Carbohydrates: an

Important Part of a
Balanced Diet
Year 12 Chemistry 2015 Food and
Fibres
[Type the author name]

Year 12 Chemistry - Extended Response Task

Food and Fibres
Carbohydrates: An Important Part of a Balanced Diet
Carbohydrates, also known as saccharides, are an essential to the human diet.
They supply the body with the required energy for human functioning. The
compound is made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the general formula
Cn(H2O)n (Royal Society of Chemistry, 2004).
Structure
Carbohydrates are classified according their number of saccharide units. The
most abundant monosaccharide (a one sugar molecule) is glucose - others
include fructose and galactose (Hasudungan, 2015). The monosaccharide unit is
immediately absorbed into the bloodstream because it is carbohydrates
monomer (Hasudungan, 2015). The direct absorption causes a sugar high - the
energy within the carbohydrate is used immediately, energizing the consumer
instantly (Clark, 1997). Monosaccharides contain three to seven carbon atoms
per molecule. Triose, tetrose, pentose and hexose are monosaccharides with
three, four, five and six carbon atoms respectively (Ball, 2012).
Triose

Tetrose

Pentose

Hexose

The position of the hydroxyl group in a carbohydrate classifies whether the sugar
is in alpha or beta configuration and effects future bonding (Hasudungan, 2015).
Alpha carbohydrates occur when the hydroxyl group is pointing in the opposite
direction to the CH2OH compound. Such is the case for the below -glucose.

In this molecule, the OH group on the C-1 atom is orientated in the same
direction as the CH2OH group and is consequently called -glucose (Hasudungan,
2015).

A disaccharide is formed in a condensation polymerization reaction in which two

monosaccharides bond together and water is produced as a byproduct. The
biochemistry formula for a condensation polymerization reaction is as follows:
Monosaccharide + monosaccharide disaccharide + H2O
Using glucose:
2C6H12O6 C12H22O11 (maltose)+ H2O
To form maltose, 2 -glucose molecules bond together. In the condensation
polymerization reaction, an -1-4 Glycosidic bond links the two glucose
molecule: C-1 of the first glucose molecule bonds with the C-4 of the other
glucose molecule (Hasudungan, 2015). The reversal of the reaction is hydrolysis,
resulting in two monosaccharides.

The configuration of a monosaccharide, whether it is beta or alpha, determines

what molecule is formed.
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When three or more monosaccharides bond together, the carbohydrate is termed

a polysaccharide. The three most significant polysaccharides are starch (storage
of excess glucose in plants in the form of a fruit, vegetable or bean), glycogen
(storage of excess glucose in animals) and cellulose (plant wall material) (Royal
Society of Chemistry, 2004). Both glycogen and starch possess similar qualities
because they are formed from the same monomer- glucose. The carbohydrate
bonding of both polysccharides consists of regular -1-4 Glycosidic bonds, as
well as -1-6 Glycosidic bonds this makes a branch, as seen below
(Hasudungan, 2015).

The difference between glycogen and starch is that glycogen branch points are
every 8-12 glucose residues, and every 24-30 residues for starch (Hasudungan,
2015).
The Glycemic Index
The glycemic index (GI) is a ranking of carbohydrates on a 0-100% scale
according to the extent to which they raise postprandial blood-glucose levels in
terms of molar concentration (mmol/L) (Bjorck, 2000). High GI foods have a
rating of 70-100% glucose mmol/L and contain carbohydrates that require less
energy to be converted to monosaccharides, resulting in faster digestion and a
faster increase of blood sugar (Bjorck, 2000). In contrast, Low GI foods have
complex carbohydrates which break down slowly and gradually release
sacchrides into the bloodstream. A food is termed Low GI if is 55% glucose
mmol/L or lower: examples include pasta, wholegrain foods and legumes (Bjorck,
2000). A lower glycemic response equates to a lower insulin demand and better
long-term blood glucose control.

Figure 1: High and Low GI

food digestion Tohttp://www.brightonyourhealth.com/taste
digest

Digestion
carbohydrates, polysaccharides must be
-and-health-two-big-reasons-to-cook-allhydrolyzed to monosaccharides
your-pasta-albefore they can absorb into the
bodys bloodstream (Carpi, 2003).
The hydrolysis of polysaccharides reacts inefficiently with water, and so,
enzymes are used. Amylase (in saliva) hydrolyzes some starch in foods to
maltose according to the following equation:
Starch + amylase 2 glucose molecules
C12H22O11 + amylase C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Polysaccharides require further digestion. This occurs in the ileum; the major site
of absorption of carbohydrates. The pancreas secretes amylase and enzymes
such as maltase (hydrolyzes maltose), sucrase (hydrolyzes sucrose) and lactase
(hydrolyzes lactose) which catabolizes polysaccharides into monosaccharides for
diffusion into the blood-stream.
Example of the breakdown of starch:
starch

maltose

glucose

The human body cannot digest cellulose because it doesnt have the enzyme to
do so (Carpi, 2003). Once in the bloodstream, glucose is either absorbed by cells
for immediate use or stored in the liver or skeletal muscle as glycogen.
Glycogenesis refers to the formation of glycogen from excess glucose in the
bloodstream, stimulated by the hormone insulin. The term glycogenolysis
(stimulated by glucagon) describes the reconversion of glycogen to glucose for
cell uptake when the blood-glucose level is hypoglycemic. Glucagon and insulin
work in opposition to deliver and regulate required energy to cells to maintain
homeostasis.
Carbohydrates in the Diet
Ensuring sufficient carbohydrate consumption is fundamental to human
functioning. The recommended carbohydrate intake for the average person is 2/3
of their dinner plate (Brighton, 2014). Without carbohydrates, the body is
reduced to use stored body fat as energy. This process is called gluconeogenesis
and causes headaches, fatigue, difficulties in concentration and weight loss.
4

