Teen Dating Violence: A Closer Look at Adolescent

Romantic Relationships
by Carrie Mulford, Ph.D., and Peggy C. Giordano, Ph.D.

ost teenagers do not experience

physical aggression when they
date. However, for one in 10
teens, abuse is a very real part of dating
relationships.
According to the 2007 Youth Risk Behavior
Survey, approximately 10 percent of adolescents nationwide reported being the victim
of physical violence at the hands of a
romantic partner during the previous year.1
The rate of psychological victimization is
even higher: Between two and three in 10
reported being verbally or psychologically
abused in the previous year, according
to the National Longitudinal Study of
Adolescent Health.2
As for perpetration rates, there are currently
no nationwide estimates for who does the
abusing, and state estimates vary significantly. In South Carolina, for example, nearly
8 percent of adolescents reported being

34

physically violent to a romantic partner.

Interestingly, the rates of reported victimization versus perpetration in the state were
similar for boys and girls.3 However, when
it comes to severe teen dating violence
including sexual and physical assault
girls were disproportionately the victims.4
At a recent workshop on teen dating
violence, co-sponsored by the U.S.
Departments of Justice (DOJ) and Health
and Human Services (HHS), researchers
presented findings from several studies
that found that girls and boys perpetrate
the same frequency of physical aggression
in romantic relationships. This finding was
at odds with what practitioners attending
the workshop said they encounter in their
professional experience. Most of the practitioners in attendance representing
national organizations, schools and victim
service community-based agencies
said that they primarily see female victims,

NIJ Journal / Issue No. 261

and when they discuss teen dating violence

with students, they hear that boys are the
primary perpetrators.
So what is the reality?
Because teen dating violence has only
recently been recognized as a significant
public health problem, the complex nature
of this phenomenon is not fully understood.
Although research on rates of perpetration and victimization exists, research that
examines the problem from a longitudinal
perspective and considers the dynamics
of teen romantic relationships is lacking.
Consequently, those in the field have to
rely on an adult framework to examine
the problem of teen dating violence.
However, we find that this adult framework
does not take into account key differences
between adolescent and adult romantic
relationships. And so, to help further the
discussion, we offer in this article a genderbased analysis of teen dating violence
with a developmental perspective.5 We
look at what we know and what we dont
know about who is the perpetrator and
who is the victim in teen dating violence.
We also discuss how adult and adolescent
romantic relationships differ in the hope that
an examination of existing research will help
us better understand the problem and move
the field toward the creation of developmentally appropriate prevention programs and
effective interventions for teenagers.

Victims and Perpetrators:

What the Research Says
In 2001-2005, Peggy Giordano and her colleagues at Bowling Green State University
interviewed more than 1,300 seventh, ninth
and 11th graders in Toledo, Ohio. [Editors
Note: Giordano is one of the authors of this
article.] More than half of the girls in physically aggressive relationships said both they
and their dating partner committed aggressive acts during the relationship. About a
third of the girls said they were the sole
perpetrators, and 13 percent reported that
they were the sole victims. Almost half of
the boys in physically aggressive relationships reported mutual aggression, nearly

Because teen dating violence has only

recently been recognized as a significant
public health problem, the complex nature
of this phenomenon is not fully understood.
half reported they were the sole victim, and
6 percent reported that they were the sole
perpetrator.6
These findings are generally consistent
with another study that looked at more
than 1,200 Long Island, N.Y., high school
students who were currently dating. In that
2007 survey, 66 percent of boys and 65 percent of girls who were involved in physically
aggressive relationships reported mutual
aggression.7 Twenty-eight percent of the
girls said that they were the sole perpetrator; 5 percent said they were the sole victim.
These numbers were reversed for the boys:
5 percent said they were the sole perpetrator; 27 percent the sole victim.
In a third study, teen couples were videotaped while performing a problem-solving
task. Researchers later reviewed the tapes
and identified acts of physical aggression
that occurred between the boys and girls
during the exercise. They found that 30 percent of all the participating couples demonstrated physical aggression by both partners.
In 17 percent of the participating couples,
only the girls perpetrated physical aggression, and in 4 percent, only the boys were
perpetrators.8 The findings suggest that
boys are less likely to be physically aggressive with a girl when someone else can
observe their behavior.
Considered together, the findings from these
three studies reveal that frequently there is
mutual physical aggression by girls and boys
in romantic relationships. However, when it
comes to motivations for using violence and
the consequences of being a victim of teen
dating violence, the differences between the
sexes are pronounced. Although both boys
and girls report that anger is the primary
motivating factor for using violence, girls
also commonly report self-defense as
35

NIJ Journal / Issue No. 261

Who Perpetrates Teen Dating Violence?

