of cognition, a science
whose sole end is to clarify the essential nature of cognition. It is
not to explain cognition as a psychological fact; it is not to
inquire into the natural causes and laws of the development and
occurrence of cognitions. Such inquiry is the task of a science of
the natural sort, of a psychology which deals with the mental
processes of persons who are undergoing them. Rather, the task
of the critique of cognition is to clarify, to cast light upon, the
essence of cognition and the legitimacy of its claim to validity
that belongs to its essence; and what else can this mean but to
make the essence of cognition directly self-given.
Recapitulation and Amplification. In its constantly successful
progress in the various sciences, cognition of the natural sort is
altogether self-assured that it reaches the object and has no cause
to worry about the possibility of cognition and about the meaning
of cognized objectivity. But as soon as we begin to reflect on the
correlation between cognition and reality (and eventually also on
the ideal meanings on the one hand and, on the other, on the
objects of cognition) there arise difficulties, absurdities, inconsistent yet seemingly well-founded theories which drive one
to the admission that the possibility of cognition as far as its
reaching the object is concerned is an enigma.
A new science, the critique of cognition, is called for. Its job
is to resolve confusions and to clarify the essence of cognition.
Upon the success of this science depends the possibility of a
metaphysics, a science of being in the absolute and fundamental
sense. But how I can such a science of cognition in general get <33>
started? That which a science questions it cannot use as a presupposition. But what is in question is the possibility of all
cognition in that the critique of cognition regards as problematic
the possibility of cognition in general and its capacity to reach
the object. Once it is launched, the critique of cognition cannot
take any cognition for granted. Nor can it take over anything
whatever from pre-scientific cognition. All cognition bears the
mark of being questionable.
Without some cognition given at the outset, there is also no
26
advancement of cognition. The critique of cognition cannot,

therefore, begin. There can be no such science at all.
I already suggested that in all this there is an element of truth.
In the beginning no cognition can be assumed without examination. However, even if the critique of cognition must not take
over any antecedent cognition it still can begin by giving itself
cognition, and naturally cognition which it does not base on, or
logically derive from, anything else as this would presuppose
some other immediate cognition already given. It must rather
base itself on the cognition which is immediately evident and of
such a kind that, as absolutely clear and indubitable, it excludes
every doubt of its possibility and contains none of the puzzles
which had led to all the sceptical confusions. I then pointed to the
Cartesian method of doubt and to the domain of the absolutely
given, viz., of absolute cognition which comes under the heading
of evidence (Evidenz) of the cogitatio. It remained to be shown
that the immanence of this cognition makes it an appropriate
point of departure for the theory of cognition; that, furthermore,
because of this immanence, it is free of the puzzlement which is the
source of all sceptical embarrassment. Finally, it remained to be
shown that immanence is the generally necessary characteristic of all
epistemological cognition, and that it is nonsensical not only at the
start but also in general to borrow from the sphere of transcendence, in other words, to try to found the theory of cognition on
psychology or on any science whatever of the natural sort.
<34>
I may add the following: there is a plausible argument / to the
effect that the theory ot knowledge cannot get started because it
questions cognition as such and hence regards as questionable
every cognition with which we might begin. Moreover, it is alleged
that if all cognition must be a riddle to the epistemologist, so
must any initial cognition with which epistemology itself begins
be a riddle. I repeat that this plausible argument is a deception.
The deception is due to the vague generality of the wording.
Cognition in general "is questioned." Surely, however, it is not
denied that there is cognition in general (such denial would lead
to contradiction); rather, cognition presents a certain problem,
namely, of how it can accomplish a certain task attributed to it,
namely, the task of reaching the object: I may even doubt
whether this task can be accomplished at all. But doubt as I
LECTURE II
Z7
may, this doubt is a first step toward canceling itself out because
some cognitions can be brought to light which render such doubt
groundless. Moreover, if I begin by not understanding cognition
at all, then this incomprehension with its indeterminate universality admittedly encompasses every cognition. But that is not to
say that every cognition I might run up against in the future has
to remain forever incomprehensible. It may be that there is a big
puzzle to begin with connected with a particular class of cognitions, those that thrust themselves most immediately to the
fore, and that I now reach a general embarrassment and say:
cognition as such is a riddle, even though it soon appears that the
riddle does not belong to certain other kinds of cognition. And, as
we shall see presently, this is indeed the case.
I said that the cognitions with which the critique of cognition
must begin must contain nothing doubtful or questionable. They
must contain none of that which precipitates epistemological
confusion and gives impetus to the critique of cognition. We have
to show that this holds true of the sphere of the cogitatio. For this
we need a more deeply probing reflection, one that will bring us
substantial advantages.
If we look closer at what is so enigmatic and what, in the course
of subsequent reflection on the possibility of cognition, causes
embarrassment, we will find it to be the transcendence of cognition. All cognition of the natural sort, and especially the prescientific, is cognition which makes its object transcendent. / It <35>
posits objects as existent, claims to reach matters of fact which
are not "strictly given to it," are not "immanent" to it.
But on closer view, this transcendence is admittedly ambiguous.
One thing one can mean by transcendence is that the object of
cognition is not genuinely (reell) contained in the cognitive act so
that one would be meaning by "being truly given" or "immanently given" that the object of the cognitive act is genuinely
contained in the act: the cognitive act, the cogitatio, has genuine
abstract parts genuinely constituting it: but the physical thing
which it intends or supposedly perceives or remembers, etc.,
is, not to be found in the cogitatio itself, as a mental process; the
physical thing is not to be found as a genuine (reell) concrete part
(Stuck), not as something which really exists within the cogitatio.
So the question is: how can the mental process so to speak
28
transcend itself? Immanent here means then genuinely (reell)

immanent in the cognitive mental process.
But there is still another transcendence whose opposite is an
altogether different immanence, namely, absolute and clear
givenness, self-givenness in the absolute sense. This givenness,
which rules out any meaningful doubt, consists of a simply
immediate "seeing" and apprehending of the intended object
itself as it is, and it constitutes the precise concept of evidence
(Evidenz) understood as immediate evidence. All cognition which
is not evident, which though it intends or posits something objective yet does not see it itself, is transcendent in this second
sense. In such cognition we go beyond what at any time is truly
given, beyond what can be directly "seen" and apprehended. At
this point we may ask: How can cognition posit something as
existing that is not directly and truly given in it?
At first, before we come to a deeper level of critical epistemological reflection, these two kinds of immanence and transcendence run confusedly into each other. It is indeed clear that
whoever raises the first question about the possibility of genuine
(reell) transcendence is at the same time really also raising the
second question: namely, how can there be transcendence
beyond the realm of evident givenness? In this there is the unspoken supposition that the only actually understandable, unquestionable, absolutely evident givenness is the givenness of
the abstract part genuinely (reell) contained within the cognitive
<36> act, / and this is why anything in the way of a cognized objectivity that is not genuinely (reell) contained within that act is regarded as a puzzle and as problematic. We shall soon hear that
this is a fatal mistake.
One may now construe transcendence in one sense or the
other, or, at first even ambiguously, but transcendence is both
the initial and the central problem of the critique of cognition. It
is the riddle that stands in the path of cognition of the natural
sort and is the incentive for new investigations. One could at the
outset designate the solution to this problem as being the task of
the critique of cognition. One would thereby delimit the new
discipline in a preliminary fashion, instead of generally designating as its theme the problem of the essence of any cognition
whatever.
LECTURE II
29
If then the riddle connected with the initial establishment of

