Question 1: Write a note on decision making in management.

How one will

take decision under risk and uncertainty.
Answer:

Decision-making is a crucial part of good business. The question then is how

is a good decision made?
One part of the answer is good information, and experience in interpreting
information. Consultation ie seeking the views and expertise of other people
also helps, as does the ability to admit one was wrong and change ones
mind. There are also aids to decision-making, various techniques which help
to make information clearer and better analysed, and to add numerical and
objective precision to decision-making (where appropriate) to reduce the
amount of subjectivity.
Managers can be trained to make better decisions. They also need a
supportive environment where they wont be unfairly criticised for making
wrong decisions (as we all do sometimes) and will receive proper support
from their colleague and superiors. A climate of criticism and fear stifles risktaking
and creativity; managers will respond by playing it safe to minimise
the risk of criticism which diminishes the business effectiveness in
responding to market changes. It may also mean managers spend too much
time trying to pass the blame around rather than getting on with running the
business.
Decision-making increasingly happens at all levels of a business. The Board
of Directors may make the grand strategic decisions about investment and
direction of future growth, and managers may make the more tactical
decisions about how their own department may contribute most effectively to
the overall business objectives. But quite ordinary employees are
increasingly expected to make decisions about the conduct of their own
tasks, responses to customers and improvements to business practice. This
needs careful recruitment and selection, good training, and enlightened
management.
Types of Business Decisions
1. Programmed Decisions These are standard decisions which always
follow the same routine. As such, they can be written down into a series of
fixed steps which anyone can follow. They could even be written as computer
program
2. Non-Programmed Decisions. These are non-standard and non-routine.
Each decision is not quite the same as any previous decision.
3. Strategic Decisions. These affect the long-term direction of the business
eg whether to take over Company A or Company B
4. Tactical Decisions. These are medium-term decisions about how to
implement strategy eg what kind of marketing to have, or how many extra
staff to recruit
5. Operational Decisions. These are short-term decisions (also called
administrative decisions) about how to implement the tactics eg which firm
to use to make deliveries.
Figure 1: Levels of Decision-Making
Figure 2: The Decision-Making Process

The model in Figure 2 above is a normative model, because it illustrates

how a good decision ought to be made. Business Studies also uses positive
models which simply aim to illustrate how decisions are, in fact, made in
businesses without commenting on whether they are good or bad.
Linear programming models help to explore maximising or minimising
constraints eg one can program a computer with information that establishes
parameters for minimising costs subject to certain situations and information

about those situations.

Spread-sheets are widely used for what if simulations. A very large
spread-sheet can be used to hold all the known information about, say,
pricing and the effects of pricing on profits. The different pricing assumptions
can be fed into the spread-sheet modelling different pricing strategies. This
is a lot quicker and an awful lot cheaper than actually changing prices to see
what happens. On the other hand, a spread-sheet is only as good as the
information put into it and no spread-sheet can fully reflect the real world.
But it is very useful management information to know what might happen to
profits what if a skimming strategy, or a penetration strategy were used for
pricing.
The computer does not take decisions; managers do. But it helps managers
to have quick and reliable quantitative information about the business as it is
and the business as it might be in different sets of circumstances. There is,
however, a lot of research into expert systems which aim to replicate the
way real people (doctors, lawyers, managers, and the like) take decisions.
The aim is that computers can, one day, take decisions, or at least
programmed decisions (see above). For example, an expedition could carry
an expert medical system on a lap-top to deal with any medical emergencies
even though the nearest doctor is thousands of miles away. Already it is
possible, in the US, to put a credit card into a hole-in-the-wall machine and
get basic legal advice about basic and standard legal problems.
Constraints on Decision-Making
Internal Constraints
These are constraints that come from within the business itself.
- Availability of finance. Certain decisions will be rejected because they
cost too much
- Existing Business Policy. It is not always practical to re-write business
policy to accommodate one decision
- Peoples abilities and feelings. A decision cannot be taken if it assumes
higher skills than employees actually have, or if the decision is so unpopular
no-one will work properly on it.
External Constraints
These come from the business environment outside the business.
- National & EU legislation
- Competitors behaviour, and their likely response to decisions your
business makes
- Lack of technology
- Economic climate
Quality of Decision-Making
Some managers and businesses make better decisions than others. Good
decision-making comes from:1. Training of managers in decision-making skills. See Developing
Managers
2. Good information in the first place.
3. Management skills in analysing information and handling its
shortcomings.
4. Experience and natural ability in decision-making.
5. Risk and attitudes to risk.
6. Human factors. People are people. Emotional responses come
before rational responses, and it is very difficult to get people to make
rational decisions about things they feel very strongly about. Rivalries
and vested interests also come into it. People simply take different
views on the same facts, and people also simply make mistakes. Question 1: Write a