How girls in physically aggressive relationships see it

36%

28%

51%

5%

65%

Mutual aggression
Girls are sole perpetrators
Boys are sole perpetrators

13%
Source: Toledo Adolescent
Relationship Study

Source: Suffolk County Study of

Dating Aggression in High Schools

How boys in physically aggressive relationships see it

47%

27%

47%

5%

66%

6%
Source: Toledo Adolescent
Relationship Study

Source: Suffolk County Study of

Dating Aggression in High Schools

What is observed in physically aggressive couples

33%

58%

8%
Source: Oregon Youth (Couples) Study

a motivating factor, and boys also commonly

cite the need to exert control.9 Boys are
also more likely to react with laughter when
their partner is physically aggressive.10 Girls
experiencing teen dating violence are more
likely than boys to suffer long-term negative
behavioral and health consequences, including suicide attempts, depression, cigarette
smoking and marijuana use.11

Applying Adult Perspectives to

Teen Dating Violence
36

Why do teenagers commit violence against

each other in romantic relationships? We

have already touched on the existing body

of research on perpetration and victimization rates. Yet there is not a great deal of
research that uses a longitudinal perspective or that considers the dynamics of teen
romantic relationships. As a result, practitioners and researchers in the field tend
to apply an adult intimate partner violence
framework when examining the problem
of teen dating violence.
A split currently exists, however, among
experts in the adult intimate partner violence
arena, and attendees at the DOJ-HHS teen
dating workshop mirrored this divide.

NIJ Journal / Issue No. 261

Some experts hold that men and women

are mutually combative and that this behavior should be seen as part of a larger pattern
of family conflict. Supporters of this view
generally cite studies that use act scales,
which measure the number of times a person perpetrates or experiences certain acts,
such as pushing, slapping or hitting. These
studies tend to show that women report
perpetrating slightly more physical violence
than men.12 It is interesting to note that
most studies on teen dating violence that
have been conducted to date have relied
primarily on act scales.
Another group of experts holds that men
generally perpetrate serious intimate partner
violence against women. They contend that
men in patriarchal societies use violence to
exert and maintain power and control over
women.13 These experts also maintain that
act scales do not accurately reflect the
nature of violence in intimate relationships
because they do not consider the degree
of injury inflicted, coercive and controlling
behaviors, the fear induced, or the context
in which the acts occurred.14 Studies using
act scales, they contend, lack information
on power and control and emphasize the
more common and relatively minor forms
of aggression rather than more severe,
relatively rare forms of violence in dating
and intimate partner relationships.15 Instead,
supporters of this perspective use data on
injuries and in-depth interviews with victims
and perpetrators.16
We believe, however, that applying either
of these adult perspectives to adolescents
is problematic. Although both views of
adult intimate partner violence can help
inform our understanding of teen dating
violence, it is important to consider how
adolescent romantic relationships differ
from adult romantic relationships in
several key areas.

How Teen Dating Violence

Differs: Equal Power
One difference between adolescent
and adult relationships is the absence of
elements traditionally associated with
greater male power in adult relationships.17

Because most abusive teen dating relationships are

characterized by mutual aggression, prevention
efforts must be directed toward both males and
females, and interventions for victims should include
services and programming for boys and girls.
Adolescent girls are not typically dependent
on romantic partners for financial stability,
and they are less likely to have children to
provide for and protect.
The study of seventh, ninth and 11th graders
in Toledo, for example, found that a majority
of the boys and girls who were interviewed
said they had a relatively equal say in their
romantic relationships. In cases in which
there was a power imbalance, they were
more likely to say that the female had more
power in the relationship. Overall, the study
found that the boys perceived that they had
less power in the relationship than the girls
did. Interestingly, males involved in relationships in which one or both partners reported
physical aggression had a perception of less
power than males in relationships without
physical aggression. Meanwhile, the girls
reported no perceived difference in power
regardless of whether their relationships
included physical aggression.18
It is interesting to note that adults who
perpetrate violence against family members
often see themselves as powerless in their
relationships. This dynamic has yet to be
adequately explored among teen dating
partners.19