the discipline lies here, it becomes more definitely clear what
must not be claimed as presupposed. Nothing transcendent must
be used as a presupposition. If I do not understand how it is
possible that cognition reach something transcendent, then I
also do not know whether it is possible. The scientific warrant for
believing in a transcendent existence is of no help. For every
mediated warrant goes back to something immediate; and it is
the unmediated which contains the riddle.
Still someone might say: "It is certain that mediated no less
than immediate cognition contains the riddle. But it is only the
how that is puzzling, whereas the that is absolutely certain. No
sensible man will doubt the existence of the world, and the
sceptic in action belies his own creed." Very well. Then let us
answer him with a more powerful and far-reaching argument.
For it proves that the theory of cognition has, neither at the outset
nor throughout its course, any license to fall back upon the content
of the sciences of a natural sort which treat their object as
transcendent. What is proved is the fundamental thesis that the
theory of knowledge can never be based upon any science of the
natural sort, no matter what the more specific nature of that science
may be. Hence we ask: What will our opponent do with his
transcendent knowledge? We put freely at his disposal the entire
stock of transcendent truths contained in the objective I sciences, <37>
and we take it that those truths are not altered by the emergence
of the puzzle of how a science of the transcendent is possible.
What will he now do with his all-embracing knowledge? How
does he think he can go from the "that" to the "how"? That he
knows for a fact that cognition of the transcendent is actual
guarantees as logically obvious that cognition of the transcendent
is possible. But the riddle is, how is it possible? Can he solve it
even if he presupposes all the sciences, all or any cognition of the
transcendent? Consider: What more does he really need? That
cognition of the transcendent is possible he takes for granted,
even as analytically certain in saying to himself, there is in my
case knowledge of the transcendent. What he lacks is obvious.
He is unclear about the relation to transcendence. He is unclear
about the "reaching the transcendent" which is ascribed to
cognition, to knowledge. Where and how can he achieve clarity?
30
He could do so if the essences of this relation were somehow given to

him, so that he could "see" it and could directly inspect the unity
of cognition and its object, a unity denoted by the locution
"reaching the object." He would thereby not only know this
unity to be possible, but he would have this possibility clearly
before him. The possibility itself counts for him as something
transcendent, as a possibility which is known but not of itself
given, "seen." He obviously thinks: cognition is a thing apart
from its object; cognition is given but the object of cognition is
not given; and yet cognition is supposed to relate to the object,
to cognize it. How can I understand this possibility? Naturally
the reply is: I could understand it only if the relation itself were
given as something to be "seen." As long as the object is, and
remains, something transcendent, and cognition and its objects
are actually separate, then indeed he can see nothing here, and
his hopes for reaching a solution, perhaps even by way of falling
back on transcendent presuppositions, are patent folly.
<38>
However, if he is to be consistent with these views, he should
give up his starting point: he should acknowledge that in this
case cognition of the transcendent is impossible, and that his
pretence to know is mere prejudice. Then the problem is no
longer: How is cognition of the transcendent possible? But
rather, How do we account for the prejudice which ascribes a
transcendent feat to cognition? And this exactly was the path
Hume took.
Let us emphatically reject that approach and let us go on to
illustrate the basic idea that the problem of the "how" (how
cognition of the transcendent is possible and even more generally,
how cognition is possible at all) can never be answered on the
basis of a prior knowledge of the transcendent, of prior judgments
about it, no matter whence the knowledge or the judgments are
borrowed, not even if they are taken from the exact sciences.
Here is an illustration: A man born deaf knows that there are
sounds, that sounds produce harmonies and that a splendid art
depends upon them. But he cannot understand how sounds do
this, how musical compositions are possible. Such things he
cannot imagine, i.e., he cannot "see" and in "seeing" grasp the
"how" of such things. His knowledge about what exists helps
him in no way, and it would be absurd if he were to try to deduce
LECTURE II
31
the how of music from his knowledge, thinking that thereby he

could achieve clarity about the possibility of music through
conclusions drawn from things of which he is cognizant. It will
not do to draw conclusions from existences of which one knows
but which one cannot "see." "Seeing" does not lend itself to
demonstration or deduction. It is patently absurd to try to explain possibilities (and unmediated possibilities at that) by
drawing logical conclusions from non-intuitive knowledge. Even
if I could be wholly certain that there are transcendent worlds,
even if I accept the whole content of the sciences of a natural
sort, even then I cannot borrow from them. I must never fancy
that by relying on transcendent presuppositions and scientific
inferences I can arrive where I want to go in the critique of
cognition - namely, to assess the possibility of a transcendent
objectivity of cognition. And that goes not just for the beginning
but for the whole course of the critique of cognition, so long as
there still remains the problem of how cognition is possible.! And, <39>
evidently, that goes not just for the problem of transcendent
objectivity but also for the elucidation of every possibility.
If we combine this with the extraordinarily strong inclination
to make a transcendently oriented judgment and thus to fall into
a flETa{Jaat' EL, &).).0 'Y8VO, [a change into some other kind] in
every case where a thought process involves transcendence and a
judgment has to be based upon it, then we arrive at a sufficient
and complete deduction of the epistemological principle that an
epistemological reduction has to be accomplished in the case of
every epistemological inquiry of whatever sort of cognition. That
is to say, everything transcendent that is involved must be
bracketed, or be assigned the index of indifference, of epistemological nullity, an index which indicates: the existence of all
these transcendencies, whether I believe in them or not, is not
here my concern; this is not the place to make judgments about
them; they are entirely irrelevant.
All the basic errors of the theory of knowledge go hand in hand
with the above mentioned f.181:6.fJaa~, on the one hand the basic
error of psychologism, on the other that of anthropologism and
biologism. t The fl8TafJaat, is so exceedingly dangerous, partly
1 Tr. note: Husserl's words are Anthropologismus and Biologismus, clearly coined
to parallel Psychologismus (Psychologism).
32
because the proper sense of the problem is never made clear and
remains totally lost in it, and partly because even those who have
become clear about it find it hard to remain clear and slip easily,
as their thinking proceeds, back into the temptations of the
natural modes of thought and judgment as well as into the false
and seductive conceptions of the problems which grow on their
basis.
LECTURE III
<41>
[THE CARRYING OUT OF THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL REDUCTION: BRACKETING

EVERYTHING TRANSCENDENT. THEME OF THE INVESTIGATION: THE PURE
PHENOMENON. THE QUESTION OF THE "OBJECTIVE VALIDITY" OF THE
ABSOLUTE PHENOMENON. THE IMPOSSIBILITY OF LIMITING OURSELVES TO
SINGULAR DATA; PHENOMENOLOGICAL COGNITION AS A COGNITION OF
ESSENCES. TWO SENSES OF THE CONCEPT OF THE a priori.)
By these considerations what the critique of cognition may and <43>

may not use has been precisely and adequately determined. What
is especially puzzling for such a critique is the possibility of
transcendence, but it may never under any conditions exploit
for its purposes the actuality of transcendent things. Obviously
the sphere of usable objects or of cognitions is limited to those
which present themselves as valid, and which can remain free of
the marks of epistemological vacuity; but this sphere is not
empty. We have indubitably secured the whole realm of cogitationes. The existence of the cogitatio, more precisely the phenomenon of cognition itself, is beyond question; and it is free from
the riddle of transcendence. These existing things are already
presupposed in the statement of the problem of cognition. The
question as to how transcendent things come into cognition
would lose its sense if cognition itself, as well as the transcendent
object, were put in question. It is also clear that the cogitationes
present a sphere of absolutely immanent data; it is in this sense that
we understand "immanence." In the "seeing" pure phenomena the
object is not outside cognition or outside "consciousness," while
being given in the sense of the absolute self-givenness of something which is simply "seen."
But here we need assurance through epistemological reduction,
the methodological essence of which we now want to examine in
concreto for the first time. We need the reduction at this point in
order to prevent the evidence of the existence of the cogitatio
from being confused with the evidence that my cogitatio exists,
with the evidence of the sum cogitans, and the like. One must
guard himself from the fundamental confusion between the pure
phenomenon, in the sense of phenomenology, and the psychological phenomenon, the object of empirical psychology. If I, as a
34
<+4>
human being employing my natural modes of thought, look at

the perception which I am undergoing at the moment, I then I
immediately and almost inevitably apperceive it (that is a fact)
in relation to my ego. It stands there as a mental process of this
mentally living person, as his state, his act; the sensory content
stands there as what is given or sensed, as that of which I am
conscious; and it integrates itself with the perception of objective
time. Perception, and any other cogitatio, so apperceived, is a
psychological fact. Thus it is apperceived as a datum in objective
time, belonging to the mentally living ego, the ego which is in
the world and lasts through its duration (a duration which is
measured by means of empirically calibrated timepieces). This,
then, is the phenomenon which is investigated by that natural
science we call "psychology."
The phenomenon in this sense falls under the principle to
which we must subject ourselves in the critique of cognition, the
principle of the enox~, which holds for everything transcendent.
The ego as a person, as a thing in the world, and the mental life
as the mental life of this person, are arranged - no matter even
if quite indefinitely - on objective time; they are all transcendent and epistemologically null. Only through a reduction, the
same one we have already called phenomenological reduction, do I
attain an absolute datum which no longer presents anything
transcendent. Even if I should put in question the ego and the
world and the ego's mental life as such, still my simply "seeing"
reflection on what is given in the apperception of the relevant
mental process and on my ego, yields the phenomenon of this
apperception; the phenomenon, so to say, of "perception construed as my perception." Of course, I can also make use of the
natural mode of reflection here, and relate this phenomenon to
my ego, postulating this ego as an empirical reality through
saying again: I have this phenomenon, it is mine. Then, in order
to get back to the pure phenomenon, I would have to put the
ego, as well as time and the world once more into question, and
thereby display a pure phenomenon, the pure cogitatio. But while
I am perceiving I can also look, by way of purely "seeing," at
the perception, at it itself as it is there, and ignore its relation
to the ego, or at least abstract from it. Then the perception which
is thereby grasped and delimited in "seeing," is an absolutely
LECTURE III
35
given, pure phenomenon in the phenomenological sense, renouncing anything transcendent.

