LESSON 3 Understanding the uses of radioisotopes

Radioisotopes
Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes which decay and
give out radioactive emissions.
Radioisotopes are naturally occurring or artificially
produced.

(d) Iodine-131
Iodine-131 has a half-life 8 days.
It emits gamma rays and used for
detecting changes in the thyroid glands.
Patients are given an intravenous injection
of iodine-131 . A detector is placed near
the thyroid to read its activity or function.

Uses of radioisotopes
There are many uses for radioisotopes in a wide
range of fields including medicine, agriculture,
industry and archeology.

(e) Iodine-123
Iodine-131 has a half-life 13 hours.
It is used to detect blockage in the kidneys
of patients.
Iodine-123 is injected into a patient. The GM tube s placed on the patients body to
trace the radioactive rays.

(1) Medicine
In medicine field radioisotopes are used in the
diagnosis of certain diseases , provides
information of the specific organs of a patient or
treat disease.
(a) Sodium-24
Sodium-24 has a half-life 15 hours is used
to detect the positions of blood clots
(thrombosis) in veins.
Sodium-24 is injected into the blood
stream and gamma rays and beta rays
emitted is detected by a ray camera
outside the body.

(f)

Iodine-125
Iodine-125 has a half-life 60 days.
It is used to estimate the volume of blood
by injecting a measured volume of human
serum albumin (HSA) labelled with a
sample of iodine-125.

(g) Cobalt-60
Cobalt-60 has a half-life 5 years.
It is widely used to give patient s a large
dose of gamma radiation for the treatment
of internal cancers. A restricted beam of
gamma radiation is carefully directed at
cancer site from an external cobalt source.
This dangerous source is heavily shielded
and its operated by remote control from
behind thick lead and concrete walls.
Cobalt-60 also is used to sterilise medical
equipments.

(b) Technetium -99

Technetium -99 has a half-life of just 6
days is used to study the blood in heart.
It is a gamma- only emitter and produces
no harmful alphas or betas inside the body.
The Technetium is combined into samples
of the protein albumin, and this is injected
into the patient. Its movement round the
body can be followed by a gamma ray
camera, picking up the gammas emitted
from the Technetium -99.
(c)

No alpha or beta radiation is produced to

cause local internal ionisation damage.

(2) Industry
(a) Strontium-90
Strontium-90 has a half-life 28 years.
It is used to measure the thickness of
paper in a paper industry . It emits beta
radiation. A radioactive source containing
strontium-90 is placed at one side of the
paper and a detector on the other side.
The detector registers a higher count if the
paper is too thin and a lower count if it is
too thick.

Xenon-133
Xenon-133 has a half-life 5 days in used in
studying lung function.
A patient can be asked to breathe air
containing the gas xenon-133 . The
gamma rays emitted are studied using a
gamma camera which produces a picture
of patients lungs from the gamma
radiation each one receives. The patient
soon breathes out all the xenon and
receives only a tiny dose of radiation.

(b) Sodium-24
Sodium-24 has a half-life 15 hours is used
to test for leakage of underground pipes.
Sodium-24 is added into the water in the
storage tank. A G-M tube is moved above
the underground pipe , a leakage can be
detected. The leakage can be detected
when the tube registers a higher reading.
(c)

recorded increases then the plant has

absorbed phosphorus.
(b) Cobalt-60
Cobalt-60 has a half-life 5 years. The
gamma radiation emits from cobalt-60 can
be used for food preservation. Some
foodstuffs, like grain and dried beans, are
often attacked by pests while in store.
Radiation treatment kill these pests and
reduces the losses.
The gamma radiation is also used to
control insect pests which damage crops.
Male insects are bred in laboratory and
then irradiated. This does not kill them but
damages their sex cells, making them
sterile- unable to produce offspring. These
males are then released in great numbers
in affected areas. They breed as usual with
normal females ,but no new generation of
the insects is hatched. So the pest is
controlled.

Polonium -210
Polonium -210 has a half-life 140 days. It
emits alpha radiation It is used to
neutralise static charge in photographic
plates or charges on clothes. The alpha
particles ionise the air particles into
positive and negative ions which neutralise
the photographic plates or the clothes.

