Casting,

casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape,
and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or
broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes
that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. [1]
Casting processes have been known for thousands of years, and widely used for sculpture, especially
in bronze, jewellery in precious metals, and weapons and tools. Traditional techniques include lost-wax
casting, plaster mold casting and sand casting.
The modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories: expendable and non-expendable
casting. It is further broken down by the mold material, such as sand or metal, and pouring method, such
as gravity, vacuum, or low pressure.[2]

Expendable mold casting[edit]

Expendable mold casting is a generic classification that includes sand, plastic, shell, plaster, and
investment (lost-wax technique) moldings. This method of mold casting involves the use of temporary,
non-reusable molds.

Sand casting[edit]
Main article: Sand casting
Sand casting is one of the most popular and simplest types of casting that has been used for centuries.
Sand casting allows for smaller batches to be made compared to permanent mold casting and at a very
reasonable cost. Not only does this method allow manufacturers to create products at a low cost, but
there are other benefits to sand casting, such as very small size operations. From castings that fit in the
palm of your hand to train beds (one casting can create the entire bed for one rail car), it can all be done

with sand casting. Sand casting also allows most metals to be cast depending on the type of sand used
for the molds.[3]
Sand casting requires a lead time of days for production at high output rates (120 pieces/hr-mold) and is
unsurpassed for large-part production. Green (moist) sand has almost no part weight limit, whereas dry
sand has a practical part mass limit of 2,3002,700 kg (5,1006,000 lb). Minimum part weight ranges
from 0.0750.1 kg (0.170.22 lb). The sand is bonded together using clays, chemical binders, or
polymerized oils (such as motor oil). Sand can be recycled many times in most operations and requires
little maintenance.

Plaster mold casting[edit]

Main article: Plaster mold casting
Plaster casting is similar to sand casting except that plaster of paris is substituted for sand as a mold
material. Generally, the form takes less than a week to prepare, after which a production rate of 1
10 units/hrmold is achieved, with items as massive as 45 kg (99 lb) and as small as 30 g (1 oz) with very
good surface finish and close tolerances.[4] Plaster casting is an inexpensive alternative to other molding
processes for complex parts due to the low cost of the plaster and its ability to produce near net
shape castings. The biggest disadvantage is that it can only be used with low melting point non-ferrous
materials, such as aluminium, copper, magnesium, and zinc. [5]

Shell molding[edit]
Main article: Shell molding
Shell molding is similar to sand casting, but the molding cavity is formed by a hardened "shell" of sand
instead of a flask filled with sand. The sand used is finer than sand casting sand and is mixed with a resin
so that it can be heated by the pattern and hardened into a shell around the pattern. Because of the resin
and finer sand, it gives a much finer surface finish. The process is easily automated and more precise
than sand casting. Common metals that are cast include cast iron, aluminium, magnesium, and copper
alloys. This process is ideal for complex items that are small to medium sized.

Investment casting[edit]

Investment casting (known as lost-wax casting in art) is a process that has been practised for thousands
of years, with the lost-wax process being one of the oldest known metal forming techniques. From 5000
years ago, when beeswax formed the pattern, to todays high technology waxes, refractory materials and
specialist alloys, the castings ensure high-quality components are produced with the key benefits of
accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity.

Investment casting derives its name from the fact that the pattern is invested, or surrounded, with a
refractory material. The wax patterns require extreme care for they are not strong enough to withstand
forces encountered during the mold making. One advantage of investment casting is that the wax can be
reused.[4]
The process is suitable for repeatable production of net shape components from a variety of different
metals and high performance alloys. Although generally used for small castings, this process has been
used to produce complete aircraft door frames, with steel castings of up to 300 kg and aluminium castings
of up to 30 kg. Compared to other casting processes such as die casting or sand casting, it can be an
expensive process, however the components that can be produced using investment casting can
incorporate intricate contours, and in most cases the components are cast near net shape, so require little
or no rework once cast.

