General Instructions

1. Students should maintain discipline in the lab

2. Students should obey the instructions given by the faculty members
3. Students should clear the doubts before performing the experiments
4. Students are instructed to be punctual in the lab and late comers are not entertained.
5. Experiments will not be repeated if the student is not regular and punctual in the lab
6. Students are expected to come prepared and write the procedure in the observation book
before performing the experiment.
7. All the students should submit fair lab record once the experiment is completed
8. All the students should wear identity card
9. Mobile phones are not allowed in the lab
10. Fine will be collected from students for the breakage of glass wares
11. Students are instructed to throw waste in the bin and keep their workbench and
surrounding clean once the experiment is completed
12. Do not waste water and keep the taps closed while not in use
13. Keep the chemicals in the rack immediately after use
14. Students should get their observation book signed by the faculty before leaving the lab
15. Faculty members can take disciplinary action against students for misbehaving in the lab
16. Do not waste the reagents/chemicals

Safety Measures
1. Clean the glass wares thoroughly after use
2. Handle chemicals and apparatus carefully
3. Handle glass wares with utmost care
4. Should not add water to acid, always add acid to water
5. Keep the windows and doors open
6. Should not pipette out acids and toxic reagents by mouth, use bulb instead
7. Keep the solvents away from burner
8. Follow the experimental procedure exactly
10. Use fire extinguishers in case of fire hazard
11. Should not work in the lab in the absence of lab instructor
12. Should not taste or smell chemicals
13. Switch on the exhaust fans while working in the lab
14. Should inform the instructor in case of any mishap and should give first aid immediately
15. Should wear lab coat to protect the clothing from chemicals
16. Do not allow the chemicals to come in direct contact with skin

List of Experiments
1. Estimation of Total Hardness- EDTA method
2. Estimation of dissolved oxygen by Winklers method
3. Estimation of chloride in water
4. Preparation of Urea Formaldehyde
5. Estimation of Iron in Iron ore
6. Estimation of Copper in Brass
7. Calibration of PH meter and determination of PH of a solution
8. Conductivity measurements of salt solutions
9. Determination of wavelength of absorption maximum and colorimetric estimation of
Fe3+ in solution
10. Determination of molar absorptivity of a compound other than Fe3+

EXPERIMENT NUMBER 1

ESTIMATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS OF WATER BY EDTA

METHOD
Aim
To estimate the amount of total hardness present in the given sample of water by
complexometric titration method using EDTA.

Principle
Hardness of water is the property by which water does not give ready lather with soap.
Hardness is mainly due to the presence of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of calcium and
magnesium (Ca(HCO3)2, Mg(HCO3)2, CaCl2, MgCl2, CaSO4, MgSO4).
There are two types of hardness, temporary hardness and permanent hardness. Temporary
hardness is due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. Permanent hardness
is due to chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium. Temporary hardness of water can
be removed by boiling. Hardness is expressed in parts per million (ppm) and it is the number of
CaCO3 equivalent harness in one million parts of water. It is expressed as CaCO 3 equivalent
hardness because it is the most salt and its molecular weight is 100 which makes the calculations
easier.Fe2+, Fe3+, Mn2+, Sr2+, Al3+ etc also cause hardness other than Ca2+ and Mg2+, but these ions
are usually present in very small amounts.
EDTA (Ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid) forms colourless stable complexes with Ca 2+
and Mg2+ ions present in water at pH = 9-10. EDTA is a hexadentate ligand. Disodium salt of
EDTA is used in the titration due to the less solubility of EDTA in water. Eriochrome Black-T
(EBT) [sodium-1-(1-hydroxy 2-naphthylato)-6-nitro-2-naphthol-4-sulphonate] is the metal ion
indicator used as in this complexometric titration, which gives a colour change from wine red to
blue at the end point. NH4Cl-NH4OH buffer is used to maintain the PH of the solution at 9-10.
Buffer is added to the hard water sample to adjust the P H to 10. When EBT to added to
this solution at PH around 10, it gives unstable wine red coloured complex with Ca 2+ and Mg2+
ions present in the hard water.

Apparatus required: Burette, Pipette, Conical flask, Beakers, Funnel

Reagents: 0.01 M EDTA solution, Standard hard water, given water sample, Eriochrome Black
T indicator, Buffer solution (NH4Cl- NH4OH).

Procedure
1. Standardization of EDTA with standard hard water
Pipette out 20 ml of standard hard water into a clean conical flask. Add 5 ml of buffer
solution and a speck of Eriochrome Black-T (EBT). The indicator (blue colour), the colour of the
solution turns wine red. Titrate this solution with EDTA solution taken in the burette, until the
colour of the solution changes from wine red to clear blue at the end point. The final reading of
the burette is noted and the titration is repeated to get concordant value. Volume of EDTA used is
taken as V1 ml.
2. Estimation of total hardness of the given water sample
Pipette out 20 ml of given hard water sample into a clean conical flask. Add 5 ml of
buffer solution and a speck of Eriochrome Black-T (EBT). The indicator (blue colour), the colour
of the solution turns wine red. Titrate this solution with EDTA solution taken in the burette, until
the colour of the solution changes from wine red to clear blue at the end point. The final reading

of the burette is noted and the titration is repeated to get concordant value. Volume of EDTA used
is taken as V2 ml.
Sl.N Volume
o

standard

of Burette reading in ml
hard initial

Vol.

of

EDTA

solution in ml (V1)

final

water in ml
1
2
3
4
Sl.N

Volume of

given Burette reading in ml

hard water sample initial

in ml

Vol.

of

EDTA

solution in ml (V2)

final

1
2
3
4

Observations and Calculations

1. Standardization of EDTA solution
Standard hard water vs. EDTA

Indicator: EBT

Concordant volume of EDTA solution, V1=........ml

2. Estimation of Total hardness of the given water sample
Given hard water sample vs. EDTA

Indicator: EBT

Concordant volume of EDTA solution, V2=........ml

1. Standardisation of EDTA
1 ml of standard hard water

= 1 mg of CaCO3

V1 ml of EDTA solution

=20 ml of standard hard water

=20 mg CaCO3

ml of EDTA solution

20
mgC
= V1

2. Estimation of Total hardness of the given water sample

aCO3

20 ml of the given sample

1 ml of given water sample

1000 ml or 1 L of the water sample

= V2 ml of EDTA
= V2 X

20
mgC
V1

aCO3

= V2 X

20
mg C
V1

aCO3 X

V2
V1

1
20

X 1000 mg CaCO3

=....................ppm
RESULT
Total hardness of the given water sample

=...................... ppm

Preparation of reagents
1. Standard hard water sample :
1 g of anhydrous CaCO3 is taken in a conical flask. Add slowly a small amount of
dilute HCl through a funnel, to 1 gm of CaCO 3. Boil gently to remove CO2 heat to
dryness in a water bath. Dissolve in distilled water and make up the solution to 1 litre.
2. EDTA Solution (M/100):
Dissolve 3.723 gm of disodium salt of EDTA of disodium salt of EDTA in
distilled water and make up the solution to 1 L with distilled water (weigh exactly 3.723 g
of EDTA and then dry in an oven at 75 0C for 90 minutes. After cooling it has to be
dissolved in distilled water).
3. Buffer solution:
17.5 gm of AR NH4Cl is dissolved in 142 ml of concentrated ammonia and make
up to 250 ml with distilled water.