note on decision making in management. How one will

take decision under risk and uncertainty.
Answer:

Decision-making is a crucial part of good business. The question then is how

is a good decision made?
One part of the answer is good information, and experience in interpreting
information. Consultation ie seeking the views and expertise of other people
also helps, as does the ability to admit one was wrong and change ones
mind. There are also aids to decision-making, various techniques which help
to make information clearer and better analysed, and to add numerical and
objective precision to decision-making (where appropriate) to reduce the
amount of subjectivity.
Managers can be trained to make better decisions. They also need a
supportive environment where they wont be unfairly criticised for making
wrong decisions (as we all do sometimes) and will receive proper support
from their colleague and superiors. A climate of criticism and fear stifles risktaking
and creativity; managers will respond by playing it safe to minimise
the risk of criticism which diminishes the business effectiveness in
responding to market changes. It may also mean managers spend too much
time trying to pass the blame around rather than getting on with running the
business.
Decision-making increasingly happens at all levels of a business. The Board
of Directors may make the grand strategic decisions about investment and
direction of future growth, and managers may make the more tactical
decisions about how their own department may contribute most effectively to
the overall business objectives. But quite ordinary employees are
increasingly expected to make decisions about the conduct of their own
tasks, responses to customers and improvements to business practice. This
needs careful recruitment and selection, good training, and enlightened
management.
Types of Business Decisions
1. Programmed Decisions These are standard decisions which always
follow the same routine. As such, they can be written down into a series of
fixed steps which anyone can follow. They could even be written as computer
program
2. Non-Programmed Decisions. These are non-standard and non-routine.
Each decision is not quite the same as any previous decision.
3. Strategic Decisions. These affect the long-term direction of the business
eg whether to take over Company A or Company B
4. Tactical Decisions. These are medium-term decisions about how to
implement strategy eg what kind of marketing to have, or how many extra
staff to recruit
5. Operational Decisions. These are short-term decisions (also called
administrative decisions) about how to implement the tactics eg which firm
to use to make deliveries.
Figure 1: Levels of Decision-Making
Figure 2: The Decision-Making Process

The model in Figure 2 above is a normative model, because it illustrates

how a good decision ought to be made. Business Studies also uses positive
models which simply aim to illustrate how decisions are, in fact, made in
businesses without commenting on whether they are good or bad.
Linear programming models help to explore maximising or minimising
constraints eg one can program a computer with information that establishes
parameters for minimising costs subject to certain situations and information

about those situations.