(d) Cobalt-60
Cobalt-60 has a half-life 5 years. It is used
to check welds in steel structures and
pipelines Gamma radiation from a large
cobalt-60 source placed on one side of a
steel structure exposes a photographic
plate at the other side. A flaw such as a
bubble or crack inside a weld on a pipeline
would be visible on the exposed film.

(c)

(e) Americium-241
Americium-241 has a half-life 460 years.
It is used in a smoke alarm.
Americium-241 emits beta particles which
ionise air The air ions will then conduct
electricity allowing a small current to flow
through. When smoke enters the alarm ,
the smoke particles get in the way of the
beta radiation , reducing the ionisation and
the current across the alarm. This drop in
current sets off the alarms.

Radioactive radiation also used to induce

genetic mutation in a plant ( change the
genes of plants) in order to produce a
better strain which has a higher resistance
against diseases.

(4) Archeology
(a) Carbon-14
Carbon-14 has a half-life 5 700 years
It is used to measure the age of a
archaeological specimen by carbon
dating method.
Ordinary carbon contains a very small
proportion of carbon-14 , produced when
cosmic rays from space collide with
nitrogen-14 in atmosphere. Living plants
take up the carbon-14 in the carbon
dioxide they use for photosynthesis, as do
animals when they eat the plants for food.
While the plant or animal is alive, the
proportion of cabon-14 to ordinary carbon12 in their tissues stays constant, but once
they die, the carobn-14 begins to decay
with a half-life of 5 700 years. To date an
archeological specimen , a small sample
of carbon is extracted from it.

(3) Agriculture
(a) Phosphorus-32
Phosphorus-32 has a half-life 15 days.
Phosphorus-32 is used as a tracer in the
study of the effectiveness of fertilizers.
The plants are watered with a solution
containing phosphorus-32. A leaf is
plucked and tested for radioactivity
everyday for a week. If the activity

(2) Genetic effect

Genetic effect appear in future generations
of the exposed person as a result of
radiation damage to reproductive cells
Examples of somatic effects are;
(a) Chromosome abnormalities
(b) Birth defects
(c) Congenital defects
( Down Syndrome, Klinefelter
Syndrome and Turner
Syndrome)
(d) Premature death
(e) Cancer in later life

(b) Uranium-238
Uranium-238 has a half-life of 5000 million
years. It is used to measure the geological
time.
During the formation of rocks, some
radioisotopes such as uranium-238 are
trapped. As the decays continues, the
proportion of uranium-238 decreases
slowly resulting in the equally slow growth
of its product lead-206 and the age of the
rock can b estimated.
The negative effects of radioactive substances.
People are exposed to a variety of radioactive
radiations which are dangerous because the
radiations have penetration power and ionisation
power.
As the radiations penetrate through living cells ,the
ionizations process occur. Ionisations cause the ions
react with other atoms in the cell to cause damage,
changed permanently or die.
Factors affecting the severity of radiation are:
(1) Types of radiation
(2) Dosage and exposure time
(3) Methods of insertion into the body
(4) Exposure of different parts of the body.
The harmful effects of radiation on humans can be
divided into two categories:
(1) Somatic effect
Somatic effects appear in the person
exposed to radiation. The seriousness of
the effect depends on the dose of radiation
received.
Somatic effect cause all parts of the body
damage except the reproductive organs.
Examples of somatic effects are;
(a) Radiation burns (skin burn)
(b) Fatigue
(c) Nausea
(d) Hair loss
(e) Leukemia
(f) Cataracts
(g) Vomiting
(h) Infertility in male
(i) Organ failure
(j) Death