Waste molding of plaster[edit]

A durable plaster intermediate is often used as a stage toward the production of a bronze sculpture or as
a pointing guide for the creation of a carved stone. With the completion of a plaster, the work is more
durable (if stored indoors) than a clay original which must be kept moist to avoid cracking. With the low
cost plaster at hand, the expensive work of bronze casting or stone carving may be deferred until a patron
is found, and as such work is considered to be a technical, rather than artistic process, it may even be
deferred beyond the lifetime of the artist.
In waste molding a simple and thin plaster mold, reinforced by sisal or burlap, is cast over the original clay
mixture. When cured, it is then removed from the damp clay, incidentally destroying the fine details in
undercuts present in the clay, but which are now captured in the mold. The mold may then at any later
time (but only once) be used to cast a plaster positive image, identical to the original clay. The surface of
this plaster may be further refined and may be painted and waxed to resemble a finished bronze casting.

Evaporative-pattern casting[edit]
This is a class of casting processes that use pattern materials that evaporate during the pour, which
means there is no need to remove the pattern material from the mold before casting. The two main
processes are lost-foam casting and full-mold casting.

Lost-foam casting[edit]
Lost-foam casting is a type of evaporative-pattern casting process that is similar to investment casting
except foam is used for the pattern instead of wax. This process takes advantage of the lowboiling
point of foam to simplify the investment casting process by removing the need to melt the wax out of the
mold.

Full-mold casting[edit]
Main article: Full-mold casting
Full-mold casting is an evaporative-pattern casting process which is a combination of sand casting
and lost-foam casting. It uses an expanded polystyrene foam pattern which is then surrounded by sand,
much like sand casting. The metal is then poured directly into the mold, which vaporizes the foam upon
contact.

Non-expendable mold casting[edit]

The permanent molding process

Non-expendable mold casting differs from expendable processes in that the mold need not be reformed
after each production cycle. This technique includes at least four different methods: permanent, die,
centrifugal, and continuous casting. This form of casting also results in improved repeatability in parts
produced and delivers Near Net Shape results.

Permanent mold casting[edit]

Main articles: Permanent mold casting, low-pressure permanent mold casting, and vacuum permanent
mold casting
Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that employs reusable molds ("permanent molds"),
usually made from metal. The most common process uses gravity to fill the mold, however gas pressure
or a vacuum are also used. A variation on the typical gravity casting process, called slush casting,
produces hollow castings. Common casting metals are aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. Other
materials include tin, zinc, and leadalloys and iron and steel are also cast in graphite molds. Permanent
molds, while lasting more than one casting still have a limited life before wearing out.

Die casting[edit]
Main article: Die casting
The die casting process forces molten metal under high pressure into mold cavities (which are machined
into dies). Most die castings are made fromnonferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, and aluminium
based alloys, but ferrous metal die castings are possible. The die casting method is especially suited for
applications where many small to medium sized parts are needed with good detail, a fine surface quality
and dimensional consistency.

Semi-solid metal casting[edit]

Main article: Semi-solid metal casting
Semi-solid metal (SSM) casting is a modified die casting process that reduces or eliminates the residual
porosity present in most die castings. Rather than using liquid metal as the feed material, SSM casting
uses a higher viscosity feed material that is partially solid and partially liquid. A modified die casting
machine is used to inject the semi-solid slurry into re-usable hardened steel dies. The high viscosity of the
semi-solid metal, along with the use of controlled die filling conditions, ensures that the semi-solid metal
fills the die in a non-turbulent manner so that harmful porosity can be essentially eliminated.
Used commercially mainly for aluminium and magnesium alloys, SSM castings can be heat treated to the
T4, T5 or T6 tempers. The combination of heat treatment, fast cooling rates (from using un-coated steel
dies) and minimal porosity provides excellent combinations of strength and ductility. Other advantages of
SSM casting include the ability to produce complex shaped parts net shape, pressure tightness, tight
dimensional tolerances and the ability to cast thin walls.[6]

Centrifugal casting[edit]
Main article: Centrifugal casting (silversmithing)
In this process molten metal is poured in the mold and allowed to solidify while the mold is rotating. Metal
is poured into the center of the mold at its axis of rotation. Due to centrifugal force the liquid metal is
thrown out towards the periphery.
Centrifugal casting is both gravity- and pressure-independent since it creates its own force feed using a
temporary sand mold held in a spinning chamber at up to 900 N. Lead time varies with the application.
Semi- and true-centrifugal processing permit 30-50 pieces/hr-mold to be produced, with a practical limit
for batch processing of approximately 9000 kg total mass with a typical per-item limit of 2.3-4.5 kg.