Spread-sheets are widely used for what if simulations. A very large
spread-sheet can be used to hold all the known information about, say,
pricing and the effects of pricing on profits. The different pricing assumptions
can be fed into the spread-sheet modelling different pricing strategies. This
is a lot quicker and an awful lot cheaper than actually changing prices to see
what happens. On the other hand, a spread-sheet is only as good as the
information put into it and no spread-sheet can fully reflect the real world.
But it is very useful management information to know what might happen to
profits what if a skimming strategy, or a penetration strategy were used for
pricing.
The computer does not take decisions; managers do. But it helps managers
to have quick and reliable quantitative information about the business as it is
and the business as it might be in different sets of circumstances. There is,
however, a lot of research into expert systems which aim to replicate the
way real people (doctors, lawyers, managers, and the like) take decisions.
The aim is that computers can, one day, take decisions, or at least
programmed decisions (see above). For example, an expedition could carry
an expert medical system on a lap-top to deal with any medical emergencies
even though the nearest doctor is thousands of miles away. Already it is
possible, in the US, to put a credit card into a hole-in-the-wall machine and
get basic legal advice about basic and standard legal problems.
Constraints on Decision-Making
Internal Constraints
These are constraints that come from within the business itself.
- Availability of finance. Certain decisions will be rejected because they
cost too much
- Existing Business Policy. It is not always practical to re-write business
policy to accommodate one decision
- Peoples abilities and feelings. A decision cannot be taken if it assumes
higher skills than employees actually have, or if the decision is so unpopular
no-one will work properly on it.
External Constraints
These come from the business environment outside the business.
- National & EU legislation
- Competitors behaviour, and their likely response to decisions your
business makes
- Lack of technology
- Economic climate
Quality of Decision-Making
Some managers and businesses make better decisions than others. Good
decision-making comes from:1. Training of managers in decision-making skills. See Developing
Managers
2. Good information in the first place.
3. Management skills in analysing information and handling its
shortcomings.
4. Experience and natural ability in decision-making.
5. Risk and attitudes to risk.
6. Human factors. People are people. Emotional responses come
before rational responses, and it is very difficult to get people to make
rational decisions about things they feel very strongly about. Rivalries
and vested interests also come into it. People simply take different
views on the same facts, and people also simply make mistakes. Question 1: Write a

note on decision making in management. How one will

take decision under risk and uncertainty.
Answer:

Decision-making is a crucial part of good business. The question then is how

is a good decision made?
One part of the answer is good information, and experience in interpreting
information. Consultation ie seeking the views and expertise of other people
also helps, as does the ability to admit one was wrong and change ones
mind. There are also aids to decision-making, various techniques which help
to make information clearer and better analysed, and to add numerical and
objective precision to decision-making (where appropriate) to reduce the
amount of subjectivity.
Managers can be trained to make better decisions. They also need a
supportive environment where they wont be unfairly criticised for making
wrong decisions (as we all do sometimes) and will receive proper support
from their colleague and superiors. A climate of criticism and fear stifles risktaking
and creativity; managers will respond by playing it safe to minimise
the risk of criticism which diminishes the business effectiveness in
responding to market changes. It may also mean managers spend too much
time trying to pass the blame around rather than getting on with running the
business.
Decision-making increasingly happens at all levels of a business. The Board
of Directors may make the grand strategic decisions about investment and
direction of future growth, and managers may make the more tactical
decisions about how their own department may contribute most effectively to
the overall business objectives. But quite ordinary employees are
increasingly expected to make decisions about the conduct of their own
tasks, responses to customers and improvements to business practice. This
needs careful recruitment and selection, good training, and enlightened
management.
Types of Business Decisions
1. Programmed Decisions These are standard decisions which always
follow the same routine. As such, they can be written down into a series of
fixed steps which anyone can follow. They could even be written as computer
program
2. Non-Programmed Decisions. These are non-standard and non-routine.
Each decision is not quite the same as any previous decision.
3. Strategic Decisions. These affect the long-term direction of the business
eg whether to take over Company A or Company B
4. Tactical Decisions. These are medium-term decisions about how to
implement strategy eg what kind of marketing to have, or how many extra
staff to recruit
5. Operational Decisions. These are short-term decisions (also called
administrative decisions) about how to implement the tactics eg which firm
to use to make deliveries.
Figure 1: Levels of Decision-Making
Figure 2: The Decision-Making Process

The model in Figure 2 above is a normative model, because it illustrates

how a good decision ought to be made. Business Studies also uses positive
models which simply aim to illustrate how decisions are, in fact, made in
businesses without commenting on whether they are good or bad.
Linear programming models help to explore maximising or minimising
constraints eg one can program a computer with information that establishes
parameters for minimising costs subject to certain situations and information

about those situations.