Safety precautions in the handling of Radioactive

Substances
(1) No eating, drinking , smoking or applying
cosmetics are not allowed where any
radioactive materials are handled.
(2) Disposable gloves and protective clothing
are worn.
(3) Eye glasses made of lead are used at all
times when handling radioactive substances.
(4) Masks are worn in mines where radioactive
dust particles are air-borne
(5) Using shielding such as laboratory coats,
long pants, close-toe footwear and
especially to shield the sex organs using
lead aprons.
(6) Keeping a large distance between the
person and the source
(7) Keeping exposure times as short as possible
(8) Radioactive substances are kept in thick
lead containers
(9) Room, buildings, containers and radioactive
storage places must be labelled with the sign
for radioactive substance.
(10) Radioactive wastes must be disposed using
suitable and safe methods
(11) Nuclear reactors should be built on islands
or areas far from residents
(12) Use remote-controlled tools through a leadglass screen.
(13) Use tongs or forceps to move radioactive
material
(14) Sit behind a shielding wall made of lead and
concrete
(15) Wear a film badge which gives a permanent
record of radiation dose received

(16) Workers are checked for radiation

contamination by using sensitive radiation
monitors before they leave their place of
work.
(17) When radioactive material are used in
medicine , the material with a short half-life
is chosen.

cool them down and then stored

in steel container which are
buried deep underground.

TUTORIAL 3
1

Radioactive Waste Management

Radioactive waste consists of a variety of materials
requiring different methods of management to protect
people and the environment.
They are classified as low-level, medium level and
high-level.
(1) Low level wastes
Generated :
From hospitals, nuclear power
stations, research laboratories
and industries.
Examples:
Comprises paper, rags tool,
clothing, filters, gloves,
wrappers, biohazard suit and
shoes.
Half-life :
Short
Management: Solid wastes are stored in a
closed container and buried in
shallow landfill sites
(underground).

Which statement is true about the use of

radioactive substance?
A
B
C
D

Xenon-133 is used in studying lung function

because it
A
B
C
D

To determine the sex of a foetus

To identify counterfeit bank notes
To detect leakage in underground pipes
To determine the contents in baggage of
air plane passengers

has a long half-life

has no side effect
emits alpha or beta particles
emits radiation with low ionization power

The table shows the half-lives of radioisotopes

J, K, L and M.
Radioisotopes
J
K
L
M

(2) Medium level wastes

Generated:

Nuclear power stations,

research laboratories and
industries.
Examples:
Comprises resins, chemical
sludge, reactor components.
Half-life:
Long
Management: Solidified in concrete or bitumen
and then buried underground

Half-life
8 days
56 days
5.27 years
6 hours

Which of the radioisotope is most suitable as a

tracer in the human body?
A
B
C
D

(3) High level wastes

Generated:
Examples:

Nuclear power stations.

Used fuel rods or liquid waste
from fuel reprocessing
Half-life:
Long
Management: Submerged in a pool of water to

Cobalt-60 destroys cancer cells because it

A
B
C
D

J
K
L
M

has a long half-life

has no side effect
radiates gamma rays
decays spontaneously

The diagram shows an arrangement of

apparatus is used in a factory to determine the
thickness of plastic sheets.

The diagram shows a logic gate system is used

in a factory to ensure the volume of paint in
containers is within the predetermined range.

Which type of ray is emitted from the

radioactive source?
A
B
C

Which type of radioactive source would be best

for this device?
A
B
C
D
6

Radiation

Half-life
1 day
10 years
1 day
100 years

Alpha particle
Beta particle
Gamma ray

The diagram shows the structure of a smoke

alarm.

The diagram shows the process of detecting a

leakage in a pipe.

Which of the following is true?

A
B
Radioisotope that can be added into the water is

A
B
C
D

Carbon-14
Iodine-131
Sodium-24
Phosphorus-32

Cobalt -60 is used as a radioactive

source.
The device works based on the penetrating
power of the radioactive radiation
When a fire breaks out, the particles of
smoke will absorbs the alpha particles
The particles of smoke increase the
ionisation of the air and the alarm will be
activated

The diagram shows a graph of activity of Iodin

-131 present in the thyroid against time of three
patients P, Q and R when the Iodin-131 are
injected into the body of the patients.

13

A
B
C
D

Who is has a normal thyroid gland?