Industrially, the centrifugal casting of railway wheels was an early application of the method developed by
the German industrial company Krupp and this capability enabled the rapid growth of the enterprise.
Small art pieces such as jewelry are often cast by this method using the lost wax process, as the forces
enable the rather viscous liquid metals to flow through very small passages and into fine details such as
leaves and petals. This effect is similar to the benefits from vacuum casting, also applied to jewelry
casting.

Continuous casting[edit]
Main article: Continuous casting
Continuous casting is a refinement of the casting process for the continuous, high-volume production of
metal sections with a constant cross-section. Molten metal is poured into an open-ended, water-cooled
mold, which allows a 'skin' of solid metal to form over the still-liquid centre, gradually solidifying the metal
from the outside in. After solidification, the strand, as it is sometimes called, is continuously withdrawn
from the mold. Predetermined lengths of the strand can be cut off by either mechanical shears or traveling
oxyacetylene torches and transferred to further forming processes, or to a stockpile. Cast sizes can range
from strip (a few millimeters thick by about five meters wide) to billets (90 to 160 mm square) to slabs
(1.25 m wide by 230 mm thick). Sometimes, the strand may undergo an initial hot rolling process before
being cut.
Continuous casting is used due to the lower costs associated with continuous production of a standard
product, and also increased quality of the final product. Metals such as steel, copper, aluminum and lead
are continuously cast, with steel being the metal with the greatest tonnages cast using this method.

Terminology[edit]
Metal casting processes uses the following terminology: [7]

Pattern: An approximate duplicate of the final casting used to form the mold cavity.

Molding material: The material that is packed around the pattern and then the pattern is removed
to leave the cavity where the casting material will be poured.

Flask: The rigid wood or metal frame that holds the molding material.

Cope: The top half of the pattern, flask, mold, or core.

Drag: The bottom half of the pattern, flask, mold, or core.

Core: An insert in the mold that produces internal features in the casting, such as holes.

Core print: The region added to the pattern, core, or mold used to locate and support the
core.

Mold cavity: The combined open area of the molding material and core, where the metal is
poured to produce the casting.

Riser: An extra void in the mold that fills with molten material to compensate for shrinkage during
solidification.

Gating system: The network of connected channels that deliver the molten material to the mold
cavities.

Pouring cup or pouring basin: The part of the gating system that receives the molten
material from the pouring vessel.

Sprue: The pouring cup attaches to the sprue, which is the vertical part of the gating
system. The other end of the sprue attaches to the runners.

Runners: The horizontal portion of the gating system that connects the sprues to the
gates.

Gates: The controlled entrances from the runners into the mold cavities.

Vents: Additional channels that provide an escape for gases generated during the pour.

Parting line or parting surface: The interface between the cope and drag halves of the mold, flask,
or pattern.

Draft: The taper on the casting or pattern that allow it to be withdrawn from the mold

Core box: The mold or die used to produce the cores.

Some specialized processes, such as die casting, use additional terminology.

Theory[edit]
Casting is a solidification process, which means the solidification phenomenon controls most of the
properties of the casting. Moreover, most of the casting defects occur during solidification, such as gas
porosity and solidification shrinkage.[8]
Solidification occurs in two steps: nucleation and crystal growth. In the nucleation stage solid particles
form within the liquid. When these particles form their internal energy is lower than the surrounded liquid,
which creates an energy interface between the two. The formation of the surface at this interface requires
energy, so as nucleation occurs the material actually undercools, that is it cools below its freezing
temperature, because of the extra energy required to form the interface surfaces. It then recalescences,
or heats back up to its freezing temperature, for the crystal growth stage. Note that nucleation occurs on a
pre-existing solid surface, because not as much energy is required for a partial interface surface, as is for
a complete spherical interface surface. This can be advantageous because fine-grained castings possess

better properties than coarse-grained castings. A fine grain structure can be induced by grain
refinement or inoculation, which is the process of adding impurities to induce nucleation. [9]
All of the nucleations represent a crystal, which grows as the heat of fusion is extracted from the liquid
until there is no liquid left. The direction, rate, and type of growth can be controlled to maximize the
properties of the casting. Directional solidification is when the material solidifies at one end and proceeds
to solidify to the other end; this is the most ideal type of grain growth because it allows liquid material to
compensate for shrinkage.[9]

Cooling curves[edit]

Intermediate cooling rates from melt result in a dendritic microstructure. Primary and secondary dendrites can be seen in
this image.

