Fixed Partial Dentures - British Dental Journal (2002) PDF

PRACTICE
IN BRIEF
An introduction to the series on Crowns and other Extra-coronal Restorations
Crowns and other extra-coronal restorations:

Introduction
R. W. Wassell1 J. G. Steele2 and A. W. G.Walls3
This series of articles is aimed at anybody who places crowns and other
extra-coronal restorations (ie veneers and adhesive onlays or shims)
on individual teeth. We hope that everyone from experienced practitioners to undergraduate students may find something of value. The aim
of this series is to give guidance, based on available scientific evidence
where possible, towards the provision of high quality restorations.
Treatment planning issues and materials choices feature at least as
strongly as technique description.
We have concentrated on single tooth restorations, but all of the
principles described also apply to more complex multiple restorations,
including fixed bridges. However, we have not specifically covered
replacement of missing teeth with bridges or implants. Replacement of
teeth involves consideration of a range of additional issues and treatment planning decisions, whilst an entirely different set of technical
rules are required for the consideration of implants. These will be left
for other authors to address.
Where possible, we refer to published scientific evidence. Admittedly, randomly controlled clinical trials and systematic reviews are much
scarcer in dentistry than in medicine. Consequently, much evidence is
based on the experience of clinicians, or on laboratory or theoretical
considerations. This does not necessarily devalue existing practices,
but it does make it more difficult to make objective choices about treatment planning, materials or techniques. We have therefore tried to be
honest when our advice stems solely from experience or theory.
The series consists of 13 individual articles, each of which should be
able to stand alone. Each article will start with the specific learning
objectives we hope to meet. In a series like this it is impossible to
explore every technique or material ever described, this would make
for very heavy reading and very dull writing. We hope though that
these articles should enable the reader to evaluate his or her own practices against a set of fundamental principles.
CONTENT OF THE SERIES

A series of 13 Articles covering
the following:
1. Changing patterns and the
need for quality
2. Materials considerations
3. Pre-operative assessment
4. Endodontic considerations
5. Jaw registration and
articulator selection
6. Aesthetic control
7. Cores for teeth with vital
pulps
8. Preparations for full veneer
crowns
9. Provisional restorations
10. Impression materials and
technique
11. Try-in and cementation of
crowns
12. Porcelain veneers
13. Resin bonded metal
restorations
1*Senior Lecturer in Restorative Dentistry, 2Senior Lecturer in Restorative

Dentistry, 3Professor of Restorative Dentistry, Department of Restorative
Dentistry, The Dental School, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4BW
*Correspondence to: R. W. Wassell
E-mail: r.w.wassell@ncl.ac.uk
Refereed Paper
British Dental Journal 2002; 192: 143
BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 3 FEBRUARY 9 2002
143
PRACTICE
IN BRIEF
Familiarisation with the broad spectrum of contemporary materials allowing better-informed

decisions to be made
Discovering the factors that influence choice of alloys for indirect metallic restorations
Knowing the pitfalls of selecting a cheap alloy for cast post and core construction
Familiarisation with the different types of all ceramic crown and which ones can be used
posteriorly
An awareness of the many different types of metal copings for ceramo-metal restorations
Consideration of the use of composite crowns for specific clinical situations
Crowns and extra-coronal restorations:

Materials selection
R. W. Wassell1 A. W. G. Walls2 and J. G. Steele3
Materials selection is the second in the series on crowns and other extra-coronal restorations. Some of us are less than
inspired by dental materials science. Nevertheless, many of the things that concern us clinically with crowns and their
alternatives are based on material properties. We worry about the strength of the restoration, how well it fits and its
aesthetics. We also worry about wear, occlusal control and biocompatibility. Not least of our concerns are dental laboratory
charges, which inevitably have to be passed on to the patient.
CROWNS AND EXTRA-CORONAL

RESTORATIONS:
1. Changing patterns and

the need for quality
3. Pre-operative
assessment
4. Endodontic
considerations
7. Cores for teeth with
vital pulps
8. Preparations for full
veneer crowns
technique
11. Try-in and cementation
of crowns
restorations
1*Senior Lecturer in Restorative Dentistry,
2Professor of Restorative Dentistry,
3Senior Lecturer in Restorative Dentistry,
Department of Restorative Dentistry, The

Dental School, Framlington Place,
Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4BW
Refereed Paper
British Dental Journal 2002; 192:
199-211
An understanding of the materials available,

their application and limitations will not only
help with selection but will allow more effective
communication with patients and laboratories.
Promotion of such understanding allowing better-informed decisions to be made is in essence
the aim of this article.
There are now more materials available
than ever before for indirect restorations.
These fall under the broad headings of all
metal, ceramics, metal-ceramics and resin
composites. Cements and cementation, either
conventional or adhesive will be considered in
later articles. Manufacturers details are
shown at the end of the article.
ALL METAL RESTORATIONS

All metal extra-coronal restorations include
crowns, onlays and shims (onlays relying
soley on adhesive retention). Cast posts and
cores can cause particular difficulties and are
considered separately at the end of this section. In the UK as in other countries we are
aware that economic pressures are driving
the adoption of less expensive alloys. These
alloys contain either low concentrations of
noble metals or are comprised entirely of base
metals.
In this section we consider the various types
of alloys and the factors which influence their
selection including:
Cost
Castability and handling
Physical properties
Resin bonding
Corrosion and tarnish
Biocompatibility
Gold and palladium alloys

In the 1950s making an alloy selection for a cast
metal restoration would simply have entailed
choosing an ADA specification high gold alloy,
all of which had a greater than 75% gold and
platinum content. The soft type I alloy contained
most noble metals (83%) with the harder alloys
(types II, III and IV) containing an increasing
amount of silver and copper. Type I alloy was
used for small inlays, type II for larger inlays,
type III for crowns and bridges, and type IV for
partial denture frameworks.
In the early 1970s the gold price increased
four fold resulting in the introduction of less
expensive alloys of lower Karat.1 Palladium,
which had been used since the 1930s to produce
a cheaper white gold (Au 30%, Pa 1035%, Ag
35-60%, Cu 625%), became the noble constituent of many of the new precious alloys.
These alloys include:
Silver-palladium
Palladium-silver-gold
Gold-silver-copper-palladium (with a gold
content greater than 40%)
Palladium-copper
Palladium-tin
Palladium has a strong whitening effect
which means that most of these alloys will have
a silvery appearance unless the gold content is
greater than 40% and the palladium less than
6%.2 Unfortunately, both palladium and silver
absorb oxygen when molten, which can result
in porous castings especially if casting buttons
are reused. Also, reducing the gold content
lowers the specific gravity (density), which may
make casting less reliable than with high gold
alloys. This is because less dense alloys have
199
PRACTICE
GOLD AND PALLADIUM

ALLOYS KEY POINTS:
Porous castings can
result from reused
casting buttons
Some alloys especially
those of low noble
metal content are
prone to corrosion
The potential for
cheap alloys to cause
lichenoid reactions is
currently not known
but needs to be kept in
mind
BASE METAL ALLOYS

KEY POINTS:
Ni-Cr alloys are
popular in the USA but
are effectively banned
in Sweden
A good bond strength
can be achieved
between certain
Ni-Cr alloys and
resin luting agents
Ni-Cr alloys are stiffer
than most noble alloys
and can therefore be
used in slightly thinner
section
Technicians and
dentists must avoid
inhaling Ni-Cr
casting fumes or grinding dust especially if
the alloy contains
beryllium
In patients sensitive to
nickel it is best to avoid
using Ni-Cr alloys
200
lower kinetic energy during casting which in

turn reduces the penetration of molten metal
into the mould. Nevertheless, some authorities
argue that with ideal conditions almost all
commercial alloys result in acceptable castings,3 but experience indicates that technicians
may find such conditions difficult to achieve.
Tarnishing of some alloys is noticeable in
certain patients, particularly around the margins of their restorations. This observation is
born out by a five-year clinical study comparing two palladium silver alloys to a type III gold
alloy.4 In the UK the National Health Service
has encouraged the use of alloys containing
only 30% gold. The potential for corrosion
problems to result from this change is currently
unknown.
Allergies to gold, palladium and platinum
are extremely rare.5 In-vitro studies6 show that
high gold alloys have excellent corrosion
resistance, which implies that few metal ions
are eluted from restorations. Metal ions are
eluted more easily from alloys of low noble
metal content, including those of copper and
silver. Copper ions have been implicated in
producing lichenoid reactions.7 However,
lichenoid reactions to metal ions from crowns
are not as well described as for amalgam where
many lichen planus series show up to a third of
patients to be sensitive to mercury salts.8 This
raises the possibility that some cases of lichen
planus adjacent to crowns may be linked to the
underlying amalgam core. Nevertheless, with
current trends to use more easily corrodible
casting alloys we should be alert to the possibility of more lichen reactions in the future.
Base metal alloys

Base metal alloys used to make indirect restorations include:
Nickel-chromium
Nickel-chromium-beryllium
Titanium
Progold
Nickel-chromium alloys
The most commonly used base alloys are nickelchromium and nickel-chromium-beryllium.
Beryllium is added to improve the alloys physical properties; it is used as a hardener, grain
structure refiner and to reduce the alloys fusion
temperature.9 As a result of health concerns (see
below) some alloys contain molybdenum
instead of beryllium.10 All of these alloys have a
higher modulus of elasticity than noble alloys.
This means that they are more rigid which is
helpful in preventing flexion of long span
bridges. Rigidity in thin section is necessary for
adhesive bridge frameworks and for adhesively
retained shims used to restore the palatal surfaces of worn incisors. It is also possible with
selected resin adhesives to obtain high bond
strengths to the surface of the sandblasted alloy.
For instance Nery et al.11 reported a bond
strength of 22 Mpa for a nickel chromium alloy
bonded to dentine with All Bond 2 (Bisco Inc,
Itasca, USA). A worrying trend, however, is for

some laboratories to substitute a precious metal
instead of nickel chromium without telling the
dentist. Clearly, this could reduce the expected
bond strength.10
Leaving aside health concerns for a moment,
nickel chromium alloys are not without problems. Casting conditions need to be carefully
controlled to obtain well fitting restorations
and any technician will tell you that these
alloys are hard to adjust and difficult to finish.
This in turn can be a nuisance clinically when
fitting restorations.
Experience of use differs markedly from
country to country. In the USA these alloys have
had a relatively good press12,13 and are used for
casting crowns and bridges by the majority of
laboratories.9 In the UK these alloys account for
only 1% of the crowns provided on the National
Health Service. In Sweden, the National Board of
Health and Welfare has warned against the use of
alloys containing more than 1% nickel,9 effectively precluding nickel-chromium alloys as they
all contain between 62 and 82% nickel.14
The health problems are worth exploring in
more detail. Many laboratories use non-beryllium containing nickel chromium alloys, as
beryllium grindings and casting fumes are
extremely hazardous unless controlled by an
adequate exhaust and filtration system. Acute
problems include conjunctivitis, dermatitis
and bronchitis. Chronic beryllium disease may
not express itself for several years after exposure.9 Similarly, nickel can cause technicians
dermatological and lung problems with
high levels of nickel or nickel compounds
being carcinogenic. Tumours include rhabdomyosarcoma, nasopharyngeal and lung
carcinomas. Again an effective exhaust system is needed to keep concentrations below
recommended levels (Table 1). These levels
vary from country to country, but if you are
fitting nickel chromium restorations you
should ensure adequate aspiration during
adjustments.
Nickel is well known to cause contact dermatitis. Current estimates show that between
1020% of women and 12% of men are sensitised to the metal, possibly as a result of wearing
nickel containing jewellery.15 Surprisingly, there
have been few reports of patients reacting
adversely to nickel containing dental restorations and little evidence that nickel adsorption
intra-orally exacerbates existing dermatitis.
Nevertheless, there are authorities that counsel
dentists against using nickel in those patients
known to be sensitive to the metal.5,14
Table 1 Nickel and beryllium are toxic. In the UK
maximum permitted air levels (in g.m-3) of nickel for
an eight-hour shift have recently been reduced five
fold78 but are still over six times higher than in the USA9
Beryllium
Nickel
UK
2
100
USA
2
15
PRACTICE
Titanium
Titanium and its alloys are well known for
biocompatibility. Restorations can be either cast
or electro-formed. Casting requires high
temperatures (1650C) and a special magnesium
investment.16 Titanium oxidises easily so an
argon arc is used to melt the metal and casting
performed under vacuum. In 1985, Ida et al.17
reported that the fit of cast titanium crowns was
intermediate between those made from a high
noble alloy and nickel chromium. Electroforming was introduced in 198918 and involves
the milling of a titanium blank by spark
erosion. Two year clinical follow-up of electroformed copings veneered with composite have
shown encouraging results.19
Progold
Do not be misled by alloys such as Progold. Like
brass they consist largely of copper and zinc,
and tarnish easily.
Cast post and cores
To avoid the post bending or breaking, the
alloy chosen should have relatively high hardness, proportional limit and ultimate tensile
strength. Occasionally, cost considerations
drive the selection of the cheapest alloy, however corrosion and problems with castability
should always be born in mind; porosity within a cast post can often result in post fracture
with unfortunate consequences and thin posts
are more likely to suffer critical porosity than
thicker ones.
Fig. 1 A bent cast post has resulted in failure (note the

failed composite cementation). Proper alloy selection
and heat treatment will produce a more rigid casting,
capable of resisting distortion from occlusal forces.
It is important to note that many gold alloys

used for post and cores can be either soft or hard
depending on heat treatment. A soft post will
bend (Fig.1) and break more easily under
occlusal load than a hard one. Laboratories may
unwittingly produce soft posts simply by
quenching the hot casting ring to allow the
investment to be easily removed. If this is done
the casting must be heat-treated according to
manufacturers specifications. The alloy used at
our dental hospital (45% Ag, 28.8% Pd, 18.8%
Cu, 5% Au, 0.6% Pt) is heat treated at 400C for
20 minutes. In practice our technicians avoid the
need for a separate heat treatment by allowing
the casting ring to bench cool slowly to room

temperature.
Some of the alloys used for all metal restorations can also be used for metal-ceramic restorations. However, we will first consider all ceramic
restorations.
ALL CERAMIC RESTORATIONS

Dental ceramics, also termed porcelains, have
a composite structure consisting of a crystalline phase or phases within a glassy matrix.
Dental ceramics consist of oxides, largely of
metals and silica, and are essentially inert
materials, but we should be aware that they
can be attacked by acidulated phosphate fluoride (APF) gel. Clinical experience with all
ceramic restorations breaking under occlusal
load confirms that these materials are generally susceptible to stress corrosion and slow
crack growth.20
In 1965 McClean introduced aluminous
porcelain.21 Until then only feldspathic porcelain had been available to make PJCs which
although aesthetic was extremely brittle. Many
of us would now consider aluminous porcelain
as the standard material for PJCs. Nevertheless,
despite it being a significant advance and highly aesthetic, aluminous PJCs are still prone to
fracture and cannot be recommended as reliable
means of restoring posterior teeth.
There are now a bewildering number of
porcelain systems on the market and research
is continuing to develop materials which
are strong, aesthetic and suitable for multiple
applications, including crowns, bridges,
inlays and onlays. Some materials rely on the
production of an opaque, heavily reinforced
core over which weaker but more aesthetic
layers of porcelain are built eg In-Ceram
and AllCeram. Other materials have the
strengthening agent dispersed throughout the
material e.g. the glass ceramic, Dicor. Details
of the strengthening mechanisms are well
described elsewhere22 but all of them rely on
having a crystalline phase dispersed within a
glassy matrix.
Traditionally, porcelains are classified as
high fusing, medium fusing or low fusing but
this is not terribly helpful in understanding the
increasing number of materials available. Aluminous porcelain PJCs are made simply by sintering (see later) but there are five other methods of making indirect porcelain restorations
which together form a useful means of classification:
TITANIUM KEY POINTS:

Specialised casting
requires an argon arc
under vacuum
Restorations can also be
electroformed using
spark erosion
CAST POST AND CORES

KEY POINTS:
Avoid cheap alloys
which may corrode or
cast poorly
The alloy needs to have
a high modulus of
elasticity and high
yield strength
Proper heat treatment
ensures a stiff post
which is less likely to
bend
Sintered Porcelains
Glass Infused Ceramics
Cast Glass Ceramics
Hot Pressed, Injection Moulded Ceramics
Machined Glass Ceramics
Machined Densely Sintered Ceramics
We will first consider some of the materials

within this classification and then look at the
major clinical factors that influence material
choice.
201
PRACTICE
ALL CERAMIC
RESTORATIONS
KEY POINTS:
Ceramics are
considered inert
but can be attacked
by APF gel
Ceramics are strengthened by the dispersion
of a crystalline phase
through a glassy matrix
Ceramics can be
classified according to
fusion temperature and
mode of manufacture
Ceramic systems
cannot be evaluated on
strength data alone
In-Ceram and Procera
Allceram are suitable
for posterior crowns
based on long-term
clinical evaluation
Resin bonding of
In-Ceram requires
specific silanisation
techniques
Methods of making indirect porcelain

restorations
Sintered porcelains
Sintered porcelains are built up from an aqueous slurry of porcelain particles condensed
onto a platinum foil matrix or a refractory die.
Sintering occurs at a temperature above the
softening point of porcelain whereby the glassy
matrix partially melts and the powder particles
coalesce. There is volume shrinkage of
3040%. Porosity can be reduced from 5.6 to
0.56% by vacuum firing.23 Sintering is the
most commonly used technique of making
PJCs and veneer restorations with a number of
different materials available:
Aluminous porcelain eg Vitadur-N, Hi-Ceram
Feldspathic porcelain reinforced with Zirconia
fibres eg Mirage II
Feldspathic porcelain reinforced with leucite
eg Optec HSP
Glass infused ceramics
In-Ceram is a glass infused ceramic used for
crowns (Fig. 2). It consists of a core containing
90% alumina, which is built up on a refractory
die. During firing, at 1150C for four hours, the
die shrinks so that it can be withdrawn from the
core. This process (which is also used to manufacture ceramic lavatory pans) is called slipcasting. At this stage the core is a weak, porous
structure consisting of partially sintered alumina particles. Strength is conferred by painting a
slurry of lanthanum containing glass onto the
outside of the core and refiring it. During refiring the molten glass is drawn into the porous
structure thus eliminating voids and creating a
glass-ceramic composite. The excess glass is
ground away and porcelain with a matched
coefficient of thermal expansion is built onto the
surface. The manufacturers recommend that
restorations be cemented with conventional acid
base cements.
Fig. 2 In-Ceram glass infused alumina cores prior to

porcelain application (Courtesy of Vita)
In-Ceram Spinnel is a similar type of material

but uses the less hard magnesium spinnel
(MgAl2O4) instead of alumina. The material is
specifically designed for inlays and onlays. Most
recently introduced is In-Ceram Zirconia, which
has a very high flexural strength.
A novel material called Techceram has been
202
introduced in the UK, which also relies on having a glass infused core. The core is built of small
splats of alumina sprayed from a plasma gun at
a rotating refractory die. Again, after glass infusion, the restoration is formed conventionally on
the core with a matched sintered porcelain. The
company claim a flexural strength as high as for
In-Ceram.
Cast glass ceramics

Glass ceramics are polycrystalline solids prepared by the controlled crystallisation of glasses.
The best known of these systems, Dicor, is based
on mica crystals although there is another, Cerapearl, based on hydroxyapatite and experimental lithia-based materials.24 A Dicor restoration
is made by investing a wax pattern and casting.
Heating the reinvested crown for six hours at
1070C carries out controlled crystallisation,
termed ceraming. This causes the Mica to form a
strong house of cards structure, which makes
fracture propagation equally difficult in all
directions. However, a reaction between the
mica and the surrounding investment may result
in a weakened surface layer, which reduces significantly the overall strength of the material.25
Characterisation of the crown is achieved by surface glaze. Prior to glazing the material has the
appearance of frosted glass.
To overcome the limitations of surface glaze,
which are considered in more detail later, a technique of laminating a Dicor coping with feldspathic porcelain has been developed with the
intriguing name Willis Glass.26 Providing the
correct porcelain (Dicor Plus) is used for lamination, the strength of the restoration should not
be adversely affected.27
Hot pressed, injection moulded ceramics
IPS Empress is a leucite containing porcelain. As
with cast glass ceramics the restoration is first
waxed-up and invested, however the ingot,
which is made of sintered ceramic, is not molten
but softened before being pressed into a mould
under pressure at 1150C (Fig. 3). The pressure is
maintained for 20 minutes during which time
the tetragonal leucite crystals are dispersed
throughout the restoration giving a 40% concentration by volume. The shade of the ingot
provides the basic shade, which can be modified
by either glazing or veneer porcelains. To ensure
compatibility with veneer porcelains the ingots
have a lower coefficient of thermal expansion
(14.9 x 10-6/C) than those for the glazed material (18 x 10-6/C). The application of veneer
porcelains may require multiple firings that can
enhance the strength of the material.28
Another material, less well known in the UK
is Alceram, which is based on magnesium spinnel. It is important to emphasise that this is a
quite different material to the much stronger
Procera AllCeram which is mentioned later.
Machined glass ceramics
There are a number of milling systems available
for milling ceramic blanks,29 which may be conBRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 4 FEBRUARY 23 2002
PRACTICE
during sintering. The thicker cores are recommended for posterior teeth and the thinner
cores for veneers. The 0.4 mm cores are used
for aesthetically critical crowns on anterior
teeth and first premolars.
Choice of ceramic system

When faced with the task of evaluating a new or
alternative ceramic system you should have a
number of questions in mind as considered
under the six headings below.
Should I choose the strongest ceramic?
The flexural strength of ceramics is often quoted
(see Table 2 for moduli of rupture), but it is worth
pointing out the limitations of such data (see
later) before automatically choosing what
appears to be the strongest system on the list.
Fig. 3 The press ceramic furnace used for the construction
of injection moulded IPS Empress crowns (Courtesy of
Ivoclar).
trolled either by computer aided design/computer aided manufacture (CAD/CAM) or mechanically. The best-known CAD/CAM system in the
UK is Cerec and the best-known manual system
is Celay. Both of these machines were introduced
for inlays and onlays, but the original Cerec 1
software gave questionable marginal fit.3032
The accuracy of fit is better with Cerec 233 and
may be improved still further with the recent
introduction of Cerec 3.
The ceramic blanks are manufactured to
higher levels of strength than can be achieved
manually in the dental laboratory. Materials
include Dicor MGC, Vita Mark II and Vita Celay;
the latter two contain sanidine (KAlSi3O8) as the
crystalline phase. Unfortunately, sanidine makes
the ceramic very opaque.22 A newer material,
Corning MGC-F is a tougher material with a
higher flexural strength.34
Despite the relatively high strength of the
ceramic blank, machining may cause weakening
through the introduction of surface flaws.35
Machined densely sintered ceramics

Procera AllCeram is a densely sintered, high
purity alumina core on which low fusing porcelain is built.36,37 AllCeram cores have some of
the highest measurements of flexural strength
yet recorded for a commercially available system. Despite this, even stronger materials based
on zirconia are being developed.
Interestingly, the cores are made centrally
in Sweden or New Jersey, USA. Local dental
laboratories scan the dies (Fig. 4) and the
information is sent to one of the two centres
via the Internet enabling oversized dies to be
made. The dies are oversized to compensate
for the shrinkage of alumina during sintering.
A mixture of alumina and binder is pressed
onto the dies under pressure and, before sintering, machined to the required thickness
(0.25, 0.4 or 0.6 mm). In this way any small
defects caused by machining are eliminated
Fracture toughness and fatigue are also

important
Comparisons between tests may be
unreliable 38,39
An In-Ceram core, although strong in itself, is
weakened by increasing the thickness of overlying ceramic40
Resin cements are an important adjunct to the
strength of the finished restoration. This concept has been shown with veneers.41 A poor
bond of resin to tooth or restoration will not
enhance the strength of the cemented restoration. Some ceramic cores are smooth internally and resistant to etching with hydrofluoric
acid (eg In-Ceram), which prevents effective
resin bonding unless specific silanisation
techniques are used .42,43
Some ceramic veneers omit the strengthening
core and rely mainly on the resin bond to
enhance the strength of the comparatively
weak veneering ceramic.
How much tooth reduction is needed?

Most systems specify a similar amount of
tooth reduction as for a conventional alumi-
Fig. 4 A die is scanned for a Procera AllCeram coping

(outline of scan is in the background), which is made
centrally in either Sweden or the USA (Courtesy of
Nobel Biocare)
205
PRACTICE
Table 2 Comparative flexural strength data for dental ceramics classified according to technique
of restoration production
Crystalline Phase
Aluminous (Pt foil)
Aluminous (refractory die)
Leucite reinforced
Zirconia based
Alumina based
Magnesium spinnel
Zirconia
Mica based
Leucite based
Zirconia and Alumina
Mica based
Sanidine
Alumina
Sintered Porcelains
Flexural Strength (MPa)
Reference
123
79
139
79
104
79
70
79
Glass Infused Ceramics
In-Ceram
446
80
In-Ceram Spinnel
378
80
In-Ceram
604
80
Zirconia
Cast Glass Ceramics
Dicor
125
79
Hot Pressed Injection Moulded Ceramics
IPS Empress
97
80
160-180
28
Alceram
162
81
Machined Glass Ceramics
Dicor MGC
229
80
Vita Mark II
122
80
Machined Densely Sintered Ceramics
Procera AllCeram
687
36
Example
Vitadur-N
Hi-Ceram
Optec HSP
Mirage II
nous PJC; that is a 1 mm shoulder and 1.5 to

2 mm incisal reduction for anterior teeth and
2 mm occlusal reduction for posterior teeth.
A 1.2 mm axial reduction is specified for
In-Ceram but a much heavier axial preparation
is needed (1.5 mm) when Dicor crowns are prescribed for posterior teeth. Many dentists will
find this unacceptably destructive of tooth tissue or they simply will not cut it and then
wonder why the crown fractures.
Do all ceramic restorations fit well?