A
B
C
10

11

14

Patient P
Patient Q
Patient R

What is the radioisotope that can be used to

determine the age of a fossil?
A
B
C
D

A worker at a nuclear plant walks into a room

and is accidentally exposed to a small amount of
- radiation. On entering this room the worker
will

When some fresh foods are exposed to -rays,

the foods keeping qualities are improved and
the foods are safe to eat.
Why can people eat these foods without
suffering from the effect of radiation?
A
B
C
D

Carbon-14
Iodine-131
Radon-222
Uranium -238

15

Which of the following is the Hazard symbol of a

radioactive substance?

C
D

Which of the following factor is not affecting the

severity of radiation ?
A
B
C
D

17

Types of radiation
Dosage and exposure time
Methods of insertion into the body
The temperature of the radioactive source

lead
wood
plastic
aluminium

Why are radioactive sources stored in boxes

lined with lead?
A
B
C
D

Use forceps to move radioactive material

Keeping exposure times as long as
possible
Radioactive substances are kept in thick
lead containers
Keeping a large distance between the
person and the source

The container used for storing radioactive waste

must be made of
A
B
C
D

12

-rays have very low energy

-rays carry no electric charge
-rays have a very short half-life
-rays do not make the food radioactive

Which of the following is not safety precautions

in the handling of radioactive substances?
A
B

16

feel very hot

feel no effect
get skin blisters
lose consciousness

Lead absorbs radiation and stops it from

escaping into the room
Lead absorbs the radioactive source and
make it safe to handle
Lead slow down the rate at which the
radioactive source decays
Lead completely stops the source from
decaying and so it lasts longer

18

A container containing a radioactive waste is

submerged in a pool of water to
A
B
C
D

19

20

The diagram shows the process of controlling

the thickness of metal plates.

cool them
solidify the waste
stop the rays from escaping
slow down the decay process

The diagram shows a radioactive source and a

detector are used to check the level of fruit juice
in a carton. Cartons of fruit juice pass between
the detector and the radioactive source. The
radioactive source emits - particles.

The reading obtained are shown in the table

below:
Position of
A
B
C
metal plate
Reading of
counter /
200 250 180
count per
minute
(a) Name the detector P.

202

197

201

.................................................................
(b) Why the gamma source is used?

(a) State the name of a suitable detector of the

- particles.

.................................................................

(b) What is a - particle?

..................................................................
(c) Why the gamma source is placed in a
plumbum box?

(c) Explain why the level of detected radiation

falls when a full carton of juice goes past
the detector?

................................................................
..................................................................
(d) (i) At what position of the metal is very
thin ?

(d) Explain
(i) why a source emitting - particles is
not used.

(ii)

..
..
(i)

..........................................................
Give one reason for your answer in
d(ii).
.

..
why a source emitting - rays is not
used.

.
(e) Explain why the thickness of the metal
plate at position A,D,E and F are same but
give the different readings?

..

..................................................................

..

(f)

What happen to reading of the counter if a

part of the metal plate attached with
magnet?

(d) Complete the sentence by choosing

an answer from the box.
less than more than

....................................................................
(g) (i) If the gamma source is removed,
what happen to the reading of the
counter?
(ii)

the same as

After many years the radiation

emitted by americium 241 will be
__________________ the smoke
detector was new.

............................................................
Give the reason for your answer in
g(i).

22

(a) Diagram(a) shows a box containing a

dangerous material.

............................................................
............................................................
21

A smoke detector fitted inside a house contains

a radioactive source americium 241.
(a) Complete the following table of information
for an atom of americium 241.
Number of neutrons
146
Number of protons
95
Number of electrons

Diagram (a)

(b) The diagram shows that the radiation given

out by americium 241 does not go through
paper.

(i)

What is material is kept in the box?

(ii)

..
State one negative effect of the
material to the people?

(iii)

.
Give two safety precautions which
should be taken when handling the
material?
.
.

Which type of radiation, alpha () ,

beta () or gamma () is given out by
americium 241?

(b) A doctor uses radioactive rays to detect the

flow of blood in a patient. The device is
shown in Diagram (b) and its results
recorded are shown in Diagram(c).

....
(c) Explain why the radiation given out by
the americium 241 is unlikely to do
any harm to people living in the
house.