Lack of Relationship Experience

A second key factor that distinguishes
violence in adult relationships from violence
in adolescent relationships is the lack of
experience teens have in negotiating
romantic relationships. Inexperience in
communicating and relating to a romantic
partner may lead to the use of poor coping strategies, including verbal and physical aggression.20 A teen who has difficulty
37

NIJ Journal / Issue No. 261

expressing himself or herself may turn to

aggressive behaviors (sometimes in play)
to show affection, frustration or jealousy. A
recent study in which boys and girls participated in focus groups on dating found that
physical aggression sometimes stemmed
from an inability to communicate feelings
and a lack of constructive ways to deal
with frustration.21
As adolescents develop into young
adults, they become more realistic and
less idealistic about romantic relationships.
They have a greater capacity for closeness
and intimacy.22 Holding idealistic beliefs
about romantic relationships can lead to
disillusionment and ineffective coping
mechanisms when conflict emerges.23
It also seems reasonable to expect that
physical aggression may be more common
when adolescents have not fully developed
their capacity for intimacy, including their
ability to communicate.

The Influence of Peers

We would be remiss to try to understand
teen behavior and not consider the profound
influence of friends. Peers exert more influence on each other during their adolescent
years than at any other time.24 Research has
confirmed that peer attitudes and behaviors
are critical influences on teens attitudes and
behaviors related to dating violence.25
Not only are friends more influential in
adolescence than in adulthood, but they

About the Authors

Carrie Mulford is a social science analyst at the National Institute of
Justice. She has worked extensively with research on juvenile justice,
teen dating violence, child abuse, elder mistreatment, enforcement
of victims rights laws, hate crime and situational crime prevention.
Since 2006, she has been the coordinator of the Federal Interagency
Workgroup on Teen Dating Violence, whose members contributed
to this article.
Peggy Giordano is the Distinguished Research Professor of Sociology
at Bowling Green State University. Her research centers on social
relationship experiences during the adolescent period, focusing
particularly on studies of the nature, meaning and impact of friendships and romantic relationships.
38

are also more likely to be on the scene

and a key element in a couples social life.
In fact, roughly half of adolescent dating
violence occurs when a third party is present.26 Relationship dynamics often play out
in a very public way because teens spend
a large portion of their time in school and in
groups. For various reasons, a boyfriend or
girlfriend may act very differently when in
the presence of peers, a behavior viewed by
adolescents as characteristic of an unhealthy
relationship. For example, boys in one focus
group study said that if a girl hit them in
front of their friends, they would need to hit
her back to save face.27
Conflict over how much time is spent with
each other versus with friends, jealousies
stemming from too much time spent with a
friend of the opposite sex, and new romantic
possibilities are all part of the social fabric
of adolescence.28 Although normal from
a developmental perspective, navigating
such issues can cause conflict and, for some
adolescents, lead to aggressive responses
and problematic coping strategies, such as
stalking, psychological or verbal abuse, and
efforts to gain control.

Where Do We Go From Here?

Adult relationships differ substantially
from adolescent dating in their power
dynamics, social skill development and
peer influence. These factors are critical to
understanding physical violence and psychological abuse in early romantic relationships
and may help explain the similar perpetration
rates among boys and girls suggested by
current statistics.
All of this points to important implications for teen dating violence prevention
and intervention strategies. Because girls
engage in high levels of physical aggression
and psychological abuse and most abusive
relationships are characterized by mutual
aggression, prevention efforts must be
directed toward both males and females,
and interventions for victims should include
services and programming for boys and girls.
Interventions must also distinguish between
severe forms of violence that produce injury
and fear and other more common abuse,