EXPERIMENT NUMBER 2

ESTIMATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO) IN WATER

SAMPLE (WINKLERS METHOD)
Aim
To determine the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) in a given water sample by Winklers
method (Iodometric method), provided standard solution of potassium dichromate (K 2Cr2O7,
0.01 N), and sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3.5H2O, N/100 or 0.01 N).

Principle
Determination of dissolved oxygen is important for industrial application. Dissolved
oxygen is also an important factor for corrosion. DO test is used to control the amount of oxygen
in boiler feed water. Dissolved oxygen is used as an indicator of the health of a water body,
where higher dissolved oxygen concentrations are correlated with high productivity and little
pollution. The concentration of dissolved oxygen can be readily, and accurately, measured by the
method originally developed by Winkler in 1888. Any reduction in the amount of oxygen in a
body of water, caused by a rise in temperature or by pollution, may mean that certain animals can
no longer live there. The concentration of dissolved oxygen can therefore be taken as a measure
of the ability of water to support living things.
Oxygen is poorly soluble in water. Solubility of oxygen decreases with increase in
concentration of salts under a pressure of one atmosphere. Solubility of oxygen in distilled or
fresh water varies from 7.5-14.5 mg/L. The oxygen content may decrease because of the
presence of organic impurities (because of aerobic oxidation).
The principle involved in the determination of dissolved oxygen is to bring about the
oxidation of potassium iodide (KI) to Iodine (I 2) with the dissolved oxygen after adding MnSO 4,
KOH, and KI. The basic manganese oxide formed act as an oxygen carrier to enable the
dissolved oxygen in the molecular form to take part in the reaction. The liberated iodine is
titrated against Na2S2O3.5H2O (N/100), using starch as an indicator.
When MnSO4 is added to water sample in presence of alkaline potassium iodide
(KOH+KI) in an iodine flask, the following reaction takes place. MnSO 4 is added because
dissolved oxygen will not completely react but it reacts in presence of MnSO 4. The use of
MnSO4 results in the formation of Mn(OH)2, which reacts completely with dissolved oxygen. In
the alkaline solution, dissolved oxygen will oxidize manganese (II) ions to the tetravalent state.

Addition of concentrated H2SO4 enables the basic MnO(OH)2 compound to release free iodine
from KI. The following reaction occurs in alkaline solution.

If the white precipitate remains on addition of MnSO 4 solution and alkaline KI solution,
which clearly indicate the absence of dissolved oxygen. Dissolved Oxygen in water in utilized
for the second reaction. Basic manganic oxide on acidification with conc. H2SO4 gives

The liberated iodine (I2) is titrated against standard sodium thiosulphate (Na 2S2O3.5H2O)
solution using starch as the indicator (Starch + I2

Blue coloured complex)

I2 + 2 Na2S2O3 Na2S4O6 + 2NaI

Freshly prepared starch solution is added to the conical flask when it is nearing the end
point. The end point is the disappearance of blue colour. Iodine release is difficult hence starch
should be added only near the end point. Sodium thiosuphate can be standardized using
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7, 0.01 N), which liberates I2 from KI. In acidic medium the
reaction is,

Apparatus required: Conical flak, Burette, Measuring jar, Beakers, Pipette, Glass rod, Iodine
flask, Test tube, Dropper
Reagents: Sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3.5H2O, 0.01N), Potassium Iodide 10% (KI), Potassium
dichromate (K2Cr2O7, 0.01N), Starch, Dilute (2 N) and Conc. H2SO4, Manganous Sulphate
(MnSO4)

Procedure
1. Standardisation of Sodium thiosulphate
20ml (V1 ml) of the standard potassium dichromate solution (K2Cr2O7, 0.01 N) is pipetted
out into a conical flask. 20ml of dilute sulphuric acid and 5-10ml of 10% KI are added. The
liberated iodine is titrated against sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3.5H2O) taken in the burette till
the colour changes to yellowish green (straw yellow). At this stage 1ml of freshly prepared starch
is added as indicator to the conical flask when it is nearing the end point. The titration is then
continued until the end point is obtained. The end point is the colour change from blue to light
green colour. The titration is repeated to get concordant value. Concordant volume of
Na2S2O3.5H2O is noted as V2 ml.
2. Estimation of Dissolved Oxygen
250 ml iodine flask is filled with the given water sample up to the neck. Add 2ml of MnSO 4
solution to the sample using a pipette. Discharge the solution well below the surface (some
overflow will occur). Similarly introduce 2 ml of alkaline potassium iodide solution (KOH & KI)
and then stopper the Iodine flask. Iodine flask is shaken vigorously to help dissolved oxygen to
react and kept for about 20 minutes for the brown precipitate to get settle down. When the
precipitate has settled at least 3 cm below the stopper, introduce few ml of conc. H 2SO4 by
carefully running the acid down the side of the bottle. Replace the stopper and carefully mix until
the precipitate disappears and a clear yellow solution is obtained due to liberation of I 2. If the
precipitate is not dissolved, add more acid. A magnetic stirrer is helpful here. Allow the mixture
to stand for 5 minutes. 100ml (V 3 ml) of this solution is measured in a measuring jar and
transferred to a conical flask. This is titrated with sodium thiosulphate (Na 2S2O3.5H2O) in the
burette. Starch is added near the end point (when the colour is yellowish green or straw yellow).
The titration is repeated to get concordant value. Concordant volume of Na 2S2O3.5H2O is noted

as V2a ml. (If the water sample has low dissolved oxygen, it is recommended to withdraw 200 ml
for titration).