The marginal fit of indirect restorations is for
many dentists an emotive but inconclusive
subject. There is currently no consensus as to
what constitutes an unacceptable marginal
opening 44 although clinical experience and
empirical data suggest 100m45 especially
where the margin can only be probed.46 No
relationship has been found between size of
marginal opening and microleakage,47 however an open margin will predispose to loss of
cement lute, which has implications for secondary caries and periodontal disease.48
Most marginal fit data is from in-vitro studies
where variables are carefully controlled but
unfortunately comparisons of crown types are
limited and studies cannot be compared because
of differences in methodology. Also, measurements can be made difficult by rounding of
shoulder ceramic margins. These in-vitro studies
generally show mean marginal openings in the
2080 mm range and while statistically significant differences can be shown between systems49
the clinical relevance is unclear. However, as
already mentioned1 some of the machined
ceramic restorations have much greater discrepancies. Those would certainly be problematic if
206
the restorations were cemented with conventional cements.

A common perception is that the most reliable margins are achieved with metal rather
than with ceramic. Whilst this contention is supported by some studies49 others do not support
it.50 Clearly technical skill will play a large part
in achieving satisfactory results with whatever
system is chosen. Comparing ceramo-metal
crowns to metal crowns with all ceramic crowns
the former generally have better resistance to
marginal distortion from repeated firings than
the latter, which has implications for some all
ceramic systems where the ceramic is applied
incrementally.51 In-Ceram, however, has good
resistance to multiple firings.52
Will the system be aesthetic?

Although all ceramic restorations have the
potential to provide the best aesthetics, aesthetics are material and skill dependent. Obtaining a
good result is not simply a matter of colour
matching. Translucency, which is determined by
the match in reflective indices of the crystalline
phase and surrounding matrix, is also important.
Better control of colour can be achieved by
building it into the substance of the restoration
rather than merely relying on surface glaze
which may wear thin with time or be removed
with adjustments. Some of the systems described
above are coloured entirely by surface glazing.
Will the restoration abrade the opposing
tooth?
Ceramic has a reputation for causing wear to
opposing tooth structure. This is born out by invitro studies,53 and certainly there is a potential
for greater wear if ceramic is left rough after
occlusal adjustment.54 It is currently not clear if
one type of ceramic is markedly less abrasive
than the others, although the mica-glass, Dicor,
the machinable glass Vita Mark II and the low
fusing ceramics (eg Procera and Duceratin) have
shown a trend in this direction.55,56,57 The situation is complex however; chemicals in foodstuffs (eg cola drink) may affect some low fusing
ceramics resulting in them becoming more abrasive and less resistant to wear.58 Further research
is needed before dentists can confidently prescribe ceramic occlusal surfaces with similar
abrasivity to gold.
Is the system supported by meaningful clinical
studies?
The problem with clinical studies is that they
take time. Longevity data at one or two years is
of limited use unless it is showing a high failure
rate. Also clinical success with anterior crowns
can not be extrapolated posteriorly; a 3-year
trial of Dicor molar crowns resulted in a failure
rate of 64%. With the brittle characteristics of all
ceramic restorations, a trial of 5 years is preferable to be confident of future performance.
Good data is available for In-Ceram59,60 and for
Procera AllCeram61 showing fracture levels of
less than 1% per year.
PRACTICE
Are all ceramic bridges possible?
It is possible to make small anterior bridges with
most of these systems, but with the exception of
Vitas In-Ceram few manufacturers actively promote this because of the risk of fracture, especially at the connectors. The Procera AllCeram
specifies a minimum connector height of 3 mm
and a maximum span of 11 mm. Clinical studies
are underway but long-term results are not yet
available.
Cost?
The cost of high strength ceramic restorations
such as In-Ceram, AllCeram and Empress will
take into account a laboratorys investment in
new equipment and training as well the time
taken to make a restoration. In the UK, high
strength ceramic crowns are up to 40 to 60
more expensive than an aluminous PJC. These
materials can be used on the National Health
Service but not without prior approval. If
approved, a discretionary fee is awarded which
in most cases will not cover the laboratory bill.
METAL-CERAMIC RESTORATIONS
Stress concentrations within PJCs often lead to
cracks propagating outwards from the fit surface
of the restoration. A comparatively tough metal
coping effectively bonded to the ceramic will
help stop cracks developing in this way. The first
metal copings were cast but other methods of
coping construction, including foil and metal
composite copings, have since been developed.
Cast copings
Porcelain fused to metal (metal-ceramic) technology was first described in 195662 and patented in 1962.63 Alloys were produced with melting
points sufficiently high to resist the firing of
porcelain. The first alloys had a high noble metal
content of around 98% with iron, indium and tin
used for hardening, and to create a superficial
oxide layer to which the ceramic could be bonded. The ceramic had to be specially formulated to
have a high coefficient of thermal contraction to
prevent unwanted stresses being built up
between it and the coping on cooling after firing. This was achieved with a ceramic containing 1525 vol% leucite as its crystalline phase.
With such a high gold content the original
alloys were extremely expensive, resulting in
many laboratories preferring high palladium
low gold alloys although paradoxically, palladium prices have recently been so high that the
high gold alloys are sometimes the more affordable alternative! High palladium alloys have the
advantage of having a high modulus of elasticity and are therefore more rigid allowing slightly
thinner copings to be made. This rigidity is particularly useful in bridgework where flexion of
the pontics under load can result in fracture of
the overlying porcelain. The alloy used by our
dental hospital contains 78.5% Pa, 6.9% Cu,
5.5% Ga, 4.5% In, 2% Sn, 2% Au. Other alloys
also contain either gallium or indium or both to
promote chemical bonding to the porcelain.10
Some of the alloys already considered under

all metal restorations can be used for metalceramic copings. These include nickel chromium, nickel chromium beryllium, silver palladium alloys and titanium.
Control of the oxide layer thickness is important to avoid problems of porcelain debonding.
Some silver palladium alloys can cause a greenish hue to appear due to diffusion of silver compounds into the porcelain. Titanium oxidises
easily and a thick nonadherent oxide layer can
form under regular feldspathic porcelains. Thus
low fusing porcelains (eg Procera or Duceratin)
are used to avoid problems of the oxide layer
compromising strength.64 Porcelain bond
strengths to titanium are in any case not as high
as with other alloys which may explain the higher risk of metal-ceramic failure seen in a 6-year
clinical follow-up.65
Low fusing hydrothermal porcelains (Duceram, Duceragold) can also be fused to type IV
gold in what is known charmingly as the Golden Gate System. Once again control of the
oxide layer is crucial for achieving bonding
and good aesthetics.66 Aesthetics are improved
by the underlying gold shining through the
porcelain. The major perceived advantage of
this system is the potential to limit the number
of different alloys used in a patients mouth.
Cast copings are the most commonly used
method of strengthening porcelain and have
served us well, but consistently good aesthetics
are difficult to achieve because the metal has to
be covered by an opaque layer which in turn
limits the thickness of an adequate overlying
layer of porcelain. However, proper tooth reduction and excellent technical support will largely
overcome this problem.
One of the main advantages of cast copings is
that the coping can be waxed to create a metal
occlusal surface a facility that is either absent
or more difficult to achieve in the following two
systems.
METAL-CERAMIC
RESTORATIONS
KEY POINTS:
High palladium low
gold alloys have
significant advantages
over high gold alloys
where rigidity is needed
Oxides of gallium,
indium and tin are used
to promote adhesion of
alloy to ceramic
Too thick an oxide layer
can result in ceramic
debonding or
discolouration
A metal occlusal
surface can be incorporated in a cast coping
but not in foil copings
Foil copings are not
strong enough for
posterior restorations
Metal composite
copings (Captek) are a
promising alternative
to cast copings where
the occlusion is to be
built in porcelain
Electroformed copings
are an interesting but
unproven technology
Surface treatment of
the ceramic by ion
exchange gives only
limited strengthening
Foil copings
In 1976 McClean 67 reported a technique of fusing platinum foil to the fit surface of an aluminous PJC. The foil was made adhesive to the
porcelain by electroplating with tin and subsequent oxidisation. The crown was made using
two layers of foil with the first layer being
removed after firing.68 Any improvements in
compressive strength are controversial with
some reports showing a positive effect and others negative.69 Such differences are explained by
variations in test methodology. Other foils have
been tried with aluminous porcelain including
palladium70 and gold coated platinum.71,72 More
recently a gold foil reinforced crown has been
introduced.73 The foil of this Sunrise Crown is
50 m thick and contains gold, platinum and an
oxidising element designed to facilitate porcelain bonding. Unlike platinum foil, the gold
alloy has too high a coefficient of thermal
expansion to be used with aluminous porcelain.
Standard metal-ceramic porcelains are used
207
PRACTICE
instead. These crowns can fit well74 but measurements of compressive strength are unimpressive,73 and, in the absence of clinical trials to the
contrary, do not support their use for restoring
posterior teeth.
Metal composite copings

The Captek system was developed over a
decade ago for producing composite metal
frameworks for metal-ceramic crowns,
bridges, inlays and onlays (Fig. 5). The technique, which involves the fabrication of a
metal composite (Fig. 6) coping (88% Au, 4%
Pt, 4% Pa) is comparatively simple but does
require some technician training.75 A metal
impregnated wax sheet is adapted over a
refractory die, sintered in a porcelain furnace,
and the resulting granular structure infused
with molten gold. The coping thickness is
250 m for anterior teeth and 350 m for posterior teeth. The margins can be thinned down
to 50 m to give a gold micro-margin or a
porcelain butt fit produced. Conventional
metal-ceramic porcelains are applied to the
gold coloured coping. As with the Golden Gate
System and Sunrise Crown there is some reflection from the gold coping, which can enhance
aesthetics. Unlike conventional cast metal
ceramic restorations, tooth preparation can
be reduced significantly, it being possible to
make crown margins 0.3 mm wide. However,
Fig. 5 A Captek coping for a ceramo-metal restoration

of a central incisor. The buccal margin will be thinned
to a micro-margin prior to porcelain application.
Captek is unusual in that it resists firing distortion
resulting from differential thermal contraction of
metal and porcelain.
our experience with the material shows that it

can be difficult to obtain a good crown margin
unless an obvious chamfer or shoulder is
present.
The manufacturers literature quotes a study
from the University of Boston, which compares
restorations, made from Captek with those
made from a high quality palladium-containing alloy. The sheer bond strength of porcelain
to Captek was almost twice as high whilst
crowns of both materials loaded at the incisal
edge showed similar load bearing characteristics. Marginal fit was also reported to be excellent and significantly better than conventional
Fig. 6 Schematic diagram showing how a Captek core is laid down as gold alloy impregnated wax
sheets: a) the granular appearance of Captek W after the first wax layer has been burnt off;
b) application of the second wax layer (Captek G); c) perfusion of the Captek W by the Captek G
during the second firing; and d) the resulting composite metal structure after firing (Courtesy of
Schottlander).
208
PRACTICE
metal ceramic crowns. Long-term studies are
needed to confirm anecdotal evidence of good
clinical performance. Occlusal contacts are
usually formed in ceramic, as metal contacts
are difficult to build.
Electroformed copings
The GES Gold Electroforming System uses an
ionic solution to electroplate a 0.3mm thickness of pure gold directly onto the die. The die
is coated with a metallic silver varnish to render it conductive. The manufacturers claim a
similar strength characteristic to type III gold
but the system is not supported by any clinical
studies.
Strengthening of feldspathic metal-ceramic
porcelains
Feldspathic porcelains are inherently weak in
tension and strong in compression. Hence they
rely on bonding to metal and coping design to
dissipate tensile stresses. Another approach is to
generate compressive stresses either internally
or in the immediate subsurface layer. A recent
innovation is the use of ion exchange where
smaller diameter sodium ions in the surface of
the porcelain are replaced by larger diameter
potassium ions. This exchange has the potential
to strengthen by subsurface compression, however any strengthening effect is lost if the
restoration is subsequently self-glazed or finished. Surprisingly, the ion exchange technique
does not give a significantly greater increase in
flexural strength than simple overglazing.76
Where overglazing is not practical, fine polishing with diamond pastes helps remove surface
flaws and gives a modest increase in strength
over self-glazing.
RESIN COMPOSITES
The use of resin composites for indirect inlays
and onlays is well known.77 Recently, manufacturers have introduced highly filled composite materials for making indirect crowns
and bridges. Clearly the major advantage is in
reduced laboratory costs, but it should also be
born in mind that modern composites induce
much less wear against opposing teeth than
porcelain. It is too early to say whether these
materials will perform well in the long-term,
however they at very least offer a good solution where restorations are not expected to
last for extended periods eg young patients.
Materials falling into this category include
Artglass, and Targis and Vectris. The Vectis
material is interesting in that it uses a silanated glass fibre mat reinforcement for crowns
and glass fibre strands to give strength to
bridge spans.
Finally, several systems have been developed
for bonding composite to metal substructures.
These include the Silicoater and Kevloc techniques which both require specialised laboratory
equipment. Restorations of this type are more
popular in continental Europe than in the UK
where metal-ceramics predominate.
CONCLUSION
With more and more materials being introduced
it is important that dentists understand the variety available and the factors which will contribute to the success or failure of their restorations. In the final analysis established or
promising materials should be subjected to randomised clinical trial. Several manufacturers are
adopting this approach but more need to do so.
While there is considerable clinical research data
on intra-coronal restorations much more is
needed on those placed extra-coronally.
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PRACTICE
List of products mentioned in the text

Alceram
Artglass
Captek
Cerapearl
Corning MGC-F
Dicor
Dicor MGC
Dicor Plus
Duceratin
Duceram-LFC
Duceragold
GES Gold
Hi-Ceram
In-Ceram
In-Ceram Spinnel
In-Ceram Zirconia
IPS Empress
Kevlock
Mirage II
Optec HSP
Procera AllCeram
Procera Porcelain
Silicoater
Sunrise Foil Crown
Targis/Vectris
Techceram
Vitadur-N
Vita Mark II
Innotek Dental Corp., Lakewood, USA

Heraeus Kulzer, Wehrheim, Germany
Schottlander, Letchworth, UK
Kyocera, San Diego, USA
Corning Inc., New York, USA
Degussa AG, Frankfurt, Germany
Gramm Technology, 75233 Tiefenbronn, Germany
Vita Zahnfabrik, D-79704 Bad Sckingen, Germany
Ivoclar-Vivadent, Schaan, Liechtenstein
Heraeus Kulzer GmbH, Wehrheim/Ts, Germany
Myron International, Kansas City, USA
Jeneric/Pentron Inc.,Wallingford, USA
Nobel Biocare, Gteburg, Sweden
Nobel Biocare, Gteburg, Sweden
Heraeus Kulzer GmbH, Wehrheim/Ts, Germany
Tanaka Dental Products, Skokie, USA
Ivoclar-Vivadent, Schaan, Liechtenstein
Techceram Ltd., Shipley, UK
211
IN BRIEF
A long-term view of crown provision is essential (ten years or more)

Meeting the patients expectations is a critical measure of success
The patients ability to tolerate treatment and maintain the restorations is a key factor
when planning treatment
One's own ability to provide high quality crowns requires honest reflection in every case
The damage to tooth tissue when providing crowns is considerable and should be weighed
against the benefits
Control of the environment to minimise disease and damage is a fundamental part of the treatment plan
The biological and biomechanical safety of the restorations is taken as a prerequisite

Considerations when planning treatment
D. J. Jacobs1 J. G. Steele2 and R. W. Wassell3
Considerations when planning treatment is the third in the series of crowns and other extra-coronal restorations. Articles or
chapters on treatment planning in restorative dentistry can make pretty dry reading, often built around a list of factors that
might influence your decision-making. In truth though, planning and placing crowns or other extra-coronal restorations
cannot be distilled into a series of lists. The decision-making involved requires experience, subtle understanding and a flexible
approach, none of which come easily.

RESTORATIONS:

3. Pre-operative
assessment
4. Endodontic
considerations
vital pulps
veneer crowns
technique
of crowns
restorations
1*Consultant in Restorative Dentistry,
Newcastle Dental Hospital, Richardson

Road, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4AZ
Department of Restorative Dentistry,
The Dental School, Framlington Place,
*Correspondence to: D. J. Jacobs
E-mail: D.J.Jacobs@ncl.ac.uk
Refereed Paper
257267
No crowns can really be regarded as permanent. If we lived for long enough, wear and
tear, disease and the realities of intra-oral existence mean that even the most carefully constructed and cemented crown would probably
eventually fail. We should though expect to get
many useful years from our crowns, and
should plan to have a situation we can recover,
if and when they eventually fail. This article
aims to address the issues of planning, both by
planning to avoid failure and also by planning
to cope with failure. It will address both the
treatment plan itself and the planned delivery
of treatment (these are subtly different things),
and it aims to set the scene for the more
detailed and specific analysis of treatment
planning and delivery issues within the rest of
this series of articles.
Learning is most effective when you learn
from your mistakes, but this can be a painful
process, both for patient and operator. Here we
will use examples where mistakes have been
made (some quite close to home) to illustrate
the points we are trying to make. Take a few
moments to look at the illustrations of the two
cases shown, and read the text in the boxes.
Many of the cases that fail miserably suffer
from decisions made right at the beginning.
In other cases the decisions are sound but the
execution is the problem. These two cases
were abject failures at several points and illustrate, perhaps in a rather extreme way, some of
the fundamentals of planning. One was done
in a dental hospital, the other in a practice. Bad
planning and bad execution were contributors
in both. We will refer to these two cases as we
go through.
BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 5 MARCH 9 2002
THE LONG-TERM STRATEGY: WHAT WILL THIS

DENTITION BE LIKE IN 10 YEARS?
A long-term strategy is different from a treatment plan. It is temptingly easy to focus immediately at the level of the tooth, discussing its
crown height, pulp vitality or its role in the
occlusion. Whilst these detailed close focus
issues are all critically important if a crown is to
survive, they are not as important as making a
decision about treating the tooth in the context
of the rest of the dentition, and about managing
the rest of the dentition in the context of the
individual.
Look at Case 1 (see box overleaf). This failed
for many reasons, including poor technical outcomes and perhaps insufficient attention to
hygiene and diet. But as you look at the first
radiograph, ask yourself this question: if this
patient attended my surgery now, what condition would I expect this dentition to be in, in
10 years time? The answer might be edentulous, it may be that there will be a couple of
remaining teeth and an overdenture, but the
answer probably is not the same as it is now.
Given the widespread caries and the lack of
remaining sound tooth tissue, tooth loss here
was always very likely. Had this been acknowledged right at the beginning, rather than trying
to save and re-crown every tooth (and on a close
focus tooth-by-tooth basis this seemed quite
possible no doubt), then a reasonable end stage
would have been reached more quickly, more
efficiently and less traumatically. Who knows,
implants may not have been necessary if the
transition to edentulousness had been planned,
or a couple of overdenture abutments had been
identified at the start. If you ask yourself: What
257
PRACTICE
CASE 1
In 1989 this patient had all of her
lower teeth crowned.
Two years later there was evidence
of caries around the margins of several of them (Fig. 1).
A further decision was made to root
treat all of the teeth, initially with a
view to restoring them with crowns
and this treatment was started a short
time later, initially leaving the crowns
in place (Fig. 2).
The root treatments were undertaken, but within a year they began
to fail because, among many other
reasons, it was proving very difficult to
ensure a coronal seal (Fig. 3), in fact it
is doubtful whether this biological
pre-requisite to successful endodontics
had been considered at all.
As no progress was being made
(things were actually getting worse),
the decision was made to revert to an
overdenture (Fig. 4).
Within another year even the overdenture abutments became mobile
and infected (Fig. 5) and in the end
they too were removed, leaving the
patient with a denture which she
could not wear.
The end result, a further 2 years
down the line, was the placement of
four implants and a very successful
lower implant retained fixed prosthesis (Fig. 6).
The whole case cost several thousand pounds to manage, much of
which was used to provide treatment
which soon failed.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
258
PRACTICE
will this be like in 10 years, or 20? and can
answer, a sensible strategy for how you want to
get there can be developed.
Essentially this is gambling, a game of odds.
You cannot possibly hope to know what things
will be like in 10 years, can you? Perhaps not,
but as a professional you are better placed to
assess the form of the dentition than anyone
else. Often, it is unwise to develop your final
strategy straight away, before you have seen the
response to basic preventive measures such as
hygiene and dietary management. Increasingly
we find that the one off treatment plan is actually inappropriate, as it was in the case in
Figure 7 where isolated coronal restorations and
bridgework have been provided in an environment of generalised toothwear. This clearly warranted fuller investigation and an overall management strategy. Taking your time and
planning in stages, will often improve your
chances of winning this game of odds.
With a strategy in place, it is now time to ask
some more specific questions, starting with
some issues relating to the patient as a whole
before finally moving on to technicalities associated with the patients mouth and teeth.
CASE SELECTION: THE PATIENT

Can I meet the expectations of the patient?
The first fundamental issue that you need to
resolve with the patient is whether your expectations and theirs converge. It is all very well being
able to sell something to your patient, but you
have to be able to deliver and, in the long term,
expectation modification can be a key skill. The
issue of expectations most often arises in terms
of aesthetics (see Part 6 in this series) though
there are issues in other areas too. We know that
patients expectations for tooth retention are
increasing all the time,1 and this applies as much
to treatment decisions on individual teeth as it
does to the dentition as a whole. Where you really feel that expectations cannot be met or modified it is better to make an appropriate referral at
the beginning than risk later retribution.
Will the patient be able to tolerate the
treatment and then maintain the restorations?
Planning some restorations based on the technicalities of pulp state, angulation, crown height
and so on is all very well, but if the patient cannot lie flat for more than 20 minutes, or cannot
open their mouth beyond 2 centimetres, actually
providing treatment may cause you some problems. It is surprisingly easy to forget to think
these things through before lifting a handpiece.
Physical limitations, such as neuromuscular or
skeletal disorders, may also prevent patients
from maintaining their restorations, no matter
how devoted they are to good hygiene. Furthermore, it is not simply the state of hygiene you
encounter when you see the patient for the first
time that matters, it is also how you see them
being able to cope in 5 or 10 years. This may not
be an issue for young or middle-aged patients,
Fig. 7 isolated coronal restorations

and bridgework with generalised
toothwear
but for an increasingly dentate and demanding

group of older adults it is highly relevant. The
treatment planning strategy of shortened dental arch (SDA) is built around the differences in
the ease with which different types of tooth can
be maintained and cleaned. Anterior teeth are
easier for the dentist to access for treatment and
long-term maintenance and for the patient to
clean. Molars on the other hand are difficult.
They have multiple roots with furcations
between them, as well as fine and curved root
canals. Their inaccessible location means that, if
there are real problems cleaning, these are the
teeth most likely to suffer. SDA gives priority to
the anterior and premolar teeth to ensure that
limited resources are targeted to the teeth which
have the best chance of long-term survival, and
which will provide adequate mechanical and
aesthetic function.
My own skills: Can I do this to a high enough

standard?
This can be a difficult question to face up to but
it is a question that should be answered honestly.
Tackling a complex case requiring multiple
coronal restorations with an excess of bravado
and a lack of insight and understanding of the
potential pitfalls can lead to disaster. Good
restorative work is more than being able to cut
some shapes and stick on crowns. Dentistry is
difficult. The knowledge and experience, not to
mention the technical skills that are required to
make the complex judgements necessary to plan
and then carry out treatment take a long time to
acquire. Other factors, which enter the equation
and may affect the outcome, include the availability of adequate treatment facilities, materials
and appropriate technical support. Ultimately
the decision is yours, but there is usually more
than one treatment option and simpler alternatives may be more successful in the long-term.
Can I justify the damage I am going to do to
the patients teeth?
Look at Case 2 again (see box overleaf). This is a
case where a decision was made to place crowns on
perfectly sound teeth. Admittedly, the clinical work
was poor, but the resultant damage was almost terminal for the teeth. This was a planning failure
every bit as much as a clinical failure. It is easy to
be seduced by the technical possibilities and to
forget the biological realities when creating a treatment plan. In a recent review of patients visiting a
UK dental hospital, 19% of all crowned teeth
without root fillings had evidence of periapical
259
PRACTICE
CASE 2
This 18-year-old female patient
attended
Newcastle
Dental
Hospital requesting treatment to
improve the appearance of her
upper anterior teeth which were
chipped as a result of trauma with
UL1 (21) having been root filled
and discoloured (Fig. 8). She was
placed on a waiting list for conservative management involving
the provision of a labial porcelain
veneer to UL1 (21) and incisal
composite restorations to UR1 (11),
UR2 (12) and UL2 (22).
Inevitable delays with treatment
at the Dental Hospital led to the
patient seeking treatment elsewhere. She did, however, return to
the Dental Hospital some 5 years
later with PJCs of poor quality on all
the upper anterior teeth and irreversible pulpitis in UR2 (12) and
UL2 (22) (Fig. 9). A further treatment plan was formulated involving
endodontics to UR2 (12) and
UL2 (22) followed by replacement
crowns for the upper anterior teeth.
Once again, Dental Hospital waiting
lists resulted in the patient obtaining treatment elsewhere. A further
8 years later, she was referred back
to the Dental Hospital by her latest
dentist who was suitably horrified
by what he found! The results of 13
years of treatment were six poor
crowns with carious margins,
unrootfilled or inadequately rootfilled teeth, short or perforating
posts and several teeth of very
doubtful prognosis (Fig. 10). In summary, an unnecessarily mutilated
dentition.
Fortunately, remedial treatment from her own dentist was
possible in this case and the result
is much better than could have
been hoped for initially (Fig. 11).
This is also a very good illustration
of what can be achieved in the
General Dental Services under
ideal circumstances although it is
important to note that the treatment required a further 17 visits
over a 9-month period, including
two surgical procedures, and the
longevity of the restorations
remains unpredictable.
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
260
PRACTICE
pathology.2 For a number of technical reasons it is
very difficult to get an accurate indication of just
how often teeth die as a result of crown preparation, but this finding and other published evidence
suggests it is probably a fairly common occurrence,
unless the technical quality of the work is of a very
high standard.3,4 Furthermore, the tooth itself is
often weakened by preparation, and fracture of the
tooth at gum level is not uncommon. Crown preparation on virgin teeth is not something to be undertaken lightly.
What is the main lesson to be learnt from
Case 2? We have already stated in the introduction that all crowns may eventually fail but the
poor standard of clinical work in this instance
has certainly resulted in unacceptable early and
damaging failure. The message is clear that if
there are simpler, less invasive, but effective
means of achieving the desired result, as there
were in this case, these should always be considered before embarking upon more complex
treatments which may actually accelerate the
loss of the dentition.
Fig. 12 poor oral hygiene and