Diagram(a)

Isotope

Name a radioisotope is used.

(ii)

State the type of radioactive ray

emitted.

Penetrating
power
Medium

Cobalt-60

Solid

Gamma

5
years

High

Xenon-133

Gas

Beta

5
days
12
years

High

140
days

Low

Water
Liquid
Beta
containing
H-3
PoloniumSolid
Alpha
210
Based on the table above;

Diagram (b)
(i)

Strontium90

Characteristics of isotope
State of Emitted Halfmatter
radiation life
Solid
Beta
28
years

(i)

Explain the suitable characteristics of

the isotopes so that it can be used to
measure the thickness of paper in a
paper industry.

(ii)

Select the most suitable isotope to be

used in detecting the thickness of
paper in the factory and give your
reason.

.
(iii) The radioisotope used has a short
half-life. Explain why?

(iv) Why is there a peak in the graph?

(c) Suggest briefly the arrangement of the

paper thickness detector apparatus and
state how radioactivity is used to detect the
thickness of the paper.

.
.
(c)

23

Medium

(d) Sketch a graph activity against time to

illustrate how radioactive materials decay.
Use your graph to explain how the half-life
is determined.

.
A detector shows the activity of a
radioisotope decreases from 160 counts
per second to 20 counts per second in 15
minutes. Calculate the half-life of the
radioisotope.

As a researcher , you are assigned to

investigate the characteristics of a certain
radioactive isotope that could be used to detect
the thickness of paper in a paper factory.
(a) What does the term isotope mean?

24

(b) The table below shows the characteristics

of five isotopes.

(e) The half-life of cobalt-60 is 5 years.

Calculate the time taken for the activity of
this isotope to decay to 12.5% of its initial
value.
A paint-producing factory wants to develop a
volume control system which can ensure the
quantity of paint in every thin is within in a
specific range. The tins of paint are transported
on a conveyor belt as shown in diagram below.
If the volume of the paint is less or more than
the specific range of volume, the tin will be
separated automatically.

Calculate the time taken for the

Iodine- 131 activity to decrease to
100 counts per second.
(b) Medical equipment is strelised by radiation
from a radioactive source. You are
assigned to study the characteristics of
some radioisotopes that are suitable for
use in the strelisation of medical
equipments. Table below shows the
characteristics of five radioisotopes.

Using your knowledge on the radioactivity and

the Diagram above, explain;
(a) the radioactive material and equipment
required to develop the volume control
system,
(b) how the equipment is assembled
(c) how the system works
25

Radioisotope
Strontium-90
Cobalt-60
Xenon-133
Iodine- 131
Polonium- 210

Radioisotope material has some uses in the

medical field such as in the investigation of
internal organs and in the sterilisation of
equipments.
(a) A doctor conducts an investigation on
patients kidney by injecting iodine-131
radioisotope, that has a half-life of 8 days,
into the blood circulation.
A normal kidney can expel the radioisotope
in 20 minutes.
The presence of radioisotope in the left
and right kidneys is shown in the graphs as
in Diagram (a).

Characteristics of isotope
State of Types of
Half-life
matter
ray
Solid
Beta
28 years
Solid
Gamma
5 years
Gas
Beta
5 days
Liquid
Gamma
8 days
Solid
Alpha
140 days

(i)

Explain the suitability of the

characteristics to be used in the
strelisation of medical equipment.
(ii) Determine the most suitable
radioisotope to be used and give one
reason for your choice.
(c) Gamma rays can produce an effect on
photographic film.
Explain whether gamma rays is suitable to
be used in taking photographs of an organ
in humans.
(d) Beryllium- 11 isotope emits two rays. The
isotope is placed in front of an electric field
and the radioactive radiation path is shown
in Diagram(b).

Diagram (a)
(i)
(ii)

What is meant by half-life?

Based on the graphs in Diagram(a),
which kidney is not functioning
properly? Give one reason.
(iii) The initial iodine-131 activity is 1 600
counts per second.

Diagram(b)
(i)

10

Name both rays that are emitted by

the isotope.

(ii)

Explain why the rays follow the path

shown in Diagram (b).

11