Thus to each psychic lived process there corresponds through the <45>
device 01 phenomenological reduction a pure phenomenon, which
exhibits its intrinsic (immanent) essence (raken individually) as an
absolute datum. Every postulation of a "non-immanent actuality," of anything which is not contained in the phenomenon, even
if intended by the phenomenon, and which is therefore not given
in the second sense, is bracketed, i.e., suspended.
If it is possible to take such phenomena for objects of investigation, then it is obvious that we are now no longer within
psychology, within a natural, transcendently "objectivizing"
science. Then we do not investigate and speak of psychological
phenomena, of certain happenings in so-called real actuality (the
existence of which remains throughout in question), but of that
which exists and is valid whether there is such a thing as objective actuality or not, whether the postulation of such transcendent entities is justifiable or not. Thus at this point we speak
of such absolute data; even if these data are related to objective
actuality via their intentions, their intrinsic character is within
them; nothing is assumed concerning the existence or non-existence 01 actuality. And so we have dropped anchor on the shore
of phenomenology, the existence of the objects of which is assured, as the objects of a scientific investigation should be; not,
however, in the manner of components of the ego or of the
temporal world, but rather as absolute data grasped in purely
immanent "seeing." And this pure immanence is first of all to be
characterized, in our approach, through phenomenological
reduction: I mean, not with respect to what it refers to beyond
itself, but with respect to what it is in itself and to what it is
given as. All this discussion is, of course, only a roundabout way
of helping one to see what is to be seen in this regard, viz., the
distinction between the quasi-givenness of transcendent objects
and the absolute givenness of the phenomenon itself.
But we must take new steps, enter onto new considerations, so
that we may gain a firm foothold in the new land and not finally
run aground on its shore. For this shore I has its rocks, and over <46>
it lie clouds of obscurity which threaten us with stormy gales of
scepticism. What we have said up to this point holds for all
36
phenomena, although for purposes of the critique of reason, we

are, naturally, interested only in cognitive phenomena. Thus
the results set forth below can just as well be applied to all
phenomena, as they hold mutatis mutandis for all of them.
In our quest for a critique of cognition, we have been led to a
beginning, to a stronghold of data which is at our disposal, and it
appears that this is what we need above all. If I am to fathom the
essence of cognition, then I must, of course, possess cognition in
all its questionable forms, as a datum, and possess it in such a
way that this datum has in itself nothing of the problematic
character which other cognitions bring with them, however
much they seem to offer us data.
Having assured ourselves of the field of pure cognition, we can
now investigate it and start a science of pure phenomena, a
phenomenology. Is it not obvious that this must be the basis for
the solution to the problems which have been agitating us? Thus
it is clear that I can only attain insight into the essence of cognition if I look at it myself, and if it itself is given to me to "see,"
as it really is. I must study it immanently and by pure inspection
within the pure phenomenon, within "pure consciousness." To
be sure, its transcendence is doubtful; the existence of objects to
which it is related insofar as it is transcendent, is not given to me;
and questions are raised precisely as to how, in spite of this, they
can be postulated, and as to what significance it has and must
have if such postulation is to be possible. On the other hand, even
if I raise questions about the existence and reaching the object of
this relation to transcendent things, still it has something which
can be grasped in the pure phenomenon. The relating-itself-totranscendent-things, whether it is meant in this or that way, is
still an inner feature of the phenomenon. It almost seems as if it
would depend only on a science of absolute cogitationes. Since I
have to cancel out any previous acceptance of the intended
transcendent objects, where else could I investigate both the
meaning of this intending-something-beyond, and also, along
with this meaning, its possible validity, or the meaning of such
validity? Where else but the place at which this meaning is un<47> qualifiedly given / and at which in the pure phenomenon of
relation, corroboration, justification the meaning of validity, for
its part, comes to absolute givenness.
LECTURE III
37
To be sure, we are overtaken here once more by the doubt

whether there is not still a surplus which must pass over into
action, whether the datum of validity does not carry with it the
givenness of the object, which, on the other hand, could not be
the givenness of the cogitatio, at least insofar as there is really
such a thing as valid transcendence. Nevertheless a science of
absolute phenomena, understood as cogitationes, is the first thing
we need, and this has to produce at least a major part of the
solution.
Thus, it must be our aim to set up a phenomenology, more
specifically a phenomenology of cognitions, construed as a
theory of the essence of pure cognitive phenomena. The outlook
is favorable. But how is phenomenology to proceed? How is it
possible? I am supposed to make assertions, indeed objectively
valid assertions; I am supposed to cognize pure phenomena
scientifically. But does all science not lead to the establishing of
objects existing in themselves, i.e., to transcendent objects? What is
scientifically established is something which is what it is in itself;
it is to be accepted just as existing whether I, in my cognition,
postulate it as existing or not. Does not science by its very
essence have as its correlate the objectivity of that which is
known only in science, and which is scientifically established?
And that which is scientifically established is universally valid,
is it not? But what is the situation here? We move in the field of
pure phenomena. But why do I say field? It is more nearly a
Heraclitean flux of phenomena. What assertions can I make
about it? Now, while "seeing," I can say: this here: No doubt it
is. Perhaps I can further say that this phenomenon includes that
one as a part, or is connected to that one; this one spreads over
that one, etc.
But obviously there is no "objective validity" to these assertions; they have no "objective meaning"; they have a merely
"subjective" truth. Now we do not wish to become involved here in
an attempt to determine whether there is not a sense in which
these assertions have a certain objectivity, even while they can
be pronounced "subjectively" true. But it is already clear to a
fleeting glance that that higher dignity of objectivity, which the
prescientific natural I judgment dramatizes, so to speak, and <48>
which the considered judgments of the exact sciences bring to an
38
incomparably higher fulfillment, is altogether lacking here. We

shall not attribute any special value to such assertions - that
this is here, etc. - which we make on the basis of pure "seeing."
Moreover we are reminded here of the famous Kantian distinction between judgments of perceptions and judgments of experience. The relationship is obvious. However, as Kant lacked
the concepts of phenomenology and phenomenological reduction,
and as he had not been able to completely escape psychologism
and anthropologism, he did not arrive at the ultimate significance
of the distinction which is necessary here. Naturally with us it is
not a question of merely subjectively valid judgments which are
limited in their validity to the empirical subject, or even of
objective validity in the sense of validity for every subject
without restriction. Indeed we have bracketed the empirical
subject; and the transcendental apperception, consciousness as
such, will soon acquire for us a completely different meaning,
one which is not at all mysterious.
Let us now return to the main theme of our discussion. Phenomenological judgments, if restricted to singular judgments, do
not have very much to teach us. But how are judgments, particularly scientifically valid judgments, to be established? And the
word scientific immediately puts us into an embarrassing position. Does objectivity not carry transcendence with it, and along
with this also the doubt as to what it is supposed to signify, as to
whether and how it is possible? Through epistemological reduction
we exclude transcendent presuppositions, because transcendence
is in question with respect to its possible validity and its meaning.
But then are the scientific or transcendent conclusions of the
theory of knowledge themselves still possible? Is it not obvious
that before the possibility of transcendence is established no
transcendent result of the theory of knowledge can itself be
secure? But if, as it might seem, the epistemological bWl~
demands that we accept nothing transcendent until we have
established its possibility, and if the establishing of the possibility of transcendence itself, as an objective result, requires
<49> transcendent postulations, then it seems / that we are faced with
the prospect of a circle, which makes phenomenology and the
theory of knowledge impossible; and the labor of love in which
we have been engaged up to this point will have been in vain.
LECTURE III
39
We cannot, without more ado, despair of the possibility of a