crowns
Fig. 13 deficient margins and

recurrent caries
CASE SELECTION: THE MOUTH AND TEETH

The oral environment: Can I, and the
patient, control the environment to
minimise the risk of disease or damage
in the long term?
It is tempting sometimes to want to crack on and
do the difficult, skilled and lucrative technical
things, to see the final result, and to witness the
transformed smile. The new crowns though are
only as good as their environment. Sometimes it
takes a lot of time to sort out the environment,
for little immediate reward. At other times you
just have to work within a difficult environment;
for example it may be rather difficult to stop a
bruxist from grinding and you may need to plan
around this. Usually you have to accept less than
perfection, often much less, but plaque control,
caries risk and the occlusion are at the heart of
successful crown work. All can be managed to
some degree. If you should be in any doubt
about the importance of managing the environment, look again at Case 1 where neither plaque
control, nor caries management were properly
dealt with. The result was time consuming and
expensive failure.
Is the plaque control good enough?
Little needs to be said about plaque. We know
that it is a fundamental factor in both caries and
periodontal disease. In simple terms, plaque
around restorations is likely to shorten their life.
Tooth cleaning is a surprisingly complex
process, and sometimes we forget this or even
trivialise it. Helping people to find the skills to
keep their own teeth clean is probably the least
trivial thing dentists do.
It is truly remarkable that any form of operative dentistry should be considered in an environment like this (Fig. 12), let alone the provision
of crowns that have been carefully contoured to
follow the aberrant gingival margins! The presBRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 5 MARCH 9 2002
Fig. 14 deficient margins with good

plaque control
ence of marginal deficiencies in an environment

where plaque control is inadequate can result in
rapid caries progression and potential tooth loss
(Fig. 13). Contrast this situation with Figure 14
which illustrates poor open crown margins but
where caries is minimal. Again, this quality of
treatment cannot be condoned but the saving
grace has been the patients maintenance of a
high standard of plaque control.
It is the dentists responsibility to provide the
highest standard of technical work possible, but
also to communicate to the patient the importance of good hygiene and maintenance. The
patients responsibility is to follow that advice
on the understanding that they may directly
influence the longevity of their dental restorations. The fact that they may have made a considerable investment in terms of time and
expense for their dental treatment represents a
powerful incentive to comply with future preventive measures.
Has the risk of caries in the future been

addressed?
Caries risk is directly related to both plaque and
diet, and also (in the case of root caries) to the
presence of a partial denture.57 The oral health
profile of most western populations is such that
our crown patients of the next few decades will,
263
PRACTICE
Fig. 15 root caries and attempted

repairs
Fig. 16 de-bonded anterior post

crown
for the most part, be a steadily ageing band.1

Caries management is an issue at all ages, but in
this cohort root caries is likely to be an increasing threat. This is a wretched disease to deal
with. The best crown in the world, with an undetectable margin, perfect occlusion and stunning
aesthetics will still fail if the risk of root caries is
not addressed. In this case (Fig. 15), the risk of
caries around the upper anterior restorations has
clearly not been properly addressed with root
caries and progressive periodontal destruction
resulting. Treatment has involved the mechanical repair of caries at the crown margins (and in
some areas the repair of the repairs) with little or
no emphasis on prevention. The solution for
managing root caries is biological not mechanical. It requires simple communication about
hygiene and attention to some little things in
the diet, such as the odd teaspoon of sugar in
regular cups of tea or coffee, biscuit nibbling and
a range of other apparently innocuous activities
which patients may not associate with a problem.
If you are in any doubt as to how important this
is, just scan Case 1 again. The dentist has at his or
her disposal a full armamentarium of approaches,
including hygiene and dietary advice and the
appropriate use of fluorides and varnishes.
Caries, particularly root caries, is preventable. If
your crowns fail because of caries it is partly a
failure of your own management.
Has the risk of damage from the occlusion

been minimised?
A few basic checks and a little thought and care
should eliminate the risk of problems in the large
majority of cases. It is important that you know
where the contacts are on the tooth you are to
treat, especially those that are involved in guiding the jaw movement in lateral and protrusive
excursions. It is also important to know which
other teeth are involved in guidance, and
whether the tooth you are about to prepare is a
deflective contact or interference to guidance.
These may sound complex but are readily
checked and there is rarely a problem. Tech264
niques for occlusal examination and adjustment

are dealt with in Part 5.
Figure 16 shows a de-bonded anterior post
crown. Many kilos of zinc phosphate must
be used and many unnecessary hours spent
re-cementing such restorations. Often the blame
is put on a short or non-retentive post (which
this tooth shows), but in our experience a large
proportion dislodge because inadequate care is
taken to ensure that it is not providing all of the
anterior guidance. Look at the profile of the
palatal surface of this crown, it is bulky and convex and it is difficult to believe that this complied with the natural pattern of guidance provided by the adjacent natural teeth. Although
the post is not long, the contour of the guidance
surface must have been a contributory factor.
Any anterior tooth is likely to provide some element of protrusive guidance and you can and
should spend a few moments thinking about
how to manage this right at the outset. Again
details are given in Part 5.
The nature of the opposing tooth contacts is
also important in terms of the material used for
the occlusal/palatal surfaces of coronal restorations. In this case (Figs 17,18) there is already an
ongoing toothwear problem caused by erosion
and the provision of upper anterior crowns with
porcelain palatal surfaces, which have been
adjusted to make them even more abrasive, is
not a good example of planning and the potential for further wear is self-evident.
The tooth: Are the foundations biologically and

biomechanically sound?
The periodontal tissues
A tooth with any amount of attachment loss can
be crowned, but where the disease is advanced
and uncontrolled it is a hopeless investment. The
major issues though do not surround the risk to
Figure 17,18 worn dentition with porcelain abrasion

PRACTICE
your crown from periodontal disease but the risk
to the periodontal tissues from your crown. Poor
crown margins can certainly result in gingival
problems (Fig. 19), as can an incorrect emergence
profile. All crown margins should, ideally, be
placed supragingivally to avoid problems related
to gingival inflammation. Where a subgingival
margin is indicated, it is essential that the margin
be placed within the limits of the sulcus and that
the biologic width is not encroached upon
(Fig. 20). The biologic width is a band of approximately 2 mm of supracrestal connective tissue
attachment and junctional epithelium around
every tooth. If a restoration encroaches upon or
eliminates this 2 mm band of attachment, an
inflammatory response occurs and attachment
loss, apical migration and pocket formation may
result. Contrast the healthy gingivae associated
with the supragingival crown margin on tooth
UR1 (11) in Fig. 21 with the subgingival margin on
tooth UL1 (21). Marginal position is something to
be planned in advance, and as a rule of thumb it is
wise to minimise encroachment into the sulcus.
Apart from encouraging periodontal problems, the subgingival placement of margins can
also make accurate impression recording difficult
or impossible. In Figure 22 subgingival margin
placement has led to gingival inflammation,
either as a result of biologic width encroachment
or poor marginal fit resulting from obvious difficulties with impressions, as in Figure 23. Poorly
contoured temporaries can also result in problems with impressions because of poor gingival
condition (Fig. 24). The replacement of such
restorations with well fitting and contoured provisional restorations may need to be a planned
first step prior to definitive treatment.
Is the endodontic state stable enough to allow a

crown to be planned?
Managing the endodontic state can be a particularly difficult problem, in fact we have devoted
an entire article to the subject (see Part 4).
Generally speaking though, for vital teeth the
issues are quite straightforward. The pulp is a living tissue and everyones life is easier where it
remains a living tissue. Pulp protection is fundamental to crown provision. Non-vital or pulpally
involved teeth that are not already filled also
usually make for a relatively straightforward
planning decision, as the infection clearly needs
to be managed. There are very few, if any, circumstances where a crown should be placed over
a tooth with an infected pulp where no attempt
at endodontic treatment has been made.
The greatest clinical quandary arises with
teeth that have already been root treated, but
without a long-term resolution of the pathology,
or where the technical quality of the root filling
is dubious. Data from the UK suggest that most
root treated teeth would actually fall into the
latter category.2,8,9 Endodontics can be difficult
enough at first attempt, but a technically satisfactory result is even more difficult where an
unsatisfactory attempt has already been made.
Re-treatment decisions have to be made on a
Fig. 19 gingival inflammation

related to anterior crown margins
Biologic
width
Fig. 20 biologic width
Fig. 21 biologic width

encroachment
Fig. 22 subgingival margins and

gingival inflammation
Fig. 23 poorly fitting anterior

crowns resulting from inaccurate
impressions
265
PRACTICE
Fig. 24 poor temporisation
tooth-by-tooth basis and will be influenced by

your own skill as an endodontist, or the access to
a specialist in this demanding discipline. These
are the foundations though, and you would
think twice before replacing a roof where there is
dry rot in the rafters.
Part 4 of the series covers these issues in some
detail, including ways of restoring the core of
the tooth using the root canal for retention.
Is the tooth itself strong enough to receive and

retain a crown?
A number of basic factors should be considered
before preparing any tooth for a crown. The
extent of an existing restoration will influence
the strength of the remaining tooth tissue and
adequate retention of an extensive restoration is
important to prevent complete coronal breakdown, even with a crown in place. The patient
who enters the surgery with a crown containing
an inadequate core or fractured tooth (usually
neatly wrapped in tissue paper) is unfortunately
a common scenario.
A properly constructed core with appropriate
retentive features on a sound, disease free tooth
can usually prevent this situation. Previous
endodontic treatment will also affect the
strength of the remaining tooth tissue, particularly where access cavities and coronal destruction are extensive. Parts 4 and 7 in this series
cover the issues of core build up in detail, but
decisions about the need for a core are an integral part of the planning process.
266
occlusal space for your restoration. As we have

just discussed increasing the occlusal vertical
dimension can obviate the need for occlusal
reduction on the preparation and can provide
additional length that will improve retention,
and often allows for improved aesthetics as well.
Clearly, such an approach will involve extensive
restorations and could involve the whole of one
or both arches. However other strategies are
available to make space.
The easiest way to provide sufficient clearance is to reduce the height of the opposing
tooth, but whilst simple, this is often not advisable. Another approach, which is conservative of
tooth tissue, is to make a local temporary
increase in vertical dimension to promote axial
orthodontic tooth movements (eg a Dahl appliance, or an occlusal composite build-up). The
patient needs to be informed that the required
tooth movements can take several months and
you have to be careful to ensure that the built-up
teeth are being loaded axially. This approach is
being used increasingly on supra-occluding
restorations by at least one centre.10
Occasionally space can be created anteriorly
by adjusting the posterior teeth to eliminate
deflective contacts, which repositions the
mandible distally.
None of the above options should be undertaken lightly, but a detailed consideration falls
outside the remit of this series. All of these techniques are well described in a recent article by
Dyer et al. (2001), which provides a useful introduction to contemporary methods of managing
space and problems of reduced crown height.11
Will the preparation be retentive enough?

Adequate clinical crown height is a critical factor for the retention of full coronal restorations.
Unless you plan to increase the occlusal vertical
dimension, teeth with short clinical crowns will
be even shorter and potentially very unretentive
following crown preparation. This is particularly
relevant for the restoration of worn teeth and
although recent improvements in adhesive dentistry have increased the options for enhancing
retention, mechanical retention by appropriate
tooth preparation remains essential for predictable success and longevity of coronal
restorations. Specific design features to optimise
retention as well as crown lengthening will be
covered in Part 8 in this series.
What next? The staged treatment plan

Although a clear vision of the finished treatment
is indispensable at the outset we sometimes find
that the initial plan is inappropriate and changes
have to be made. This is because one or other of
the questions listed above are answered in a different way from the way you expected. Perhaps
hygiene continues to be a problem, or perhaps it
improves unexpectedly, maybe the core breaks
down or you find a root crack during endodontics. It pays to keep flexible, and to review the
plan at key stages as you progress. Failure to do
this can leave you committed to a course of
action which may become increasingly difficult
to sustain and which may fail much sooner than
anticipated.
It is always worth discussing the alternative treatment options with your patient
before starting work. In this way a change of
plan can be made at an early stage rather than
carrying on regardless and subsequently having to explain an expensive failure later.
Anticipating problems is one of the key skills
of the experienced restorative dentist and
contingency planning is an essential element
of any complex treatment plan.
Is there enough space for my restoration?

Tooth wear not only results in problems of
retention but also in providing adequate
Conclusion
In the course of this article we have posed seven
key questions to ask yourself before you finally
PRACTICE
plan treatment and pick up a handpiece. Success with crowns and other extra-coronal
restorations depends on many interacting factors; technical issues related to tooth preparation, the relationship with the pulp and periodontal tissues and occlusion have been
introduced and will be covered in greater detail
later in this series. However, the emphasis has
been on planning for the future rather than providing a short-term fix for single teeth in isolation. The needs and expectations of the patient
1.
2.
3.
4.
Kelly M, Steele J, Nuttall N, Bradnock G, Morris J,

Nunn J, Pine C, Pitts N, Treasure E, White D. Adult
Dental Health Survey: Oral Health in the United
Kingdom in 1998. (2000) London: TSO.
Saunders W P, Saunders E M. Prevalence of periapical
pathoses associated with crowned teeth in a Scottish
sub-population. Br Dent J 1998; 185: 137-140.
Valderhaug A, Jokstad, Ambjornsen E, Norheim P W.
Assessment of the periapical and clinical status of
crowned teeth over 25 years. J Dent 1997; 25: 97-105.
Bergenholtz G. Iatrogenic injury to the pulp in dental
procedures: Aspects of pathogenesis, management
and preventive measures. Int Dent J 1991; 41:
99-110.
5.
6.
7.
8.
are key elements in the treatment planning

process as is the importance of minimising further damage to the dentition and reducing the
risk of disease in the future. These essential factors could perhaps be summarised in one overriding question before embarking on a course of
treatment : will this patients oral health be better off when I have finished?. If there are any
doubts about the answer to this question, the
plan should be modified and an alternative
approach considered.
Steele J G, Sheiham A, Marcenes W, Fay N, Walls A W
G. Clinical behavioural risk indicators for root caries in
older people. Gerodontol 2001; 18: 95-101.
Steele J G, Walls A W G, Murray J J. Partial dentures as
an independent indicator of root caries risk in a group
of older adults. Gerodontol 1998; 14: 67-74.
Locker D. Incidence of root caries in an older
Canadian Population. Comm Dent Oral Epidemiol
1996; 24: 403-407.
Dummer P M H. The quality of root canal treatment
provided by General dental Services working within
the general dental services of England and Wales.
Part 1. Dent Profile 1997; 17: 1-5.
9.
Dummer P M H. The quality of root canal treatment

provided by General dental Services working within the
general dental services of England and Wales. Part 2.
Dent Profile 1998; 19: 8-10.
10. Gough M B, Setchell D J. A retrospective study of 50
treatments using an appliance to produce localised
occlusal space by relative axial tooth movement.
Br Dent J 1999; 187: 134-139.
11. Dyer K, Ibbetson R, Grey N. A question of space:
Options for the restorative management of worn
teeth. Dent Update 2001; 28: 118-123.
267
IN BRIEF
A consideration of the impact of crowning on the dental pulp, and the special issues involved
in crowning root-treated teeth.
The damaging effects of crown preparation.
Assessment and preparation of root-treated and non root-treated teeth to minimize
endodontic complications.
Special considerations in the temporisation and restoration of root-treated teeth.

Endodontic considerations: the pulp,
the root-treated tooth and the crown
J. M. Whitworth1 A. W. G. Walls2 and R. W. Wassell3
Endodontic considerations is the fourth in the series on crowns and other extra-coronal restorations. This article focuses
strongly on contemporary biological principles, and is not intended to provide a comprehensive review of commercially
available materials and techniques. Principles are illustrated in a variety of clinical case scenarios.
RESTORATIONS:

3. Pre-operative
assessment
4. Endodontic
considerations
vital pulps
veneer crowns
technique
of crowns
restorations
1Senior Lecturer,
2Professor,

*Correspondence to: Dr J. M. Whitworth
E-mail: j.m.whitworth@ncl.ac.uk
Refereed Paper
315327
Crowns should not be made without consideration of the teeth which lay the foundations for
them. In this article, important principles are
outlined for the assessment of root-treated and
non root-treated teeth before crowning, avoiding endodontic complications during crown fabrication, and special considerations in the temporisation and restoration of root-treated teeth.
Pulp morbidity in crowned teeth

Dental pulp is the highly vascular, richly innervated soft tissue structure whose principal role is
tooth formation. But even after teeth are erupted
into the mouth and fully formed, the dental pulp
is not a redundant organ. Pulp tissue retains the
important function of supporting its secretory
odontoblasts which lay down reparative dentine
in defensive response to dental injuries throughout life. There is also some evidence that the pulp
may be involved in a pressure-receptive function, limiting the possibility of damaging functional overload on teeth.1
If this were not sufficient justification to preserve healthy pulps, then the desire to do
patients no harm and to avoid the pain, swelling
and suffering which often accompanies the
injury and demise of a pulp surely must be.
An insulating coverage of dentine and an
impervious layer of enamel protect the pulps of
healthy, intact teeth from injury. Crown preparation places the pulp at risk in a number of ways.
High speed stripping of hard tissue poses the
threat of pulpal overheating, with disturbance of
microcirculation, vascular stasis, thrombosis,
reduced blood flow and internal bleeding.2 It also
opens a multitude of dentinal tubules that communicate directly with the pulp. The deeper the
dentine is cut, the more permeable it is,3 and the
more vulnerable the pulp becomes to chemical,
physical and microbial irritants. The microbial
threat presented by the oral flora is by far the
most serious, and is capable of heralding intense
inflammatory changes, with micro-abscess formation and progressive pulpal necrosis.4,5
Although the pulp shows considerable
resilience and is often capable of recovering
from irritation, the injuries induced can become
significant in the long term.5 Scarring as a
result of inflammation and repair interferes
with the nervous and vascular supply to the
tissue6 and jeopardises its resistance to further
insult. It is important in this respect to recognise that crowns are rarely made for pristine,
intact teeth. Rather, they are made to protect
and restore teeth which have been damaged by
wear, trauma, or cycles of caries and repair.
After a lifetime of cumulative insult, crown
preparation can be the final straw, bringing
pulpal breakdown (Fig. 1a), and the need for
root canal treatment.7
It is uncertain how many teeth lose vitality as
a direct consequence of crown preparation.
Bergenholtz and Nymans8 much quoted study
showed that 9% of crowned teeth, compared
with only 2% of uncrowned controls lost vitality
during long-term review. None of this was
attributable to caries or other obvious causes,
but the crowned teeth in this study did have
advanced periodontal destruction, and were
involved in extensive, cross-arch bridgework.
315
PRACTICE
A more realistic estimation may be in the
order of 48% in the 10 years following active
treatment.1013 This estimation does, however,
assume that efforts were made to identify and
manage all obvious pulpal pathosis before
crowns were made; an assumption that cannot
always be taken for granted in practice and
which increases the likely incidence of unexpected endodontic problems that need attention
at a later date.
Fig. 1a Pulpal breakdown and acute

apical periodontitis affecting a
recently crowned mandibular first
molar
Fig. 1b Root-treatment completed

through the crown without serious
damage
Extrapolation to the case of uncomplicated,

single crowns is therefore difficult.
Even higher levels of pulp death were recorded
by Felton et al.,9 where 13.3% of teeth restored
with full coverage crowns, compared with 0.5%
of unrestored controls lost vitality during the
330 year review period. But it was not possible
to derive from this report how many teeth had
suffered further pulpal insult, such as recurrent
caries, which may have artificially inflated the
adverse effects reported.
The dangers of root-treating crowned teeth

Extra-coronal restorations do not rule out roottreatment or retreatment (Fig. 1b), but it should
be noted that working through a crown is always
more difficult, and that damage can be done.
Just piercing the glaze of a porcelain crown
dramatically reduces its strength,14 whilst cutting through a metal ceramic crown can
weaken the porcelain bond and predispose to
fracture. Vibration can disturb the cement lute
of a casting and predispose leakage or loss,
whilst rubber-dam clamps may crack and pit
cervical porcelain15 and occasionally cause a
crown to debond.
Once through the crown, the search for the
pulp can be hazardous. Metal copings and cores
obscure the pulp and prevent its location and
assessment from preoperative radiographs. The
alignment and rotation of the crown may also
not correspond to the underlying tooth, causing
loss of orientation and misdirected cutting.
Added to this, problems are compounded by
limited entry of light and poor visibility.
All of this can leave the operator severely
weakening the core and vertical walls of the
tooth in search for the pulp chamber and canal
Buccal
Fig. 2a Overcut and misdirected access through a crown grossly weakens the
vertical walls of the preparation
Fig. 2b Disorientated by the presence of a crown which had modestly realigned the
tooth, the access cavity into this lower molar completely bypassed the pulp chamber to
the mesial and lingual. There were no less than five separate perforations
316
PRACTICE
openings (Fig. 2a). Catastrophic errors such as
perforation are also possible (Fig. 2b).
Of equal importance is the damage that can
be done to patient confidence and trust if a
recently crowned tooth becomes troublesome
and has to be accessed or the restoration
removed for endodontic treatment.16 As the
complexity of the crown and bridgework
increases, so the consequences become more
serious. Replacing a single crown damaged
during access is one matter; replacing a large
bridge which has suffered irreparable damage
to one of its abutments is quite another.
It is certain that a small number of teeth will
always develop unexpected endodontic problems after crowning,11 but it is also certain that
many such instances can be avoided by careful
preoperative workup.
PREVENTATIVE ENDONDONTICS AVOIDING

THE AVOIDABLE
All teeth scheduled to be crowned, whether they
are presumed to have healthy pulps or previously root-treated should be thoroughly assessed at
the planning stage. In this way, potential
endodontic problems can be identified and
addressed and future embarrassment and trauma kept to a minimum.
Teeth presumed to have healthy pulps
Pulps cannot be visualised directly to assess
their health. Neither is there a single test which
will reliably deliver this information in all circumstances. We rely therefore on a combination of fairly crude methods, including pain
history, clinical examination, special tests and
radiographs to build a picture of pulp
status. All teeth due to be crowned should be
tested systematically to give as clear a picture
as possible.
Pain history
A brief pain history reveals areas of the mouth
sensitive to hot, cold or sweet, and teeth sensitive to chewing pressure, which require further
examination. Review of the case notes may
identify teeth with a history of trauma, pulpal
exposure or pulpitic symptoms. But this is not
enough. Despite textbook accounts of classical
toothaches, most injured pulps die quietly, and it
is also known that pulpal pain is poorly
localised. The absence of reported symptoms is
therefore not proof of health, and further examination is needed to identify inflamed and
necrotic pulps in need of treatment.
Clinical examination
Indications of pulp condition may come from
the identification of caries, large or leaking
restorations, non-carious tooth tissue loss and
traumatic injury. Inspection and palpation of
soft tissues overlying the apices of teeth to be
crowned may reveal signs of endodontic pathosis, including swelling, redness and discharging
fistulae. Non-vital teeth may appear slightly
darker than their neighbours, and periapically
involved teeth may be tender to biting pressure

or gentle percussion.
Special tests
Characteristically, pulpal symptoms are difficult for patients to localise, and require systematic provocation and reproduction to identify the offending tooth with certainty. If
sensitivity is reported to hot or cold, the teeth
should be challenged with that stimulus. Cold
can be applied with an ethyl chloride soaked
cotton pledget, though ice sticks or proprietary
refrigerants such as Endo-Frost (Reoko) can
give a more profound cold challenge to stimulate the pulps of old or heavily restored teeth.
Heat can be applied with a stick of warm gutta
percha temporary stopping, taking care to
coat the tooth first with petroleum jelly to prevent the hot material from adhering. Electronic
touch and heat instruments used in thermoplastic gutta percha filling techniques can also
be used to deliver a known and reproducible
thermal challenge.
As a general rule, thermal tests are more
discriminating of pulp condition than electrical.17 They should be repeated, and contralateral and adjacent teeth tested for reference.
An exaggerated and lingering response may
indicate irreversible pulpal inflammation,
whilst a consistent absence of response may
suggest pulp necrosis.
Pulp sensitivity tests are essential in
pre-operative assessment, but their results
should not be taken in isolation, and should
always be interpreted with caution.
Fig. 3 A gutta percha point inserted

into a discharging fistula locates its
source at the apex of the premolar
bridge abutment
Radiographs
Periapical radiographs should be of diagnostic
quality and taken by a paralleling technique. If
there is a discharging fistula, a gutta percha cone
size 25 or 30 should be inserted to source the
infectious focus (Fig. 3). More than one film,
taken at different angles, may be needed to visualise all roots and all root canals, and should be
examined for apical and lateral lesions of
endodontic origin. If root-treatment is indicated,
an assessment should be made of the degree of
difficulty this presents, and whether a predictable, quality result is likely.
The size of a healthy, vital pulp should also be
noted, especially if the reason for the crown is to
realign the tooth. Heavy tooth reduction in such
cases may result in embarrassing unexpected
pulpal exposure.
317
PRACTICE
Fig. 4 Pain and swelling associated

with a tooth which was recently
crowned without revising the
unsatisfactory endodontic
foundation
Previously root-treated teeth

Previously root-treated teeth also need critical
appraisal before crowning.
Clinical signs and symptoms of endodontic
failure obviously demand endodontic retreatment or surgical revision before a crown is
made, but even in the absence of symptoms,
technically inadequate, short or poorly condensed root fillings (Fig. 4) do not represent predictable foundations and should be revised.
Even if the resultant root filling is not better
extended, recleaning the canal system can only
improve the internal environment of the tooth,
and make a better foundation for restoration.
A further group of unreliable teeth is those
where the root filling has been open to the
mouth through defective restoration margins or
restoration loss (Fig. 5). Saliva and micro-organisms migrate quickly alongside exposed root fillings,18 and whilst firm rules are difficult to
make, it is probably wise to revise all root fillings
that have been exposed to the mouth for more
than a month, even if they appear technically
satisfactory on radiographs. The appearance of
the film in such cases denies the biological status
of the canal system.
Fig. 5 A technically satisfactory

root-filling exposed to the mouth
through defective restoration
margins. Oral microbes will rapidly
invade the canal system and
compromise the root-treatment.
Endodontic retreatment should be
considered before a new crown is
made
Treatment planning and guidelines