See also: Cooling curves

Cooling curves are important in controlling the quality of a casting. The most important part of the cooling
curve is the cooling rate which affects the microstructure and properties. Generally speaking, an area of
the casting which is cooled quickly will have a fine grain structure and an area which cools slowly will
have a coarse grain structure. Below is an example cooling curve of a pure metal or eutectic alloy, with
defining terminology.[10]

Note that before the thermal arrest the material is a liquid and after it the material is a solid; during the
thermal arrest the material is converting from a liquid to a solid. Also, note that the greater the superheat
the more time there is for the liquid material to flow into intricate details. [11]
The above cooling curve depicts a basic situation with a pure alloy, however, most castings are of alloys,
which have a cooling curve shaped as shown below.

Note that there is no longer a thermal arrest, instead there is a freezing range. The freezing range
corresponds directly to the liquidus and solidus found on the phase diagram for the specific alloy.

Chvorinov's rule[edit]
Main article: Chvorinov's rule
The local solidification time can be calculated using Chvorinov's rule, which is:

Where t is the solidification time, V is the volume of the casting, A is the surface area of the casting
that contacts the mold, n is a constant, and B is the mold constant. It is most useful in determining if a
riser will solidify before the casting, because if the riser does solidify first then it is worthless. [12]

The gating system[edit]

A simple gating system for a horizontal parting mold.

See also: Sprue (manufacturing)

The gating system serves many purposes, the most important being conveying the liquid material to
the mold, but also controlling shrinkage, the speed of the liquid, turbulence, and trapping dross. The
gates are usually attached to the thickest part of the casting to assist in controlling shrinkage. In
especially large castings multiple gates or runners may be required to introduce metal to more than
one point in the mold cavity. The speed of the material is important because if the material is traveling
too slowly it can cool before completely filling, leading to misruns and cold shuts. If the material is
moving too fast then the liquid material can erode the mold and contaminate the final casting. The
shape and length of the gating system can also control how quickly the material cools; short round or
square channels minimize heat loss.[13]
The gating system may be designed to minimize turbulence, depending on the material being cast.
For example, steel, cast iron, and most copper alloys are turbulent insensitive, but aluminium and
magnesium alloys are turbulent sensitive. The turbulent insensitive materials usually have a short and
open gating system to fill the mold as quickly as possible. However, for turbulent sensitive materials
short sprues are used to minimize the distance the material must fall when entering the mold.
Rectangular pouring cups and tapered sprues are used to prevent the formation of a vortex as the
material flows into the mold; these vortices tend to suck gas and oxides into the mold. A large sprue
well is used to dissipate the kinetic energy of the liquid material as it falls down the sprue, decreasing
turbulence. The choke, which is the smallest cross-sectional area in the gating system used to control
flow, can be placed near the sprue well to slow down and smooth out the flow. Note that on some
molds the choke is still placed on the gates to make separation of the part easier, but induces
extreme turbulence.[14] The gates are usually attached to the bottom of the casting to minimize
turbulence and splashing.[13]
The gating system may also be designed to trap dross. One method is to take advantage of the fact
that some dross has a lower density than the base material so it floats to the top of the gating system.
Therefore long flat runners with gates that exit from the bottom of the runners can trap dross in the
runners; note that long flat runners will cool the material more rapidly than round or square runners.
For materials where the dross is a similar density to the base material, such as aluminium, runner
extensions and runner wells can be advantageous. These take advantage of the fact that the dross is
usually located at the beginning of the pour, therefore the runner is extended past the last gate(s) and
the contaminates are contained in the wells. Screens or filters may also be used to trap
contaminates.[14]

It is important to keep the size of the gating system small, because it all must be cut from the casting
and remelted to be reused. The efficiency, or yield, of a casting system can be calculated by dividing
the weight of the casting by the weight of the metal poured. Therefore, the higher the number the
more efficient the gating system/risers.[15]