Spread-sheets are widely used for what if simulations. A very large
spread-sheet can be used to hold all the known information about, say,
pricing and the effects of pricing on profits. The different pricing assumptions
can be fed into the spread-sheet modelling different pricing strategies. This
is a lot quicker and an awful lot cheaper than actually changing prices to see
what happens. On the other hand, a spread-sheet is only as good as the
information put into it and no spread-sheet can fully reflect the real world.
But it is very useful management information to know what might happen to
profits what if a skimming strategy, or a penetration strategy were used for
pricing.
The computer does not take decisions; managers do. But it helps managers
to have quick and reliable quantitative information about the business as it is
and the business as it might be in different sets of circumstances. There is,
however, a lot of research into expert systems which aim to replicate the
way real people (doctors, lawyers, managers, and the like) take decisions.
The aim is that computers can, one day, take decisions, or at least
programmed decisions (see above). For example, an expedition could carry
an expert medical system on a lap-top to deal with any medical emergencies
even though the nearest doctor is thousands of miles away. Already it is
possible, in the US, to put a credit card into a hole-in-the-wall machine and
get basic legal advice about basic and standard legal problems.
Constraints on Decision-Making
Internal Constraints
These are constraints that come from within the business itself.
- Availability of finance. Certain decisions will be rejected because they
cost too much
- Existing Business Policy. It is not always practical to re-write business
policy to accommodate one decision
- Peoples abilities and feelings. A decision cannot be taken if it assumes
higher skills than employees actually have, or if the decision is so unpopular
no-one will work properly on it.
External Constraints
These come from the business environment outside the business.
- National & EU legislation
- Competitors behaviour, and their likely response to decisions your
business makes
- Lack of technology
- Economic climate
Quality of Decision-Making
Some managers and businesses make better decisions than others. Good
decision-making comes from:1. Training of managers in decision-making skills. See Developing
Managers
2. Good information in the first place.
3. Management skills in analysing information and handling its
shortcomings.
4. Experience and natural ability in decision-making.
5. Risk and attitudes to risk.
6. Human factors. People are people. Emotional responses come
before rational responses, and it is very difficult to get people to make
rational decisions about things they feel very strongly about. Rivalries
and vested interests also come into it. People simply take different
views on the same facts, and people also simply make mistakes. Question 1: Write a

note on decision making in management. How one will

take decision under risk and uncertainty.
Answer:

Decision-making is a crucial part of good business. The question then is how

is a good decision made?
One part of the answer is good information, and experience in interpreting
information. Consultation ie seeking the views and expertise of other people
also helps, as does the ability to admit one was wrong and change ones
mind. There are also aids to decision-making, various techniques which help
to make information clearer and better analysed, and to add numerical and
objective precision to decision-making (where appropriate) to reduce the
amount of subjectivity.
Managers can be trained to make better decisions. They also need a
supportive environment where they wont be unfairly criticised for making
wrong decisions (as we all do sometimes) and will receive proper support
from their colleague and superiors. A climate of criticism and fear stifles risktaking
and creativity; managers will respond by playing it safe to minimise
the risk of criticism which diminishes the business effectiveness in
responding to market changes. It may also mean managers spend too much
time trying to pass the blame around rather than getting on with running the
business.
Decision-making increasingly happens at all levels of a business. The Board
of Directors may make the grand strategic decisions about investment and
direction of future growth, and managers may make the more tactical
decisions about how their own department may contribute most effectively to
the overall business objectives. But quite ordinary employees are
increasingly expected to make decisions about the conduct of their own
tasks, responses to customers and improvements to business practice. This
needs careful recruitment and selection, good training, and enlightened
management.
Types of Business Decisions
1. Programmed Decisions These are standard decisions which always
follow the same routine. As such, they can be written down into a series of
fixed steps which anyone can follow. They could even be written as computer
program
2. Non-Programmed Decisions. These are non-standard and non-routine.
Each decision is not quite the same as any previous decision.
3. Strategic Decisions. These affect the long-term direction of the business
eg whether to take over Company A or Company B
4. Tactical Decisions. These are medium-term decisions about how to
implement strategy eg what kind of marketing to have, or how many extra
staff to recruit
5. Operational Decisions. These are short-term decisions (also called
administrative decisions) about how to implement the tactics eg which firm
to use to make deliveries.
Figure 1: Levels of Decision-Making
Figure 2: The Decision-Making Process

The model in Figure 2 above is a normative model, because it illustrates

how a good decision ought to be made. Business Studies also uses positive
models which simply aim to illustrate how decisions are, in fact, made in
businesses without commenting on whether they are good or bad.
Linear programming models help to explore maximising or minimising
constraints eg one can program a computer with information that establishes
parameters for minimising costs subject to certain situations and information

about those situations.