Teeth identified as having necrotic pulps, or
showing signs of irreversible pulpal inflammation should be root-treated before crowns are
prepared. Elective root-canal treatment should
also be planned for teeth whose pulps are at serious risk of exposure during crown preparation,
and for teeth that cannot be restored without
using the pulp chamber and root canals for
retention and support. Pulps accidentally
exposed during crown preparation should not be
capped; root canal therapy should proceed.
Technically inadequate root fillings, and
root fillings which have been exposed to the
mouth, should be replaced before crowning.
This option is always preferable to retreatment
or corrective surgery after the event. Decisiveness is also called for in the case of teeth which
are unrestorable, or which are of very poor
prognosis. Procrastination rarely rewards the
practitioner and such teeth should be planned
for extraction.
If there is doubt in a complex case over diagnosis, or the ability of the practitioner to lay a
reliable endodontic foundation, referral for a
specialist opinion should be considered.
318
(a)
(b)
Buccal
Fig. 6 a) Conventional access does not compromise

aesthetics, but sacrifices much lingual tissue.
b) Labial/incisal access preserves tissue in teeth
scheduled to be crowned. The access can be aesthetically
temporised with composite resin
Detailed accounts of contemporary roottreatment and retreatment techniques are

beyond the scope of this article, and readers are
referred to standard texts.19,20 However, important guiding principles should be stated. Roottreatment or retreatment should sacrifice a minimum of structurally important tooth tissue,
which is compatible with quality care. Access
cavities should not be over-cut and root canals
should not be over-flared; to do so simply risks
weakening the tooth further. Anterior teeth may
in fact be best accessed though the incisal and
labial surfaces to preserve tissue21 (Fig. 6).
Posterior teeth may be reduced out of occlusion at the start of treatment to minimise the risk
from damaging wedging forces splitting the
accessed tooth, and the additional support of a
well-fitting orthodontic band cemented with
glass-ionomer cement may be considered for
badly broken-down and vulnerable teeth (Fig. 7).
After root-treatment is complete, provisional
restorations should be in place for the minimum
time possible and should seal against the ingress
of saliva and micro-organisms to the canal system, which will predispose failure. Temporary
restorations in place for any time should also
provide the necessary protection and support to
prevent tooth fracture. Further consideration
will be given later to the temporisation and
restoration of root-treated teeth.
Fig. 7 A well-fitting orthodontic band provides support

and protection for a vulnerable posterior tooth
PRACTICE
MINIMISING DAMAGE TO TEETH WITH
HEALTHY PULPS
Having now identified and treated those teeth
with inflamed, necrotic or at risk pulps, the
remaining teeth should be treated with all
respect to preserve their pulps in health. Frictional heat generated during crown preparation
should be strictly controlled. Although dentine
is a good thermal insulator, damaging rises in
temperature can occur, especially in preparations involving substantial tissue removal. High
volume, well focused water-cooling should be
used at all times,22,23 and cutting strokes should
be intermittent and light.
Open dentinal tubules should also be managed
with care and respect. Cut dentine should not be
over-dried with the 3 in 1 syringe, and smear
plugs should not be removed by the careless
application of acidic astringents used in gingival
haemorrhage control.
Bacteria and their metabolic by-products are
the greatest danger to pulp health,24,25 and it
behoves the practitioner to ensure that temporary
and permanent crowns fit accurately and provide
the best possible marginal seal. The pre-sealing of
dentine with a resin-bonding agent may be a
means of reducing dentine permeability and
enhancing pulp protection,26 though there are
few published data to date which specifically
demonstrate the effectiveness of this action in
preserving the pulps of crown-prepared teeth.
RESTORATION OF THE ROOT-TREATED TOOTH
General considerations
Root-treated teeth are in a vulnerable state until
they are permanently restored.
The risks they face fall into two major categories:
1. Fracture of remaining tooth tissue
2. Reinfection of the root canal from the mouth
Buccal
Lingual
Fig. 8 Wedging forces on the

unprotected cuspal slopes of
a root-treated posterior tooth
These two considerations underpin the

approach to temporising and restoring all roottreated teeth.
Protecting root-treated teeth from fracture

It is widely held that root-treated teeth are brittle.
Historically, this has been attributed to desiccation, or other physical changes in the dentine of
pulpless teeth, which reduce its toughness.
More recently, it has been recognised that the
key change is the loss of structural tissue which
is capable of holding the tooth together under
functional load. This is especially so for posterior teeth, where wedging forces come to bear
(Fig. 8). Conservative access preparation in an
otherwise sound tooth may not be especially
damaging, but endodontic access in combination with the earlier loss of one or both marginal
ridges leaves the tooth at serious risk, even if it
was reduced from direct occlusal contact before
endodontic treatment began.
For this reason, some form of cuspal coverage
should always be provided for root-treated posterior teeth,27 unless the endodontic access is the
(b)
(a)
(e)
Ferrule
(d)
Ferrule
(c)
(f)
Fig. 9 The development of protective ferrules for anterior teeth: a) Moderate loss of tooth tissue the post and core provide no protection, a ferrule is provided by the
crown; b) Moderate loss of tooth tissue bevelling of the residual tooth tissue allows the core as well as the crown to provide protective ferrules; c) Decoronated,
root-treated anterior tooth which is vulnerable to fracture and requires protection; d) No protective ferrule provided by the core, or by the crown; e) No protection
provided by the core, but the crown extends onto tooth and provides a protective ferrule; and f) Protective ferrule provided by a cast post and diaphragm
319
PRACTICE
rior teeth. For such teeth ferrules should be
incorporated as routine.
(b)
(a)
(c)
Figure 10 a) Wide and tapered root
canal. b) Preparation for a parallel
post removes more tissue and
weakens the root further. Stresses
are also concentrated at the sharp
angles of the post terminus. c)
Custom cast metal post requires
little or no further loss of tissue
Fig. 11 Canal entrances and pulp

chamber anatomy used to retain an
all amalgam core in a molar.
Composite resin may be used in a
similar way for anterior teeth
only coronal tissue loss, and there are no damaging functional or parafunctional loads on the
tooth.
Incisors and canines are spared the wedging
cuspal deflections of posterior teeth, but they too
can suffer longitudinal fracture if significant
tooth tissue has been lost, and a protective ferrule is not incorporated into the coronal restoration. A ferrule is a band of metal which totally
encircles the tooth, extending 12 mm onto
sound tooth tissue to guard against longitudinal
fracture.28 Figure 9 shows examples of ferrules
for moderately and severely broken down ante-
Posts: a means of protecting teeth from

fracture?
Another popular misconception is that the
cementation of a metallic post in a root-treated
tooth provides reinforcement. In reality, the post
offers no reinforcement, and dentine removal to
accommodate it may in fact weaken the tooth
further and create an area of stress concentration at the terminus of the post channel (Fig. 10).
The chief function of a post is to retain the
core. If adequate retention for the core can be
derived from the use of natural undercuts in the
pulp chamber and canal entrances (Fig. 11), then
a post should not be used.
If a post really is required, then consideration
should be given to how it can provide retention
for the core without weakening or stressing the
tooth, or compromising the effectiveness of the
root filling.
Practitioners are not short of choice in post
selection, and it is certainly beyond the scope of
this article to consider the many systems available in any detail. A review of commercially
available systems by Edmunds and Dummer2932 ran to no less than four articles, and
new systems continue to appear.
The literature contains many in vitro reports
of post performance and failure characteristics,
but as in many other areas of dentistry, wellcontrolled clinical studies are few and far
between. Objective judgements cannot therefore
be made on the performance of many of the
available post systems, though certain principal
considerations can be derived.
It is likely that many post systems will provide satisfactory retention for the coronal
restoration, but the potential cost of enhancing
retention should be considered. Dentists should
perhaps focus less on factors which maximise
retention and more on factors that affect resistance to root fracture,27 ie the preservation and
protection of tooth tissue, and the avoidance of
stressing restoration components.
Avoiding problems with posts
(b)
(a)
Fig. 12 a) Fractured and roottreated incisor to be restored
with a post retained crown.
b) Rooftop preparation
damagingly removes all
remaining coronal tooth
tissue, and may compromise
the ability to create a
protective ferrule.
c) Conservative preparation
preserves tooth tissue,
lengthens the post, and allows
the development of protective
ferrules
320
(c)
Additional
post
length
Post length
There is little doubt that long posts are more
retentive than short posts. Endodontic posts
should therefore be as long as possible, and it is
important to note that this is achieved not only
by extending the post apically, but also by preserving tooth tissue coronally (Fig. 12). There is
no place for the decoronating rooftop preparation in the restoration of root-filled teeth. This is
particularly so when evidence suggests that at
least 45 mm of gutta percha should remain apically to ensure that the seal of the root filling is
not compromised.11,33
Retaining coronal dentine also allows for
wrap-around coverage by the subsequent
crown, which provides the essential ferrule
effect discussed earlier (Fig. 12c).
PRACTICE
Post shape
All other factors being equal, parallel-sided
posts, such as the Parapost (Fig. 13) are more
retentive than tapered posts.34 However, the
preparation of a parallel-sided post channel, and
subsequent cementation of a square-ended parallel post may produce increased stress in the
narrow and tapering root-end35 (Fig. 14a) and
predispose to root fracture. Systems, which are
bevelled apically may therefore be preferred
(Fig. 14b). But once again, the preservation of
tooth tissue is important to the long-term
integrity of the tooth, and tissue should not be
sacrificed in order to create a parallel-sided post
channel if a well-adapted tapered post can be
placed with less sacrifice of dentine.
Tapered posts such as the PD system have a
good record of clinical success.36 Concerns have
often been raised over the generation of wedging stresses by tapered (including customised
cast) posts, and the tendency to promote root
fracture. However, such forces are not active in
the same way as those generated by self-tapping screw systems, and it may be that many
cases of root fracture associated with tapered
posts reflect the type of cases in which such
posts are often used, ie the wide, thin-walled
tapered canal. Again, the importance of providing a protective coronal ferrule cannot be overemphasised.
In their study of parallel versus tapered post
systems, Torbjornet et al.34 noted that in fact the
type of post may be of minimal importance to
the risk of root fracture if the tooth is covered by
a complete crown with a good ferrule effect at
the crown margin area. Their comments were
not, however, directed to posts involving active
methods of retention.
Customised cast posts are especially versatile and can often be fabricated with the minimum of additional canal preparation. Such
posts have a strong history of clinical success28,37 especially once again when a coronal
ferrule is provided.
In summary, parallel-sided posts are preferred
to tapered posts, but each case should be carefully
considered on its merits, and dentine should
not be unnecessarily sacrificed to dogmatically
satisfy the desire to place a moderately more
retentive parallel post.
Surface characteristics: threaded versus
non-threaded posts
There is little doubt from the literature that
threaded post systems offer the maximum
mechanical retention. But the retention they
provide is often by active engagement of elastic
dentine, producing stress concentration around
the threads, and increasing the risk of root fracture.38 This is especially so if posts are selftapping, and is amplified if the post also has a
wedge-like, tapered design.
Popular commercial threaded posts include:
Radix Anker (Fig. 15)
Dentatus (Fig. 16)
Kurer Anchor (Fig. 17)
Fig. 13 Parapost parallel, serrated

post
(a)
(b)
Fig. 14 a) Stress concentration at

the base of a parallel post
preparation. b) Reduced stress
concentration with a chamfered tip
Fig. 15: Radix Anker parallel,

self-tapping or pre-tapped post
Fig. 16 Dentatus screw tapered,

self-tapping post
Fig. 17 Kurer Anchor parallel,

threaded post for which the root
canal is pre-tapped
Concerns have been expressed about all

threaded post systems, and it is notable that
most manufacturers now recommend that the
post is used first to cut a thread, and is then
removed and reinserted with cement, or is simply derotated a quarter turn to reduce stresses
which are generated during initial insertion. The
Kurer post system, in which the canal is first
tapped before post insertion, is probably the
least stressing of threaded post systems. Another
method of limiting stress is seen in the Flexipost,
which incorporates a split-pin mechanism, the
split pin collapsing upon itself as the post is
inserted to reduce pressure on the canal walls.39
Generally speaking, threaded posts are not
preferred and Meta analysis of the limited clinical
evidence available suggests that their performance is inferior to that of customised cast posts.37
If enhanced retention is required in a special situation, then threaded posts are no longer the only
option. Increasingly, resin-bonding agents may
be employed with serrated, and preferably sandblasted metal or fibre posts, reducing the potential
323
PRACTICE
for stress, and enhancing the possibility of developing an hermetic coronal seal.28
Minimising danger during post space

preparation
Ideally, post space preparation is completed at
the appointment when the root canal is filled. At
this time, the practitioner is most familiar with
the canal system and reference points. He is also
able to make post space with the rubber dam in
place to minimise microbial entry, and can further condense the apical segment of the root filling after the coronal gutta percha has been
removed. Gutta percha removal and post channel preparation should not be undertaken in a
single act with the aggressive end-cutting twist
drills provided with proprietary post systems. To
do so is to risk losing alignment and perforating
the root for the sake of a few seconds of time.
Gutta percha should first be removed to the predetermined length using burs with non-cutting
tips (eg Gates Glidden) or with hot instruments
before the channel is shaped and enlarged progressively with measured twist drills.
Guarding against coronal microleakage
Coronal microleakage is a major cause of
endodontic failure.40 Saliva and organisms from
the mouth migrate rapidly alongside poorly
adapted restorations and even root fillings
which appear well condensed.18 The periradicular tissues will be inflamed by such reinfection
and the reactivation of micro-organisms lying
dormant after initial treatment. A well sealing
coronal restoration is critical therefore to
endodontic success, and it is again stressed that
this applies as strongly to temporary restorations as it does to permanent ones. Posterior
teeth can be temporised with cuspal-coverage
amalgam restorations, which will prove durable
and well sealing for many months or years. But
the same cannot be said for anterior temporary
post crowns, which should be in place for the
minimum time possible.
Restorations should be well adapted, and
every use should be made of modern adhesive
systems in an effort to control salivary entry.
TREATMENT GUIDELINES
In summary, the guiding principles in restoring
root-treated teeth are:
1. Preserve as much tooth tissue as possible
2. If a post is needed make sure it is long
enough to be retentive and sufficiently
strong to resist distortion
3. Avoid twist drills for the removal of gutta
percha
4. Avoid active restorations or restoration components which induce internal stresses
5. Provide the necessary coronal coverage for
protection
6. Strive for the best possible fluid and bacteriatight seal
These principles will now be illustrated for a
variety of restorative scenarios.
324
Minimal loss of coronal tissue

Incisors and canines which have lost tissue during access preparation, in addition to tissue loss
caused by caries in one or both proximal surfaces can often be restored to satisfactory
long-term function and aesthetics with dentine
and enamel-bonded composite resin. Gutta percha should be cleared from the interior of the
crown with hot instruments or Gates Glidden
drills. Powerful organic solvents such as chloroform or halothane are not recommended in post
channel preparation, as it is impossible to
control their advance into the root canal where
they can rapidly dissolve gutta percha and sealer
at a deeper level than anticipated. All traces of
sealer should be removed from the coronal
tissues to prevent later discolouration. Concerns
have been expressed about zinc oxide-eugenol
sealers in particular, traces of which may interfere with the polymerisation of restorative resins.
Alcohol rapidly sequesters excess eugenol and is
not known to threaten the integrity of gutta percha root fillings. It may be wise to rinse the pulp
chamber with alcohol to remove traces of
eugenol before attempting to bond.41
Premolars and molars with only minimal
access cavities and no other coronal tissue loss
can be restored with amalgam or composite
resin in combination with a resin bonding system to enhance the marginal seal. The restorative material should be extended 23 mm into
canal entrances by carefully removing root filling material with hot instruments or Gates Glidden drills. However, large Gates should not be
extended deeply into canals with the risk of
unnecessary dentine removal, and even strip
perforation. The first increments of core material
should be packed with a long, narrow plugger
(eg Mortensen Condenser) to ensure good adaptation into these retentive features.
Moderate loss of tooth tissue
Advances in bonding technology and improvements in the physical and aesthetic properties of
composite resins continue to increase the potential for simple, plastic restoration of anterior
teeth. Depending upon aesthetic and functional
demands, root-treated teeth with proximal and
incisal tissue loss, in addition to the access cavity may often be restored without the need for a
crown. Bonding composite resin soon after completion of the root filling has the added advantage of securing an early, hermetic seal against
coronal microleakage.
It is impossible in this context to lay down
firm rules on the precise degree of tissue loss
that can be successfully restored in this nondestructive way. But it should also be noted that
teeth restored with simple plastic restorations
can always be revisited at a later stage for a
more advanced and destructive restoration if
the need arises.
Anterior teeth, which have some coronal tissue remaining, but where this is considered
insufficient for long-term restoration with composite resin, either on functional or aesthetic
PRACTICE
grounds, require core build-up and a crown. The
core may not always need a post for retention.
Gutta percha and sealer are first cleared from
the crown and coronal 23 mm of the root canal.
The remaining coronal tooth tissue is then prepared to receive a crown. Under no circumstances should the tooth be decoronated to create a rooftop preparation (Fig.12a, b). Weak,
undermined coronal tissue and spurs of tissue,
which are taller than they are wide, should be
reduced and the remaining, well-supported tissue bevelled. Every effort should be made to preserve as much coronal tissue as possible. If there
is adequate retention and support available for
the core material, then dentine-bonded composite is cured into the chamber and extended to
complete the preparation coronally.
If tissue loss is more severe, then a post is
required (Fig. 12c). This may either be cast, or
prefabricated. Gutta percha is removed from the
canal, leaving 45 mm of filling material apically. An initial path is made with hot instruments, or with Gates Glidden drills, numbers 2
and 3, which should be running at the maximum speed achievable with the slow speed
handpiece to generate frictional heat which will
soften the gutta percha and ease its removal
without disturbing the apical root filling.42
Having created a path, twist drills appropriate
to the post system selected are used to enlarge
and shape the channel. Excessive dentine
should not be removed to accommodate snugly
a preformed parallel post in a flared canal. In
this situation, a tapered or customised cast post
or a fibre post is often preferred.
Impressions may then be taken for the production of an indirectly constructed casting, or a
direct pattern fabricated in the mouth. Metal
castings have the advantage that features can be
built in to provide a protective ferrule, and that
they can be customised to minimise the need for
dentine removal. The chief disadvantage of this
approach is that the tooth will need temporisation with a temporary post crown, which is
unlikely to provide an hermetic coronal seal during the time required to fabricate the post.43
For this reason, it may be preferable to restore
the tooth immediately with a prefabricated post,
and composite core.43,44 An immediate, and permanent coronal seal is then secured. This benefit
should be balanced in heavy loading situations
with consideration of the strength of the core
and the post-core interface. However the devel-
(a)
opment of a ferrule by extending crown margins

well onto sound tooth tissue should minimise
the physical demands on the composite core.
Such extension may be subgingival or involve a
crown lengthening procedure or forced eruption
to obtain supragingival margins.
Posterior teeth, which have lost one or both
marginal ridges in addition to tooth loss for
endodontic access, require cuspal coverage.
Amalgam or composite cores can again often be
retained without the need for posts. If a post is
considered necessary, it should usually be placed
in the straightest and most bulky root, commonly the distal in lower molars, and the palatal in
upper molars. Premolar roots should be judged
on their merits. Even if a post is placed, rootfilling materials should always be removed from
the entrances of other canals to provide supplementary retention for the core, and resistance to
rotational torque.
A cuspal coverage restoration can then be
prepared which fits the functional and aesthetic
demands of the situation. This may be as conservative as a cast metal onlay, or three-quarter
crown, or as extensive as a full-coverage metal
or ceramo-metal crown (Fig. 18). Extracoronal
restorations should be extended at least
12 mm onto sound tooth tissue to provide allenveloping protection against fracture of the
underlying tooth.
Adhesively retained plastic restorations cannot be relied upon as long-term internal
splints. If there is no plan to crown a weakened
posterior tooth, either because the root-treatment is on probation, or for financial reasons,
then physical cuspal coverage and protection
must be provided by the core material. Cusps
adjacent to lost marginal ridges should be
reduced in height by 3 mm and overlaid with
dentine bonded amalgam or composite resin.
Such restorations can provide cost-effective,
durable service for many years.45
Fig. 19 Cast post and core with

a diaphragm to cover and support
a damaged incisor root
Extensive loss of tooth tissue

Teeth with little or no coronal tissue remaining
require special measures to provide a protective
ferrule. Again, surgical crown lengthening or
forced eruption may be needed to allow the placement of restoration margins on sound tissue.
Anterior teeth may be prepared to receive a
cast metal post and diaphragm (Fig. 19), with
extension of the metal casting over the bevelled
or chamfered margins of the root-face to provide
(b)
(c)
Buccal
Fig. 18 Cuspal protection and development of protective ferrules for posterior teeth with varying
amounts of tissue loss: a) Simple metal onlay, b) Three-quarter crown, c) Full coverage crown
325
PRACTICE
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Light
Fig. 20 Rehabilitation of a severely weakened tooth by relining with

composite resin: a) Hollowed-out, fragile root; b) Incremental additions of
composite cured with a light-transmitting post; c) Space for a conventional
post within the composite resin reline. Tooth margins prepared for the
crown to provide a ferrule; and d) Continuous composite post and core
takes advantage of the materials cohesive strength in thick section. Tooth
margins prepared for the crown to provide a ferrule
Fig. 21 a) Metal post and core for a

decoronated posterior tooth. The
margins of the preparation are
chamfered to provide a ferrule.
The metal casting contains two
short posts for the buccal roots.
A separate wrought post will be
inserted through it into the palatal
root. b) The casting in place, with
the wrought, parallel post
cemented through it and into the
palatal root
an effective ferrule. Alternatively, a conventional cast or prefabricated post and core may be
placed, before constructing a crown with a metal
collar extending 12 mm onto tooth tissue to
afford the necessary protection.
Immature or hollowed-out roots can present
special problems for rehabilitation. One method
involves packing dentine bonded composite
resin into the widened canal, and curing it in
place with light-transmitting posts to effectively
reline and internally splint the root (Fig. 20).46
Alternatively, self-curing composite can be
used. Conventional or fibre44 posts may then be
cemented into the relined root before coronal
core build-up, or advantage taken of the cohesive strength of composite in thick section to
build a continuous mass of composite forming
the post and core. The final crown should again
incorporate a ferrule extending well onto sound
tooth tissue for protection.
Posterior teeth which cannot be built up with
post and adhesive-retained plastic materials
may occasionally require the fabrication of a
sectional casting. These restorations are difficult, exacting, and costly to manufacture and
are testament to the engineering skills of practitioner and technician. Separate post and core
elements with different paths of insertion that
link on placement, or a single core unit with
channels for multiple post placements at different angles may be manufactured (Fig. 21).
The extracoronal restoration should again be
extended onto sound tooth tissue to provide a
supporting ferrule for the underlying tooth.
In conclusion:
1. All teeth to be crowned should be carefully
assessed as to their pulpal and endodontic
status, and reliable foundations laid
2. Teeth with healthy pulps should be prepared
and temporised with due care to preserve
pulpal health
3. Root-treated teeth are at risk of fracture and
of coronal microleakage. Control of these
factors should underpin the design of all
temporary and permanent restorations for
such teeth.
1.
2.
3.
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Bergenholtz G, Nyman S. Endodontic complications
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conditions of abutment teeth. Schweiz Monat Zahnmed
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Gonzalez G , Wier D J , Helm F , Marshall S J, Walker L, Stoffer
W. et al. Incidence of endodontic treatment in teeth with full
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teeth over 25 years. J Dent 1997; 25: 97-105.
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Madison S, Jordan R D, Krell K V. The effect of rubber dam
retainers on porcelain fused-to-metal restorations. J Endod
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6th edn. pp2-24. St Louis: Mosby, 1994.
Khayat A, Lee S J, Torabinejad M. Human saliva penetration
of coronally unsealed obturated root canals. J Endod 1993;
19: 458-461.
Walton R, Torabinejad M. Principles and Practice of
Endodontics. 2nd edn. Baltimore: Saunders, 1996.
Pitt-Ford T R. Hartys Endodontics in Clinical Practice. 4th
edn. Oxford: Wright, 1997.
Clements R E, Gilboe D B. Labial endodontic access opening
for mandibular incisors: Endodontic and restorative
considerations. J Can Dent Assoc 1991; 57: 587-589.
Langeland K, Langeland L K. Pulp reactions to cavity and
crown preparation. Aust Dent J 1970; 15: 261-276.
Langeland K, Langeland L K. Cutting procedures with
minimized trauma. J Am Dent Assoc 1968; 76: 991-1005.
Bergenholtz G, Cox C, Loesche W J, Syed S A. Bacterial
leakage around dental restorations: its effect on the dental
pulp. J Oral Pathol 1982; 11: 439-450.
Goldman M, Laosonthorn P, White R R. Microleakage: full
crowns and the dental pulp. J Endod 1992; 18: 473-475.
Cox C F, Suzuki S. Re-evaluating pulp protection: Calcium
hydroxide liners vs. cohesive hybridization. J Am Dent Assoc
1994; 125: 823-831.
Sorensen J A, Martinoff J T. Intracoronal reinforcement and
coronal coverage: a study of endodontically treated teeth.
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Morgano S M. Restoration of pulpless teeth: an application
of traditional principles in present and future contexts. J
Prosth Dent 1996; 75: 375-380.
Edmunds D H, Dummer P M H. Root canal retained
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cast posts and cores. Dent Update 1990; June: 183-188.
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Dummer P M H, Edmunds D H. Root canal retained
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restorations revisited. Dent Update 1993; January/February:
14-19.
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characteristics for two post designs. J Prosthet Dent 1995;
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stress distribution by endodontic posts. Oral Surg 1972; 33:
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tapered smooth post systems in place for 10 years or more.
J Endodont 1991; 17: 293-297.
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Deutsch A S, Cavallari J, Musikant B L, et al. Root fracture and
the design of prefabricated posts. J Prosthet Dent 1985; 53:
637-640.
Cohen B I, Musikant B L, Deutsch A S. A 10-year literature
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failure in root-canal therapy: a review. Endod Dent Traumatol
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Tjan A H L, Nemetz H. Effect of eugenol-containing
endodontic sealer on retention of prefabricated posts luted
with adhesive composite resin cement. Quintessence Int
1992; 23: 839-844.
Haddix J E, Mattison G D, Shulmann C A et al. Post
preparation techniques and their effect on the apical seal.
J Prosth Dent 1990; 64: 515-519.
Fox K, Gutteridge D L. An in vitro study of coronal
microleakage in root-canal-treated teeth restored by the
post and core technique. Int Endod J 1997; 30: 361-368.
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study of the performance of fiber posts. Amer J Dent 2000;
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Int 1996 ; 27: 483-491.
327
PRACTICE
IN BRIEF
Clarification of some of the terminology and concepts relating to occlusion as it is used in

everyday practice, making clear why these concepts matter
Undertaking a simple pre-operative examination of the occlusion as a matter of routine
Helping clinicians identify cases where articulated study casts will help plan treatment and
design restorations
Advice is provided about selecting an appropriate articulator and taking appropriate records
at the treatment stage.