phenomenology and of what is obviously bound up with that in
this discussion - a critique of cognition. What we need at this
point is a further step which will unroll this spurious circle for us.
We have already accomplished this in principle, for we distinguished two senses of transcendence and of immanence. After
Descartes had established the evidence of the cogitatio (or rather
of the cogito ergo sum, a conception which we have not adopted),
he asked, as you will recall: What is it which assures me of these
fundamental data? The answer is: the clara et distincta perceptio. 1
We can carry this further. I need not claim that we already have
a purer and deeper grasp of the matter than Descartes, and that
thereby we grasp and understand [the concept of] evidence, the
clara et distincta perceptio, in a more exact sense. With Descartes
we can now take the further step (mutatis mutandis) : to whatever
is given through a clara et distincta perceptio, as each cogitatio is,
we may accord an equal validity. To be sure, if we recall the third
and fourth Meditations, the proofs of the existence of God, the
appeal to the veracitas dei,2 etc., we can expect difficulties.
Therefore, be very sceptical, or rather critical.
We have the givenness of the pure cogitatio as an absolute
possession, but not the givenness of outer things in external
perception, although such perception makes a claim to be giving
the existence of these things. The transcendence of things requires that we put them in question. We do not understand how
perception can reach transcendent objects, but we understand
how perception can reach the immanent, provided it is reflective
and purely immanent perception which has undergone reduction.
But what enables us to understand this? Well, we directly "see,"
we directly grasp what we intend in the act of "seeing" and
grasping. To have a phenomenon before one's eyes, which points
to something which is not itself given in the phenomenon, and
then to doubt whether such an object exists, and if so how it is to
be understood that it exists - this is meaningful. But to "see"
and to intend absolutely nothing more than what is grasped in
"seeing," and then still / to question and doubt, that is nonsense. <50>
Basically what I am saying amounts to this. The "seeing" or
1
2
Tr. note: Clear and distinct perception.

Tr. note: The veracity of God.
40
grasping of what is given, insofar as it is actual "seeing," actual

self-givenness in the strictest sense and not another sort of
givenness which points to something which is not given - that is
an ultimate. That is absolute sell-evidence; if you are looking for
what is not self-evident, what is problematic, or perhaps entirely
mysterious, consider the reference to something transcendent,
i.e., intention, belief, even a detailed proof of something not
given. And it does not help us that even here an absolute datum
can be found - the givenness of intention and belief themselves.
To be sure, if we only reflect we will find this before us; but what
is given here is not what was intended.
But can it be that absolute self-evidence, self-givenness in
"seeing," is realized only in particular mental processes and their
particular abstract aspects and parts, i.e., only in the "seeing"
grasp of the here and now? Would there not have to be a "seeing"
grasp of other data as absolute data, e.g., universals, in such a
way that were a universal to attain self-evident givenness within
"seeing," any doubt about it would then be absurd?
How remarkable it would be to limit the cogitatio to phenomenologically singular data can be seen from this fact, that the
whole doctrine of evidence, which we, following Descartes, have
set forth, and which certainly is illuminated with absolute clarity
and self-evidence, would lose its value. That is, concerning the
case of a cogitatio which lies before us as something particular,
perhaps a feeling which we are now undergoing, one might say:
this is given. But we would by no means dare to put forward
the most universal proposition: the givenness 01 any reduced
phenomenon is an absolute and indubitable givenness.
But this is only to help you along. In any event, it is illuminating that the possibility of a critique of cognition depends on
the demonstration of absolute data which are different from even
the reduced cogitationes. To view the matter more precisely, in
the subject-predicate judgments which we make concerning
them, we have already gone beyond them. If we say: this
phenomenon of judgment underlies this or that phenomenon of
<51) imagination, this / perceptual phenomenon contains this or that
aspect, color content, etc., and even if, just for the sake of
argument, we make these assertions in the most exact conformity
with the givenness of the cogitatio, then the logical forms which
LECTURE III
41
we employ, and which are reflected in the linguistic expressions

themselves, already go beyond the mere cogitationes. A "something more" is involved which does not at all consist of a mere
agglomeration of new cogitationes. And even if predicational
thinking gives rise to new cogitationes, which are joined to those
concerning which we made the assertions, nevertheless they are
not what constitute the predicational facts which are the objective correlates of the assertions.
That cognition, which can bring to absolute sel/-givenness not
only particulars, but also universals, universal objects, and
universal states 0/ at/airs, is more easily conceivable, at least for
anyone who can assume the position of pure "seeing" and can
hold all natural prejudices at arm's length. This cognition is of
decisive significance for the possibility of phenomenology. For its
special character consists in the fact that it is the analysis of
essence and the investigation into essence in the area of pure
"seeing" thought and absolute self-givenness. That is necessarily
its character; it sets out to be a science and a method which will
explain possibilities - possibilities of cognition and possibilities
of valuation - and will explain them in terms of their fundamental essence. They are generally questionable possibilities, and
investigations of them must take on the character of general
investigations of essence. Analysis of essence is eo ipso general
analysis; cognition of essence in terms of essence, in terms of
essential nature, in terms of cognition which is directed to universal objects. It is here that talk of the a priori has its legitimate
place. For what does a priori cognition mean except a cognition
which is directed to general essences, and which entirely bases its
absolute validity on essence, at least insofar as we exclude the
discredited empiricist concept of the a priori.
In any event, although this may be the only justifiable concept
of the a priori, another one can be found if we range under the
heading of the a priori all concepts which as categories have a
principal meaning in a certain sense, and then in addition the
essential principles which are based on these concepts.
If we concentrate here on the first concept of the a priori, then <52>
phenomenology will have to do with the a priori in the sphere of
origins and of absolute data, with species grasped in general
'seeing," and with the a priori truths which these species render
42
immediately "seeable." When we engage in the critique of

reason, not only the theoretical, but also the practical and any
other kind, the chief goal is certainly the a priori in the second
sense; it is to establish the principal self-given forms and facts
and, by means of this self-givenness, to develop, interpret, and
evaluate the concepts which come forward with a claim to
crucial significance, as well as the principles of logic, ethics, and
theory of value.
LECTURE IV
<53>
[EXTENSION OF THE SPHERE OF INVESTIGATION THROUGH A CONSIDERATION

OF INTENTIONALITY. THE SELF-GIVENNESS OF THE UNIVERSAL; THE PHILOSOPHICAL METHOD OF THE ANALYSIS OF ESSENCE. CRITIQUE OF THE INTERPRETATION OF EVIDENCE AS FEELINGS; EVIDENCE AS SELF-GIVENNESS. NO
LIMITATION ON THE SPHERE OF GENUINE (Reell) IMMANENCE; THE THEME
OF ALL SELF-GIVENNESS.]
If we restrict ourselves to the pure phenomenology of cognition, then we will be concerned with the essence of cognition as
revealed in direct "seeing," i.e., with a demonstration ofit which
is carried out by way of "seeing" in the sphere of phenomenological reduction and seU-givenness, and with an analytical distinction between the various sorts of phenomena which are
embraced by the very broad term "cognition." Then the question is as to what is essentially contained and grounded in them,
from what factors they are built up, what possibilities of combination can be found while remaining purely within their essential
natures, and what general interrelations flow from their essences.
And it is not merely concerned with the genuinely (reell)
immanent, but also with what is immanent in the itentional sense.
Cognitive mental processes (and this belongs to their essence)
have an intentio, they refer to something, they are related in this
or that way to an object. This "activity of relating itself to an
object belongs to them even if the object itself does not. And
what is objective can appear, can have a certain kind of givenness
in appearance, even though it is at the same time neither genuinely (reell) within the cognitive phenomenon, nor does it exist in
any other way as a cogitatio. To explain the essence of cognition
and the essential connections which belong to it and to bring this
to self-givenness, this involves examining both these sides of the
matter; it involves investigating this relatedness which belongs
to the essence of cognition. And just here lie the puzzles, the
mysteries, the problems concerning the ultimate meaning of the
objectivity of cognition, including its reaching or failing to reach
the object, if it is judgmental cognition and its adequacy, if it is
evident cognition, etc.
In any case, the whole investigation into essence, is in fact,
<55>
44
obviously a general investigation. The particular cognitive