NIJ Journal / Issue No. 261

and they must respond with appropriate

safety planning, mental health services,
and criminal or juvenile justice involvement.
More research on traditionally gendered
relationship dynamics and the links to
relationship violence is also needed.
For instance, some male behavior may
stem from an attempt to emulate other
males who they believe (not always accurately, as data show) are confident and
in charge. Further, nearly one in five
adolescent girls reports having sex with
a partner three or more years older. These
girls are at increased risk of acquiring a sexually transmitted disease because they are
less likely to use a condom possibly a
result of unequal power dynamics in these
relationships.29 This power imbalance might
also increase their risk for violent victimization by older partners.
And finally, research on the extent to
which teens involved in abusive relationships become involved in adult abusive
relationships whether as victims or
perpetrators is sorely needed. Many
delinquent youth, for example, have a welldocumented path of illegal behavior; this
behavior peaks in adolescence and dramatically declines in early adulthood. A similar
look at aggressive adolescent romantic
relationships may help us better understand
the possible progression from teen dating
violence to adult intimate partner violence.
NCJ 224089

Additional Contributions
Michele Lynberg Black, an epidemiologist
at the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC), also contributed to this
article. During her more than 20 years at
CDC, Black has worked across a broad
range of disciplines, including reproductive
health, environmental health and violence
prevention. She has also worked with the
National Center for Injury Prevention and
Controls Division of Violence Prevention
since 2002, focusing on the areas of intimate partner violence, dating violence,
sexual violence and family violence.

Notes
1. Eaton, D.K., K.S. Davis, L. Barrios, N.D.
Brenner, and R.K. Noonan, Associations of
Dating Violence Victimization with Lifetime
Participation, Co-Occurrence, and Early
Initiation of Risk Behaviors Among U.S. High
School Students, Journal of Interpersonal
Violence 22 (2007): 585-602; Halpern, C.T.,
S.G. Oslak, M.L. Young, M.W. Waller, S.L.
Martin, and L.L. Kupper, Partner Violence
Among Adolescents in Opposite-Sex
Romantic Relationships: Findings From the
National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent
Health, American Journal of Public Health
91 (2001): 1679-1685; and Halpern, C.T.,
M.L. Young, M.W. Waller, S.L. Martin, and
L.L. Kupper, Prevalence of Partner Violence
in Same-Sex Romantic Relationships in a
National Sample of Adolescents, Journal
of Adolescent Health 35 (2004): 124-131.
2. Halpern, Prevalence of Partner Violence;
Halpern, Partner Violence Among
Adolescents; and Roberts, T.A., and J.
Klein, Intimate Partner Abuse and HighRisk Behavior in Adolescents, Archives of
Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 157
(2003): 375-380.
3. Coker, A.L., R.E. McKeown, M. Sanderson,
K.E. Davis, R.F. Valois, and E.S. Huebner,
Severe Dating Violence and Quality of
Life Among South Carolina High School
Students, American Journal of Preventive
Medicine 19 (2000): 220-227.
4. National victimization prevalence estimates
from a study of adolescents aged 12 to 17
years showed 0.6 percent for boys and 2.7
percent for girls. These estimates are lower
than those from other studies because adolescents who had never been in a relationship
were included in the sample (Wolitzky-Taylor,
K.B., K.J. Ruggiero, C.K. Danielson, H.S.
Resnick, R.F. Hanson, D.W. Smith, B.E.
Saunders, and D.G. Kilpatrick, Prevalence
and Correlates of Dating Violence in a National
Sample of Adolescents, Journal of the
American Academy of Child and Adolescent
Psychiatry 47 (2008): 755-762). Other studies have also found sex-based differences in
rates of sexual victimization and perpetration
in adolescent relationships (e.g., OKeefe,
M., Adolescents Exposure to Community
and School Violence: Prevalence and
Behavioral Correlates, Journal of Adolescent
Health 20 (1997): 368-376; and Molidor, C.,
R.M. Tolman, and J. Koeber, Gender and
Contextual Factors in Adolescent Dating
Violence, The Prevention Researcher 7
(2000): 1-4). Although most research tends
to indicate that more severe forms of physical violence are disproportionately experienced by girls, this is not a universal finding
(OLeary, K.D., A.M. Smith Slep, and S.G.
39