Observations and Calculations

1. Standardisation of Na2S2O3.5H2O with K2Cr2O7 solution
Std. K2Cr2O7 vs. Na2S2O3.5H2O

Indicator : Starch
Burette Reading

Sl.No

Volume of

K2Cr2O7 in ml (V1)

1
2
3
4

20
20
20
20

Initial

Final

Volume of
Na2S2O3.5H2O in ml
(V2)

Concordant volume of Na2S2O3.5H2O solution, V2 = ..ml

Volume of K2Cr2O7

V1

20 ml

Normality of K2Cr2O7

N1

0.01 N

Volume of Na2S2O3

V2

= ................. ml

Normality of Na2S2O3

N2

Normality of Na2S2O3

N2 = ..................N

2. Estimation of Dissolved Oxygen (D.O)

Given water sample vs. Na2S2O3.5H2O
Volume of

Sl.No

Burette Reading

Water sample in ml

Indicator : Starch

Initial

Volume of

Final

Na2S2O3.5H2O in ml

(V3)
100
100
100
100

1
2
3
4

(V2a)

Concordant volume of Na2S2O3.5H2O solution, V2a = ..ml

Volume of Na2S2O3

V2a

=..........ml

Normality of Na2S2O3

N2

=.................

Volume of the given water sample, V3

= 100 ml

Normality of Water sample, N3

Normality of the given water sample N3

............... N

Amount of Dissolved Oxygen in 1 lit of the given water sample in mg/L or ppm
=

N3 x Eq. Wt. of oxygen x 1000

.. mg / L or ppm

(Eq. Wt. of oxygen = 8)

RESULT
Amount of DO present in the given water sample = mg / L or ppm.

Preparation of Reagents
1. Preparation of standard potassium dichromate solution (0.01 N):

Weigh out accurately about 0.13g g of K2Cr2O7 crystals (Mol.wt. 294.22, eq.wt. 49.035).
Transfer it into 250 ml standard flask and dissolve it by adding water little by little, dilute to the
mark and make it uniform concentration by shaking.
2. Preparation of standard sodium thiosulphate solution (0.01 N or N/100):
Weigh out accurately about 2.48 g of A.R. Na2S2O3 (Mol. Wt 248.21, eq.wt 248.21).
Transfer it in to 1 litre standard flask and dissolve it by adding distilled water and make up the
solution to 1 litre with distilled water.
3. Preparation of the starch solution (indicator):
Prepare a paste of 1 g of A. R. Powdered soluble starch with distilled water. Add 100 ml
of boiled water to this with constant stirring. Boil for about 5 minutes and then cool the
solution.
4. Preparation of potassium iodide 10% KI:
Dissolve 10 g of iodate free A.R. KI in distilled water and make up the solution to 100 ml.
5. Preparation of MnSO4 solution:
Dissolve 48 gm of MnSO4.4H2O in distilled water and make up the solution to 100 ml.
6. Preparation of alkaline potassium iodide (KOH, KI):
Dissolve 70 gm of KOH pellets and 15 gm of A.R KI in distilled water and make up the
solution to 100 ml.

EXPERIMENT NUMBER 3

ESTIMATION OF CHLORIDE ION IN A GIVEN WATER

SAMPLE BY ARGENTOMETRIC METHOD (MOHRS
METHOD)
Aim
To determine the chloride ion in a given water sample by Argentometric method (Mohrs
Method)

Principle
Mohrs method is used for the determination of chloride ions in water sample, which is
neutral or slightly alkaline. The well known Mohrs method in which alkaline or alkaline earth
chlorides react with AgNO3 in the presence of a few drops of potassium chromate (K 2CrO4)
solution as indicator is a simple, direct and accurate method for chloride determination.
Chlorides are present in water usually as NaCl, MgCl2 and CaCl2. Although chlorides are not
harmful as such, their concentrations over 250 ppm impart a peculiar taste to the water thus
rendering the water unacceptable for drinking purposes.
Further existence of unusually high concentrations of chloride in water sample indicates
pollution from domestic sewage or from industrial waste waters. Salts like MgCl 2 may undergo
hydrolysis under the high pressure and temperature prevailing in the boiler, generating HCl
which causes corrosion in the boiler parts. Chloride in the form of CaCl 2 and MgCl2 cause
permanent hardness and this in turn cause problems in domestic as well as industrial
applications.
By argentometric method, chloride ions in a water sample (neutral or slightly alkaline)
can be determined by titrating it against standard silver nitrate (AgNO 3) solution using potassium
chromate (K2CrO4) as an indicator. The PH should be in between 7-8.
At higher pH, silver ions are precipitated as silver hydroxide (AgOH).

And at lower PH, potassium chromate indicator (K2CrO4) is converted to K2Cr2O7.

KHCrO4 is weak, concentration of CrO42- decreases and hence higher concentration of

Ag+ is needed for the solubility product of Ag2CrO4 to be exceeded.
Argentometric method is based on the precipitation titration in which silver nitrate
solution is released from the burette to the water sample which contains chloride ions and
indicator. The silver ions (from silver nitrate solution) react with chloride ions (from water
sample) and chromate ions (from indicator) to form white precipitate of silver chloride and red
precipitate of silver chromate.

Red colour formed because of formation of silver chromate (Ag 2CrO4). But the red colour
disappears initially as the solution contains high concentration of chloride ions.

When the concentration of chloride ions has decreased, the red colour starts disappearing
slowly and slowly on shaking and a stage is reached when all the chloride ions have formed
silver chloride. One extra drop of silver nitrate at this point reacts with potassium chromate and
reddish coloured silver chromate is formed.

Since the solubilities of AgCl and Ag2CrO4 depend on temperature, all titrations were
carried out at about the same temperature. Good stirring during the addition of the AgNO 3 is also
required for a sharp and reproducible end point; otherwise, Ag 2CrO4 that forms locally before the
endpoint can become occluded in the silver chloride precipitate instead of redissolving.
Standard AgNO3 solution and the AgCl precipitates formed were protected from light at
all times because AgCl decomposes Ag + and Cl-. An excess of AgNO3 is therefore required

before precipitation begins. An additional excess of the reagent must also be added to produce
enough Ag2CrO4 to be seen over the heavy white precipitate of silver chloride.
Apparatus required: Burette, Pipette, Conical flask, Measuring jar, Beakers, Dropper
Reagents: Standard silver nitrate solution (AgNO 3, N/100), 5 % Potassium chromate indicator
solution (K2CrO4).

Procedure
1. Titration with the Blank solution
Transfer 50 ml of the distilled water in a conical flask. Measure PH and add 3-4 drops of
potassium chromate indicator solution (K2CrO4). Slowly add standard silver nitrate (AgNO 3,
N/100) solution from the burette and shake the solution well. The titration is then continued until
the end point is obtained. The end point is the colour change from light yellow to red. The
Volume of
Burette reading in ml
Vol. of AgNO3
Sl.
distilled water in initial
final
solution in ml (V1)
No.
ml
1
50
2
50
3
50
4
50
titration is repeated to get concordant value. Concordant volume of AgNO 3 is noted as V1 ml.
The blank correction for the indicator should be subtracted from the volume of the titrant
obtained after titrating the sample solution as given in step 2.
2. Estimation of chloride ion in the given water sample
Transfer 50 ml of the given water sample in a conical flask. Measure the P H and add 3-4
drops of indicator potassium chromate solution (K 2CrO4). Slowly add standard silver nitrate
(AgNO3, N/100) solution from the burette and shake the solution well. The titration is then
continued until the end point is obtained. The end point is the colour change from light yellow to
red and the red colour persists. The titration is repeated to get concordant value. Concordant
volume of AgNO3 is noted as V2 ml.