phenomenon, coming and going in the stream of consciousness, is
not the sort of thing about which phenomenology establishes its
<56> conclusions. Phenomenology is directed to the I "sources of
cognition," to general origins which can be "seen," to general
absolute data which present the universal basic criteria in terms
of which all meaning, and also the correctness, of confused
thinking is to be evaluated, and by which all the riddles which
have to do with the objectivity of cognition are to be solved.
Still, are real universality, universal essences, and the universal
states of affairs attaching to them capable of self-givenness in the
same sense as a cogitatio? Does not the universal as such transcend
knowledge? Knowledge of universals is certainly given as an
absolute phenomenon; but in this we shall seek in vain for the
universal which is to be identical, in the strictest sense, in the
equally immanent contents of innumerable possible cases of
cognition.
Of course, we answer, as we have already answered: to be sure,
the universal has this kind of transcendence. Every genuine (reeU)
constituent of the cognitive phenomenon, this phenomenological
particular, is also a particular; and so the universal, which
certainly is no particular, cannot be really contained in the consciousness of the universal. But the objection to this kind of
transcendence is nothing more than a prejudice, which stems
from an inappropriate interpretation of cognition, one which is
not based on the source of cognition. Thus one has to get especially clear about the fact that we accord the status of absolute selfgivenness to the absolute phenomenon, the cogitatio which has
undergone reduction. not because it is a particular, but because
it displays itself in pure "seeing" after phenomenological reduction, precisely as absolute sell-givenness. But in pure "seeing"
we find that universality no less displays just such an absolute
givenness.
Is this actually the case? Let us now consider some cases in
which a universal is given, i.e., cases where a purely immanent
consciousness of the universal is built up on the basis of some
"seen" and self-given particular. I have a particular intuition of
redness, or rather several such intuitions. I stick strictly to the
pure immanence; I am careful to perform the phenomenological
LECTURE IV
45
reduction. I snip off any further significance of redness, any way

in which it may be viewed as something transcendent, e.g., as
the redness of a piece of blotting paper I on my table, etc. And <57>
now I fully grasp in pure "seeing" the meaning of the concept of
redness in general, redness in specie, the universal "seen" as
dentical in this and that. No longer is it the particular as such
which is referred to, not this or that red thing, but redness in
general. If we really did this in pure "seeing," could we then still
intelligibly doubt what redness is in general, what is meant by
this expression, what it may be in its very essence? We truly
"see" it; there it is, the very object of our intent, this species of
redness. Could a deity, an infinite intellect, do more to lay hold of
the essence of redness than to "see" it as a universal?
And if now perhaps two species of redness are given to us, two
shades of red, can we not judge that this and that are similar to
each other, not this particular, individual phenomenon of redness,
but the type, the shade as such? Is not the relation of similarity
here a general absolute datum?
Again, this givenness is also something purely immanent, not
immanent in the spurious sense, i.e., existing in the sphere of an
individual consciousness. We are not speaking at all of the act of
abstraction in the psychological subject, and of the psychological
conditions under which this takes place. We are speaking of the
general essence of meaning of redness and its givenness in general
seeing."
Thus it is now senseless still to raise questions and doubts as to
what the essence of redness is, or what the meaning of redness is,
provided that while one "sees" redness and grasps it in its specific
character, one means by the word "red" just exactly that which
is being grasped and "seen" there. And in the same way it is
senseless, with respect to the essence of cognition and the fundamental structure of cognition, to wonder what its meaning is,
provided one is immediately given the paradigmatic phenomena
and the type in question in a purely "seeing" and eidetic (ideierender) reflection within the sphere of phenomenological reduction.
However, cognition is certainly not so simple a thing as redness; a
great many forms and types of it are to be distinguished. And not
only that; their essential relations to one another need to be
investigated. For to understand cognition we must generally
46
clarify the teleological interconnections within cognition, / which

amount to certain essential relations of different essential types
of intellectual forms. And here belongs also the ultimate explanation of the principles which, as ideal conditions of the
possibility of scientific objectivity, function as norms governing
the whole enterprise of empirical science. This whole attempt at
the explanation of principles moves throughout in the sphere of
essence, which is repeatedly built up (konstituiert) on the basis of
particular phenomena through phenomenological reduction.
At every point this analysis is an analysis of essences and an
investigation of the general states of affairs which are to be built
up in immediate intuition. Thus the whole investigation is an
a priori one, though, of course, it is not a priori in the sense of
mathematical deductions. What distinguishes it from the "objectivizing" a priori sciences is its methods and its goal. Phenomenology proceeds by "seeing," clarifying, and determining
meaning, and by distinguishing meanings. It compares, it distinguishes, it forms connections, it puts into relation, divides into
parts, or distinguishes abstract aspects. But all within pure
"seeing." It does not theorize or carry out mathematical operations; that is to say, it carries through no explanations in the
sense of deductive theory. As it explains the basic concepts and
propositions which function as principles governing the possibility of "objectivizing" science (but finally it also takes its own
basic concepts and principles as objects of reflective explanation),
it ends where "objectivizing" science begins. Hence it is a science
in a completely different sense, and with completely different
problems and methods. The procedure of "seeing" and eidetic
abstraction within the strictest phenomenological reduction is exchtsively its own: it is the specifically philosophical method, insofar
as this method belongs essentially to the meaning of the critique of
cognition and so generally to every sort of critique of reason (hence
also evaluative and practical reason). But whatever is called
philosophy in addition to the critique of reason in the strict
<59> sense, is intimately related to this: metaphysics of / nature and
metaphysics of all forms of mental life, and thus metaphysics in
general in the widest sense.
In such cases one speaks of seeing something evident, and in
fact those who recognize the pregnant concept of evidence and
<58>
LECTURE IV
47
take a firm grip on the essence of such evidence have these kinds
of occurrences exclusively in mind. The basic point is that one
must not overlook the fact that evidence is this consciousness
which is truly [a] "seeing" [consciousness] and which has a direct
and adequate grasp of itself and that signifies nothing other than
adequate self-givenness. The empiricist epistemologists, who
speak so much about the virtues of investigating origins, and with
all this remain as far from true origins as the most extreme
rationalist, would have us believe that the whole distinction between judgments that are evident and those that are not consists
of a certain feeling through which the former are marked out. But
what can a feeling do to give us an understanding of this matter?
What is it supposed to accomplish? Is it, so to speak, supposed to
call out to us: "Stopl Here is the truth?" But why then do we
have tQ trust this call? Must this trust also carry its credentials in
feeling? And why does a judgment with the meaning 2 times 2
equals 5 never have this mark in feeling? and why is it impossible
for it to have such a mark? Exactly how does one come to the
theory that the mark of truth resides in feeling? Well, one says
to oneself: "The same judgment, in the logical sense, e.g., the
judgment that 2 times 2 equals 4, can at one time be evident to
me and at another time not; the same concept of 4 can at one
time be given to me in luminous intuition (intuitiv in Evidenz)
and at another time in a merely symbolic representation. Thus
with respect to content, on both occasions we have the same
phenomenon, but on the one occasion there is a feeling which
marks it out and thereby lends it a superior status, a character of
validity." Have I in fact the same object on both occasions, except that on one occasion a feeling is given along with it, on the
other not? But if one directs his attention to the phenomenon,
he will notice at once that in actuality it is not the same phenomenon which lies before him on these two occasions, but two
essentially different phenomena, which have only one feature in
common. If I see that 2 times 2 equals 4, and then assert it in a
vague symbolic assertion, in the latter case I am referring to an
equality; but to refer to equality, that is not to have that phenomenon. The content of the two is different. One time I "see," and
in "seeing" the interrelation itself is given; the other time I
perform a symbolic reference. One time I have intuition; the
other time I have an empty intention.
48
<60>
Thus does the distinction amount to this, that in both cases