Spread-sheets are widely used for what if simulations. A very large
spread-sheet can be used to hold all the known information about, say,
pricing and the effects of pricing on profits. The different pricing assumptions
can be fed into the spread-sheet modelling different pricing strategies. This
is a lot quicker and an awful lot cheaper than actually changing prices to see
what happens. On the other hand, a spread-sheet is only as good as the
information put into it and no spread-sheet can fully reflect the real world.
But it is very useful management information to know what might happen to
profits what if a skimming strategy, or a penetration strategy were used for
pricing.
The computer does not take decisions; managers do. But it helps managers
to have quick and reliable quantitative information about the business as it is
and the business as it might be in different sets of circumstances. There is,
however, a lot of research into expert systems which aim to replicate the
way real people (doctors, lawyers, managers, and the like) take decisions.
The aim is that computers can, one day, take decisions, or at least
programmed decisions (see above). For example, an expedition could carry
an expert medical system on a lap-top to deal with any medical emergencies
even though the nearest doctor is thousands of miles away. Already it is
possible, in the US, to put a credit card into a hole-in-the-wall machine and
get basic legal advice about basic and standard legal problems.
Constraints on Decision-Making
Internal Constraints
These are constraints that come from within the business itself.
- Availability of finance. Certain decisions will be rejected because they
cost too much
- Existing Business Policy. It is not always practical to re-write business
policy to accommodate one decision
- Peoples abilities and feelings. A decision cannot be taken if it assumes
higher skills than employees actually have, or if the decision is so unpopular
no-one will work properly on it.
External Constraints
These come from the business environment outside the business.
- National & EU legislation
- Competitors behaviour, and their likely response to decisions your
business makes
- Lack of technology
- Economic climate
Quality of Decision-Making
Some managers and businesses make better decisions than others. Good
decision-making comes from:1. Training of managers in decision-making skills. See Developing
Managers
2. Good information in the first place.
3. Management skills in analysing information and handling its
shortcomings.
4. Experience and natural ability in decision-making.
5. Risk and attitudes to risk.
6. Human factors. People are people. Emotional responses come
before rational responses, and it is very difficult to get people to make
rational decisions about things they feel very strongly about. Rivalries
and vested interests also come into it. People simply take different
views on the same facts, and people also simply make mistakes. Question 1: Write a

note on decision making in management. How one will

take decision under risk and uncertainty.
Answer:

Decision-making is a crucial part of good business. The question then is how

is a good decision made?
One part of the answer is good information, and experience in interpreting
information. Consultation ie seeking the views and expertise of other people
also helps, as does the ability to admit one was wrong and change ones
mind. There are also aids to decision-making, various techniques which help
to make information clearer and better analysed, and to add numerical and
objective precision to decision-making (where appropriate) to reduce the
amount of subjectivity.
Managers can be trained to make better decisions. They also need a
supportive environment where they wont be unfairly criticised for making
wrong decisions (as we all do sometimes) and will receive proper support
from their colleague and superiors. A climate of criticism and fear stifles risktaking
and creativity; managers will respond by playing it safe to minimise
the risk of criticism which diminishes the business effectiveness in
responding to market changes. It may also mean managers spend too much
time trying to pass the blame around rather than getting on with running the
business.
Decision-making increasingly happens at all levels of a business. The Board
of Directors may make the grand strategic decisions about investment and
direction of future growth, and managers may make the more tactical
decisions about how their own department may contribute most effectively to
the overall business objectives. But quite ordinary employees are
increasingly expected to make decisions about the conduct of their own
tasks, responses to customers and improvements to business practice. This
needs careful recruitment and selection, good training, and enlightened
management.
Types of Business Decisions
1. Programmed Decisions These are standard decisions which always
follow the same routine. As such, they can be written down into a series of
fixed steps which anyone can follow. They could even be written as computer
program
2. Non-Programmed Decisions. These are non-standard and non-routine.
Each decision is not quite the same as any previous decision.
3. Strategic Decisions. These affect the long-term direction of the business
eg whether to take over Company A or Company B
4. Tactical Decisions. These are medium-term decisions about how to
implement strategy eg what kind of marketing to have, or how many extra
staff to recruit
5. Operational Decisions. These are short-term decisions (also called
administrative decisions) about how to implement the tactics eg which firm
to use to make deliveries.
Figure 1: Levels of Decision-Making
Figure 2: The Decision-Making Process