Observations and Calculations

1. Titration with the blank solution
Distilled water vs. AgNO3

Indicator: K2CrO4

Sl.
No.
1
2
3
4

Volume of

given

Burette reading in ml

water sample in ml initial

final

Vol. of AgNO3
solution in ml (V2)

50
50
50
50
Concordant volume of AgNO3 solution, V1=........ml

2. Estimation of chloride ion in the given water sample

Given water sample vs. AgNO3

Indicator: K2CrO4

Concordant volume of AgNO3 solution, V2=........ml

Normality of standard AgNO3 solution, NA

= N/100 = 0.01N

Volume of standard AgNO3 solution, VA

= [V2-V1]
= ml

Volume of given water sample, VW

= 50 ml

Normality of given water sample, NW can be calculated from the normality formula,
NA x VA = NW x VW
i.e.,

NA x VA = NW x 50

Normality of given water sample,

= ..N
Amount of chloride ions = NW x Eq. Wt of Chlorine = NW x 35.45 g/L
=
Amount of chloride ions in ppm
RESULT

..g/L

. 1000 mg/L or ppm

mg/L or ppm

The amount of chloride ion in the given water sample is..mg/L or ppm
Preparation of reagents
1. Preparation of AgNO3 (0.01 N):
Dissolve 1.7 g of AgNO3 solid (Mol. Wt. 169.89) in distilled water and dilute to one litre
with distilled water, then store in a brown or amber colour bottle.
2. Preparation of 5 % K2CrO4 indicator:
Dissolve 5 g of AR potassium chromate in 100 ml distilled water

EXPERIMENT NUMBER 4
PREPARATION OF UREA-FORMALDEHYDE RESIN
Aim
To Prepare Urea-Formaldehyde resin (UF Resin).

Principle
Urea-formaldehyde resin is also called urea-methanal and is named so for its common
synthesis pathway and overall structure. Urea-formaldehyde is prepared by condensation
reaction between urea and formaldehyde in neutral or acidic medium. It is a non-transparent
thermosetting resin. Amino resins are condensation products obtained by the reaction of
formaldehyde with nitrogen bearing compounds such as aniline, amides (Examples are melamine
formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde etc). The first product formed during the formation of resin is
monomethylol and dimethylol ureas. Urea and formaldehyde react with each other in neutral or
acidic conditions to give mono and dimethylol urea, which undergo further condensation reaction
to give linear, partially cross-linked or fully cross-linked polymer

Several molecules of methylol urea derivatives condense with loss of water molecules to
form a linear or highly cross linked urea formaldehyde resin.

UF resins are clear and white and possess better hardness and tensile strength than PF
resins. Show resistance to most of the solvents and grease. Excellent abrasion resistance and
stable to light. Good adhesive characteristics. Good electrical insulators and possess chemical
resistance. They can be synthesized in any desired colour by adding proper pigment and filler
during synthesis.
These resins are widely used in manufacture of buttons, bottle caps, house hold
appliances, surgical items etc. They are used as adhesives in plywood industries. They are also
used in the manufacturing of enamels and other surface coatings. Used for the finishing of cotton
textiles (They impart stiffness, crease resistance, fire retardation, water repellence. They are also
helpful for shrinkage control).

Apparatus required: Glass rod, Beakers, Funnel, Filter paper

Reagents: Urea (2g), 40% formaldehyde solution, conc. H2SO4

Procedure
Place 5 ml of 40 % formaldehyde solution in a 250 ml beaker. Add about 2 grams of
urea while stirring until a saturated solution is obtained. Add a few drops (2-3 drops) of Conc.
H2SO4 with stirring.

Stir the solution cautiously during the addition. All of a sudden a

voluminous white solid mass appears in the beaker. When the reaction is complete, wash the
residue with distilled water to remove the acid. Dry the product in a filter paper. The solid resin
formed is powdered and appearance and yield are noted.
RESULT
Appearance: White flexible solid
Weight of Urea-Formaldehyde resin formed = .. g

EXPERIMENT NUMBER 7
DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF ABSORPTION
MAXIMUM AND COLORIMETRIC ESTIMATION OF Fe3+ IN
SOLUTION
Aim
To determine the wavelength of absorption maximum and to estimate the concentration
of Fe3+ ion in the given solution colorimetrically.

Principle
Colorimetry is concerned with the visible region of the spectrum and it is the science of
quantitative estimation of colour and is frequently used in biochemical investigations. The
quantity of light that is absorbed by a solution depends on the concentration of the dissolved
solute that is absorbing the light. By measuring the amount of light absorbed, we can find the
concentration of solutions.

The quantity of a substance in a mixture can be determined

colorimetrically by allowing the substance to bind with colour forming chromogens. The
difference in colour is directly related to the difference in the absorption of light. To make the
presence of iron visible in solution, thiocyanate (SCN-) ions are added. These react with Fe3+ ions
to form blood-red coloured complex.

By comparing the intensity of the colour of this solution with the colour of a series of
standard solutions, with known Fe3+ concentrations, the concentration of Fe3+ in the unknown
solution may be determined.
The colorimetric estimation is based on the Beer-Lamberts Law. The Beer-Lamberts law,
also known as Beers law or Lambert-Beer law is an empirical relationship that relates the
absorption of light to the properties of the materials through which light is passing. It states that
the optical absorbance of a chromophore in a transparent solvent varies linearly with both the
sample cell path length and the concentration of the chromophore.