something common is present, the same "meaning," once with a
feeling-label and once without? Let one attend to the phenomenon itself, instead of going beyond to talk about it and interpret
it. Let us take a simpler example: if I at a certain time have
redness in a living intuition and at another time think about
redness in terms merely of symbols with empty intention, is
it then the case that both times the same phenomenon of redness
is really present, only once with a feeling and once without?
Thus one needs only to look at the phenomena in order to
recognize that they are completely different, united only through
what identifies them as two cases of the same thing, which we call
"meaning." But if the difference is to be found in the phenomena
themselves, then what need have we of feeling as a principle of
distinction? And does the distinction not lie precisely in this,
that in one case the self-givenness of redness lies before us, the
self-givenness of number and of the general equality of number or, subjectively expressed, the adequate "seeing" grasp and possession of the entities themselves - while in the other case we
have a mere reference to these things? And so we have no sympathy with this notion of feeling as evidence. It could be justified
only if it were to display itself in pure "seeing," and if pure
"seeing" were to signify just that which we attribute to it and
which contradicts it.
Thus with respect to the application of the concept of evidence,
we can now say: in the existence of the cogitatio we find evidence,
and for that reason the cogitatio engenders no puzzles, not even
the puzzle of transcendence. We accord it the status of something
unquestionable, on the basis of which we may proceed further.
No less do we find evidence in the universal; we recognize that
universal objects and states 01 alfairs attain self-givenness. And
they are unquestionably given in the same sense; hence they are
adequately self-given in the strictest sense of the term.
Hence phenomenological reduction does not entail a limitation
of the investigation to the sphere of genuine (reell) immanence, to
the sphere of that which is genuinely contained within the
absolute this of the cogitatio. It entails no limitation to the sphere
of the cogitatio. Rather it entails a limitation to the sphere of
things that are purely sell-given, to the sphere of those things
LECTURE IV
49
which are not merely spoken about, / meant, or perceived, but <61 >
instead to the sphere of those things that are given in just
exactly the sense in which they are thought of, and moreover are
self-given in the strictest sense - in such a way that nothing
which is meant fails to be given. In a word, we are restricted to
the sphere of pure evidence, but understanding this term in a
certain strict sense, which definitely excludes any "mediate
evidence," and especially excludes all evidence in a loose sense.
Absolute givenness is an ultimate. Of course one can easily
say and insist that something is absolutely given to him when it
is not really the case. Again, absolute givenness can either be
vaguely spoken of, or can itself be given in absolute givenness.
Just as I can "see" a phenomenon of redness, and also can
merely talk about it without "seeing," so I can also either talk
about the "seeing" of redness or direct my "seeing" to the
"seeing" of redness, and so grasp the "seeing" of redness itself in
"seeing." On the other hand, to deny self-givenness in general
is to deny every ultimate norm, every basic criterion which gives
significance to cognition. But in that case one would have to
construe everything as illusion, and, in a nonsensical way, also
take illusion as such to be an illusion; and so one would altogether relapse into the absurdities of scepticism. However, it is
obvious that the only one who can argue in this way against the
sceptic is the man who "sees" the ultimate basis of knowledge,
who is willing to assign a significance to "seeing," inspecting
evidence. Whoever does not see or will not see, who talks and
argues, but always remains at the place where he accepts all
conflicting points of view and at the same time denies them all,
there is nothing we can do with him. We cannot answer: "obviously" it is the case. For he denies that there is any such thing
as "obviously." It is as if a blind man wished to deny that there
is such a thing as seeing, or still better, as if one who has sight
wished to deny that he himself sees and that there is any such
thing as seeing. How could we convince him, assuming that he
has no other mode of perception?
Thus if we hold fast to the absolute self-givenness of which we
already know that it does not signify the self-givenness of
genuine (reell) particulars, not even the absolute particulars of
the cogitatio, then the question arises as to how far it extends and
50
<62>
as to the extent to which, and the sense in which, it ties itself

down to the sphere of cogitationes I and the universals which are
abstracted from them. If one has cast off the first and most
immediate prejudice, which sees the only absolute datum in the
particular cogitatio and in the sphere of genuinely (reell) immanent
things, one must now also do away with the further and no less
immediate prejudice, according to which newly self-given objects
spring up only in general intuitions derived from the sphere of
cogitationes.
"In reflective perception, the cogitationes are absolutely given
to us in that we consciously undergo them," so one would like to
begin. And then we can inspect universals which are singled out
within them and within their genuinely (reell) abstract aspects;
we can, in a "seeing" abstraction, grasp universals and the
essential connections which are solely grounded in them as selfgiven states of affairs, constituted in "seeing" -interrelating
thought. That is the end of the matter.
Meanwhile no inclination is more dangerous to the "seeing"
cognition of origins and absolute data than to think too much,
and from these reflections in thought to create supposed selfevident principles. Principles which for the most part are not at
all explicitly formulated and hence are not subject to any critique
based on "seeing" but rather implicitly determine and unjustifiably limit the direction of investigation. "Seeing" cognition is
that form of reason which sets itself the task of converting the understanding into reason. The understanding is not to be allowed to
interrupt and to insert its unredeemed bank notes among the
certified ones; and its method of convertion and exchange, based
on mere treasury bonds, is not questioned here.
Thus as little interpretation as possible, but as pure an intuition as possible (intuitio sine comprehensione). In fact, we will
hark back to the speech of the mystics when they describe the
intellectual seeing which is supposed not to be a discursive
knowledge. And the whole trick consists in this - to give free
rein to the seeing eye and to bracket the references which go
beyond the "seeing" and are entangled with the seeing, along
with the entities which are supposedly given and thought along
with the "seeing," and, finally, to bracket what is read into them
through the accompanying reflections. The crucial question is:
LECTURE IV
51
Is the supposed object given in / the proper sense? Is it, in the

strictest sense, "seen" and grasped, or does the intention go
beyond that?
Supposing this to be the case, we soon recognize that it would
be a fiction to believe that investigation by way of "seeing"
moves in the sphere of a so-called inner perception and in the
sphere of the purely immanent abstractions based on the phenomena and phenomenal aspects of inner perception. There are
many sorts of objectivity and, correlatively, many sorts of socalled givenness. Perhaps the givenness of existents in the sense
of the so-called "inner perception," and again the givenness of the
existents in the natural, "objectivizing" sciences, is only one sort
of givenness; while the others, although labeled as nonexistent,
are still types of givenness. And it is only because they are, that
they can be set over against the other sorts and distinguished
from them in evidence.
<63>
<65>
LECTURE V
[THE CONSTITUTION (Konstitution) OF TIME-CONSCIOUSNESS. APPREHENSION OF ESSENCES AS AN EVIDENT GIVENNESS OF ESSENCE; THE CONSTITUTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL ESSENCE AND OF THE CONSCIOUSNESS OF
UNIVERSALITY. CATEGOREAL DATA. THE SYMBOLICALLY THOUGHT AS SUCH.
THE FIELD OF RESEARCH IN ITS WIDEST EXTENT: THE CONSTITUTION OF
DIFFERENT MODES OF OBJECTIVITY IN COGNITION. THE PROBLEM OF THE
CORRELATION OF COGNITION AND THE OBJECT OF COGNITION.]
<67>
If we have firmly established the evidence of the cogitatio, and

then have conceded the further step of recognizing the evident
givenness of the universal, this step will at once lead us further.
By perceiving color and exercising reduction on this perception
I arrive at the pure phenomenon of color. And if I now achieve a
pure abstraction, I will get to the essence of phenomenological
color as such. But am I not equally in full possession of this
essence if I have a clear image?
As far as memory is concerned it is not anything simple, and
from the start it presents different forms of objects and, interconnected with these, different forms of givenness. Thus one
could refer to the so-called primary memory, the retention which is
necessarily bound up with every perception. The mental process
which we are now undergoing becomes objective to us in immediate reflection, and thenceforth it displays in reflection the
same objectivity: the self-same tone which has just existed as an
actual "now" remains henceforth the same tone, but moving
back into the past and there continually constituting the same
objective point in time. And if the tone does not cease but continues, and during its continuation presents itself as the same in
content or else as changing content, can we not grasp this fact that it remains the same or changes - evidently (within certain
limits)? And again, does this not mean that "seeing" extends
beyond the strictly present moment and hence is capable of
grasping intentionally, in continually new moments, what is no
longer existing, and that it is capable of becoming certain of a
stretch of past time in the manner of evident givenness? And
again we must distinguish, on the one hand, the pertinent object
which is and was, which endures and changes and, on the other
hand, the pertinent phenomenon of presentness and pastness,
LECTURE V
53
of duration and change, which is from time to time a "now." It is