The model in Figure 2 above is a normative model, because it illustrates

how a good decision ought to be made. Business Studies also uses positive
models which simply aim to illustrate how decisions are, in fact, made in
businesses without commenting on whether they are good or bad.
Linear programming models help to explore maximising or minimising
constraints eg one can program a computer with information that establishes
parameters for minimising costs subject to certain situations and information

about those situations.

Spread-sheets are widely used for what if simulations. A very large
spread-sheet can be used to hold all the known information about, say,
pricing and the effects of pricing on profits. The different pricing assumptions
can be fed into the spread-sheet modelling different pricing strategies. This
is a lot quicker and an awful lot cheaper than actually changing prices to see
what happens. On the other hand, a spread-sheet is only as good as the
information put into it and no spread-sheet can fully reflect the real world.
But it is very useful management information to know what might happen to
profits what if a skimming strategy, or a penetration strategy were used for
pricing.
The computer does not take decisions; managers do. But it helps managers
to have quick and reliable quantitative information about the business as it is
and the business as it might be in different sets of circumstances. There is,
however, a lot of research into expert systems which aim to replicate the
way real people (doctors, lawyers, managers, and the like) take decisions.
The aim is that computers can, one day, take decisions, or at least
programmed decisions (see above). For example, an expedition could carry
an expert medical system on a lap-top to deal with any medical emergencies
even though the nearest doctor is thousands of miles away. Already it is
possible, in the US, to put a credit card into a hole-in-the-wall machine and
get basic legal advice about basic and standard legal problems.
Constraints on Decision-Making
Internal Constraints
These are constraints that come from within the business itself.
- Availability of finance. Certain decisions will be rejected because they
cost too much
- Existing Business Policy. It is not always practical to re-write business
policy to accommodate one decision
- Peoples abilities and feelings. A decision cannot be taken if it assumes
higher skills than employees actually have, or if the decision is so unpopular
no-one will work properly on it.
External Constraints
These come from the business environment outside the business.
- National & EU legislation
- Competitors behaviour, and their likely response to decisions your
business makes
- Lack of technology
- Economic climate
Quality of Decision-Making
Some managers and businesses make better decisions than others. Good
decision-making comes from:1. Training of managers in decision-making skills. See Developing
Managers
2. Good information in the first place.
3. Management skills in analysing information and handling its
shortcomings.
4. Experience and natural ability in decision-making.
5. Risk and attitudes to risk.
6. Human factors. People are people. Emotional responses come
before rational responses, and it is very difficult to get people to make
rational decisions about things they feel very strongly about. Rivalries
and vested interests also come into it. People simply take different
views on the same facts, and people also simply make mistakes. Question 1: Write a

note on decision making in management. How one will

take decision under risk and uncertainty.
Answer:

Decision-making is a crucial part of good business. The question then is how

is a good decision made?
One part of the answer is good information, and experience in interpreting
information. Consultation ie seeking the views and expertise of other people
also helps, as does the ability to admit one was wrong and change ones
mind. There are also aids to decision-making, various techniques which help
to make information clearer and better analysed, and to add numerical and
objective precision to decision-making (where appropriate) to reduce the
amount of subjectivity.
Managers can be trained to make better decisions. They also need a
supportive environment where they wont be unfairly criticised for making
wrong decisions (as we all do sometimes) and will receive proper support
from their colleague and superiors. A climate of criticism and fear stifles risktaking
and creativity; managers will respond by playing it safe to minimise
the risk of criticism which diminishes the business effectiveness in
responding to market changes. It may also mean managers spend too much
time trying to pass the blame around rather than getting on with running the
business.
Decision-making increasingly happens at all levels of a business. The Board
of Directors may make the grand strategic decisions about investment and
direction of future growth, and managers may make the more tactical
decisions about how their own department may contribute most effectively to
the overall business objectives. But quite ordinary employees are
increasingly expected to make decisions about the conduct of their own
tasks, responses to customers and improvements to business practice. This
needs careful recruitment and selection, good training, and enlightened
management.
Types of Business Decisions
1. Programmed Decisions These are standard decisions which always
follow the same routine. As such, they can be written down into a series of
fixed steps which anyone can follow. They could even be written as computer
program
2. Non-Programmed Decisions. These are non-standard and non-routine.
Each decision is not quite the same as any previous decision.
3. Strategic Decisions. These affect the long-term direction of the business
eg whether to take over Company A or Company B
4. Tactical Decisions. These are medium-term decisions about how to
implement strategy eg what kind of marketing to have, or how many extra
staff to recruit
5. Operational Decisions. These are short-term decisions (also called
administrative decisions) about how to implement the tactics eg which firm
to use to make deliveries.
Figure 1: Levels of Decision-Making
Figure 2: The Decision-Making Process