Occlusal considerations and articulator selection
J. G. Steele1 F. S. A. Nohl2 and R. W. Wassell3
For many dentists, occlusion carries an air of mystique. It even seems sometimes that a perverse pleasure is derived in making
the whole subject more complicated than it really is. As a clinician, you need to be able to decide what you expect from your
proposed restoration, and to identify situations where you may need to alter the existing occlusal scheme. At a fundamental
level, you also need to provide the laboratory with appropriate clinical records to ensure that when you fit them, adjustments
to the expensively prepared restorations are minimal. This requires a sound understanding of the basics.
RESTORATIONS:

3. Pre-operative
assessment
4. Endodontic
considerations
vital pulps
veneer crowns
technique
of crowns
restorations
1*,3Senior Lecturer in Restorative Dentistry,

2Consultant in Restorative Dentistry, The
Dental Hospital, Framlington Place,
Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4AZ
*Correspondence to: J. G. Steele
E-mail: jimmy.steele@ncl.ac.uk
Refereed Paper
377387
This fifth article in the series will try to present

important occlusal concepts in a way which
relates directly to the provision of successful
crowns. It is not a comprehensive guide to occlusion, or a manual of techniques for extensive
fixed prosthodontics. There are several useful
books and articles dedicated to the subject and
some of these are specifically referenced (if a
technique is particularly well described) or are
listed in the further reading section. However, we
hope that this article should allow you to avoid
most of the problems associated with the provision of crowns. Occasionally some pre-operative
occlusal adjustment is needed. Our experience is
that this is best taught hands on and we would
recommend attending an appropriate course
before attempting more complex adjustments.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS WHAT MATTERS?

One of the essential starting points with occlusion is to make sure that the terminology is clear.
There are any number of occlusal terms, many of
which overlap. There are only a few that really
matter and these need to be understood if what is
to follow is to make any sense.
The intercuspal position (ICP or IP)
Synonyms: centric occlusion (CO), maximum
intercuspation
What is it?
Most dentate patients, when asked simply to
bite together on your back teeth, close immediately into a comfortable, reproducible closed
position where the maximum number of tooth
contacts occur. This is the intercuspal position
BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 7 APRIL 13 2002
(ICP). Travel into this position is partly guided by

the shape of teeth and partly by conditioned
neuromuscular co-ordination.1 ICP is the most
closed position of the jaws.
Why does this matter?

ICP is usually the position in which vertical
occlusal forces are most effectively borne by the
periodontium with teeth likely to be loaded axially, which helps to stabilise their position.
Indeed it is the end point of the chewing cycle
where maximum force is exerted. In everyday
practice this is the position of the jaws in which
restorations are made.
Guidance (from the teeth)
What is it?
When a patient moves their mandible from side
to side so that the teeth in opposing jaws slide
over each other, the path taken is determined
partly by the shapes of the teeth which make
contact, as well as by the anatomical constraints
of the temporomandibular joints (TMJs) and
masticatory neuromuscular function. Each has a
bearing on the other, and, for want of a better
term, they should work in harmony. In these circumstances the teeth provide guidance for the
movement of the mandible. The shape and form
of the temporomandibular joints also guide the
movement of the mandible (sometimes called
posterior guidance). Guidance teeth can be any
teeth, anterior or posterior.
When the patient slides the mandible out to
one side, the side they move the mandible
towards is called the working side (because it is
usually the side on which they are about to
377
PRACTICE
ture or decementation, particularly if these loads
are heavy. Other manifestations of problems
with guidance include:
Fig. 1 Right canine guidance during

right lateral excursion. Posterior
teeth are discluded but contact
remains between the lateral incisors
Fig. 2 Left canine guidance during

left lateral excursion. Here the
canines are the only teeth in contact
Fig. 3 Shared contact between many

posterior teeth in right lateral
excursion. Guidance is described as
being group function
chew). The other side, the side the mandible is

moving away from, is called the non-working
side. So for example, an excursion to the right
(as may occur during chewing) will make the
right side the working side and the left the nonworking side, whilst during an excursion to the
left the reverse will be true. During these excursions the upper and lower guidance teeth will be
in contact and partly dictate the movement of
the mandible. Canine guidance is where the
upper and lower canines on the working side are
the only teeth in contact during a lateral excursion, causing all of the posterior teeth to disclude
(Figs 1 and 2). When several pairs of teeth, usually premolars or premolars and canines (and
sometimes molars) on the working side share the
contacts during excursions group function is
said to take place (Fig. 3). Other patterns of guidance can take place, using almost any combination of teeth.
Incisors and canines usually provide protrusive guidance, when the mandible slides forward, but where there is only a limited overbite
the posterior teeth may be involved.
Why does it matter?

Guidance teeth are repeatedly loaded non-axially
(laterally) during excursions. As a result heavily
restored or crowned teeth may be at risk of frac378
Fractured teeth or restorations

Accelerated local wear
Tooth migration
Tooth mobility
TMJ dysfunction
To avoid these it is important to identify

which teeth provide guidance before you start
tooth preparation. If the guidance is satisfactory,
and the guidance tooth or teeth are strong
enough to withstand the likely loading in the
long term, it is usually best to try to re-establish
the same guidance pattern in the new restoration. Techniques for doing this are described
later in the article. Occasionally, you may feel
that a tooth that you are about to crown is insufficiently robust to carry a guidance contact and
the guidance is best moved onto other teeth.
A specific example of this would be where a
broken down guidance canine is restored with a
post retained crown. There may be a risk of root
fracture of the tooth in the longer term because
of the heavy lateral forces. In a case like this, by
taking a little care with the shape of both preparation and crown, guidance can often be transferred from the canine to the premolars, if they
are in a better position to accept the heavy loads.
Other practical reasons for identifying guidance teeth include:
The need to provide clearance from the opposing tooth during preparation, not just in ICP,
but also along the guidance track. If you do
not do this you can end up unwittingly transferring all the guidance forces on to your new
crown.
The need to select and prescribe an appropriate material to restore the guidance surface
(metal is usually best if possible).
These aspects are discussed in detail later in
the series.
The message is that getting guidance right is
one of the most important aspects of crown provision; problems can, and will, occur unless
guidance is correctly managed on teeth to be
crowned.
Interferences
What are they?
Interferences are any tooth-to-tooth contact(s),
which hamper or hinder smooth guidance in
excursions or closure into ICP. An interference
on the side to which the mandible is moving is
called a working side interference. An interference on the side from which the mandible is
moving is called a non-working side interference (NWSI) or balancing side interference.
There is a distinction to make between NWSIs
and non-working side contacts: in the latter
case, excursions are guided equally by working
and non-working tooth contacts, akin to the
balanced articulation often taught as an ideal
complete denture occlusion. However, where
PRACTICE
there is a NWSI it acts as a cross arch pivot, disrupting the smooth movement and separating
guidance teeth on the working side (Fig. 4).
Why does it matter?

There has been much written about the significance or otherwise of interferences, particularly
NWSIs, in relation to initiating parafunction and
TMJ dysfunction. Warnings of the direst consequences to the stomatognathic system and
beyond from NWSIs are frankly misleading
though. Many people function perfectly happily
with a mouthful of NWSIs. However, when contemplating crowns there are important implications. Most NWSIs are on molars so teeth or
restorations directly involved are subject to high
and often oblique occlusal forces with the consequent risk of fracture or uncementing.
As a general rule, it is best to remove interferences before tooth preparation if the interference is on a tooth which is to be prepared. This
applies to all types of interference working,
non-working and protrusive. In practice it is best
to do this at a separate appointment prior to
tooth preparation. This will allow the patient
time to adapt to a new pattern of excursive guidance, and you time to refine the guidance if necessary. The process of dealing with a non-working side interference prior to preparation is
shown in Figure 4. If you do this, it is important
to identify suitable teeth on the working side to
take over the guidance once the interference has
been eliminated. If there are no teeth to take over
the guidance, it may be impossible to eliminate
the NWSI. If you are in any doubt it would be
best to seek advice before cutting the tooth.
Where interferences exist on teeth that are
not themselves to be prepared, the need for
adjustment may be less important. Many people
have asymptomatic interferences and seem to be
able to lead a normal existence and we certainly
would not advocate the removal of all interferences as a public health measure.
One final point is that it is disturbingly easy
to introduce new interferences when you place
restorations, even where there were no interferences previously. If you check your preparations
for adequate clearance, not only in ICP but in
lateral and protrusive excursions as well, the
chances of this occurring should be minimised.
Obviously, there is the opportunity to remove
minor interferences on the final restoration
before cementation.
Retruded Contact Position (RCP)
Synonyms: centric relation (CR), centric relation
contact position (CRCP), retruded axis position
(RAP), terminal hinge position.
What is it?
This is the position of the mandible when the
first contact between opposing teeth takes place,
during closure on its hinge axis (or retruded arc
of closure), that is with the condyles maximally
seated in their fossae. This condylar position is
one of health. Generally, as the mandible hinges
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 4 A non-working side interference between the left first molars and the possible consequences
of carrying out crown preparation without appreciating its presence (transverse section): a) During
a right lateral excursion (see black arrow) the left first molars act as a cross-arch pivot lifting the
teeth out of contact on the working side; b) The maxillary first molar has been prepared for a
crown. Occlusal reduction has eliminated the pivot, allowing the teeth on the working side to
contact during lateral excursion. However, clearance between the preparation and opposing teeth is
now inadequate which may cause problems with the provisional restoration. Worse still, the
definitive restoration may require gross adjustment resulting in its perforation; c) You can avoid
these problems by removing the non-working side contact prior to tooth preparation (blue line
represents tooth recontoured in this way)
Fig. 5 A retruded contact between

maxillary molar and mandibular
premolar. Most retruded contacts
cause no problems. This one resulted
from over-eruption of the molar and
the interference was associated with
accelerated wear of the incisors
closed with the condyles in this position, there is

a contact between a pair of teeth somewhere
around the mouth (Fig. 5). The mandible will
then close, from this retruded contact, down into
ICP, usually sliding forward and laterally
(Fig. 6). If you want to try to manipulate a
patients mandible into this position it is important that they are relaxed (Fig. 7), otherwise it
can be very difficult and you will feel resistance
to free movement of the mandible. For about
10% of people ICP will be the same as RCP2 and
in these cases if you hinge the mandible until the
teeth are in contact they will go straight into ICP
with no deflective contact.
Why does it matter?

There is no magic quality about RCP, but there
are a number of reasons why RCP and the associated slide into ICP may be relevant when providing crowns. Box 1 contains a more detailed
379
PRACTICE
BOX 1: RCP AND CROWNS
Most crowns and other extra-coronal restorations will be made to conform with the patient's ICP and usually a slide from RCP to ICP
will be of no major relevance when providing crowns. In some circumstances additional management may be appropriate. The
following are the situations where adjusting the contact in RCP is likely to be most important:
1. As a general rule, when RCP involves a tooth you are about to prepare it is often best to remove the deflective contact at an
appointment before you start tooth preparation.
2. When re-organising the occlusion at a new vertical dimension you really have no option but to construct the new occlusion,
if not at RCP itself , certainly around centric relation (with the condyles in the hinge axis). This represents the only reproducible
starting point.
3. If you need space but you wish to avoid increasing the vertical dimension, there may be the scope to distalise the mandible to
create space lingually for anterior crowns (only possible where there is a bodily translation between RCP and ICP).
4. If you are about to restore anterior teeth and the RCP contact results in a strong anterior thrust against the teeth to be prepared.
Although we would usually advise removal of a deflective RCP interference before preparation if it is on a tooth you are about to
prepare for a crown, many dentists do no not carry out any such adjustment and no problems result. This is probably because cutting
the crown preparation effectively removes the contact. By removing it before preparation though you can ensure sufficient removal
of tissue to allow space for the crown without re-introducing it in an uncontrolled way when the restoration is made. The principles
involved are the same as those for removing non-working side interferences (see Fig. 4).
RCP
Fig. 6 The slide from

retruded contact
position (RCP) to the
intercuspal position
(ICP). Here, in RCP the
molars make first
contact as shown by
the arrows. The
magnitude and
direction of the slide
can be estimated at
both the molar and
incisor regions
ICP
PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF OCCLUSION:

RECORDS FOR PLANNING CROWNS
Records for planning crowns: The occlusal
examination
Before providing crowns it really is mandatory
to undertake some sort of an occlusal examination. The following observations take moments
to gather and are worth the effort:
Check ICP (for reproducibility and contacts on
the teeth to be restored)
Check RCP (to establish whether there is any
deflective contact or slide which you ought to
know about). For technique see Reference 3.
Check the relationship of the teeth in lateral
and protrusive excursions (to determine
whether your crowns will be involved in guidance or if you need to consider removing an
interference).
Fig. 7 One method of manipulating

the mandible of a relaxed patient
into the hinge axis position. This
technique is called bimanual
manipulation and is designed to seat
the condyles fully in their fossae
with the disks interposed
analysis of the situations where it may be a

problem. In many, but not all cases, managing
RCP is of less significance than managing guidance effectively, but there are times when
adjustments need to be made and, clearly, it is
always better to identify potential problems than
blindly to hope for the best. To this end it is
always worth examining RCP pre-operatively so
that you at least know where it is. On the very
few occasions where it is likely to be a major factor affecting your restorative procedure, casts
mounted in RCP (or in the hinge axis just before
380
the teeth actually contact) on a semi-adjustable

articulator will facilitate occlusal examination
and allow trial adjustments.
Establishing and recording RCP, and particularly re-organising the occlusion, are often difficult and we would refer you to Further Reading
below if you wish to follow these subjects up in
more detail.
A more detailed and lengthy examination,

where all of the contacts are marked using good
quality ultra thin articulating tape (Fig. 8) is
sometimes indicated, particularly where there
has been a history of temporomandibular dysfunction or where there is a specific occlusal
problem which you need to address. The various
components, which may be included in a full
occlusal examination, are given in Box 2.
Records for planning crowns: hand-held study

casts
Hand-held casts can be a very useful aid to
examination and treatment planning. To
glean maximum information from them they
PRACTICE
need to be made from good quality impressions, which have been handled and poured
correctly. We will return to this important but
underrated subject later (see below: Opposing
Casts).
Hand-held study casts enable:
A judgement to be made regarding the ease of
obtaining a stable ICP. This helps to determine
whether or not an interocclusal record is
required for the working casts upon which the
restoration(s) will be made.
An unimpeded view of ICP. It is possible to
view aspects such as the lingual, which
it would not be possible to see at the chairside.
Careful evaluation of clinical crown height
and the availability of inter-occlusal space for
restorative material. These two factors can
help make the decision on how to facilitate the
restoration of short teeth (see Part 3 Pre-operative assessment in this series).
However tempting it may be to assume otherwise, hand-held casts provide no information
about excursive tooth contacts or RCP, beyond
the distribution of wear facets.
Records for planning crowns: Articulated study

casts
Accurate casts of the dental arches mounted in a
semi adjustable articulator are the most important tools of the trade when constructing artificial crowns. The need for an articulator and the
positions in which you mount the casts depend
on what you need to do (see Box 3). Articulators
are surrounded by an aura of mystery, but at the
end of the day they are a tool to help give your
patient a successful restoration and to help you
to save time, money and hassle. The quality of
the final result is much less dependent on the
articulator you use than it is on the care you
exercise to make and mount the casts that you
put in it.
There is little merit in examining study casts
for planning purposes on a simple hinge or other
non-anatomical articulator because the ability
to replicate physiological movements will be, at
best, crude, and at worst, wholly misleading. A
non-anatomical articulator will allow casts to be
put into a reproducible ICP, which may be helpful
if there are insufficient contacts to make handheld casts stable, but that is the limit of what a
simple hinge articulator can do.
BOX 2: COMPONENTS OF AN OCCLUSAL EXAMINATION

A full occlusal examination including all of the components below is rarely
indicated, but different components may be required at different times.

Visual assessments of ICP, RCP and guidance teeth are always indicated
where you are planning crowns. The following may also be useful:
1. Examining for signs of temporomandibular dysfunction:
Palpation of muscles of mastication for tenderness.
Palpation of the temporomandibular joints and detailed
assessment of any clicks or deviations in mandibular movement.
Assessment of the range of mandibular movement.
2. Checking for facets, fremitus, mobility and drifting (particularly where
there are problems with individual teeth).
3. Marking up of the dry teeth in different coloured tapes (Fig. 8) to
show contacts in all excursions using a high quality articulating tape
(where there are issues affecting the entire occlusal scheme).
Fig. 8 Tools for examining occlusal contacts: foil

shimstock held in forceps and high quality ultra-thin
articulating tapes held in Millers forceps
BOX 3: WHEN TO USE A SEMI-ADJUSTABLE ARTICULATOR DURING THE MANUFACTURE

OF CROWNS
1. If you wish to ensure appropriate guidance with your new restorations, particularly where
multiple crowns are involved.
2. If you plan to increase the vertical dimension at all.
3. In any case where either you are going to remove so many of the occlusal contacts that ICP
will effectively be lost and/or where you plan to make a new ICP based on RCP (sometimes
known as a reorganised occlusion).
4. Where you plan to remove occlusal interferences (the study casts can enable a trial
adjustment to be carried out).
5. When there is a need to provide an occlusal stabilisation appliance (occlusal splint), either
before treatment to stabilise jaw position or after treatment to protect restorations from the
effects of bruxism.
383
PRACTICE
BOX 4: TAKING A GOOD OPPOSING IMPRESSION
1. Choose stock impression trays with adequate rigidity which, perhaps in

combination with an adhesive, have sufficient retentive features to hold
set alginate securely.
2. If the restoration is on a very posterior tooth you may need to extend the
tray with a rigid material (green stick or compo but not carding wax) to
ensure that the alginate is supported in important posterior areas.
3. Make sure adhesive has been air dried in the tray before loading alginate.
Lots of wet adhesive acts as a lubricant not an adhesive, and if the
alginate pulls away from the tray you are left with an enormous but not
very obvious distortion in the final cast.
4. Dry the teeth with gauze or cotton wool to remove saliva, which aids
tremendously in recording occlusal detail and producing of a smooth,
hard cast surface. It can be done as the alginate is being mixed.
5. Smear a little alginate firmly onto the dry occlusal surfaces with your
finger as the assistant finishes loading the tray.
After removal
6. Check to make sure the material has not pulled out of the tray (Fig. 9).
If it has, retake it and do not assume it will be all right or be tempted to
press dislodged material back into place; you will pay in the time spent
adjusting the final crown.
7. Cut off the heels of the impression flush with the tray if you do not need
them, they are prone to distort when you lay the impression down on
the bench or even when it is loaded with wet stone. This takes seconds.
8. If you get the chance, check the casts, if not, ask the technician to do this
and to flick off any air bubbles on critical surfaces (Fig. 10).
9. In really critical cases, consider using silicone to obtain a very accurate
opposing cast especially if there is to be a delay before pouring up.
Fig. 9 Impression material has been pulled away from the

tray on withdrawal from the mouth.
This will equate to at least a 1mm occlusal error
Fig. 10 Large stone blebs on the palatal surfaces of upper

anterior teeth as a result of air bubbles in the impression
The combination of a facebow record (which

locates the approximate position of the condylar
hinge axis in relation to the upper arch) and a jaw
relation record (which then locates the lower cast
to the upper), enables movements of casts articulated on a semi-adjustable articulator to be reasonably anatomical. You can simulate the movements of the teeth in lateral and protrusive
excursions, and around the hinge axis and be confident that what you see is close to what is really
happening in the mouth. However, whilst the
instrument is key, the quality of the casts and
the care with which they are mounted are just as
critical. There is no room for carelessness at this
stage, wrongly articulated casts are probably
worse than no casts at all as they may result in
false assumptions about treatment. Similarly, inaccuracies with the original impressions can result in
profound errors and the use of an accurate and
stable impression material (such as addition cured
silicone) may be appropriate in cases where a
detailed occlusal analysis is necessary. Details of
how to record a facebow record and a retruded
hinge axis inter-occlusal record can be found in
References 3 and 4. Some simple tips on accurate
impression recording can be found in Box 4.
Although you can see and reproduce movements with carefully articulated casts, you may
often want to go on to the next stage and prepare
a diagnostic wax up.
384
Records for planning crowns: the diagnostic

wax-up
In addition to its uses in planning changes in
appearance (see Aesthetic Control the sixth
article in this series), a diagnostic wax-up can be
an absolutely invaluable technique where you
are changing the occluding surfaces of several
teeth with crowns or resin bonded restorations
and allows you to plan the following:
The new static occlusal contacts (in ICP) and
the shape of the guidance teeth
The impact that the modified occlusion has on
appearance
The best options for creating interocclusal
space for restoration(s) or optimising crown
height by periodontal surgery (see Part 3:
Preoperative Assessment in this series).
You can also use the completed wax-up as a
template to determine the form of temporary
and final restorations.
PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF OCCLUSION:

RECORDS FOR MAKING CROWNS
When the diagnosis stage has been completed,
the crowns or restorations still need to be made,
and various records are essential at this stage
too. This section discusses the choice of articulator and the need to obtain accurate occlusal
records, including the simplest things such as
PRACTICE
opposing impressions, which are a frequent

source of error. Finally, it introduces ways of
controlling guidance on front teeth.
The articulator
When manufacturing the final crowns, in the
interests of simplicity and cost it would seem
sensible to use the simplest cast relating device
that will not compromise the final restoration.5
Small numbers of restorations, which are not
involved in excursive contacts, can very reasonably be made on a non-adjustable articulator
and then any adjustments made in the mouth
before final cementation. However, crowns
involved in excursions benefit from the use of
an articulator with anatomical dimensions so
that the excursive movements can be made and
the shape of the crown adjusted in the lab with
reasonable accuracy, saving chairside time. This
becomes particularly important, and cost effective, when several restorations are being created
at the same time. Highly sophisticated semiadjustable and fully adjustable articulators are
available for this purpose, but the majority of
cases can be managed quite satisfactorily using
a less sophisticated, fixed average value articulator in combination with a facebow.
It may not be possible to check occlusion on
adhesive restorations prior to cementation, either
because the act of checking may damage porcelain, which is delicate until cemented, or because
they will not stay in place during excursions. In
these cases, controlling the role of the restorations
in guidance can be critical to their long-term survival. A semi-adjustable articulator can be
invaluable in situations such as these because it
allows the technician to secure restorations onto
the working cast and do the critical adjustments
in the lab so that all you need to do is cement
them with little or no adjustment afterwards.
Opposing casts
In any discussion about articulators, it is
disturbingly easy to forget the importance of an
accurate cast to oppose the working cast. The
opposing impression is often the last thing we do
and, after a long session preparing teeth, making
temporaries and taking impressions it tends to be
a bit of an afterthought. However, a poor opposing impression is very easy indeed to achieve and
yet can cost a great deal of precious time subsequently. A cast made with a distorted impression
or a porous impression resulting in plaster blebs
on occlusal surfaces will not fit comfortably into
ICP. If such a cast is used in the lab it can result in
a crown which looks perfectly good on the cast
but which may be very high in the ICP and which
can take a great deal of time to get right prior to
fit. It is easy to record bad opposing impressions,
but good ones are just as easy. Attention to the
few steps listed in Box 4 takes, literally, no extra
time but can save a lot of heartache. In an ideal
world every opposing impression would be
recorded in a dimensionally accurate and stable
material such as an addition cured silicone, but
this is probably not economically realistic. Box 4

describes the use of alginate for an opposing
impression. In cases involving multiple restorations though, a very stable and accurate material
may be cost effective in the long term.
Interocclusal records (IOR)

Once you have your working impression and
opposing impression you then need to decide
whether you need to provide additional information to the lab to allow them to mount the casts;
an inter-occlusal record (IOR). There is a common
perception that providing an intercuspal record
(such as a wax or silicone bite) will improve the
accuracy of mounted casts. The truth is that in
many cases it does precisely the opposite.6
For a patient with a stable intercuspal position, the loss of interocclusal contact created by
preparation of a tooth for a single unit restoration, is unlikely to detract from the ease with
which working and opposing casts can be located in ICP. In this circumstance, placing a layer of
wax or silicone between the casts to help to
locate them can often result in them failing to
seat into ICP at all, and there is a very serious
risk of the record introducing inaccuracies,
rather than acting as the insurance policy you
intended. It is worth taking the opportunity of
examining the ease with which any study casts
can be located by hand before deciding whether
an IOR is needed. Often (perhaps even usually)
you are better with nothing at all.
Sometimes an IOR is required to stabilise
casts, particularly where the teeth that are prepared are key support teeth in an arch. The
choice of materials is generally between hard
wax alone, hard wax (as a carrier) used with zinc
oxide/eugenol, silicone elastomers and acrylic
resins. The fundamental requirement is to obtain
enough detail in a dimensionally stable recording material to enable casts to be confidently
located in the laboratory whilst not recording so
much detail that it stops the casts seating.
Occlusal fissure patterns reproduced accurately
in the IOR may well not be reproduced to the
same extent in the cast, preventing full seating
of the casts in the record. Furthermore, an IOR
which contacts soft tissues in the mouth and
causes their displacement (which is obviously
not reproduced in the stone cast) will result in an
IOR which will not seat accurately (Figs 11 and
12). In order to meet the requirements for success, an IOR should:
1. Record the tips of cusps or preparations
BUT
2. Avoid capturing fissure patterns as much as
possible
AND
3. Avoid any soft tissue contact
The key to a successful record is not so much
the type of material used, but how it is used. The
smaller the amount you use, the less it is likely to
cause a problem. A small, trimmed record,
restricted to the area of the preps themselves,
385
PRACTICE
this case the new functional surface is relatively
straightforward to achieve on a semi-adjustable
articulator or even at the chairside. However, if
several teeth are to be prepared there may be no
existing guiding surfaces left intact after preparation, so all clues to guidance are lost (Fig. 14).
Where satisfactory guidance is present before
you start, there are several ways of copying it
before you prepare the teeth. A commonly used
technique is to use a putty matrix made on a cast
of the tooth surfaces to be copied, but this technique will often not provide the tight control
over tooth shape which is required. The two most
effective methods to address this problem necessitate the use of a facebow and semi-adjustable
articulator to allow anatomical movements in
excursions. They are:
Fig. 11 A very accurate full arch

occlusal record in a silicone material.
The excessive detail may well hinder
seating on a stone cast. See Fig. 12
Fig. 12 The combination of a very

detailed silicone occlusal record and
less detailed stone cast, particularly
of the occlusal fissures, has meant
that the record will not seat. There
were sufficient tooth contacts in the
intercuspal position not to need an
interocclusal record for this case!
with all interproximal tags and undercuts

removed is the ideal. It is usually necessary to
trim the record to achieve these requirements
and silicone materials trim very easily with a
scalpel (Fig. 13). One final consideration is that
stone casts and dies can easily be abraded by
IORs especially those made of acrylic resin and
special care is required in the laboratory when
these materials are used in combination.
Whether or not you have used an interocclusal record, you can easily verify the accuracy of mounted casts in the ICP using foil shimstock. When held tightly together the cast should
hold the shim between the same teeth as they do
in the mouth.
Copying tooth guidance