in the latter, and in the gradations it contains and the continual /
changes it undergoes, that temporal existence is brought into
appearance and presented. The object is not a genuinely concrete
part of the phenomenon; in its temporality it has something
which cannot at all be found in the phenomenon or reduced to
the phenomenon. And yet it is constituted within the phenomenon. It is presented therein and is evidently given as "existing" there.
Further, as to the givenness of essences, it is constituted not
only on the basis of perception and the retention which is bound
up with it, in such a way that we, so to speak, pluck a universal
from the phenomenon itself; it is also constituted by universalizing
the object of appearance, positing a universal while gazing on it,
e.g., temporal content in general, duration in general, change in
general. Moreover, imagination and memory can also serve as its
foundation; they themselves present pure possibilities to be
grasped. In a similar way we can take from these acts universals
which, for their part, are not genuinely contained in these acts.
It is obvious that a fully evident grasp of essence refers back to
some particular intuition on the basis of which it must be built
up, but therefore not necessarily to a particular perception, which
has given us the paradigm of an individual thing as something
present in a genuine "now." The essence of phenomenological
tone-quality, tone-intensity, of color quality, of brightness, etc.,
is itself given whether the eidetic abstraction carries out its
operation on the basis of a perception or on that of a realization in
imagination; and it is irrelevant to either of these whether we
suppose the objects to exist in actuality or in some other way. The
same holds for an apprehension of essences which has to do with
various sorts of psychic data in the proper sense, e.g., judgment,
assertion, denial, perception, inference, etc. And of course it
holds also for the general states of affairs which appertain to such
universals. The realization that of two tones one is lower, the
other higher, and that this relation is asymmetrical, is developed
within "seeing." The instances must stand before our eyes, but
not necessarily in the manner of facts of perception. For a consideration of essence, perception and imagination are to be
treated exactly alike; the same essence can equally well be "seen"
<68>
54
<69>
in either, / or abstracted from either, and any interpolated suppositions about existence are irrelevant. That the perceived tone
together with its intensity, pitch, etc., exists in a certain sense,
that the imagined tone, to put it bluntly, the fictitious tone, does
not exist, that the former is obviously present in a genuine sense,
the latter not, that in the case of memory the tone is posited as
having existed rather than as existing now and is only presented
at this moment - all this belongs to another investigation. In a
consideration of essence none of this is to the point, unless that
investigation turns its attention to the presentation of just these
distinctions, which also are capable of being given, and to establishing general principles concerning them.
Moreover it is quite clear that even if the underlying instances
are given in perception, the actual existence which sets perceptual
givenncss off from other kinds has no bearing on the matter. It is
not just that imagination is as suitable as perception for the
consideration of essence; it is also the case that imagination appears to contain individual data within itself, and even actually
evident data.
Let us consider mere imagination, even without this being
fixed in memory. An imagined color is not a datum in the way a
sensed color is. We distinguish the imagined color from the
mental process of imagining the color. The hovering of the color
before me (to put it roughly) is a "now," a presently existing
cogitatio, but the color itself is not a presently existing color; it is
not perceived. On the other hand, it is given in a certain way, it
stands before my gaze. Just like the perceived color it can be
reduced through the exclusion of all transcendent significance, so
that it no longer signifies for me the color of the paper, the house,
etc. It is possible here too to refrain from positing the existence of
anything empirical; in that case I consider it just exactly as I
"see" it, or, as it were, "live" it. But in spite of that it is not a
genuine part of the mental process of imagining; it is not a present, but a presented color. It stands, as it were, before our eyes,
but not as a genuine presence. But with all this, it is "seen" and
as "seen" it is, in a certain sense, given. Thus I do not take it to
be a physical or psychical existent. Nor do I take it to be existent
in the sense of a proper cogitatio, which is a genuine "now," a
datum which is, as a matter of evidence, characterized as given
LECTURE V
55
now./ Still, the fact that the imagined color is not given in this or <70>
that sense does not mean that it is given in no sense. It appears
and in appearing presents itself in such a way that "seeing" it
itself in its presentation I can make judgments concerning the
abstract aspects which constitute it and the ways in which these
aspects cohere. Naturally these are also given in the same sense,
and likewise they do not "actually" exist anywhere in the mental
process of imagining. They are not genuinely present; they are
only "represented." The pure judgment of imagination, the mere
expression of the content, the specific essence of that which
appears, can assert: this is found in this way, contains these
aspects, is changed in such and such a way - without saying
anything at all about existence as really involved in objective
time, about the actual present, past, and future. We could therefore say that it is concerning the individual essence that we make
judgments and not concerning existence. Just on that account is
the general judgment of essence, which we usually just call the
judgment of essence, independent of the distinction between
perception and imagination. Perception posits existence, but it
also has an essence which as content posited as existing can also be
the same in representation.
But the contrast of existence and essence signifies nothing else
than that here two modes of being manifest themselves in two
modes of self-givenness and are to be distinguished. In merely
imagining a color, the existence which attaches to that color as
an actuality in time is not in question; no judgment is made
concerning it, and nothing concerning it is given in the content
of the imagination. But this color appears; it stands there; it is
a "this"; it can become the subject of a judgment, and an evident
judgment. Thus a mode of givenness is displayed in the intuitions
in imagination and the evident judgments which are grounded on
them. To be sure, if we restrict ourselves to the sphere of particular individuals, then we can hardly get started with this kind of
judgment. Only if we construct general jUdgments of essence,
can we attain the secure objectivity which science demands. But
that does not matter here. Hence we seem to get into a pretty
kettle of fish.
The earliest stage was the evidence of the cogitatio. There it
seemed first of all as if we were on solid ground - / being pure and <71 >
56
simple. Here one would only have to grasp and "see" it. That one
could, in reflecting on these data, compare and distinguish, that
one could separate out the specific universals and so put forward
judgments of essence, all this could be easily managed. But now
it becomes clear that the pure being of the cogitatio reveals itself,
on closer inspection, to be something which is not as simple as all
that. It becomes clear that in the Cartesian sphere itself dilferent
types of objectivity are "constituted." And to say that they are
constituted implies that immanent data are not, as it first
seemed, simply in consciousness in the sense in which things are
in a box, but that all the time they are displayed in something
like "appearances." These appearances neither are nor genuinely
contain the objects themselves. Rather in their shifting and
remarkable structure they create objects in a certain way for
the ego, insofar as appearances of just such a sort and just such a
construction belong to that in which what we call "givenness"
has been lying all along.
The primary temporal object is constituted in perception, along
with the retention of consciousness of what is perceived; only in
that sort of consciousness can time be given. Thus the universal
is constituted in the consciousness 0/ universality which is built
up from perception and imagination. The content of intuition, in
the sense of a particular essence, is constituted in either imagination or perception indifferently, while abstracting from existential claims. And, to remind you of this right away, from this
proceed the categoreal acts, which are always presupposed in any
evident assertions. The categoreal forms which we encounter
here, which find expression in words like "is" and "not," "same"
and "other," "one" and "many," "and" and "or," and in the
forms of predication and attribution, etc., point to the forms of
thinking by means of which thought-forms, when they have been
appropriately constructed, come to consciousness on the basis
of synthetic data which tie together the simplest acts: states of
affairs of this and that ontological form. It is also at this point
that the "self-constitution" of the actual objects takes place in
the cognitive acts which have been so formed. The consciousness
in which the given object as well as the pure "seeing" of things is
brought to fulfillment is, however, not like an empty box in
<72> which these / data are simply lying; it is the "seeing" conscious-
LECTURE V
57
ness, which, apart from attention, consists of mental acts which

are formed in such and such ways,' and the things which are not
mental acts are nevertheless constituted in these acts, and come
to be given in such acts. It is only as so constituted that they
display themselves as what they are.
But is this not an absolute marvel? And where does this
constituting of objects begin and where does it end? Are there
any actual limits to it? Isn't it true that in every representation
or judgment we get at a datum in a certain sense? Isn't each
object a datum, and an evident datum, just insofar as it is
intuited, represented, or thought in such and such a way? In
the perception of an external thing, just that thing, let us say a
house standing before our eyes, is said to be perceived. The house
is a transcendent thing, and fodeits its existence after the
phenomenological reduction. The house-appearance, this cognitatio, emerging and disappearing in the stream of consciousness,
is given as actually evident. In this house-phenomenon we find
a phenomenon of redness, of extension, etc. These are evident
data. But is it not also evident that a house appears in the housephenomenon, and that it is just on that account that we call it a
perception of a house? And what appears is not only a house in
general, but just exactly this house, determined in such and such
a way and appearing in that determination. Can I not make an
evidently true judgment as follows: on the basis of the appearance
or in the content of this perception, the house is thus and so, a
brick building, with a slate roof, etc. ?
And if I give free rein to fantasy, so that, e.g., perhaps I see a
knight like St. George killing a dragon, is it not evident that the
fantasy-phenomenon represents precisely St. George, and even
St. George as described in such and such a way, and that thus it
here represents something transcendent? Can I not make evident
judgments here, not about the genuine content of the appearance
in fantasy, but about the object which appears? To be sure, only
one aspect of the object comes within the purview of this realization in imagination, although more and more aspects can be
brought therein; but nevertheless it is still evident that this
object, this knight St. George, lies within the meaning of the
phenomenon, and is manifested there "as a datum" of a sort
proper to appearance.
58
<73>
And finally we come to so-called symbolic thinking. Let us say