Shrinkage[edit]
There are three types of shrinkage: shrinkage of the liquid, solidification
shrinkage and patternmaker's shrinkage. The shrinkage of the liquid is rarely a problem because
more material is flowing into the mold behind it. Solidification shrinkage occurs because metals are
less dense as a liquid than a solid, so during solidification the metal density dramatically increases.
Patternmaker's shrinkage refers to the shrinkage that occurs when the material is cooled from the
Solidification shrinkage of various metals[17][18]
Metal

Percentage

Aluminium

6.6

Copper

4.9

Magnesium

4.0 or 4.2

Zinc

3.7 or 6.5

Low carbon steel

2.53.0

High carbon steel

4.0

White cast iron

4.05.5

Gray cast iron

2.51.6

Ductile cast iron

4.52.7

solidification temperature to room temperature, which occurs due to thermal contraction.[16]

Solidification shrinkage[edit]
Most materials shrink as they solidify, but, as the table to the right shows, a few materials do not, such
as gray cast iron. For the materials that do shrink upon solidification the type of shrinkage depends on
how wide the freezing range is for the material. For materials with a narrow freezing range, less than
50 C (122 F),[19] a cavity, known as a pipe, forms in the center of the casting, because the outer shell
freezes first and progressively solidifies to the center. Pure and eutectic metals usually have narrow
solidification ranges. These materials tend to form a skin in open air molds, therefore they are known
as skin forming alloys.[19] For materials with a wide freezing range, greater than 110 C (230 F),[19] much
more of the casting occupies the mushy or slushy zone (the temperature range between the solidus and
the liquidus), which leads to small pockets of liquid trapped throughout and ultimately porosity. These
castings tend to have poor ductility, toughness, and fatigue resistance. Moreover, for these types of
materials to be fluid-tight a secondary operation is required to impregnate the casting with a lower melting
point metal or resin.[17][20]
For the materials that have narrow solidification ranges pipes can be overcome by designing the casting
to promote directional solidification, which means the casting freezes first at the point farthest from the

gate, then progressively solidifies towards the gate. This allows a continuous feed of liquid material to
be present at the point of solidification to compensate for the shrinkage. Note that there is still a
shrinkage void where the final material solidifies, but if designed properly this will be in the gating
system or riser.[17]

Risers and riser aids[edit]

Different types of risers

Main articles: Riser (casting) and chill (casting)

Risers, also known as feeders, are the most common way of providing directional solidification. It
supplies liquid metal to the solidifying casting to compensate for solidification shrinkage. For a riser to
work properly the riser must solidify after the casting, otherwise it cannot supply liquid metal to
shrinkage within the casting. Risers add cost to the casting because it lowers the yield of each
casting; i.e. more metal is lost as scrap for each casting. Another way to promote directional
solidification is by adding chills to the mold. A chill is any material which will conduct heat away from
the casting more rapidly that the material used for molding. [21]
Risers are classified by three criteria. The first is if the riser is open to the atmosphere, if it is then its
called an openriser, otherwise its known as a blind type. The second criterion is where the riser is
located; if it is located on the casting then it is known as a top riser and if it is located next to the
casting it is known as a side riser. Finally, if riser is located on the gating system so that it fills after
the molding cavity, it is known as a live riser or hot riser, but if the riser fills with materials that's
already flowed through the molding cavity it is known as a dead riser or cold riser.[15]
Riser aids are items used to assist risers in creating directional solidification or reducing the number
of risers required. One of these items are chills which accelerate cooling in a certain part of the mold.
There are two types: external and internal chills. External chills are masses of high-heat-capacity and
high-thermal-conductivity material that are placed on an edge of the molding cavity. Internal chills are
pieces of the same metal that is being poured, which are placed inside the mold cavity and become
part of the casting. Insulating sleeves and toppings may also be installed around the riser cavity to
slow the solidification of the riser. Heater coils may also be installed around or above the riser cavity
to slow solidification.[22]

Patternmaker's shrink[edit]

Typical patternmaker's shrinkage of various metals [23]