The model in Figure 2 above is a normative model, because it illustrates

how a good decision ought to be made. Business Studies also uses positive
models which simply aim to illustrate how decisions are, in fact, made in
businesses without commenting on whether they are good or bad.
Linear programming models help to explore maximising or minimising
constraints eg one can program a computer with information that establishes
parameters for minimising costs subject to certain situations and information

about those situations.

Spread-sheets are widely used for what if simulations. A very large
spread-sheet can be used to hold all the known information about, say,
pricing and the effects of pricing on profits. The different pricing assumptions
can be fed into the spread-sheet modelling different pricing strategies. This
is a lot quicker and an awful lot cheaper than actually changing prices to see
what happens. On the other hand, a spread-sheet is only as good as the
information put into it and no spread-sheet can fully reflect the real world.
But it is very useful management information to know what might happen to
profits what if a skimming strategy, or a penetration strategy were used for
pricing.
The computer does not take decisions; managers do. But it helps managers
to have quick and reliable quantitative information about the business as it is
and the business as it might be in different sets of circumstances. There is,
however, a lot of research into expert systems which aim to replicate the
way real people (doctors, lawyers, managers, and the like) take decisions.
The aim is that computers can, one day, take decisions, or at least
programmed decisions (see above). For example, an expedition could carry
an expert medical system on a lap-top to deal with any medical emergencies
even though the nearest doctor is thousands of miles away. Already it is
possible, in the US, to put a credit card into a hole-in-the-wall machine and
get basic legal advice about basic and standard legal problems.
Constraints on Decision-Making
Internal Constraints
These are constraints that come from within the business itself.
- Availability of finance. Certain decisions will be rejected because they
cost too much
- Existing Business Policy. It is not always practical to re-write business
policy to accommodate one decision
- Peoples abilities and feelings. A decision cannot be taken if it assumes
higher skills than employees actually have, or if the decision is so unpopular
no-one will work properly on it.
External Constraints
These come from the business environment outside the business.
- National & EU legislation
- Competitors behaviour, and their likely response to decisions your
business makes
- Lack of technology
- Economic climate
Quality of Decision-Making
Some managers and businesses make better decisions than others. Good
decision-making comes from:1. Training of managers in decision-making skills. See Developing
Managers
2. Good information in the first place.
3. Management skills in analysing information and handling its
shortcomings.
4. Experience and natural ability in decision-making.
5. Risk and attitudes to risk.
6. Human factors. People are people. Emotional responses come
before rational responses, and it is very difficult to get people to make
rational decisions about things they feel very strongly about. Rivalries
and vested interests also come into it. People simply take different
views on the same facts, and people also simply make mistakes. Question 1: Write a

note on decision making in management. How one will

take decision under risk and uncertainty.
Answer:

Decision-making is a crucial part of good business. The question then is how

is a good decision made?
One part of the answer is good information, and experience in interpreting
information. Consultation ie seeking the views and expertise of other people
also helps, as does the ability to admit one was wrong and change ones
mind. There are also aids to decision-making, various techniques which help
to make information clearer and better analysed, and to add numerical and
objective precision to decision-making (where appropriate) to reduce the
amount of subjectivity.
Managers can be trained to make better decisions. They also need a
supportive environment where they wont be unfairly criticised for making
wrong decisions (as we all do sometimes) and will receive proper support
from their colleague and superiors. A climate of criticism and fear stifles risktaking
and creativity; managers will respond by playing it safe to minimise
the risk of criticism which diminishes the business effectiveness in
responding to market changes. It may also mean managers spend too much
time trying to pass the blame around rather than getting on with running the
business.
Decision-making increasingly happens at all levels of a business. The Board
of Directors may make the grand strategic decisions about investment and
direction of future growth, and managers may make the more tactical
decisions about how their own department may contribute most effectively to
the overall business objectives. But quite ordinary employees are
increasingly expected to make decisions about the conduct of their own
tasks, responses to customers and improvements to business practice. This
needs careful recruitment and selection, good training, and enlightened
management.
Types of Business Decisions
1. Programmed Decisions These are standard decisions which always
follow the same routine. As such, they can be written down into a series of
fixed steps which anyone can follow. They could even be written as computer
program
2. Non-Programmed Decisions. These are non-standard and non-routine.
Each decision is not quite the same as any previous decision.
3. Strategic Decisions. These affect the long-term direction of the business
eg whether to take over Company A or Company B
4. Tactical Decisions. These are medium-term decisions about how to
implement strategy eg what kind of marketing to have, or how many extra
staff to recruit
5. Operational Decisions. These are short-term decisions (also called
administrative decisions) about how to implement the tactics eg which firm
to use to make deliveries.
Figure 1: Levels of Decision-Making
Figure 2: The Decision-Making Process

The model in Figure 2 above is a normative model, because it illustrates

how a good decision ought to be made. Business Studies also uses positive
models which simply aim to illustrate how decisions are, in fact, made in
businesses without commenting on whether they are good or bad.
Linear programming models help to explore maximising or minimising
constraints eg one can program a computer with information that establishes
parameters for minimising costs subject to certain situations and information

about those situations.

Spread-sheets are widely used for what if simulations. A very large
spread-sheet can be used to hold all the known information about, say,
pricing and the effects of pricing on profits. The different pricing assumptions
can be fed into the spread-sheet modelling different pricing strategies. This
is a lot quicker and an awful lot cheaper than actually changing prices to see
what happens. On the other hand, a spread-sheet is only as good as the
information put into it and no spread-sheet can fully reflect the real world.
But it is very useful management information to know what might happen to
profits what if a skimming strategy, or a penetration strategy were used for
pricing.
The computer does not take decisions; managers do. But it helps managers
to have quick and reliable quantitative information about the business as it is
and the business as it might be in different sets of circumstances. There is,
however, a lot of research into expert systems which aim to replicate the
way real people (doctors, lawyers, managers, and the like) take decisions.
The aim is that computers can, one day, take decisions, or at least
programmed decisions (see above). For example, an expedition could carry
an expert medical system on a lap-top to deal with any medical emergencies
even though the nearest doctor is thousands of miles away. Already it is
possible, in the US, to put a credit card into a hole-in-the-wall machine and
get basic legal advice about basic and standard legal problems.
Constraints on Decision-Making
Internal Constraints
These are constraints that come from within the business itself.
- Availability of finance. Certain decisions will be rejected because they
cost too much
- Existing Business Policy. It is not always practical to re-write business
policy to accommodate one decision
- Peoples abilities and feelings. A decision cannot be taken if it assumes
higher skills than employees actually have, or if the decision is so unpopular
no-one will work properly on it.
External Constraints
These come from the business environment outside the business.
- National & EU legislation
- Competitors behaviour, and their likely response to decisions your
business makes
- Lack of technology
- Economic climate
Quality of Decision-Making
Some managers and businesses make better decisions than others. Good
decision-making comes from:1. Training of managers in decision-making skills. See Developing
Managers
2. Good information in the first place.
3. Management skills in analysing information and handling its
shortcomings.
4. Experience and natural ability in decision-making.
5. Risk and attitudes to risk.
6. Human factors. People are people. Emotional responses come
before rational responses, and it is very difficult to get people to make
rational decisions about things they feel very strongly about. Rivalries
and vested interests also come into it. People simply take different
views on the same facts, and people also simply make mistakes.