When a restoration is being provided which
includes a guiding surface for mandibular
excursions (lateral, protrusive or anything in
between), the technician needs to know what
form the contacting surface is to take. Failure to
appreciate this risks introducing excursive contacts that are not in harmony with the other
guidance teeth, the condylar movements and
musculature. This is discussed fully earlier in the
article, but common manifestations of disharmony include:
Fig. 13 A carefully trimmed interocclusal record

restricted to the area of tooth preparation. The resulting
crowns needed no adjustment
Decementing and fractured crowns

Tooth mobility
Tooth migration
TMJ dysfunction
Because they are intimately involved in

speech formation, getting guidance wrong on
the palatal surfaces of upper anterior teeth may
also come to light as phonetic problems.
The guidance of a new restoration can often
be made simply to fit in with that provided by
adjacent teeth (for example in group function). In
386
1. The crown about method: Alternate teeth are

restored, thus maintaining the shapes of functional surfaces, which continue to provide
guidance for the articulated casts. This technique is well described in Reference 7.
2. The custom incisal guide table: This is another
way of copying satisfactory anterior guidance
from teeth or trial restorations that provide
crucial excursive contacts. Unlike the previous
method, it enables guidance to be copied for
just one restoration. It involves moving study
casts (on a semi-adjustable articulator)
through the full range of lateral and protrusive excursions with a mound of un-set
acrylic on the guide table, so that the tip of the
articulator guide pin shapes the acrylic dough
Fig. 14 Preparation of the teeth has resulted in loss of all

guiding surfaces on the anterior teeth
PRACTICE
into (once set) a permanent record of the
movements of the mandible (Fig. 15). When
the working casts are articulated the acrylic
guide table guides the articulator through the
same movements that were present in the
study casts, and the palatal surfaces of the
upper teeth can be shaped to conform precisely to this. This technique is described in detail,
with illustrations, in Reference 4.
The extra effort involved in using these techniques is not enormous, and where several anterior teeth are to be crowned we would strongly
recommend using one or other of them.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Okeson J P. Management of temporomandibular disorders and

occlusion. 1998. 4th Edition. St Louis: Mosby, pp47-51.
Posselt U. Studies in the mobility of the human mandible. Acta
Odontol Scand 1952; 10 : 109.
Wise D. Occlusion and restorative dentistry for the general
practitioner. Part 2- Examination of the occlusion and
fabrication of study casts. Br Dent J 1982; 152: 160-165.
Howat A P, Capp N J, Barrett N V J. A colour atlas of occlusion
and malocclusion. 1991. London: Wolfe Publishing, pp137139.
Loos L G. Clinical criteria used to select an articulator.
Compend Contin Educ Dent 1993; 14: 80-88.
Walls A W G, Wassell R W, Steele J G. A comparison of two
methods for locating the intercuspal position (ICP) whilst
mounting casts on an articulator. J Oral Rehabil 1991; 18: 4348.
Wise D. Occlusion and restorative dentistry for the general
practitioner. Part 9 Restoration of anterior teeth. Br Dent J
1982; 152: 407-413.
Further reading
1.
Wise M. Occlusion and restorative

dentistry for the general practitioner.
Series of ten articles published in the
Br Dent J 1982; 152: 117; 152: 160;
152: 197; 152: 235; 152: 277; 152:
316; 152: 347; 152: 381; 152: 407;
153: 13.
Howat A P, Capp N J, Barrett N V J. A
colour atlas of occlusion and
malocclusion. 1991. London: Wolfe
Publishing.
Shillingburg H T Jr, Hobo S, Whitset L
D, Jacobi R, Brackett S E.
Fundamentals of fixed
prosthodontics. 3rd ed. 1997.
London: Quintessence Publishing Co.
Fig. 15 A custom acrylic guide table for use with

a semi-adjustable articulator. This is an excellent
method of copying tooth guidance into definitive
restorations
387
PRACTICE
IN BRIEF
Identification and definition of the patients aesthetic problem

Consideration of the balance between aesthetics and tooth destruction for conventional and
adhesive restorations
An awareness of the aesthetic limitations of restorations and an attempt to ensure that the
patients expectations are realistic
Incorporation of procedures leading to better aesthetics at each clinical stage
Confidence in determining shade and communicating effectively with the laboratory

Aesthetic control
F. S. A. Nohl1 J. G. Steele2 and R. W. Wassell3
A pleasing dental appearance is the subjective appreciation of the shade, shape and arrangement of the teeth and their
relationship to the gingiva, lips and facial features. Achieving such a pleasing appearance in our patients is not always easy
but is critical, not least because our work is effectively on display and this has implications for patients perceptions of our
practice. To be successful, thorough assessment, careful planning and precise clinical execution is required. Every bit as
important though, is good communication, both with the dental laboratory and particularly with the patient. In few areas of
dentistry can effective communication be as critical as it is here.

RESTORATIONS:

3. Pre-operative
assessment
4. Endodontic
considerations
vital pulps
veneer crowns
technique
of crowns
restorations
1Consultant in Restorative Dentistry,
The Dental Hospital, Framlington Place,

Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4AZ
2,3Senior Lecturer in Restorative Dentistry,

*Correspondence to: F. S. A. Nohl
E-mail: f.s.a.nohl@newcastle.ac.uk
Refereed Paper
443450
Retention of natural teeth into old age is now

commonplace and whilst usually desirable, it
has brought with it considerable additional
problems. Making well-aligned white teeth in a
complete denture is usually straightforward, but
matching a single crown or veneer to a group of
natural incisors is a different matter altogether.
This problem is illustrated by data from the 1988
survey of adult dental health in the United
Kingdom1 which showed that having just one or
two crowns was more likely to be associated
with dissatisfaction with the appearance than
having none or many.
In each case, planning tooth preparation
involves the dentist in a cost:benefit analysis,
where the cost of improved aesthetics is judged
in terms of removal of tooth tissue and in the
potential for damage to the pulp and periodontium. However the benefit of stunning porcelain
work is easiest to achieve where a thick layer of
material can be used to develop the optimum
optical properties, but this usually requires more
tooth tissue to be removed. This is a theme which
runs right through all aesthetic considerations
and should underpin what follows. This concept
does not sit comfortably with a dogmatic
approach with hard and fast rules about the
dimensions of a preparation. The clinician will
choose to alter the cost:benefit balance in different ways in different cases. The choice might be
made to sacrifice aesthetics for long-term health,
or to take a risk with long-term pulp health to
maximise aesthetics; for example with a heavily
prepared ceramo-metal restoration.
Aesthetic improvements are most important
for anterior teeth and may often be the sole
reason for providing the restoration. The type of

materials used clearly have an important bearing
on both the appearance and the amount of
preparation and are an important part of the aesthetic cost:benefit equation. Table 1 lists the aesthetic restorations commonly available. Whilst
they are much less destructive of tooth tissue
than traditional ceramo-metal crowns, adhesive
restorations such as the porcelain laminate
veneer and dentine bonded crown do have limitations: specifically the problem of masking the
colour of darkly stained teeth, problems of temporisation and the inability to cement restorations provisionally. Veneers are covered in detail
in a separate article in this series (Part 12).
Furthermore whilst there have been significant
improvements in indirect composite technology
Table 1 Laboratory made aesthetic restorations
All porcelain
Conventional porcelain jacket crown
High strength porcelain jacket crown
Full coverage porcelain veneer (dentine
bonded crown)
Porcelain labial veneer
Porcelain onlay
All composite
Crown
Veneer
Onlay
Ceramo-metal crown
Composite bonded to metal crown
Partial coverage metal crown
443
PRACTICE
there is as yet little clinical evidence of their stability and longevity.
The key decisions are similar for anterior or
posterior teeth, but there is usually less room
for aesthetic compromise at the front of the
mouth. On posterior teeth it may be feasible to
sacrifice optimum aesthetics by restricting the
use of porcelain only to the most visible sites
and consequently cutting a less damaging
preparation. For example on a short tooth, creating space for occlusal porcelain and metal
rather than for metal alone could make the difference between success and failure of retention. Furthermore, tooth preparation carries
with it the risk of pulp damage.2
A conservative approach would equate not
only to less pulp morbidity, but more tooth
remaining should the need arise to remake the
restoration. On a posterior tooth it may also be
possible to use a three quarter crown, which
leaves the bulk of the buccal surface intact. Once
again, whatever the materials chosen, it is
important that the patient fully understands the
advantages and limitations of the restorative
solution. This article aims to address all of these
issues. The field of dental aesthetics is highly
subjective and, as a result, difficult to research.
The advice we offer and the recommendations
we give are necessarily based more on experience than scientific analysis.
IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM

The first and fundamental key to obtaining a
successful aesthetic result is to establish the precise nature of the patients demands, at the outset of treatment. What is perceived as natural or
pleasing to the dentist or technician may be
much too natural, and far from pleasing for the
patient. This may sound obvious, but without a
detailed assessment it is easy to fail to make a
precise diagnosis of the patients desires, and so
end up treating something which is not a problem for the patient, or creating technically beautiful restorations which the patient perceives to
be aesthetically unsatisfactory, with all the angst
and cost that this implies.
Table 2 shows the many factors, which must
be considered in defining the patients aesthetic
problem. On the basis of a thorough assessment,
the dentist must decide whether:
The patients expectations are realistic
The proposed treatment options are in the
patients best interests
The dentist, with the support of the laboratory,
has the skill to carry out the treatment.
Table 2 Factors contributing to dental aesthetics

Dental
Shade
Contour
Texture
Shape
Position
Arrangement
Interproximal contacts
Incisal embrasures
Gingival embrasures
Incisal level
Posterior occlusal level
Mucogingival
Facial
General
Margin level
Margin pattern
Shape of papillae
Colour
Thickness
Lip levels at rest

Lip levels in function
Centre line
Age
Occupation
Gender
Personality
patients understand the scope and possible consequences of treatment:

Wax mock-ups (diagnostic wax-ups) on stone
casts can be very useful for demonstrating
treatment options and act as blue-prints for
carrying out clinical and laboratory work
(Figs 1 and 2). Some dentists prefer these models to be created in tooth-coloured wax whilst
others express concern that patients may not
fully appreciate that these models are to assess
shape not colour and for this reason deliberately use non tooth-coloured wax.
Composite resin can be used on teeth in its
uncured state to indicate the potential for
shade and additive shape changes to natural
teeth (Figs 3 to 5).
When viewed against the darkness of the
mouth, black, water-soluble ink can give a
rough idea of the effect of subtractive shape
changes such as shortening overerupted lower
incisors (Fig. 4).
Computer software, which can manipulate
photographic images, is becoming commonplace in the dental surgery and can be useful
in discussions of treatment options. However,
Fig. 1 Short anterior teeth causing

an aesthetic problem
One of the greatest challenges for dentists

providing crowns and veneers is the need to
match expectations to what is technically and
aesthetically achievable.
Matching expectations with reality

Most patients appreciate a full and frank discussion about what is achievable. Time spent at this
stage can save a lot of heartache and expense
later on. There are reversible means of helping
Fig. 2 Diagnostic wax-up of Case in

figure 1
445
PRACTICE
measuring the thickness of temporaries with
callipers).
Unrealistic expectations
Some patients may demand changes in
appearance which are objectively difficult to
appreciate and still more difficult to realise. In
most cases this is simply a problem of communication, but unrealistic expectations and a
history of multiple previous treatments
addressing appearance may be a warning of a
patient with Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)
or Dysmorphophobia3: a preoccupation with a
defect in appearance which is either imagined
or excessive in relation to a minor defect and
which causes significant distress in social,
occupational and other areas of life. BDD is
probably rare but is an extraordinarily difficult
problem to deal with. It is unlikely that
demands to change appearance will be satisfied for this group of patients. A second opinion is a perfectly acceptable course of action if
in doubt.
Fig. 3 Case requiring changes in

upper lateral incisor length and
levelling of lower incisal plane
Fig. 4 Trial alterations to case in

figure 3: uncured composite added
to upper incisal edges and watersoluble ink to lower left incisors and
canine
FINAL PLANNING AND CLINICAL PROCEDURES

Having decided on the restoration type, it
remains to finalise margin features and carry out
the clinical stages, ultimately leading to cementation.
Fig. 5 Final restoration of upper

lateral incisor edges of case in
figure 3 (directly applied composite
resin used in this instance)
it is probably fair to say that it is much more

difficult to provide restorations exactly as created on a screen than to use a wax model as a
guide, especially if the patient has been given
a colour enhanced print of the expected outcome! Unlike the techniques described above,
computer manipulation of images has no
physical limits and may as a result create
unrealistic expectations.
Photographs of previous cases may help
patients to understand both the possibilities
and the limitations. Restricting these to the
ones with the best results may be a mistake.
Where there are clearly going to be aesthetic
limitations, it is probably best to illustrate
them with realistic examples. The patient may
be more likely to agree to treatment if they
can picture the outcome, rather than imagine
it from a verbal description.
Provisional restorations can allow the subtle
relationship between the shape and form of
the teeth and the soft tissues and facial features to be evaluated and decided before the
final restoration is constructed. They can
also ensure that tooth preparation for
restorative material is adequate (by establishing the desired shape and form and then
446
Supra or sub-gingival: where should the crown

margin go?
Factors identified in the assessment should
help to determine the location of crown margins. Where the margins are not visible, there
are good biological arguments for placing all
margins supra-gingivally.4 These sites would
include all margins on molars, lingual and
interproximal sites, and buccal aspects of
anteriors and premolars where functional lip
positions obscure the gingival margin. Not
only will this facilitate finishing and maintenance but should also favour periodontal
health. The appearance of a supragingival
margin can be optimised by ensuring that the
finish line is in harmony with the level of the
gingival margin.
Where exposed crown margins are likely to
create an aesthetic problem, margin placement
up to 1 mm into the gingival sulcus can be
acceptable.5 However, great caution should
be exercised as gingival margins are at risk of
recession, particularly when there are prominent
roots, thin gingival tissues or in the presence of
periodontitis. Though periodontal attachment
loss occurs to a greater or lesser degree through
life,6 trauma during clinical stages and poorly
fitting temporary and final restorations will
increase the risk of gingival inflammation and
subsequent recession. The need to optimise
retention by increasing preparation length may
be better addressed by removing periodontal
attachment surgically (crown lengthening),
than by making the margin encroach deeply into
the gingival sulcus and attachment apparatus
with the risk of inflammation.
PRACTICE
Shoulder or chamfer: what should the
preparation finish line be like?
There is a forceful argument that where possible,
ceramo-metal crowns should have metal margins because this produces the most predictable
marginal seal7 but as discussed earlier in this
series (Part 2 Materials Considerations), this is a
contentious issue. However by avoiding the
metal collar, a porcelain butt fit, created on a
shoulder finish line, will generally allow for
better aesthetics in critical areas. A restoration
whose margin is in porcelain may allow light to
pass into porcelain from the gingival aspect as it
does into intact teeth contributing to a lifelike
appearance.8
How much metal: where should the porcelainmetal junction on ceramo-metal crowns be?
There is no biological or technical benefit in
using porcelain at sites that are not visible. Consideration given to the precise location of porcelain-metal junctions for ceramo-metal crowns at
the planning stage gives the potential to optimise conservation of tooth structure yet still
maintain satisfactory aesthetics. Volume to volume, the extent of reduction for metal alone is
substantially less than for metal and porcelain:
different depths of tooth reduction can be used
at different sites depending on the covering
material(s). Tooth preparation then becomes an
ordered technical exercise to satisfy the need for
differential space attainment. It should be obvious to the technician examining the resulting
die where to locate porcelain-metal junctions
(Fig. 6). There are laboratory cost implications to
provision of ceramo-metal crowns of this sort. It
is necessary to wax a full contour restoration on
the die, mark the porcelain-metal junction and
then cut back space in the wax pattern for porcelain rather than simply to create a thin metal
coping over the whole preparation which is covered by porcelain.
Shade matching
Shade matching is something many of us find
difficult and is often done last whereas in fact it
should be done first! It is not an exact science,
involving as it does a good deal of subjective
judgement. Although an accurate reproduction
of shade is an obvious goal, it cannot be
divorced from consideration of shape, surface
texture and special characteristics, which are
described later. Teeth possess a range of optical
features seemingly designed to make shade
matching difficult! Teeth:
Are non-uniform in colour
May have complex visible internal and surface features
Are semi-translucent
Exhibit a degree of fluorescence
Change shade and shape with age
In addition, a good shade match to porcelain
in one light condition may be a poor one under
different lighting: a phenomenon termed
metamerism. Despite these obstacles, the best
porcelain restorations go a long way to reproducing nature using a combination of skilful

artistry and optical trickery. Before recording
and prescribing shade it is useful to have a basic
understanding of the science and dimensions of
colour and texture so that shades can be interpreted and communicated precisely.
Dimensions of colour
Colour can be described in terms of three dimensions:
1. Hue: The name of the colour eg blue, red etc.
2. Value: An achromatic measure of the lightness or darkness of a particular colour such
that high value refers to a shade which is
light and low value to one which is dark.
Two completely different colours can have
exactly the same value. To help understand
this, imagine the effect of black and white
television on colours.
3. Chroma: The strength or saturation of a colour
of particular hue. Imagine increasing the
chroma of a small amount of colour pigment
diluted in water by adding more of the same
pigment.
Fig. 6 Die with reduction to match

veneering material(s): the larger
buccal axial reduction is needed to
accommodate metal and porcelain,
the smaller palatal reduction is for
metal alone
Shade guides in common use (Figs 7 and 8)

are not designed for a systematic assessment of
the dimensions of colour and have been criticised for not including a broad enough range of
shades. Two commonly used guides (Vita Lumin
and Ivoclar Chromoscope) are composed of
groups based essentially on hue (Vita Lumin:
A= reddish brown, B = reddish yellow, C = grey
shades, D = reddish grey, Ivoclar Chromascop:
1 series = cream, 2 series = orange, 3 series =
light brown, 4 series = grey, 5 series = dark
brown), with sub-classes of varying value and
chroma. The Vitapan 3D Master system uses a
simple but methodical approach to shade determination based on the three dimensions of
colour. In common with previous work,9 the
Fig. 7 Vita Lumin shade

tabs with stained necks
removed in order of
decreasing value
Fig. 8 Ivolcar
Chromascop shade
guide
447
PRACTICE
Table 3 A scheme for shade determination

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Determine shade at the start of an appointment before the risk of eye fatigue and tooth
dehydration with resultant shade change (especially after use of rubber dam).
Use either natural light (not direct sunlight) or a colour corrected artificial light source.
Drape the patient with a neutral coloured cover if clothing is bright and have the patient
remove brightly coloured makeup.
Assess value by squinting. The reduced amount of light entering the eye may allow the retinal
rods to better distinguish degrees of lightness and darkness. (Vita Lumin shade tabs set in order
of value facilitates this [Fig. 7])
Make rapid comparisons with shade tabs (no more than 5 seconds each viewing). Gazing at a
soft blue colour between attempts is said to reduce blue fatigue, which can result in accentuation
of yellow-orange sensitivity.
Choose the dominant hue and chroma within the value range chosen. The canines have high
chroma and may be a useful guide to assessing hue.
Compare selected tabs under different conditions eg wet vs dry, different lip positions, artificial
and natural light from different angles.
Select a shade which is higher in value (lighter) if in doubt. Surface stains can reduce these
dimensions but not easily increase them.
Look carefully for colour characterisation such as stained imbrication lines, white spots, neck
colouration, incisal edge translucency and halo effect (a thin opaque line sometimes seen within
a translucent incisal). Shade tabs exactly representing the pure porcelains and stains available
can be useful for this task. Simple diagrams are invaluable.
Determine surface lustre.
Vitapan 3D Master system emphasises value as

the most important dimension in colour matching for porcelain restorations. Whichever guide
is used, it is useful to understand colour terminology as it forms a language for communicating additional information about colour to the
laboratory.
Surface texture
This quality describes surface contour both at a
macro level, such as developmental lobes and
ridges, as well as fine surface detail such as
perikymata. The lustre of a restoration describes
the level of glaze produced in the porcelain oven
or by various rotary instruments and polishing
techniques. Lustre can effect value perception
such that high lustre raises value. It is therefore
an important feature to match and one which is
often neglected. At the very least, terms such as
high, medium or low lustre can be used on the
prescription, and are more effective if they are
linked to a standardised reference guide which
can be used both in the surgery and in the dental
laboratory. The technician can often get a good
indication of other surface features from surrounding teeth.
Special characteristics
These include fracture lines, white spots and
translucency. The best looking special characteristics are incorporated during incremental
porcelain application. Surface stains can be used
to produce some of these effects but are prone to
wearing away with time.
Fig. 9 Space required

for metal coping and
layers of porcelain for
a ceramo-metal crown
Fig. 10 Putty mould sectioned and

numbered on a diagnostic wax-up
448
Tooth
Cement lute
Metal coping
Opaquer
Opacious dentine
Dentine
Enamel
Translucent
Choosing and prescribing a shade

As well as factors inherent in teeth themselves,
barriers to accurate shade matching often
include inappropriate viewing conditions, shade
guides that tend to be made from thick layers of
high fusing porcelain and even colour blindness.10 Against this background, it is perhaps not
surprising that different dentists tend to match
the same tooth differently from each other, and
even from previous attempts to match the same
tooth themselves.11 Choosing a shade will benefit
from adherence to a protocol based on sound reasoning. Table 3 gives a method for assessing
shade and surface texture12 which we think is
highly appropriate and is easy to apply. Occasionally custom-made shade tabs with varying
amounts of porcelains and a range of surface textures and special characteristics are helpful. Electronic optical devices have been produced to
assist making an objective assessment of shade
but their usefulness remains to be fully evaluated.
Tooth preparation
Achieving optimum aesthetics depends heavily
on providing the technician with adequate space
for the incremental application of porcelain
(Fig. 9). The considerations have already been
discussed above, but when it comes to the practicalities, the extent of tooth preparation is best
visualised intra-orally by reference to a preparation guide. A small putty mould, made over the
PRACTICE
tooth before preparation, and then cut in crosssection is invaluable if the shape of the tooth is
to be maintained. A putty mould (Figs 10 and 11)
or vacuum formed matrix made from a diagnostic wax-up is required if the shape of the tooth is
to be changed (Fig. 12). Depth cuts to guide
tooth reduction may be a useful guide to ensure
adequate reduction, but are not very helpful
when shape changes are planned. Matrices are
particularly helpful on the buccal surfaces of
upper anterior teeth which are curved when
viewed from the mesial or distal. There is a tendency to prepare the buccal surface in a
single plane, ignoring the curvature (Fig. 13).
The aesthetic result will either be a bulky crown
(if the full thickness of porcelain is placed), or a
crown where the contour is correct, but where
the core porcelain is inadequately masked. To
achieve a good aesthetic result the buccal surface preparation should follow the natural curvature of the tooth (see Fig. 11).
Fig. 11 Putty matrix in-situ to help

visualise appropriate tooth reduction
Clinical records
As well as the role of the facebow record in
helping to make movements of casts on an
Fig. 12 Vacuum formed matrix

in-situ
articulator anatomical, it ensures that articulated working casts are orientated to the base of
articulator in the same way that the patients
teeth are orientated with respect to the floor (if
the patients head is upright and the anatomical
features used as reference points are normally
related!). This helps the technician see the
restorations orientated as they would be when
observing the patient. Very occasionally an
ear-bow recording can give an erroneous interpretation of the relationship of the occlusal to
the horizontal plane. This discrepancy occurs
as a result of the patients ears being at different levels and may need to be compensated for
where multiple anterior crowns are prescribed.
Fig. 13 Crown preparation with no second plane of

reduction
Fig. 14 Ceramo-metal crown at the pre-glaze stage.