Metal

Percentage

in/ft

Aluminium

1.01.3

8532

Brass

1.5

Magnesium

1.01.3

Cast iron

0.81.0

Steel

1.52.0

16
8532
1018
1614

Shrinkage after solidification can be dealt with by using an oversized pattern designed specifically for the
alloy used. Contraction rules, or shrink rules, are used to make the patterns oversized to compensate for
this type of shrinkage.[23] These rulers are up to 2.5% oversize, depending on the material being cast.
[22]
These rulers are mainly referred to by their percentage change. A pattern made to match an existing
part would be made as follows: First, the existing part would be measured using a standard ruler, then
when constructing the pattern, the pattern maker would use a contraction rule, ensuring that the casting
would contract to the correct size.
Note that patternmaker's shrinkage does not take phase change transformations into account. For
example, eutectic reactions, martensitic reactions, andgraphitization can cause expansions or
contractions.[23]

Mold cavity[edit]
The mold cavity of a casting does not reflect the exact dimensions of the finished part due to a
number of reasons. These modifications to the mold cavity are known as allowances and account for
patternmaker's shrinkage, draft, machining, and distortion. In non-expendable processes, these
allowances are imparted directly into the permanent mold, but in expendable mold processes they
are imparted into the patterns, which later form the mold cavity.[23] Note that for non-expendable
molds an allowance is required for the dimensional change of the mold due to heating to operating
temperatures.[24]
For surfaces of the casting that are perpendicular to the parting line of the mold a draft must be
included. This is so that the casting can be released in non-expendable processes or the pattern can
be released from the mold without destroying the mold in expendable processes. The required draft
angle depends on the size and shape of the feature, the depth of the mold cavity, how the part or
pattern is being removed from the mold, the pattern or part material, the mold material, and the
process type. Usually the draft is not less than 1%. [23]
The machining allowance varies drastically from one process to another. Sand castings generally
have a rough surface finish, therefore need a greater machining allowance, whereas die casting has
a very fine surface finish, which may not need any machining tolerance. Also, the draft may provide
enough of a machining allowance to begin with.[24]
The distortion allowance is only necessary for certain geometries. For instance, U-shaped castings
will tend to distort with the legs splaying outward, because the base of the shape can contract while
the legs are constrained by the mold. This can be overcome by designing the mold cavity to slope the
leg inward to begin with. Also, long horizontal sections tend to sag in the middle if ribs are not
incorporated, so a distortion allowance may be required. [24]

Cores may be used in expendable mold processes to produce internal features. The core can be of
metal but it is usually done in sand.

Filling[edit]

Schematic of the low-pressure permanent mold casting process

This section requires expansion.

(February 2010)

There are a few common methods for filling the mold cavity: gravity, low-pressure, high-pressure,
and vacuum.[25]
Vacuum filling, also known as counter-gravity filling, is more metal efficient than gravity pouring
because less material solidifies in the gating system. Gravity pouring only has a 15 to 50% metal
yield as compared to 60 to 95% for vacuum pouring. There is also less turbulence, so the gating
system can be simplified since it does not have to control turbulence. Plus, because the metal is
drawn from below the top of the pool the metal is free from dross and slag, as these are lower density
(lighter) and float to the top of the pool. The pressure differential helps the metal flow into every
intricacy of the mold. Finally, lower temperatures can be used, which improves the grain structure.
[25]
The first patented vacuum casting machine and process dates to 1879. [26]
Low-pressure filling uses 5 to 15 psig (35 to 100 kPag) of air pressure to force liquid metal up a feed
tube into the mold cavity. This eliminates turbulence found in gravity casting and increases density,

repeatability, tolerances, and grain uniformity. After the casting has solidified the pressure is released
and any remaining liquid returns to the crucible, which increases yield. [27]

Tilt filling[edit]
Tilt filling, also known as tilt casting, is an uncommon filling technique where the crucible is attached
to the gating system and both are slowly rotated so that the metal enters the mold cavity with little
turbulence. The goal is to reduce porosity and inclusions by limiting turbulence. For most uses tilt
filling is not feasible because the following inherent problem: if the system is rotated slow enough to
not induce turbulence, the front of the metal stream begins to solidify, which results in mis-runs. If the
system is rotated faster then it induces turbulence, which defeats the purpose. Durville of France was
the first to try tilt casting, in the 1800s. He tried to use it to reduce surface defects when casting
coinage from aluminium bronze.[28]

Macrostructure[edit]
The grain macrostructure in ingots and most castings have three distinct regions or zones: the chill
zone, columnar zone, and equiaxed zone. The image below depicts these zones.