NIJ Journal / Issue No. 261

OLeary, Multivariate Models of Mens and

Womens Partner Aggression, Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology 75 (2007):
752-764).
5. A developmental perspective considers
changes over time. This can include, for
example, behavioral, biological, social and
emotional changes.
6. Giordano, P., Recent Research on Gender
and Adolescent Relationships: Implications
for Teen Dating Violence Research/
Prevention, presentation at the U.S.
Departments of Health and Human Services
and Justice Workshop on Teen Dating
Violence: Developing a Research Agenda
to Meet Practice Needs, Crystal City, Va.,
December 4, 2007.
7. OLeary, K.D., A.M. Smith Slep, S. Avery-Leaf,
and M. Cascardi, Gender Differences in
Dating Aggression Among Multiethnic High
School Students, Journal of Adolescent
Health 42 (2008): 473-479.
8. Capaldi, D.M., H.K. Kim, and J.W. Shortt,
Observed Initiation and Reciprocity of
Physical Aggression in Young, At-Risk
Couples, Journal of Family Violence 22
(2007): 101-111.
9. OKeefe, M., Predictors of Dating Violence
Among High School Students, Journal of
Interpersonal Violence 12 (1997): 546-568.
10. Molidor, Gender and Contextual Factors.
11. Ackard, D.M., M.E. Eisenberg, and D.
Neumark-Sztainer, Long-Term Impact of
Adolescent Dating Violence on the Behavioral
and Psychological Health of Male and Female
Youth, Journal of Pediatrics 151 (2007):
476-481; and Olshen, E., K.H. McVeigh,
R.A. Wunsch-Hitzig, and V.I. Rickert,
Dating Violence, Sexual Assault, and
Suicide Attempts Among Urban Teenagers,
Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent
Medicine 161 (2007): 539-545.
12. Archer, J., Sex Differences in Aggression
Between Heterosexual Partners: A MetaAnalytic Review, Psychological Bulletin 126
(2000): 651-680.
13. Dobash, R.E., and R.P. Dobash, Violence
Against Wives: A Case Against the Patriarchy,
London: Open Books, 1980.
14. For example, Dobash, R.P., R.E. Dobash, M.
Wilson, and M. Daly, The Myth of Sexual
Symmetry in Marital Violence, Social
Problems 39 (1992): 71-91; and Kimmel, M.S.,
Gender Symmetry in Domestic Violence: A
Substantive and Methodological Research
Review, Violence Against Women 8 (2002):
1332-1363.

40

15. Dobash, The Myth.

16. Archer, Sex Differences.
17. Wekerle, C., and D.A. Wolfe, Dating Violence
in Mid-Adolescence: Theory, Significance,
and Emerging Prevention Initiatives, Child
Psychology Review 19 (1999): 435-456.
18. Giordano, Recent Research.
19. Dutton, D.G., Intimate Abusiveness,
Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice
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20. Laursen, B., and W.A. Collins, Interpersonal
Conflict During Adolescence, Psychological
Bulletin 115 (1994): 197-209.
21. Fredland, N.M., I.B. Ricardo, J.C. Campbell,
P.W. Sharps, J.K. Kub, and M. Yonas, The
Meaning of Dating Violence in the Lives of
Middle School Adolescents: A Report of
a Focus Group Study, Journal of School
Violence 4 (2005): 95-114.
22. Montgomery, M.J., Psychosocial Intimacy
and Identity: From Early Adolescence to
Emerging Adulthood, Journal of Adolescent
Research 20 (2005): 346-374.
23. Kerpelman, J.L. Youth Focused Relationships and Marriage Education, The Forum
for Family and Consumer Issues 12 (2007).
24. For example, Steinberg, L., Adolescence,
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996.
25. Adelman, M., and S.H. Kil, Dating Conflicts:
Rethinking Dating Violence and Youth
Conflict, Violence Against Women 13 (2007):
1296-1318; Fredland, The Meaning; and
Noonan, R.K., and D. Charles, Developing
Teen Dating Violence Prevention Strategies:
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Youth, Violence Against Women (in press).
26. Molidor, C., and R.M. Tolman, Gender and
Contextual Factors in Adolescent Dating
Violence, Violence Against Women 4 (1998):
180-194.
27. Fredland, The Meaning of Dating Violence.
28. Larson, R.W., G.L. Clore, and G.A. Wood,
The Emotions of Romantic Relationships:
Do They Wreak Havoc on Adolescents? in
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in Adolescence, ed. W. Furman, B.B. Brown,
and C. Feiring, Cambridge: Cambridge
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29. Schelar, E., S. Ryan, and J. Manlove,
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Child Trends, 2008.