that without any intuition I think that 2 times 2 equals 4. Can I
doubt that I have directed my thought to this arithmetical
proposition and that what is thought does not concern, e.g.,
today's weather? If this is evidently so, is there not also something functioning as a datum here? And if we go this far, nothing
can prevent us from recognizing that the paradoxical, the
completely absurd, is also "given" in a certain way. A round
square does not appear in imagination as a dragon killer appears
to me, nor does it appear in perception as an arbitrary external
thing; but an intentional object is still obviously there. I can
describe the phenomenon, "thinking of a round square," in
terms of its genuine content. The round square itself cannot be
found there, and still it is evident that it is thought in this mental
act and that in the object so thought roundness and squareness
as such are thought. In other words, the object of this thought is
both round and square.
Above all, it must not be said that the data to which we have
finally been led in these considerations are actual data in the
true sense; in that case everything perceived, imagined, pretended, or symbolically thought, every fiction and absurdity, would
be "evidently given." But all that would be indicated by all this
would be that great difficulties are involved here. It cannot hinder
us in our quest for enlightenment to hold fast to the principle:
givenness extends fust as far as actual evidence. But of course the
basic question will be this. In the achievement of pure evidence
what is actually given in it and what is not? What is it that is
produced therein only be an alien mode of thought? What
interpretations are introduced without any basis in the data
themselves?
And in general it is not primarily a matter of clinging to certain
selected appearances as data, but rather of getting insight into
the nature of givenness and of the self-constitution of different
modes of objectivity. Certainly each mental phenomenon has its
relation to objects; and (this is the most fundamental fact
about it) each has its genuine (reellen) content, which is a belief 1
in those aspects which compose it in the genuine sense. But on
the other hand there is its intentional object, an object which it
1
English in the original.
LECTURE V
59
intends to constitute in such and such a way according to its

essential kind.
In order to bring this matter to actual evidence, we must get <74>
everything we need from the evidence itself. Within it we must
become clear as to what this "intentional inexistence" really
signifies and how it is related to the genuine content of the
mental phenomenon. We must see in what connections it appears
as actual and proper evidence, and what in these connections
actual and proper givenness is. We will then be in a position to
set forth the different modes of givenness in the proper sense, and
likewise the constitution of different modes of objectivity and their
relations to one another: the givenness of the cogitatio, the givenness of the cogitatio preserved in a fresh recollection, the givenness
of the unity of appearance enduring in the phenomenal flux, the
givenness of change itself, the givenness of things to the "outer"
sense, the givenness of the different forms of imagination and
memory, as well as the givenness of perceptions and other sorts of
representations which unify themselves synthetically in many
ways in fitting associations. Of course there is also logical givenness, the givenness of universals, of predicates, of states of aflairs,
etc.; also the givenness of something absurd, of something contradictory, of something which does not exist. In general, whether a
datum manifests what is merely represented or what truly exists,
what is real or what is ideal, what is possible or what is impossible, it is a datum in the cognitive phenomenon, in the phenomenon
of a thought, in the widest sense of the term. And, generally
speaking, it is in the consideration of essences that this correlation,
which seems so wonderful at first sight, is to be investigated.
It is only in cognition that the essence of objectivity can be
studied at all, with respect to all its basic forms; only in cognition
is it truly given, is it evidently "seen." This evident "seeing" itself
is truly cognition in the fullest sense. And the object is not a thing
which is put into cognition as into a sack, as if cognition were a
completely empty form, one and the same empty sack in which
now this, now / that is placed. But in givenness we see that the <75>
object is constituted in cognition, that a number of different basic
forms of objectivity are to be distinguished, as well as an equal
number of different forms of the given cognitive acts and of
clusters and interconnections of cognitive acts. And cognitive
60
<76>
acts, more generally any metal acts, are not isolated particulars,
coming and going in the stream of consciousness without any
interconnections. As they are essentially related to one another,
they display a teleological coherence and corresponding connections of realization, corroboration, verification, and their opposites. And on these connections, which present an intelligible
unity, a great deal depends. They themselves are involved in the
constitution of objects. They logically bring together acts which
are and acts which are not given in the proper sense, acts of mere
representation (or rather of mere belief) and acts of insight. And
they bring together the multiplicity of acts which are relative to
this same objectivity, whether they take place in intuitive or in
nonintuitive thought.
And it is in these interconnections that the objectivity involved in the objective sciences is first constituted, not in one
stroke but in a gradually ascending process - and especially the
objectivity of real spatio-temporal actuality.
All this is to be investigated, and investigated in the sphere of
pure evidence, in order to throw light on the great problems of
the nature of cognition and the meaning of the correlation of
cognition and the object of cognition. Originally the problem concerned the relation between subjective psychological experience and
the actuality grasped therein, as it is in itself - first of all actual
reality, and then also the mathematical and other sorts of ideal
realities. But first we need the insight that the crucial problem
must rather have to do with the relation between cognition and its
object, but in the reduced sense, according to which we are dealing
not with human cognition, but with cognition in general, apart
from any existential assumptions either of the empirical ego or of
a real world. We need the insight that the truly significant / problem is that of the uUimate bearing of cognition, including the problem of objectivity in general, which only is what it is in correlation
with possible cognition. Further, we need the insight that this
problem can only be solved within the sphere of pure evidence,
the sphere of data which are ultimate norms because they are
absolutely given. And finally we need the realization that we
must then investigate one by one, by the strict process of
"seeing," all the fundamental forms of cognition and of the objects which fully or partially attain givenness within cognition,
in order to determine the meaning of all the correlations which
have to be explicated.

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What are some of the forms of objectivity and cognition that are discussed?

What are some of the forms of objectivity and cognition that are discussed?

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS

Published by Kluwer Academic Publishers,

First impression 1964

All Rights Reserved

From April 26 to May 2, 1907, Husserl delivered five lectures

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

Moore, Russell and Sartre, Wittgenstein and Heidegger, Bergson

which few philosophers in the English-speaking tradition would

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

neither in the degree of conviction with which we believe, nor in

not with describing the essence of types of psychological acts,

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

ations, desires, loves, hatreds, and so on. An intentional act, said

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

never itself given? Descartes resorted to God to validate our

pure intuition. At the same time, they are transcendent in that

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

counts about the conditions under which the universals "give

Transcendental subjectivity, Husserl continues, requires a

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

gical idealism" as a strictly demonstrable position. He seems to

contributions are much simpler than they at first appear

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

THE TRAIN OF THOUGHTS IN THE LECTURES

Natural thinking in science and everyday life is untroubled by

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

A. The First Step in the Phenomenological Orientation

THE TRAIN OF THOUGHTS IN THE LECTURES

The cognition belonging to the objective sciences, the natural

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

I must accomplish a phenomenological reduction: I must exclude all

THE TRAIN OF THOUGHTS IN THE LECTURES

here with quite different ones. The elucidation of the ways in

We abandon finally the standpoint of psychology, even of descriptive

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

single "seeings" to us, no matter how securely they bring our

THE TRAIN OF THOUGHTS IN THE LECTURES

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

C. The Third Level of the Phenomenological Orientation

THE TRAIN OF THOUGHTS IN THE LECTURES

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

not at all to be found in them. For "things to be given" is for

THE TRAIN OF THOUGHTS IN THE LECTURES

We finally arrive in this way at an understanding of how the

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

essence of the objectivity of cognition and of the cognition of

[THE NATURAL ATTITUDE IN THINKING AND SCIENCE OF THE NATURAL SORT.

In earlier lectures I distinguished between science 01 the natural <17>

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

thing most taken for granted in natural thinking, suddenly

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY

human cognition, bound up with human intellectual forms, and

THE IDEA OF PHENOMENOLOGY