The chill zone is named so because it occurs at the walls of the mold where the wall chills the
material. Here is where the nucleation phase of the solidification process takes place. As more heat is
removed the grains grow towards the center of the casting. These are thin, long columns that are
perpendicular to the casting surface, which are undesirable because they have anisotropicproperties.
Finally, in the center the equiaxed zone contains spherical, randomly oriented crystals. These are
desirable because they have isotropic properties. The creation of this zone can be promoted by using
a low pouring temperature, alloy inclusions, or inoculants.[12]

Inspection[edit]
Common inspection methods for steel castings are magnetic particle testing and liquid penetrant
testing.[29] Common inspection methods for aluminum castings are radiography, ultrasonic testing,
and liquid penetrant testing.[30]

Defects[edit]
Main article: Casting defects

There are a number of problems that can be encountered during the casting process. The main types
are: gas porosity, shrinkage defects, mold material defects, pouring metal defects, andmetallurgical
defects.

Casting Process Simulation[edit]

A high-performance software for the simulation of casting processes provides opportunities for an interactive or
automated evaluation of results (here, for example, of mold filling and solidification, porosity and flow
characteristics). Picture: Componenta B.V., The Netherlands)

Casting process simulation uses numerical methods to calculate cast component quality considering
mold filling, solidification and cooling, and provides a quantitative prediction of casting mechanical
properties, thermal stresses and distortion. Simulation accurately describes a cast components
quality up-front before production starts. The casting rigging can be designed with respect to the
required component properties. This has benefits beyond a reduction in pre-production sampling, as
the precise layout of the complete casting system also leads to energy, material, and tooling savings.
The software supports the user in component design, the determination of melting practice and
casting methoding through to pattern and mold making, heat treatment, and finishing. This saves
costs along the entire casting manufacturing route.
Casting process simulation was initially developed at universities starting from the early '70s, mainly
in Europe and in the U.S., and is regarded as the most important innovation in casting technology
over the last 50 years. Since the late '80s, commercial programs are available which make it possible
for foundries to gain new insight into what is happening inside the mold or die during the casting
process.

See also[edit]
Engineering portal

Bronze sculpture

Bronze and brass ornamental work

Flexible mold

Porosity sealing

Spin casting

Spray forming

References[edit]
Notes[edit]
1.

Jump up^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 277

2.

Jump up^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 278

3.

Jump up^ Schleg et al. 2003, chapters 24.

4.

^ Jump up to:a b Kalpakjian & Schmid 2006.

5.

Jump up^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 315

6.

Jump up^ 10th International Conference Semi-Solid Processing of Alloys and Composites, Eds. G.
Hirt, A. Rassili & A. Buhrig-Polaczek, Aachen Germany & Liege, Belgium, 2008

7.

Jump up^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, pp. 278279

8.

Jump up^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, pp. 279280

9.

^ Jump up to:a b Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 280

10.

Jump up^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, pp. 280281

11.

Jump up^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 281

12.

^ Jump up to:a b Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 282

13.

^ Jump up to:a b Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 284

14.

^ Jump up to:a b Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 285

15.

^ Jump up to:a b Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 287

16.

Jump up^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, pp. 285286

17.

^ Jump up to:a b c Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 286

18.

Jump up^ Stefanescu 2008, p. 66.

19.

^ Jump up to:a b c Stefanescu 2008, p. 67.

20.

Jump up^ Porter, David A.; Easterling, K. E. (2000), Phase transformations in metals and
alloys (2nd ed.), CRC Press, p. 236, ISBN 978-0-7487-5741-1.

21.

Jump up^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, pp. 286288.

22.

^ Jump up to:a b Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 288

23.

^ Jump up to:a b c d e Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 289

24.

^ Jump up to:a b c Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 290

25.

^ Jump up to:a b Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, pp. 319320.

26.

Jump up^ Iron and Steel Institute (1912), Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute 86, Iron and Steel
Institute, p. 547.

27.

Jump up^ Lesko, Jim (2007), Industrial design (2nd ed.), John Wiley and Sons, p. 39, ISBN 978-0470-05538-0.

28.

Jump up^ Campbell, John (2004), Castings practice: the 10 rules of castings, ButterworthHeinemann, pp. 6971, ISBN 978-0-7506-4791-5.

29.

Jump up^ Blair & Stevens 1995, p. 46.

30.

Jump up^ Kissell & Ferry 2002, p. 73.

Bibliography[edit]