Beers Law
According to Beers law when monochromatic light passes through the coloured solution,
the amount of light transmitted decreases exponentially with increase in concentration of the
coloured substance.
IT = Ioe-kc
Lamberts Law
According to Lamberts law the amount of light transmitted decreases exponentially with
increase in thickness of the coloured solution.
IT = Ioe-kt
Therefore, Beer-Lamberts law states that when a monochromatic beam of light is
passed through an absorbing medium, the intensity of transmitted light decreases exponentially
with increase in concentration and thickness of the solution and is given by the expression,
IT/Io = e-kct
Where,
IT = intensity of transmitted light
Io = intensity of incident light
e = base of natural logarithm
k = a constant
c = concentration
t = thickness of the solution
The amount of light that passes through a solution is known as transmittance.
Transmittance can be expressed as the ratio of the intensity of transmitted light I T and the
intensity of the incident light I 0. The colorimeter produces an output voltage which varies
linearly with transmittance. The reciprocal of transmittance (absorbance) of the sample varies
logarithmically (base ten) with the product of three factors viz. molar absorptivity , path length t
(width of the cuvette), and the molar concentration c.
The Beer-Lamberts law can also be represented as
logIT/Io = -ct
Where IT and I0 are the intensities of the transmitted and incident light and is called the
molar absorptivity or extinction coefficient of the chromophore at wavelength (the optical

density of 1 M solution of thickness 1 cm). c and t are the concentration and thickness of the
solution. is a property of the material and the solvent.
log I0/IT is called the absorbance (also called Optical Density or percent
transmittance) represented as A and is measured from the colorimeter. The relative amount of
light of a given wavelength that is absorbed by a solution is called absorbance (A), whereas the
fraction of light entering the solution that passes through is called percent transmittance (%T).
logI0/IT = A= ct
i.e. A = ct
Where = molar absorptivity, t = cell path length in cm, and c = concentration in
moles/L. In effect, the above equation implies that the light absorbed by a solution depends on
the absorbing ability of the solute, the distance travelled by the light through the solution (path
length), and the concentration of the solution. For a given solution contained in a cuvette with a
constant cell width or path length or thickness, one can assume and t to be constant. This leads
to the equation:
A = kc
Where k is the proportionality constant
i.e.

Ac

For a given substance at a particular wave length, the optical density or absorbance is
directly proportional to the concentration of the solution. In general absorbance is important
because of its direct relationship with concentration according to Beer-Lamberts law. Many
experiments in chemistry and biology are based on this concept.
For best results, the absorbance or transmittance values should fall within these ranges.
Percent transmittance:

10%-90%

Absorbance:

0.05-1.0

Beer Lamberts law begin to lose the linearity at absorbance values above 1.0 (% transmittance
values less than 10%). If the absorbance is higher, solution has to be diluted.
1. Wavelength of Absorption Maximum Using Spectrophotometer
Wavelength of absorption maximum (max) has to be determined before the estimation of
iron in the given unknown solution. Using the blank as a reference and any one of the standard
solution of iron prepared, measure the absorbance at different wavelengths in the in the range
350-650 nm usually in intervals of 20 nm. In the region of maximum absorbance the interval

should be 5 nm. Plot the absorbance vs.wavelength and connect the points to form a smooth
curve.

Description of the spectrophotometer

Spectrophotometer consists of the following parts:
1. Sources (UV and visible)
2. Wavelength selector (monochromator)
3. Sample containers
4. Detector
5. Signal processor and readout

2. Estimation of iron using colorimeter/ spectrophotometer

Several standard solutions of known concentrations are prepared and absorbance is
determined for each concentration using a colorimeter. Measure the absorbance of each of the
standard solutions at the selected wavelength (wavelength of absorption maximum). Absorbance
is then plotted against concentration/volume of the standard solution to get the calibration curve
((Beer-Lamberts plot) and it will be a straight line passing through the origin. A solution of
unknown concentration is placed in the colorimeter and its absorbance is determined. The
concentration/volume of the unknown solution can be determined by interpolating its absorbance

on the Beer-Lamberts plot (calibration curve). Hence the weight of iron in the given sample can
be calculated.

Concentration / Volume

In colorimetric estimation, it is necessary to prepare a definite volume of the blank solution

(distilled water) to calibrate the colorimeter, test solution (sample solution with unknown
concentration) and a series of standard solutions (sample solutions with known concentration).
Conditions for satisfactory analysis are
1. The colour intensity should increase with concentration of the substance
2. Colour produced should be sufficiently stable to permit an accurate measurement
3. The solution must be free from precipitate
Advantages are
1. At low concentration, colorimetric method give more accurate results than volumetric
analysis
2. Simple procedure

Description of the Colorimeter

Colorimeter consists of the following parts:
1. Light source (LED)
2. Filter (the device that selects the desired wavelength)
3. Cuvette chamber (the transmitted light passes through compartment where the coloured
solutions are kept in cuvette, made of glass or disposable plastic (polystyrene))
4. Detector or photodiode (this is a photosensitive element that converts light into electrical
signals)
5. Galvanometer (measures electrical signal quantitatively)
Light from the LED light source is passed through a cuvette (containing a solution of the
sample). Some of the incoming light is absorbed by the solution. As a result, light of lower
intensity strikes the photodiode.
Apparatus required: Spectrophotometer, Colorimeter, cuvettes, measuring cylinder, standard
flaks, beakers, conical flask, pipette, test tubes
Reagents: Ferric alum (ferric ammonium sulphate (FeNH4(SO4)2.12H2O)), Conc. HCl (11.6 N),
HCl (5N), ammonium thiocyanate (20%)

Procedure:
1. Preparation of standard solution containing 0.1 g/L of Fe3+
w g (approximately 0.8634 g) of ferric alum is weighed accurately in to a 100 ml
standard flask (0.8634 g of ferric alum contains 0.1 g of iron). 10 ml con. HCl is added to
prevent hydrolysis. It is then made up to 100 ml and 10 ml of this solution is pipetted out in to
another standard flask and then made to 100 ml.
2. Measurement of Wavelength of Maximum Absorbance Using Spectrophotometer
Blank solution is used as the reference. 6 ml of the ferric alum solution prepared is
accurately transferred in to a 100 ml standard flask. 5 ml of 5N HCl and 20% ammonium
thiocyanate solution are added and make up the solution to 100 ml with distilled water. The
absorbance of the solution is measured using the spectrophotometer. Measure the absorbance at
different wavelengths in the in the range 350-650 nm usually in intervals of 20 nm. In the region
of maximum absorbance the interval should be 5 nm. Plot the absorbance vs.wavelength and
connect the points to form a smooth curve.