Along with written instructions, pencil marks help to
indicate changes required
Try-in and cementation

Where shade matching has been difficult for
conventional crowns, there is merit in trial
placement of moistened restorations before giving them their final surface finish. Surface stains
and changes in surface form can be prescribed at
this stage (Fig. 14). It should be remembered that
surface stains might eventually be lost.
After glazing, a period of trial cementation
leaves scope for a further period of assessment by both patient and dentist. If restorations are subsequently returned to the laboratory for adjustment, steps must be taken to
dehydrate porcelain before firing to avoid the
risk of fracture. Furthermore, temporarily
cemented definitive crowns can be difficult to
remove. Zinc oxide and eugenol-based
cement must have its mechanical properties
significantly reduced by adding a modifier as
described later in this series (Part 11 Try-in
and cementation).
Pigmented luting agents allow subtle manipulation of shade for adhesive porcelain restorations. Some systems provide water-based trial
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Todd J E, Lader D. Adult Dental Health

1988: United Kingdom. Office of
Population Censuses and Surveys,
1991.
Saunders W P, Saunders E M.
Prevalence of periradicular
periodontitis associated with
crowned teeth in an adult Scottish
subpopulation. Br Dent J 1998; 185:
137-140.
Cunningham S J, Bryant C J, Manisali
M, Hunt H P, Feinman C.
Dysmorphophobia: recent
developments of interest to the
maxillofacial surgeon. Br J Oral and
Maxillofac Surg 1996; 34: 368-374.
Valderhaug J, Birkeland J M.
Periodontal conditions in patients
5 years following insertion of fixed
prostheses. J Oral Rehabil 1976; 3:
237-243.
Freilich M A, Niekrash C E, Katz R V,
Simonsen R J. Periodontal effects of
fixed partial denture retainer
margins: configuration and location.
449
PRACTICE
cements to facilitate the choice of colour. Manufactures instructions should be followed.
COMMUNICATION WITH THE LABORATORY

The dentist must accept ultimate responsibility
for all aspects of completed laboratory work.
On the face of it this might suggest that a totally prescriptive one-way communication is
required. Not surprisingly such an attitude can
lead to feelings of frustration and dissatisfaction to all concerned. It does not have to be
like this! Trained technicians are highly skilled
in a unique blend of art, craftsmanship and
science (as can be appreciated very rapidly by
any dentist attempting to wield wax or porcelain!). Better then to foster a team approach
and central to a conflict free relationship is the
establishment of dialogue and clearly defined
roles for dentist and technician. To this end
there is little to beat a personal visit to the laboratory and subsequently it is helpful to be
available to speak to technicians and to share
ideas. Certainly it is important at the very least
to provide a clear written prescription which
should include a diagram to enable regional
450
variations in shade and special characteristics

to be understood. Where there are difficulties
in recording shade a wise dentist will involve
the technician in the decision. Compliments as
well as constructive criticism will help technicians evaluate their work, and anyone who
takes pride in their work will appreciate the
opportunity to see the final result of a job well
done. It is probably fair to say that quality
clinical work will be rewarded with higher
quality restorations.
CONCLUSION
A complete understanding of a patients aesthetic problems is the key to treatment planning. Only then can an attempt be made to
match expectations with realities and to provide appropriate restorations. This process
depends heavily on an understanding of the
limitations of the techniques and materials
available.
Manufacturers details:
Ivoclar-Vivadent Ltd, Meridian South, Leicester LE3 2WY
VITA Zahnfabrik, H Rauter GmbH & Co KG, Postfach,
D-79704, Bad Sckingen, Germany
J Prosthet Dent 1992; 67:

184-190.
6. Abdellatiff H M, Burt B A. An
epidemiological investigation into the
relative importance of age and oral
hygiene status as determinants of
periodontitis. J Dent Res 1987; 66: 1318.
7. Bishop K, Briggs P, Kelleher M. Margin
design for porcelain fused to metal
restorations which extend onto the
root. Br Dent J 1996; 180: 177-184.
8. Lehner C R, Manchen R, Scharer P.
Variable reduced metal support for
collarless metal ceramic crowns: a new
model for strength evaluation. Int J
Prosthodont 1995; 8: 337-345.
9. Sproull R C. Color matching in dentistry.
Part II: Practical applications of the
organization of color. J Prosthet Dent
1973; 29: 556-566.
10. Moser J B, Wozniak W T, Naleway C A.
Colour vision in dentistry: a survey.
J Am Dent Assoc 1985; 110: 509-510.
11. Culpepper W D. A Comparative study of
shade-matching procedures. J Prosthet
Dent 1970; 24: 166-173.
12. Sorensen J A, Torres T J. Improved color
matching of metal-ceramic
restorations. Part I: A systematic
method for shade determination.
J Prosthet Dent 1987; 58: 133-139.
PRACTICE
IN BRIEF
Core placement nowadays demands more use of adhesives (coupled with retentive cavity
preparation) and less use of pins
It is good practice to remove existing restorations of unknown provenance to facilitate cavity
inspection and ensure core retention
Cores act either as a simple space filler or a structural build-up. The less tooth structure the
greater the mechanical demands on the core, the material for which must be chosen carefully
Dentists placing pins need to be aware of how to prevent and manage pin placement problems

Cores for teeth with vital pulps
R. W. Wassell1 E. R. Smart2 and G. St. George3
Cores for teeth with vital pulps is the seventh in the series of crowns and other extra-coronal restorations. A core is defined
as that part of a preparation for an indirect restoration consisting of restorative material. This article questions the need for
routine pin placement and addresses the following issues removal of existing restorations, the need for a core, core
materials, core retention, and problem solving.

RESTORATIONS:

3. Pre-operative
assessment
4. Endodontic
considerations
vital pulps
veneer crowns
technique
of crowns
restorations
1*Senior Lecturer, 2Lecturer, Department of
Restorative Dentistry, The Dental School,

Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4BW 3Specialist
Registrar in Restorative Dentistry, Eastman
Dental Hospital, 256 Grays Inn Road,
London WC1X 8LD
*Correspondence to: Dr R.W. Wassell, Dept.
of Restorative Dentistry, The Dental
School, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4BW
Refereed Paper
499509
For almost half a century pinned amalgam

restorations have been taught as the basis for
cores in posterior vital teeth. Many schools,
including our own, continue this venerable tradition in the knowledge that when skilfully carried out in optimal circumstances it seems to
work well. However, clinical research on pin
placement shows that the technique is not without problems.1 Of 429 pin placements by staff
and students at Leeds Dental School 19%
showed complications most frequently a loose
pin or inadequate penetration of the pin into the
pin channel. However, 10% of complications
were serious involving either perforation of the
pulp or periodontium, or tooth fracture. Inexperienced operators are especially prone to problems with almost half of the pins (41%) placed by
second year students proving unsatisfactory.
Experienced operators are not immune to difficulty; a survey of 37 practitioners placing 1394
pins over a 3-month period reported difficulties
in 1 in 20 placements.2
A considerable amount of in-vitro evidence
(see Table 1) shows the potential pins have for
causing crazing of the dentine (look at Fig. 1)
and pulpal sensitivity.
In addition, an animal study12 showed
severe pulpal inflammation where pins were
placed within 0.5 mm of the pulp. Some selfshearing pins cause stressing and crazing when
they bottom out in the pin channel,4 which
may explain the symptoms some patients
develop following pin placement. Of course,
symptoms may also arise from undetected
pulpal or periodontal perforations.
Fortunately there are other methods of retaining a core including the use of existing cavity
BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 9 MAY 11 2002
preparation features, additional slots and boxes

and, most importantly, adhesion. Much of the
skill in placing a core involves the selection of
the most appropriate material and technique, but
whatever type of core is placed an important
principle is that existing restorations should first
be removed.
REMOVAL OF EXISTING RESTORATIONS

Figure 2 shows a tooth that clearly is a potential
candidate for a crown. Only one cusp remains
plus the remnants of another. The tooth has been
repaired on a number of occasions and there is
veritable jigsaw of amalgam fillings. There is
also a suggestion of mesial caries. No dentists in
their right mind would pick up a handpiece and
start to prepare this tooth for a crown. The most
likely outcome would be a complete collapse of
what is there with the potential for a rather difficult reassembly. Furthermore, if what is on display is representative of previous treatment, the
possibility exists of there being residual as well
as recurrent caries and even perhaps latent
involvement of the pulp chamber.
Figure 3 shows a bitewing radiograph of the
tooth. This adds to the diagnostic complexity of
the case. What is holding the amalgam in place?
There is no evidence of pins or other retentive
devices and there are signs that the pulp chamber has been visited in the past. The clear evidence of dentine bridges indicate a successful
pulpotomy and the question arises whether this
should be accepted or in view of the potential
risk of future pulp problems, should the tooth be
root filled? (In this case the fillings were replaced
with a more acceptable amalgam restoration and
the tooth put on probation with a view to
499
PRACTICE
Table 1. In vitro studies demonstrating problems with retentive pin placement

Problem
Reason for problem
Study
Crazing of
dentine
Dulling of twist drill during pin channel preparation caused by

an adherence of smear debris behind the drills cutting edge.
Stresses within dentine resulting from differences in
diameter between the drill and the pin. Potential for
damage increases with the number of pins inserted and .
the pin diameter
Pin placement strain caused by pins which have a core
diameter (ie at the inner aspect of the thread) greater
than the drill diameter
Any fluid in the pin channel during pin insertion
can contribute to cracking.
Extensive cracks occurring with larger sized pins frequently
communicate with the pulp chamber.
Heat generated during pin channel preparation, which is
greater with larger diameter drills at higher speeds and
deeper penetration.
Microleakage, which is worst with cemented pins and least
with threaded pins. Cavity varnish does not reduce
the problem
Some pins only partially penetrate the pin channel.
This will reduce retention and leave a dead space prone
to bacterial invasion.
Newitter et al.,
19893
Standlee et al.,
19714
Kera et al.,
19785
Bione and Wilson,
19866
Pulpal
inflammation
following pin
placement
Fig. 1 Section of threaded pins

placed into dentine. Notice the
dentine crazing (A) and the failure
of a pin to fully penetrate the pin
channel (B)
Fig. 2 Would you use this amalgam

as a core?
500
Hummert and
Kaiser, 19927
Webb et al.,
19898
Cooley and
Barkmeier, 1980 9
Chan, 197410
Barkmeier and
Cooley, 197911
re-assessing the endodontic condition and

crowning it later.)
Before a crown preparation is undertaken,
look closely at the tooth and form a mental picture of what will be left after cutting. Consider
the existing restorations; decide on whether they
are sound and whether they will remain in place
during the cutting procedure. A history of the
restoration should be determined but if this is
not possible, especially if another operator has
done the previous treatment, then consideration
should be given to replacing the restoration.
From personal experience, such restorations
have been found on removal to have caries,
cracked cusps and in some cases, latent pulp
exposure beneath them. It is better to remove
such fillings rather than be faced with an embarrassing endodontic emergency after the crown
has been fabricated and cemented. It also gives
you the chance to inspect (preferably under
magnification) what remains of the tooth and
decide whether this can be satisfactorily adapted
to retain the core.
In summary, removal of existing restorations
allows proper assessment of:
The tooths structural integrity (bearing in
mind the need for mechanical core retention
following tooth reduction during crown
preparation)
Fig. 3 Bitewing radiograph of tooth in Fig. 2 revealing a

number of underlying problems
Pulpal exposure
Underlying caries
THE NEED FOR A CORE

It is useful to think of a core as either a buildup, which contributes significantly to the
strength and retentiveness of the crown
preparation, or filler that simply alters the
shape of the preparation, usually with the purpose of eliminating undercuts.13 Fillers are
often used on anterior teeth where class III
and V restorations need to be replaced during
tooth preparation.
Occasionally it may be necessary to electively devitalise a tooth and provide a post and
core, often in combination with crown lengthening, to give adequate retention for the
restoration (eg where only a root face exists).
However a resin bonded indirect restoration
may provide a viable alternative to devitalisation, especially where the intended crown is
short occluso-gingivally. In this situation the
adhesive would be subjected to less heavy peel
and sheer stresses during function than if the
crown were long.
It is worth emphasising that crown preparations do not always have to be built up with a
core to an ideal shape. Instead, existing cavity
features can be refined to give suitable grooves
and boxes. This approach is particularly useful
for crown preparations affected by short clinical
crown height (Fig. 4).
Cores may be placed either at the time of
tooth preparation or beforehand. Where a
patient requires only a single restoration the
core and preparation can be made simultaneously in which case it is easiest to contour the core
to resemble the intended preparation (Fig. 5).
However, placing the core in advance gives a
better opportunity to assess the integrity of a
tooth and its pulp chamber and choose the most
appropriate indirect restoration for the amount
and configuration of remaining tooth tissue.
Cores placed in advance should be properly
contoured to provide occlusal stability, patient
comfort and freedom from food packing (Fig. 6).
This approach becomes more crucial where
patients require multiple cores. Once such cores
are placed, the patient can be reviewed to ensure
compliance with oral hygiene instruction,
dietary advice and disease control. If the
patients response is unsatisfactory the provision
PRACTICE
Recommendations
Excellent core build-up material for posterior
teeth
Excellent interim restoration for posterior
teeth
Adhesives and preparation features can often
substitute for pin retention
Fig. 4a A core is not always necessary. With teeth of

short clinical crown height consider using internal
preparation features rather than building up to a
classical, textbook preparation
Fig. 4b The boxes and grooves of the preparation will be

engaged by the fit surface of the crown providing a
substantial increase in retention
of crowns may be suitably deferred. Core buildup materials need therefore to be chosen with
care, as there is always the possibility that
the core may in itself become the definitive
restoration.
CORE MATERIALS
The material requirements of a core will differ
depending on whether it is to be used as a buildup or filler. As a rule of thumb if sufficient tooth
remains to provide a strong and retentive preparation then the core acts simply as filler. Should
you be in any doubt it is better to choose a
strong build-up material than risk mechanical
failure of weak filler.
Amalgam
Advantages
Not especially technique sensitive
Strong in bulk section
Sealed by corrosion products
Can be glued into place with cements and
resins
Disadvantages
Best left to set for 24 hours before tooth
preparation
Weak in thin section
Mercury content may be of concern to some
patients and dentists
Potential electrolytic action between core and
metal crown
Not intrinsically adhesive
Amalgam has traditionally been regarded as

the best build-up material under conventionally
cemented crowns as it has good bulk strength
and is sealed by its own corrosion products. It is
not especially technique sensitive providing that
during placement it is well condensed and is not
grossly contaminated by blood or saliva.
Although it is possible to find rapidly setting
amalgams it is usually better to delay crown
preparation for at least 24 hours.
Amalgams main disadvantage lies in its mercury content which a minority of patients and
dental practitioners find unacceptable. Also, the
potential electrolytic action between the metal
substructure of the future crown and the underlying amalgam is to some individuals a cause of
concern14 as it may liberate metallic ions. However, the intervening cement will act as an insulator and limit ion liberation, so unless the
patient is suffering from lichen planus this is
unlikely to be a problem.
Amalgam is weak in thin section and for this
reason has no role to play in the provision of
cores in anterior teeth. In posterior teeth the core
may flake away if left in insufficient bulk following tooth preparation. Its retention is mainly
mechanical, but increasingly adhesives are being
used as will be discussed in the next section.
Fig. 5 It is sometimes convenient to

build a core to resemble the
intended preparation. (Courtesy of
Professor Ian Barnes)
Fig. 6 Fully contoured cores are

essential when longer-term interim
restorations are needed
501
PRACTICE
Composite
Advantages
Strong
Can be used in a thinner section than amalgam
Fast setting (either light or chemically cured)
Does not always need a matrix during placement
Avoids mercury controversy
Disadvantages
Highly technique sensitive
Relies on multi-stage dentine bonding requiring effective isolation
Dentine bond can be ruptured by polymerisation contraction
Minor dimensional changes caused by the
coefficient of thermal expansion (three times
higher than the tooth) and water absorption
not usually clinically significant
Can be difficult to distinguish between tooth
and core during preparation
Recommendations
Excellent build-up material for posterior and
anterior teeth if isolation assured
Aesthetic interim restoration, but takes far
longer to place than amalgam
Pin retention rarely necessary
Although composite is as strong as amalgam15 it has only recently been accepted as a
good core material, albeit a less forgiving one.
Without dentine bonding agents microleakage16
is a significant problem. Dentists who placed
composite cores before the advent of dentine
bonding agents will remember the resulting
caries and pulpal problems although surprisingly, this problem was never documented scientifically.
Effective bonds between composite and tooth
are now possible, but only where moisture
contamination and shrinkage can be properly
controlled. The term wet bonding, whereby the
dentine is left damp following etching and rinsing to encourage better penetration of the
primer, should not lull us into a false sense of
security. Experience shows blood and saliva
contamination will render bonding useless. We
therefore recommend the use of rubber dam and
incremental placement of light cured composite
to reduce shrinkage problems. Chemically cured
composite can be placed as a single increment as
shrinkage stresses are partially dissipated
through the much longer setting time. Where
Fig. 7 GICs release fluoride, but this

is not always effective in preventing
decay as seen in this radiograph of a
10-year-old Ketac Silver core in the
lower first molar
502
totally effective isolation cannot be achieved, as

in many subgingival situations, the use of composite cores is contraindicated.
With an amalgam core there is usually little
problem in identifying whether the finish line
for a crown preparation lies on a core or on
sound tooth tissue. With tooth coloured cores
such discrimination can be difficult, even if a
contrasting shade of composite is chosen. To
overcome this difficulty composites have been
introduced with titanium filler particles. These
are chemically setting materials, which despite
their impressively strong appearance have
lower values of diametral strength, compressive strength and fracture toughness than regular light cured composite.15,17 They are however stronger than GIC.
Glass ionomer
Advantages
Intrinsically adhesive
Fluoride release but this does not guarantee
freedom from 2o decay (Fig. 7)
Similar coefficient of thermal expansion to
tooth
Disadvantages
Considerably weaker than amalgam and composite
Tendency to crack worsened by early instrumentation
Silver containing materials offer little
improvement in physical properties
Some materials radiolucent
Recommendations
Excellent filler but relies on having sufficient
dentine to support crown
Where used as a build-up, best to leave tooth
preparation until next appointment
Good material on which to bond restorations
with resin cement
Some dentists favour glass ionomers cements
for cores, in view of the apparent ease of placement, adhesion, fluoride release, and matched
coefficient of thermal expansion. Silver containing GICs18 (eg the cermet, Ketac Silver, Espe
GMbH, Germany) or the miracle mix of GIC and
unreacted amalgam alloy have been especially
popular. Some believe the silver within the material enhances its physical and mechanical properties, however, in-vitro studies are equivocal19,20
and a study of a cermet used to fill deciduous
teeth showed that it performed less well than a
conventional GIC.21 In the days when many
GICs were radiolucent, the addition of silver
conferred radiopacity without which it would be
difficult or impossible to diagnose secondary
caries. Nowadays, many conventional GICs are
radiopaque and are easier to handle than the
silver containing materials. Nevertheless, many
workers regard GICs as inadequately strong to
support major core build-ups.15,17,2224 Hence
the recommendation that a tooth should have at
least two structurally intact walls if a GIC core is
to be considered.25 In our view it is best to regard
GIC as an excellent filler but a relatively weak
PRACTICE
build-up material (Fig. 8). In order to protect a
GIC core the crown margin should, wherever
possible, completely embrace 12 mm of sound
tooth structure cervically. Extension of the
crown margin in this way is termed the ferrule
effect26 and should ideally be used for all cores.
Resin modified glass ionomers

Advantages
Command set
Stronger than regular GICs
Either intrinsically adhesive or with simplified
bonding system
Fluoride release
Disadvantages
Most are weaker than amalgam and composite
Hydrophilic resins cause swelling and can
crack overlying porcelain
Some materials can inhibit surface setting of
addition silicone impressions
Not reliable like amalgam and composite as an
interim restoration
Recommendations
Useful filler but confers few advantages over
regular GIC
These materials come in a number of presentations, which can be used for a variety of purposes including fillings, cementation and core
placement. They have been developed to provide
properties intermediate between regular GICs
and light cured composites. There is a spectrum
of such materials. At one end are those that start
to set in the same way as a GIC following mixing
but are rapidly hardened by light curing the
incorporated resin (eg Fuji II LC, GC International
Corp, Leuven, Belgium). At the other end of the
spectrum are the compomers, which have an
initial setting reaction similar to composites (eg
Dyract, Dentsply, Weybridge, UK). The GIC reaction does not occur until later when moisture
from the mouth is absorbed into the set resin
matrix where it activates incorporated polyacids. The resins used in these materials are
hydrophilic and swell slightly following water
absorption. This expansion has the potential to
fracture ceramic restorations overlying cores
and cements made with resin modified glass
ionomers or compomers.27
Dentists have received these materials with
some enthusiasm not least because the adhesive
systems are easier to use than for composite
resin and unlike GICs their rapid set does not
delay tooth preparation. As well as good handling properties there is also the advantage of
fluoride release.
Vitremer (3M, St Paul, USA) is an RMGI with
good strength properties,28 specifically advocated
as a core material. In a short-term clinical trial it
behaved satisfactorily under gold crowns, without the need for pin placement.29 However, during the 3 months before crown preparation a
third of the cores developed significant surface
defects, which, although eliminated by crown
preparation, suggest the material unsuitable for
long-term interim restorations needed to estabBRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 9 MAY 11 2002
lish occlusal stability. The authors were also at

pains to emphasise the need for ferruling the
crown preparation onto sound dentine in the
same way as for regular GICs. Also of some concern, Vitremer prepared with a diamond bur had
an inhibitory effect on the setting of a polyvinyl
siloxane impression material.30 This unset material may result in die inaccuracies.
At the present time we are not wildly enthusiastic about using these materials for cores other
than as fillers.
CORE RETENTION
In this section we consider techniques of securing the core, which may be used either singly or
in combination. These include:
Cavity modifications
Resin bonding
Cement bonding
Pins
There is little specific evidence of how well

these methods work to retain cores but much
information can be derived from laboratory
studies and clinical studies of large amalgam or
composite restorations.
Cavity modifications
Anyone who has had a core detach within a
crown (Fig. 9) will know that it is unwise to place
complete faith in either glues or pins. To gain
mechanical retention for the core it is always
worth capitalising on existing cavity features
such as boxes or an isthmus. Where there is only
a small amount of tooth tissue remaining it is
also worth considering crown lengthening to
ensure the crown margin is ferruled onto sound
tooth structure.
Improved interlock between core and tooth
can often be obtained by cutting new boxes or
grooves, or by reducing and onlaying weakened
cusps with core material. Where cusps are
onlayed in this way the material must be sufficiently thick so that the core is not catastrophically weakened during occlusal reduction of the
crown preparation. As a rough guide cusps
should be reduced in height where they are less
than 1 mm thick or the wall thickness to height
ratio is less than 1:1.31 Another useful tip is to
resolve sloping walls into vertical and horizontal
components. This approach will improve the
resistance for both cores and castings. When
cutting these auxiliary features one clearly
wants to conserve tooth structure, but it is
worth sacrificing non-critical amounts to make
the work reliable. Problems with pulpal
involvement may occur if such features are cut
into the heart of the tooth a term used by
Shillingburg31 to describe the central volume of
dentine beneath which lies the pulp. The heart
may be avoided by not cutting any features
more than 1.5 mm from the amelo-dentinal
junction (ADJ) in a transverse plane.
Most dentists are familiar with the use of
proximal grooves to retain Class II amalgam
restorations. Not so many dentists know that
Fig. 8 GICs work best where the

retention and resistance for the
definitive restoration is derived
mainly from surrounding tooth
tissue. Here a silver cermet acts as
excellent space filler in a gold onlay
preparation
Fig. 9. A detached core still attached

to its crown, despite a goodly
number of pins. Notice that the
crown does not provide a ferrule
effect and the absence of cavity
retention features.
505
PRACTICE
grooves can be used as an alternative to pins to
retain large amalgam and composite restorations. Such grooves are cut into the base of
cusps or into the gingival floor of boxes (Fig.
10). A small round bur (eg or 1 depending on
tooth size) can be used. The depth of the groove
needs to be sufficient to offer resistance to withdrawal of the head of the bur when it is used to
gauge the presence of undercut. This usually
means cutting to between two thirds and the
complete depth of a round-headed bur. Grooves
need to be positioned to within 0.5 mm of the
amelo dentinal junction. Newsome has written
an excellent account of the practical
procedure.32
The use of grooves (sometimes termed slots)
has been tested invitro and in-vivo. A circumferential groove used to retain a full coronal
amalgam compared with four dentine pins
showed no significant difference in dislodging
force in one in-vitro study33 but was less resistant in another.34 The majority of pinned cores in
these studies failed through amalgam slippage
and pins bending. Where the slippage of amalgam had been slight this would have been difficult to detect clinically. By contrast failure of the
grooved cores was all or none.
Short-term clinical trials show that groove
retained amalgams perform at least as well
as pinned amalgams.35,36 However, grooves
are associated with less pulpal inflammation
than pins.12
The above studies were carried out without
adhesives or dentine bonding. A combination of
grooves and bonding should be even better.
Resin bonding
Resin adhesives were devised to bond composite
restorations to enamel and dentine. These materials have been developed into luting agents for
adhesively retained bridges and also bonding
agents for amalgam restorations. Examples of
amalgam bonding agents include:
Amalgam bonding agent
Panavia EX and Panavia 21
All Bond 2
Amalgam Bond and
Amalgam Bond Plus
Adhesive resin
Phosphate ester of Bis GMA
NPG GMA
4 META/TBB-MMA,
HEMA
In-vitro studies show that when properly

placed these materials can enhance bond
Fig. 10 Groove preparation in an

upper molar. A round bur is being
used to groove the cervical floor of
the box. A: A number 1 round bur
has been used in the lingual cusp
B: Grooves should be sufficiently
deep to offer some resistance to bur
withdrawal
506
strength34,3739 and reduce microleakage.40 All

Bond 2 has some of the highest bond
strengths.38 However, some bonding agents are
ineffective, or relatively so, under conditions of
in-vitro testing. For instance, Panavia 21 had
such low bond strengths with one variety of
amalgam it was considered ineffective for retention.41 Worse still, all specimens made with
Amalgam Bond debonded prior to testing.38 But
it needs to be emphasised that better results have
been obtained with Amalgam Bond Plus39,42 a
bonding agent, which provides a similar sheer
strength to pin retained amalgams.39,42 However
mechanical retention, in the form of gooves or
boxes,43 should be provided where possible
rather than rely entirely on the adhesive.42
A clinical study has also compared the performance of pinned amalgam restorations with
those retained by resin adhesive. After 2 years
both types of restorations performed equally
well with no deterioration or loss of retention in
either group.44
The disadvantage of most resin adhesives is
that they require a multi-stage placement technique involving etching, washing, and priming
before the amalgam is condensed onto the wet
adhesive. Although some single-bottle primer/
adhesive systems show promise for bonding
amalgam,45 extra time and effort is still needed
and contamination during critical stages will
destroy the bond.
Cement bonding (Baldwin technique)