When carbohydrate consumption is inadequate, the bodys blood-glucose level is

lowered, stimulating glucagon secretion. However, when glycogen concentration
is low, the body relies on non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as pyruvate,
lactate and glycerol as an energy source (Ophadt, 2003). Burning fat for energy
is not as efficient as using stored glycogen for energy (McDowell, 2011).
The Debate
Much debate and experimentation of diets aimed to enhance a sportspersons
performance has been undertaken. Some
Figure 2: Carbo-Loading Works
sportspeople think eating a meal of pasta before a
http://sciencebasedrunning.com/2011/06/carb
o-loading-an-idea-whose-time-has-passed/
game will help them perform better. This pre-exercise
eating attitude is termed carb-loading. A connection between hypoglycemia,
fatigue and premature termination of exercise has been firmly established and
has proven the concept carb-loading to boost endurance in prolonged events
(exceeding 90 minutes) see Figure 2 (Peterson, 2014). Monique Ryan MS RDN,
founder of Personal Nutrition Designs, states: when you eat a bowel of
spaghetti, most of the carbohydrates are stored as glycogen in your liver and
muscles (McDowell, 2011). Muscles require a constant source of glycogen to
function - liver glycogen can only be used to regulate blood-glucose levels.
Limited muscle glycogen provokes gluconeogenesis. When an individual runs out
of muscle-glycogen in a game their body has to slow down as it turns fat into
energy (McDowell, 2011). Thus, to enhance performance, the muscles must be
carbohydrate saturated. Carb-loading wont make you run faster, but it will
allow you to run at your best, and, if you race smartly, avoid gluconeogenesis
(McDowell, 2011).
Carb-loading is purposely consuming a diet of primarily carbohydrates in
preparation for an event. Figure 3 suggests that when training, 55 to 65% of
ones calorie count should derive from carbohydrates. Ryan recommends eating
about 4 grams of carbohydrates for every pound of body weight (McDowell,
2011). Additionally, time is key. It is impossible to completely fill the muscles with
glycogen from just one meal, and so, carb-loading should begin two to three
days prior to the event. During this time, low GI carbohydrates (rice, pasta and
legumes) should make up 85 to 95% of a sportspersons calorie intake: exercise
must be tapered. Consuming low GI foods ensures carbohydrates are slowly
broken down, digested and gradually absorbed into the bloodstream. The body
will be supplied with ongoing energy as if it is hooked up to a glucose drop. The
muscles will become
carbohydrate
saturated.

Figure 3: Meal &

Exercise plan for
Carb-loading http://srvthunderbirds.com/content
/wp-

Pasta cooked al dente

fits into the low GI range
5

(Brighton, 2014). However, often pasta is, causing acceleration of starch

gelatinization and increasing its GI. Mary Brighton MS, RD registered dietitian in
UK, recommends cooking pasta for 6 to 9 minutes to keep its GI as low as
possible (Brighton, 2014).

Figure 4: Glycemic Index of

Pasta http://www.health.harvard.edu/healthyeating/glycemic_index_and_glycemic_load_for_100_

The night
before the event,
Ryan advises a dinner that is relatively carb-heavy (McDowell, 2011). Three
hours before the event, eat 150g of carbohydrates and lastly, exercise at an
intensity that can be sustained the duration of the event going too fast will
burn through stored glycogen more quickly (McDowell, 2011). Any low GI food
consumed within two hours of a game will most likely cause stomach upset or a
stitch in a participant.

Finally, eating a bowel of pasta before a game is beneficial depending on the

type of exercise intended. Low level exercise burns primarily fats and moderate
exercise burns 50% glycogen and 50% fats (Peterson, 2014). Yet, high-intensity
exercise burns predominately glycogen. Thus, carb-loading is only necessary for
those involved in high-intensity exercise.
Figure 5: Proving
Carb-loading This
graph plots the
carbohydrate intake
of participants in the
2009 Ironman
Triathlon respective to
their finishing time. A
trend towards higher
carbohydrate intake
and a faster finishing
time is evident.
http://cyclingtips.com.au/2011/08/

Conclusively, sports games frequently exceed 90 minutes of high-intensity

exercise, inclusive of warm up and warm down. So, a meal of pasta before a
game is an informed and recommended choice. However, this meal will not be
beneficial if it is not accompanied with a diet of 85 to 95% carbohydrates three
days prior to the game and if it is consumed without enough time to digest
completely. If eaten correctly, it has been proven that a bowel of pasta the night
before a game will enhance a sportspersons performance.

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