Steps for operating spectrophotometer

1. Select a dropper bottle containing one of the available coloured solutions.
2. Hold cuvette by the rough sides. Rinse the cuvette with a small amount of the
coloured solution and then fill the cuvette 3/4 full.
3. Fill the second cuvette with distilled water to be used as a blank.
4. Press A/T/C Button on the Spectrophotometer. Select absorbance.
5. Press the nm arrow up or down and select 350 nm.
6. Insert the blank into the cell holder and close the door. Position the cell so that the
light passes through clear walls.
7. Press 0 ABS/100% T to set the blank to 0 A.
8. Remove the blank and insert one of the standard solutions into the cell holder.
Record the absorbance on the data sheet.
9. Reset the wavelength to 375 nm and repeat steps 6, 7, and 8.
10. Repeat steps 5, 6, 7 and 8. Record absorbance at every 20 nm using this technique
until you reach 650 nm.
11. Locate the 50 nm region in which the absorbance is highest and record the absorbance
at the interval of 5 nm in this region repeating steps 5, 6, 7 and 8.
12. Determine the wavelength of maximum absorbance by plotting a graph with
wavelength on the x-axis and absorbance on the y-axis.
3. Measurement of Absorbance Using Colorimeter
2,4,6,8 and 10ml of the ferric alum solution (standard solutions) prepared are accurately
transferred in to five different 100 ml standard flasks. 5 ml of 5N HCl and 20% ammonium
thiocyanate solution are added and make up the solution to 100 ml with distilled water. The
optical density or absorbance of the solutions are measured using the colorimeter, by setting the
wave length at 480 nm using a blank solution. The measured values are plotted against the
volumes of the standard solutions to obtain the calibration curve.
The given unknown solution is made up to 100 ml. Then 5 and 7 ml of this solution are
accurately transferred to two different 100 ml standard flasks. 5 ml of 5N HCl and 20%
ammonium thiocyanate solution are added and make up the solution to 100 ml with distilled
water. Absorbance of the solutions is measured as before using colorimeter. Using the
absorbance, the volume of the standard solution corresponding to the volume of unknown

solution can be determined from the calibration curve. From the volume, mass of iron in the
unknown solution can be calculated.
Steps for operating the photoelectric colorimeter
1. Choose the glass filter recommended in the procedure and insert in the filter.
2. Fill the cuvettes with blank solution to about three-fourth and place it in the
cuvette slot.
3. Switch on the instrument and allow it to warm up for about 4 5 minutes.
4. Adjust to zero absorbance or optical density.
5. Rinse the cuvette and fill the test solution in another cuvette and read the
absorbance or optical density.
6. Take the standard solution of varying concentration and note down the absorbance
as S1, S2, S3, S4, S5 and so on.
7. A graph is plotted taking volume of the standard solution vs.the absorbance.
8. From the graph, the volume of the unknown solution can be determined.

Observations and Calculations

Colour of the solution .
Mass of ferric alum taken = w g
Mass of Fe3+ in 482.25 Ferric alum = 55.85 g
0.8634 g of ferric alum contains 0.1 g of iron
Mass of iron in the ferric alum taken =

0.1 x w
0.8634

w g of alum is made up to 100 ml

1 ml of this solution contains =

0.1 x w
0.8634 x 100

g of iron

10 ml of this solution is made up to 100 ml to prepare the standard solution

1 ml of the standard solution contains =

0.1 x w
0.8634 x 100 x 10

g of iron

1. Determination of wavelength of maximum absorbance (max)

Wavelength

Absorbance

(nm)
350
370
390
420
440
460
480
500

Wavelength

Absorbance

(nm)
520
540
560
580
600
620
640
650

Wavelength of absorption maximum (max) =..nm

2. Estimation of Fe3+ ion using colorimeter

Volume of

Absorbance

Ferric alum in
ml
2
4
6
8
10
Unknown
5
7

Volume of the unknown solution used

= v1 ml

Volume corresponding to standard solution from the calibration curve = v2 ml

v1 ml of unknown solution is equivalent to v2 ml of standard solution

Mass of iron corresponding to v2 ml of the standard solution

V 2 x 0.1 x w
0.8634

There for mass of iron corresponding to v1 ml of the unknown solution

g=xg

= xg

Mass of iron in 100 ml of the given solution

X x 100
V1

Mass of iron in 1000 ml of the given solution

X x 100 x 10
V1

RESULT
The concentration of Fe3+ ion the given solution is ..g/L
Preparation of Reagents
1. Preparation of 10% ammonium thiocyanate solution
Dissolve 10 g of ammonium thiocyanate in 100 ml of distilled water
2. Preparation of the unknown solution of ferric alum (only for instructors)
Weigh accurately 0.95 g of the ferric alum in to 100 ml standard flask. Add 10 ml of
Conc. HCl. Make up the solution to 100 ml with distilled water.
1 ml of this solution contains 0.00011 g of iron
From this solution give z ml (11, 12, 13, 14, 15) as unknown to students.
E.g. Give 11 ml to one student. Student should make this to 100 ml with distilled water. 1
ml of unknown solution contains 0.000121 g of iron or 0.121 mg of iron. 5 and 7 ml of this ferric
alum solution (unknown) are accurately transferred in to two 100 ml standard flasks. 5 ml of 5N
HCl and 20% ammonium thiocyanate solution are added and make up the solution to 100 ml
with distilled water. The optical density or absorbance of the solutions is measured using the
colorimeter, by setting the wave length at 480 nm using a blank solution. From the calibration
curve, volume of the standard solution corresponding to 5 and 7 ml unknown can be obtained.
Using this, the mass of iron in the given unknown solution can be calculated.

EXPERIMENT NUMBER 8

DETERMINATION OF MOLAR ABSORPTIVITY OF A

COMPOUND OTHER THAN Fe3+ (Cr6+)
This experiment can be done by two methods (select one method)
First method
A more accurate method is to measure the absorbance of several known concentrations of
K2Cr2O7 using a colorimeter. A graph is plotted with absorbance on the X-axis and
concentrations on the Y-axis. The line will be linear. The slope of the line will give the molar
absorptivity (actually t). But the cell path length t is known, and is usually 1.00 cm and hence
the slope of the line will directly give molar absorptivity .
Second method
We can also calculate the molar absorptivity of K 2Cr2O7 solution of known concentration
directly by using Beer Lamberts law. Absorbance can be determined by using a
spectrophotometer. From the equation given below we can directly calculate .
A= ct

First Method
Aim
To find out the molar absorptivity or extinction coefficient ( ) of potassium dichromate
(K2Cr2O7) using colorimeter

Principle
Principle is explained in detail in the previous experiment.
Colorimetry is concerned with the visible region of the spectrum and it is the science of
quantitative estimation of colour and is frequently used in biochemical investigations. The
quantity of light that is absorbed by a solution depends on the concentration of the dissolved
solute that is absorbing the light.
The colorimetric estimation is based on the Beer-Lamberts Law.

Therefore, Beer-Lamberts law states that when a monochromatic beam of light is

passed through an absorbing medium, the intensity of transmitted light decreases exponentially
with increase in concentration and thickness of the solution and is given by the expression,
IT/Io = e-kct
The Beer-Lamberts law can also be represented as
logIT/Io = -ct
Where IT and I0 are the intensities of the transmitted and incident light and is called the
molar absorptivity or extinction coefficient of the chromophore at wavelength (the optical
density of 1 M solution of thickness 1 cm). c and t are the concentration and thickness of the
solution. is a property of the material and the solvent.
log I0/IT is called the absorbance (also called Optical Density or percent
transmittance) represented as A and is measured from the colorimeter.
logI0/IT = A= ct
i.e. A = ct
Where = molar absorptivity, t = cell path length in cm, and c = concentration in
moles/L. For a given substance at a particular wave length, the optical density or absorbance is
directly proportional to the concentration of the solution. For a solution of known concentration,
absorbance can be measured using colorimeter. Hence we can calculate molar absorptivity ( ) of
the solution with known concentration using Beer Lamberts law.
Description of the Colorimeter
Given in the previous experiment
Apparatus required: Colorimeter, standard flask, glass rod, wash bottle, cuvettes
Reagents: Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) solution, Diphenyl carbazide, Conc. H2SO4

Procedure
Preparation of K2Cr2O7 solution with known concentration
Prepare a standard solution of chromium by weighing out approximately 0.735 g of
potassium dichromate and dissolve it in 250 ml (concentration is 0.01 M). 10 ml of this standard
solution is pipetted out in to a 1000 ml standard flask and make up the solution with distilled
water (concentration becomes 10-4 M). Pipette out convenient volumes (e.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6 ml)

of standard Cr6+ solution into different 100 ml standard flasks. Add 10 ml of 6N H2SO4and 1 ml
diphenyl carbazide (allow 10 minutes for colour development) and make up the solution with
distilled water (concentration becomes 1 x 10 -6 to 6 x 10-6 M). The optical density or absorbance
of the solutions is measured using the colorimeter, by setting the wave length at 540 nm using a
blank solution. A graph is plotted with absorbance on the X-axis and concentration in mol L-1 on
the Y-axis. Slope of the line gives molar absorptivity ().
Steps for operating the photoelectric colorimeter
Given in the previous experiment.

Observations and Calculations

Sl. No.

Volume in ml

1
2
3
4
5
6

1
2
3
4
5
6

Concentration

Absorbance

in mole/L
1 x 10-6
2 x 10-6
3 x 10-6
4 x 10-6
5 x 10-6
6 x 10-6

Mass of given potassium dichromate = 0.735 g (m)

Thickness of the cuvette = t = 1 cm
Molecular weight of K2Cr2O7
Concentration (c) in mole/L

= 294.185 g
=

m
294.185

mole/L

A
Molar absorptivity of potassium dichromate , = ct

or slope of the graph

Molar absorptivity from the slope of the graph = mole-1Lcm-1

RESULT
Molar absorptivity of potassium dichromate = mole-1Lcm-1 or M-1cm-1

Second Method

Aim
To determine the molar absorptivity or extinction coefficient ( ) of potassium dichromate
(K2Cr2O7) using Spectrophotometer

Principle
Spectrophotometer and Colorimeter works on the same principle. It is based on BeerLamberts law and the principle is given in the previous experiment.
A = ct
Where A= absorbance, = molar absorptivity, t = cell path length in cm (it is 1 cm), and
c = concentration in moles/L.
Apparatus required: Spectrophotometer, standard flask, glass rod, wash bottle, cuvettes
Reagents: Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) solution of known concentration, 6N H2SO4,
Diphenyl carbazide solution

Procedure
Measurement of maximum absorbance using spectrophotometer
Prepare a solution of potassium dichromate with a known concentration of chromium.
Take 10 ml of this solution, add 10 ml of 6N H2SO4and 1 ml diphenyl carbazide (allow 10
minutes for colour development) and make up to 100 ml with distilled water. Blank solution is
used as the reference. The absorbance of the solution is measured using the spectrophotometer.
Measure the absorbance at different wavelengths in the in the range 350-650 nm usually in
intervals of 20 nm. In the region of maximum absorbance the interval should be 5 nm. Find out
the maximum absorbance.
Steps for operating spectrophotometer
Given in the previous experiment

Observations and Calculations

Determination of maximum absorbance

Wavelength

Absorbance

Wavelength

(nm)
350
370
390
420
440
460
480
500

Absorbance

(nm)
520
540
560
580
600
620
640
650
Maximum absorbance=..

Mass of given potassium dichromate = m

Thickness of the cuvette = t = 1 cm
According Beer-Lamberts law, A = ct
A is the maximum absorbance of the given solution
Molecular weight of K2Cr2O7

= 294.185 g

Concentration (c) in mole/L

m
294.185

mole/L

A
Molar absorptivity of potassium dichromate , = ct

A
c

(Since t = 1)

Molar absorptivity or extinction coefficient = .................... mole-1Lcm-1

RESULT
Molar absorptivity or extinction coefficient of K2Cr2O7= .................... mole-1Lcm-1 or M-1cm-1

Preparation of Reagents

1. Diphenyl carbazide solution:

Dissolve 250mg 1,5-diphenylcarbazide (1,5diphenylcarbohydrazide) in 50mL acetone. Store
in amber bottle and discard when the solution becomes discoloured.
2. Sulphuric acid (6N):
Slowly, and with continuous stirring, add 41.7 ml concentrated sulphuric acid to distilled
water, and make up the solution to 250mL.Cool before use.

EXPERIMENT NUMBER 5

CALIBRATION OF PH METER AND DETERMINATION OF PH

OF A SOLUTION
Aim
To calibrate the PH meter with buffer solutions having P H 4, 7 and 9.2 and to determine
the PH of a solution

Principle
A PH meter is an electronic device used for measuring the P H of a solution, which is
expressed as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration P H = log [H+]. The PH
value indicates whether a solution is acidic or basic. If the P H =0 it is very acidic, P H =14 is very
alkaline and pH =7 is neutral.

The commonly used electrodes to measure PH of a solution are Hydrogen electrode,

Quinhydrone electrode and Glass electrode. The PH electrode commonly used in PH measurement
is a combined glass electrode. It consists of sensing half cell and reference half cell, together
form an electrode system. The sensing half cell is a thin P H sensitive semi permeable membrane,
separating two solutions viz., the outer solution (the sample to be analysed) and the internal
solution (enclosed inside the glass membrane and has a known P H value). An electrical potential
is developed inside and another electrical potential is developed outside, the difference in
potential is measured and is given as the PH of the sample.
The response of a PH electrode is defined by the Nernst equation:

Electrode Response = E

2.303 RT
nF

x PH

Where, E0 = Standard electrode potential, R = gas constant, F = Faraday constant, T =

temperature in Kelvin and n = number of electrons involved in the reaction.
Apparatus required: PH meter, combined electrode, Beaker, Glass rod, Measuring Jar
Reagents: Buffer solutions of PH 4, PH 7 and PH 9.2, unknown solution

Procedure
1. Calibration of PH meter
All PH electrode require calibration from time to time. Ensure that P H meter is on and to
obtain high precision of measurements, let the PH meter to warm up for 30 minutes. Rinse the PH
electrode with distilled water and dry the outside of the electrode with a paper towel. Select the
calibration mode on the PH meter. Place the electrode in to 20 ml of P H 7 buffer solution making
sure that the junction (located on the bottom side of the electrode) is wet (only 1 to 2 inches). Stir
the solution with a glass rod or use a magnetic stirrer. When the value (7.0) in the display has
stopped changing, press the confirm key. Place 20 ml of another buffer (usually P H 4) solution.
The user can accept this value or change it to the desired second calibration point by adjusting
proper key. Rinse the electrode as before in distilled water and dry. Place the electrode in the next
buffer (usually PH 9.2) solution selected. Wait for the meter to accept the value and press the
confirm key. All PH buffer solutions above PH 7are less stable and have limited life. These high
PH buffers will more readily absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and will typically change to a
lower PH value when left open. For this reason a P H 4 buffer solution is recommended to perform
a reliable two point calibration. Also the buffers should bracket the desired PH range.
2. Determination of PH of a solution
After calibration, take 20 ml of unknown sample in a glass beaker to measure the P H.
Rinse the electrode and immerse it in the given solution. Wait for 1 min to stabilize the reading.
Note down the PH displayed. Rinse the electrode with distilled water and move it to the storage
beaker.
RESULT
PH of the given solution =
Preparation of reagents

1. Buffer solution of PH 4
Transfer a buffer tablet of PH 4 carefully using forceps to a 100 ml standard flask. Add little
of distilled water, crush the tablet and dissolve it. Make up the solution to 100 ml with distilled
water
2. Buffer solution of PH 7 and PH 9.2
Can be prepared in the same way using appropriate buffer tablets
Precautions
1. Always use fresh PH buffer solutions for most accurate results
2. Electrodes must be immersed properly in the solution and sufficient time to be allowed
for the electrodes to assume the temperature of the solution
3. For PH measurements it is desirable to stir the solution
4. Oil and grease if present in the electrode layer, should be gently removed by wiping
followed by washing with distilled water
5. Electrodes used in PH meter are highly fragile and hence handle it carefully

EXPERIMENT NUMBER 6

CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS OF SALT SOLUTIONS

Aim
To measure the conductivity of salt solutions with a series of known concentration and to
calculate the concentration of the given unknown solution by using conductivity meter.

Principle
Electrolytic conductivity of a solution is defined as the ability or power to conduct
electricity. Solutions of electrolyte conduct electricity by the migration of ions under the
influence of an electric field. Like a metallic conductor, they obey Ohms law. Exceptions to this
law occur only under abnormal conditions (very high voltage or high frequency current).
According to Ohms law, the current flowing through a conductor is inversely
proportional to the resistance R (Ohms) of the conductor.
I=

v
R

Resistance of a sample of length l and area of cross section A is given by

R

l
A

or R =

l
A

Conductance C is the reciprocal of resistance R and its unit is mhos (reciprocal of ohms)
or as Siemens.

is the specific resistance or resistivity and it depends on the nature of the conductor. At
a given temperature, the conductivity of an electrolyte depends on type of ions and on their
concentration.
The conductivity is directly linked the concentration of ions and their mobility. The
conductivity depends on the value of PH, temperature and on the amount of dissolved CO2.
Specific conductance K is the inverse of specific resistance or resistivity (SI unit is S m-1).
K=

C xl
A

When l = 1 cm and A = 1 cm2, K = C, The specific conductance or conductivity of an

electrolyte is defined as the conductance of a solution contained between two parallel electrodes
of unit cross sectional area which are kept at unit distance apart (unit volume).
l
A

is the cell constant and its unit is cm-1

Cell constant =

Specific conductance( K)
Observed conductance(C )

Equivalent conductance:- It is defined as the conducting power of all the ions produced by
dissolving one gram equivalent of an electrolyte in a solution. The equivalent conductance of an
electrolyte is given by

eq =

1000 K
N

SI unit is S cm2 eq-1

Molar conductance:- It is defined as the conducting power of all the ions produced by
dissolving one gram mole of an electrolyte in a solution. The molar conductance of an electrolyte
is given by

m =

1000 K
M

SI unit is S cm2 mol1

At first, conductivity meter has to be calibrated. For this purpose, a standard KCl solution
whose conductivity is known is used. Conductivity can be adjusted to the known value by using

the calibration knob. Then the given electrolyte is taken in the conductivity cell and its
conductance is measured. A voltage is applied between the two electrodes in the probe, which is
immersed in the sample solution. Equivalent conductance is calculated using the equation given
above.
Apparatus required: Conductivity meter, magnetic stirrer, standard flasks, measuring jar, 250
ml beaker, Funnel
Reagents: KCl solution, given electrolyte (NaCl or KCl)

Procedure
1. Calibration of conductivity meter
Switch on the instrument and wait for half a minute. Take 50 ml of 0.1 N KCl solution in the
beaker. Stir the solution. Place the electrodes in the solution. Select the calibration button and
adjust the conductivity of 0.1 N KCl solution to 14.12 mmhos/cm at 30 0C. After calibration,
calibration button should not be disturbed until the experiment is completed.
2. Determination of equivalent conductance of the given NaCl solution
Prepare a standard solution of NaCl by weighing out approximately 0.585 g of NaCl and
dissolve it in 100 ml distilled water (concentration is 0.1 M). Measure out accurately 3, 6, 9, 12,
15, 18 ml of this solution to different standard flasks and make up to 100ml (the concentration
ranges from 0.03 M to 0.18 M). Conductivity cell is filled with 50 ml of NaCl solution with
different concentration, and the conductance is measured by using the conductivity meter. The
experiment is repeated two times and the average value is taken. The given unknown solution is
made up to 100 ml with distilled water and the conductance is measured as before. A graph is
plotted with concentration on the X-axis and measured conductance on the Y-axis. From the
straight line graph, the concentration of the unknown solution can be determined.

Observations and Calculations

Determination of equivalent conductance of the given solution
Sl. No.

Concentration of
the electrolyte
(NaCl)

0.03M

0.06 M

0.09 M

0.12 M

0.15 M

0.18 M

unknown

Observed conductance
(Average)

Observed conductance
Trial 1

Trial 2

Observed conductance of the given unknown solution,

= .. S

Concentration of the given unknown solution

= ..M

RESULT
Concentration of the given unknown solution

= .M

Preparation of Reagents
Preparation of 0.1 N KCl solution:
Weigh 0.746 g of KCl and transfer it to a beaker and mix it by a glass rod until it dissolves
thoroughly. Then transfer the contents to a 100 ml standard flask and make up the solution with
distilled water. This solution is used to calibrate the conductivity meter.
Precautions
1. Switch on the conductivity meter at least 30 minutes before the experiment

2. Calibrate the equipment before each use

3. Always prepare the calibration solution freshly
4. As conductance is influenced by temperature, always use a conductivity meter with
temperature control
5. Always dip the electrode in distilled water and do not expose it to air.