Another way of getting amalgam to bond to
dentine is to pack it onto a thin, wet layer of
cement. This method, called the Baldwin Technique,46 was reported in 1897 the very same
year as grooves were described.47 Whilst this
approach may seem old fashioned it should be
remembered that screw pins for dentine also
originated from that time.48
Baldwin used wet zinc phosphate cement to
improve the seal of newly placed amalgam
restorations. The technique never really caught
on, possibly because traditional teaching insists
that a cement base must be set to prevent its displacement by the condensed amalgam. Also, if
zinc phosphate were extruded to the cavity margins in any thickness it would be vulnerable to
dissolution. Nevertheless, wet cement has been
recommended to assist with core retention by
some highly reputable dentists.49
The evidence for using GICs as an amalgam
core adhesive is currently only laboratory based.
GICs form a good bond to dentine and an even
better one to amalgam.50,51 In bonding amalgam
to dentine GICs and resins give similar results.
Evaluations37,52,53 have included shear, tensile
and fracture strength tests for a variety of GICs
(the luting agent, Ketac Cem; the base/lining
material, Vitremer, and the filling material Fuji II).
Unfortunately there are no comparative data,
either laboratory or clinical, to guide us in the
selection of the most suitable GIC. Therefore,
whilst the technique holds great promise we
have to rely on empirical and derived informaBRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 9 MAY 11 2002
PRACTICE
tion. For instance it would be best to avoid GICs
designed for use as base materials, some of
which have been shown to be soluble when used
in the sandwich technique.54
Table 2 offers a clinical guide to using GIC as
a bonding agent for amalgam.
Pins
It is not the purpose of this article to put pin
manufacturers out of business, merely to draw
attention to potential problems of pin placement
and to emphasise viable alternatives. However,
many dentists will still feel the need to place
pins, perhaps on a belt and braces basis. Where
the urge cannot be resisted the advice in Table 3
may help reduce problems.
PROBLEM SOLVING
Many, although not all core placement problems
relate to the use of pins. Problems with pins can
be avoided by using alternative techniques.
Inadequate isolation
Cores are often required for heavily broken
down teeth with subgingival involvement where
oozing gingival margins cause problems with
visibility, caries removal and moisture control.
At the simplest level a well-placed matrix band
along with cotton wool rolls and aspiration may
provide sufficient isolation, but not always.
Rubber dam too may fall short of providing
excellent isolation. However, spaces between
tooth and rubber can be remedied by syringing
in a caulking material such as Ora Seal Putty
(Optident Ltd, Skipton, UK). This material must
be kept clear from the cavity margin. Electrosurgery can be used first to remove any gingival
excess and gingival bleeding controlled with a
styptic agent such as Astringident (Optident Ltd,
Skipton, UK).
Pin in periodontium or pulp
One event guaranteed to leave most dentists hot
under the collar is when the drill suddenly gives
and the patient gives a cry of pain or blood oozes
out of the pin channel. Alternatively the pin
continues to worm its way in, perhaps perforating a thin dentine wall separating the pin channel from either pulp or periodontium. Such perforations can be difficult to treat and before
taking action it is important to first confirm the
site of the perforation. A periapical radiograph
may help, but an electronic apex locator, which
will read beyond the apex if the pin or pin
channel is in the periodontium, will give an
instant and reliable diagnosis.57 For both periodontal and pulpal perforations the important
principle of treatment is to prevent microbial
ingress. Treatment decisions are necessarily
empirical in the absence of controlled clinical
studies.
Periodontal perforations are perhaps most
difficult to remedy and if left can result in
chronic infection and long-term patient discomfort. A perforation within the gingival
sulcus should be included within the margin of
Table 2 The Baldwin Technique modified for use with GIC cement and amalgam
Optimise mechanical retention with grooves, boxes etc.
Use Vitremer or a GIC luting agent with a longer working time
To prevent the set cement from sticking to the matrix band apply a thin layer of petroleum jelly to its
inner aspect. This must be done before fitting the matrix band or the cavity will be contaminated
Ensure good isolation but do not over-dry the cavity as this may result in post operative sensitivity
Apply a thin layer of cement over the entire cavity surface
Condense the amalgam into the deepest areas first (eg boxes and grooves) encouraging the wet
cement to be extruded up to the occlusal surface
When the cavity has been packed full remove the last increment of cement-contaminated amalgam
and repack with a fresh increment
Table 3 How to reduce pin placement problems

Pin selection
Avoid large pins for initial pin placement as they are not
significantly more retentive than medium pins
Select a pin with a stop to prevent bottoming out, and a
buttress thread to maximise retention (Fig. 11) and minimise
dentine stress55 (eg Unity Pins, Whaledent, Mahwah, USA)
Number and location of pins
Restrict the number of pins normally no more than one
per missing cusp
Place pins in locations non-hazardous to pulp and
periodontium:
1 mm from the ADJ
Towards the corners of molars56
Avoiding the central palatal area in upper molars (risk
of pulp perforation of the palatal root)
Avoiding the centre of proximal boxes, especially in
maxillary first premolars and other teeth with proximal
root concavities (Fig. 12)
Avoiding areas apical to the cementoenamel junction
Pin channel preparation
Ensure the twist drill is not dull and runs
in the correct direction
Angulate the pin drill by aligning it
against the outer surface of the tooth
Run drill at moderate speed without
excessive pressure
Partially withdraw drill after cutting the
first 1 mm to allow debris to clear
Fig. 11 The pin on the left has many

desirable features. In particular,
notice the stop half way along its
length to prevent it bottoming out
in the pin channel. The rounded
contours above the stop are
designed to reduce stress
concentration in the core
Fig. 12 Pins can easily perforate the periodontium

in areas of root concavity of molars and premolars
Pin placement
Use a speed reducing hand piece or run the hand piece at low speed
Use low pressure and let the pin find its way in
If necessary, bend the pin inwards to ensure clearance between the pin and matrix band
the intended restoration or else it will become a

subgingival plaque trap. A crown lengthening
procedure involving gingivectomy or raising a
flap (if necessary with bone recontouring) is
usually needed to access the pin. The pin can
then be either trimmed level with the root surface1,58 or the open perforation sealed. If the pin
has been placed into the periodontal ligament it
may be possible to remove it ultrasonically from
the coronal aspect, although with a freshly
placed pin this can take considerable time.59 If
the pin can be removed the new root canal perforation sealant, MTA (Mineral Trioxide
507
PRACTICE
Aggregate, Dentsply, Tulsa, USA), has the
potential to provide an excellent, biocompatible
seal.60 The occlusal portion of the pin channel
may need to be opened up sufficiently to allow
moisture control and the material to be condensed properly. If the pin is not retrievable it
may be left and the tooth put under probation
with a view to later crown lengthening surgery
should the tooth give symptoms. Certainly, it
would be unwise to place an expensive indirect
restoration on such a tooth until its prognosis
was confirmed.
Pulpal perforations are usually easier to
manage than periodontal perforations. Many
teeth requiring large cores have a questionable
pulpal status, and, if perforated are best root
treated, especially if the tooth is crucial to the
treatment plan and the outcome of the root
treatment can be assured. However, if there is
no rush to provide an indirect restoration the
tooth can be kept under probation and a pulp
capping technique used. Many materials seem
well tolerated by the pulp providing a bacteriological seal can be established and maintained.
Some authorities suggest that even the pin
itself can act as a pulp cap61,62 but few dentists sterilise their pins before placement and
the space between dentine and the inner diameter of the thread will allow bacteria to spiral
down into the pulp. At the very least the pin
and surrounding dentine will need to be surface sealed with a dentine-bonding agent.
Alternatively, the pin may be removed ultra
sonically (if it has already been placed) and the
pulp capped with calcium hydroxide or MTA,60
followed by sealing with composite and dentine bonding agent.
Of course, groove preparation also has the
potential to perforate either the pulp or periodontium, but this is likely to be a less frequent
event than pin perforation and should it occur
access for repair is very much easier.
Loose pin
A pin may become loose immediately after
placement, during pin length reduction or whilst
replacing an old pin retained restoration. If a
medium sized pin has been used it can be
replaced with a large pin. Alternatively, the wisdom of replacing the pin can be reviewed, the
pin channel converted into a groove and the
core bonded adhesively.
A pin that is too tall will protrude through the
occlusal surface of the core. Where the pin is
shortened with a bur it can very easily come
unscrewed, especially if the bur is kept in line
with the pin, which causes an anticlockwise frictional force. The chatter from a tungsten carbide
bur is also effective in dislodging pins. We recommend holding the tip of a long tapered diamond bur at right angles to the pin and cutting
from the side rather than grinding from above.
An airotor handpiece should be used with a light
touch. In this way the frictional forces generated
tend to act on the pin in a clockwise direction.
Needless to say this procedure should be done
508
with water coolant and with aspiration to catch

the fragment of cut pin.
Tooth fracture during pin placement

Root treated or brittle teeth can chip and fracture especially if the pin is placed too close to
the ADJ. It emphasises that dentine is deformed
by pin placement resulting in stresses which
can crack the tooth. If the tooth can be saved,
the fractured area should be covered by the
restoration.
Matrix band placement
The placement of a matrix band can often prove
a challenge to even the most experienced of
dentists. However, ensuring the proximal contacts are open and that there are no spicules of
tooth at the gingival margin can facilitate placement. The choice of band is highly personal and
the best matrix system is the one which works
best for you. However occasions arise when a
more sophisticated matrix system is needed,
such as the Automatrix system (LD Caulk Co,
Milford, USA), which has the advantage of not
being encumbered by a matrix retainer. In common with other systems it does need to be
wedged and where there are multiple cusps to be
replaced it may sometimes need to be stabilised
using greenstick, taking precautions not to scald
the patient with hot composition.
Despite great advances in operative dentistry
the copper ring (PD Copper Bands, Vevey,
Switzerland) is sometimes the only way of fitting
a matrix to a tooth, especially where all the cusps
have been lost. It is best to choose a band that is,
if anything, slightly too small, trim it to size with
Bee Bee scissors and squeeze it to the approximate outline of the tooth. It can then be adapted
section by section around the tooth stretching
the band slightly with an amalgam plugger or
half Hollenback instrument. If the band is too
tight to fit it can be annealed and stretched further. Annealing involves heating the copper to
cherry red heat in a gas flame and quenching.
Although many would consider leaving such a
band in place to allow the amalgam to be supported whilst it sets there is a risk of unseen,
excess material being left and this could lead to
gingival inflammation. It is usually an easy matter to slit the band with a tapered diamond bur
and remove it at the time of placement. Orthodontic bands or aluminium temporary crown
shells with their occlusal surfaces removed can
act as a substitute for copper rings,63 but aluminium reacts with mercury to form a flocculent
airborne precipitate.
Early core fracture
We have all had the frustration of early core
fracture occurring whilst the matrix band is
removed or when the patient bites onto a partially set amalgam. If only a small portion of the
core breaks away it is often possible to shape the
remaining amalgam to provide a retentive cavity and pack fresh amalgam sometimes without
the need for the matrix being replaced. A more
PRACTICE
catastrophic fracture will of course 13. Christensen G J. When to use fillers,
build-ups or posts and cores. J Am
necessitate the complete replacement
Dent Assoc 1996; 127: 1397-1398.
of the core.
14. Gross M J, Harrison J A. Some
CONCLUSION
A well-placed core is the foundation
for a successful restoration. Success
depends on selecting the most appropriate material and ensuring that it is
properly retained. Pin retention is not
without problems and in most situations can be avoided. Retention can be
assured through cavity modifications,
crown lengthening (to provide a ferrule effect on sound tooth structure)
and adhesives.
Newsome P R, Youngson C C.
Complications of pin placement.
A survey of 429 cases. Br Dent J 1987;
163: 375-378.
2. Wilson N H. The pattern of usage of
dentine pins. Eur J Prosthodont Restor
Dent 1996; 4: 137-139.
3. Newitter D A, Gwinnett A J, Caputo L.
The dulling of twist drills during pin
channel placement. Am J Dent 1989;
2: 81-85.
4. Standlee J P, Caputo A A, Collard E W.
Retentive pin installation stresses.
Dent Pract Dent Rec 1971; 21: 417422.
5. Khera S C, Chan K C, Rittman B R.
Dentinal crazing and interpin
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509
PRACTICE
IN BRIEF
The principles of crown preparation and crown selection

Guidelines for tooth reduction and margin design
Preparation of the taper
Strategies for enhancing resistance and retention
Tooth preparation

Preparations for full veneer crowns
F. M. Blair1 R. W. Wassell2 and J. G. Steele3
Preparations for full veneer crowns is the eighth in the series on crowns and other extra-coronal restorations. Whilst
handpiece skills are important, many other factors combine to ensure provision of a satisfactory full veneer crown (also
termed full coverage crown). Our aim in writing this article is to consider the principles which influence crown preparation,
seasoned with clinical advice our undergraduate and postgraduate students have found useful.

RESTORATIONS:

3. Pre-operative
assessment
4. Endodontic
considerations
vital pulps
veneer crowns
technique
of crowns
restorations
In the second article of this series we considered

the broad range of materials from which crowns
are made. The four main categories of crown
were metal, ceramic, metal-ceramic and composite. Tooth preparations need to reflect the different requirements of these materials in terms
of amount of space needed to accommodate the
crown and its marginal configuration. Tooth
preparations also need to be free from undercuts
whilst reliably retaining the crown.
The principles of crown preparation described
by Shillingburg1 (Table 1) determine the shape
and form of our preparations, but they cannot be
considered in isolation as there has to be a balance between them. For example, minimal
preparation can result in the production of a
bulky, unaesthetic crown which can in turn
cause periodontal or occlusal problems (Fig. 1).
Conversely over preparation can be compensat-
Birmingham Dental Hospital, St Chads

Queensway B4 6NN
E-mail: R.W.Wassell@newcastle.ac.uk
Refereed Paper
561571
CROWN SELECTION
The usual indications for full veneer crowns are:
To protect weakened tooth structure

To restore the tooth to function
To improve or restore aesthetics
For use as a retainer for fixed bridgework
However, recent developments in dental
Table 1 Seven key principles of preparation (derived from Shillingberg1)

Seven key principles
Function
Conservation of
tooth tissue
Resistance form
To avoid weakening the tooth unnecessarily

To avoid compromising the pulp
To prevent dislodgement of a cemented restoration by apical or
obliquely-directed forces
To prevent displacement of a cemented restoration along any of its
paths of insertion, including the long axis of the preparation
To provide enough space for a crown which is sufficiently thick to
prevent fracture, distortion or perforation
To prepare a finish line to accommodate a robust margin with close
adaptation to minimise microleakage
To shape the preparation such that the crown is not over
contoured and its margin is accessible for optimal oral hygiene
To create sufficient space for aesthetic veneers where indicated
1Consultant in Restorative Dentistry,
ed by making a thicker and perhaps very aesthetic crown, but the strength and pulpal vitality
of the underlying tooth may be compromised. In
reality, preparations should be planned according to each individual case and in each case the
balance will be different. Clearly, patients need
to be involved in deciding what is best for them.
This approach differs fundamentally from simply cutting off the shelf preparations based
entirely on text-book diagrams.
Retention form
Structural durability
Marginal integrity
Preservation of the
periodontium
Aesthetic considerations
561
PRACTICE
materials mean that the use of less destructive
alternatives such as veneers, onlays, and suitably designed plastic restorations are often an
option. Where crowning is in the patients best
interests the type of crown provided will usually
depend on the functional requirements, the
strength and vitality of the remaining tooth and
the patients aesthetic demands. Occasionally,
the choice may be limited by a patients con-
Fig. 1 Under preparation results in poor

aesthetics or an over built crown (dotted
line) with periodontal and occlusal
consequences. Over preparation results
in pulp and tooth strength being
compromised
Fig. 2 Preparation features for three different types of crown for an

upper central incisor: a) Porcelain fused to metal; b) Porcelain jacket;
and c) Resin bonded porcelain crown (remaining enamel shown light
blue). Questions which crown or crowns: Provide the best
aesthetics? Has the least destructive preparation? Is least destructive
to opposing teeth? Allows anterior guidance to be developed easily? Is
best suited to bruxists? (see text for answers)
Fig. 3 Sections (axial and transverse) through an upper first premolar showing how
a logical use of metal lessens the amount of tooth reduction: a) Porcelain restricted
to buccal cusp; b) Porcelain covering proximal and occlusal surface; and c) Full
porcelain coverage
562
cerns, real or imagined, over biocompatibility of

proposed materials.
Full veneer metal crowns (VMC) have the
advantage of requiring relatively little tooth
preparation. They are generally limited by aesthetics to the back of the mouth, but bear in
mind that some people may favour an anterior
display of gold.
Porcelain jacket crowns (PJC) are indicated in
areas of critical aesthetics, but problems of fracture under occlusal load limit their use to anterior teeth.
High strength porcelain crowns (HSPC), using
modern ceramics without the need for a metal
substructure, may be used on posterior teeth and
in certain selected cases for anterior bridgework
especially where the use of metal is an issue.
However, not all systems are suitable for these
purposes. The preparation design for a posterior
HSPC is important2,3 and relatively destructive.
Enough tooth tissue needs to be removed to
permit an adequate thickness of porcelain while
the degree of taper should be greater than for a
conventionally cemented crown, and all corners
and line angles need to be rounded to allow
unhindered, passive seating of the crown. At
least one system (Procera AllCeram, Nobel Biocare, Gteburg, Sweden) provides burs designed
to cut a deep chamfer at the finish line to allow
the profile of the die to be scanned with a digital
profilometer for the production of a high
strength ceramic core.
Resin bonded porcelain crowns (RBPC) are
similar to porcelain veneers but provide coverage on all surfaces and are very conservative
of tooth tissue. The strength of these restorations is largely reliant on the resin bond as
there is no reinforcing ceramic core. Excellent
aesthetics are possible and a much less
destructive preparation can be used than for
either PJCs or porcelain fused to metal crowns
(look at Fig. 2). RBPCs may be particularly useful in younger patients who have large, vulnerable pulps. Long term follow-up is lacking
but a similar success rate to veneers might be
expected. In our experience this type of
restoration is not suited to areas of heavy
occlusal load (eg where tooth wear has been
caused principally by parafunction) as the
porcelain may fracture.
Porcelain fused to metal crowns (PFM), also
called metal-ceramic crowns, are undoubtedly
most versatile combining strength with aesthetics. Tooth preparation to accommodate both
metal and porcelain can be very destructive
(Fig. 3) so the design, particularly the distribution of porcelain, needs to be carefully thought
through. Metal surfaces require less tooth
destruction, are easier to construct and adjust,
and do not chip like porcelain. Porcelain coverage should only be used where it is required for
aesthetics, or possibly when opposing other
porcelain surfaces (as metal does not wear well
against porcelain, especially the metal backs of
anterior crowns).
If full porcelain coverage is required for a
PRACTICE
PFM the amount of tooth preparation may be
reduced slightly by using a special metal composite coping (Captek, Schottlander, Letchworth, UK). This type of coping is 0.10.2 mm
thinner than a cast coping made from a noble
metal alloy.
Composite crowns which use newly developed laboratory materials have not been fully
evaluated. Specific indications and limitations
have yet to be defined. Manufacturers are currently recommending that the tooth be prepared
in the same way as for a HSPC.
The major factor to be considered before
selecting the most suitable type of crown is the
amount of tooth destruction you are willing to
allow in order to give the aesthetics you want.
You may also want to consider the need for
the crown to incorporate special features,
for example:
Table 2 Suggested preparation features for posterior crowns

Crown type
VMC
GUIDELINES FOR AMOUNT OF TOOTH

REDUCTION AND MARGIN DESIGN
Tooth preparation represents a balance
between, conserving tooth structure and pulp
health on the one hand, whilst on the other,
achieving an aesthetic and strong crown.
Guidelines for the amount of tooth reduction
for different types of crown have evolved
largely as a result of experience rather than
scientific evidence. Tables 2 and 3 give an
indication of the amount of occlusal and cervical reduction for different types of crowns
for posterior and anterior teeth. It is worth
emphasising that there will be times when less
tooth should be removed in the interests of
conserving tooth structure and pulp health.
There are also occasions when little or no
tooth reduction is needed, eg from the
occlusal surface when the vertical dimension
is to be increased, or, from the buccal surface
where the tooth is already worn and is to be
re-contoured by the crown.
The amount of reduction can be gauged
using depth cuts coupled with a knowledge of
the appropriate bur end diameter (look at Fig. 4
for examples of typical bur end diameters). A
preparation reduction matrix, formed on a
diagnostic wax-up (described in the sixth article in the series), can be invaluable when the
shape of the intended crown differs from that
of the original tooth.
The metal margins of VMCs and PFMs can be
configured in a variety of ways (Fig. 5). It is best
to avoid the knife edge as the finish line can be
difficult for the technician to detect. Chamfer
margins and shoulder with bevel margins allow
a fine edge of metal to be cast which, if a suitable
alloy is chosen, can be burnished by the technician to improve marginal fit. However, there is
always the danger that the die may be damaged
by burnishing. Furthermore, the margin should
Finish line depth and configuration
1 mm non-functional cusps
1.5 mm functional cusp
01.0 mm
Chamfer, knife-edge,
shoulder or shoulder with bevel
0.8-1.0 mm
Shoulder or heavy chamfer
1.2 mm labial shoulder or chamfer
0.5 mm lingual chamfer
HSPC
2.5 mm functional cusps
PFM
As for VMC if metal surface
2.5 mm functional cusps
*Where tooth is tilted or where vertical dimension is to be increased, the amount of occlusal reduction
required will vary
Too deep a reduction for diminutive teeth or for long clinical crowns where a metal collar is preferable
Table 3 Suggested preparation features for anterior crowns

Crown type
A metal anterior guidance surface

Rest seats and other features to retain a partial
denture
Metal occlusal surfaces for a bruxist
Posterior crowns preparation features

Occlusal reduction*
Anterior crowns preparation features

Occlusal reduction*
Finish line depth and configuration
PJC
2 mm incisally
0.81.0 mm shoulder
1 mm lingual aspect
RBPC
2 mm incisally
> 0.4 mm chamfer
0.51.0 mm lingual aspect
PFM
2 mm incisally
1.2 mm labial shoulder
0.51.0 mm lingual aspect
or heavy chamfer
(porcelain guidance requires 0.5 mm lingual chamfer
greater clearance)
*Where the vertical dimension is to be increased, the amount of occlusal reduction required will be less
or non-existent
Too deep a reduction for diminutive teeth eg lower incisors or for long clinical crowns where a metal
collar is preferable
Fig. 4. Burs used for preparation of full veneer crowns at Newcastle

Dental Hospital (from left to right): a) Flat-end tapered diamond
(occlusal and axial reduction) end = 0.8 mm; b) Long, round-end
tapered diamond (as for a. and also shoulder production) end =
1.1 mm; c) Long needle diamond (initial proximal reduction);
d) Chamfer diamond (chamfer production) end = 1.0 mm;
e) Chamfer tungsten carbide (chamfer and preparation finishing);
and f) Large flame or rugby ball diamond (lingual concavity
production)
not be too acute. Theoretical arguments have

been made in favour of acute margins compensating for seating discrepancy4 but only before
cementation. Once cemented, an acutely bevelled margin may prevent the crown from seating fully,5,6 presumably by restricting cement
extrusion.
563
PRACTICE
ceramic and metal margins. This approach can
produce acceptable results for metal margins,
although it is easier for the technician to adapt
the wax and finish to a chamfer. A much greater
problem occurs when ceramics are used as the
inevitable consequence is for the crown to be
over-bulked resulting in compromised aesthetics
and a poor gingival emergence profile.
Fig. 5. Finish lines with marginal configurations for PFMs: a) Shoulder with
porcelain butt fit; b) Deep chamfer with metal collar; c) Shoulder plus chamfer
(bevel) with metal collar; d) Knife edge with metal margin; and e) Chamfer with
metal margin
As a general rule when using porcelain or

PFMs, adequate clearance is required to achieve
good aesthetics. Traditionally, this is achieved
with a shoulder or heavy chamfer of 0.81 mm
width for PJCs and 1.2 mm width for PFMs.
However, shoulders of these depths may compromise tooth strength and pulp health especially for
diminutive teeth such as mandibular incisors. A
similar problem occurs on teeth with long clinical crowns because of the narrowing of their
diameter in the cervical region. In a long preparation extending onto or beyond the cementoenamel junction, considerable tooth tissue must
be removed to eliminate undercuts. Solutions
include using a minimal shoulder, a metal collar
on a chamfer (as illustrated in Fig. 6) or placing
the margin at the cemento-enamel junction.
Under normal circumstances these options do
not compromise aesthetics, being hidden by the
lip. Clearly, patients need to understand the benefits of a less destructive preparation and, as stated previously, must be involved in the decision
making process pre-operatively.
Some operators use what they describe as a
mini-shoulder, 0.50.7 mm wide, for both
Fig. 6. Teeth with long preparations

are prone to pulpal exposure
especially if a deep finish line is cut.
(a) Teeth with narrow roots are most
vulnerable (b) A metal collar reduces
the need for a deep finish line
564
PREPARATION TAPER
The subject of taper is contentious. In the first
place it means different things to different
people. For our purpose it has the same meaning
as convergence angle ie the angle between
opposing preparation walls. To avoid confusion
when reading different publications, it is important to appreciate that taper may also be
defined as the angle between a single preparation wall and the long axis of the preparation.
Taper defined by the first definition will be twice
the angle defined in the second.
As regards the question of ideal convergence
angle, text books have traditionally based their
recommendations (variously between 3 and
14o)79 on the results of experimental studies10,11
which show a decrease in retention of conventionally cemented crowns as taper is increased.
Experimental studies have also shown that
preparations with tapers greater than 20o display
a significant fall in resistance to oblique displacing forces12 and show increased stress concentration within the cement13 which may rupture
the cement lute.
On the other hand, clinical measurements
of taper have been made indirectly on stone
casts. 1418 These studies showed mean values of
about 20o with a considerable variability around
the mean. Furthermore, greater tapers were
achieved on mandibular molars than on maxillary incisors19 possibly because of differences in
tooth shape and problems with access. These
findings suggest that clinicians, even those who
are technically gifted, frequently cut a greater
taper than text books recommend.
The issue of taper may not be quite as critical
for single crowns as was once thought, but as a
working rule operators should strive to produce
the least taper compatible with the elimination
of undercut. It is helpful to know that many
tapered burs have a 56o convergence angle
which can be used to survey preparation taper
by holding the handpiece in the same plane for
all axial surfaces.
Resin bonded crowns are the important
exception to the rule of minimizing taper, especially RBPCs which may benefit from having
tapers of about 20o to avoid generating high
seating hydrostatic pressures during luting
resulting in crown fracture.
STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING RESISTANCE
AND RETENTION
While many factors influence resistance and
retention, one of the most important is the
nature of the cement lute. Conventional
cements are strong in compression and weak in
PRACTICE
tension, so, wherever possible, preparations
should be designed to limit tensile and shear
stresses in the lute, especially when oblique
forces are applied to the crown (Fig. 7). Cement
selection will be considered in detail in Part 11
of the series.
Preparations which are either short or overtapered or both are vulnerable to crown decementation. Often one is confronted with having
to replace a crown where the preparation is
over tapered and simply re-preparing the tooth
may be excessively destructive. This section
considers aspects of preparation design and
other methods which can be used to prevent
decementation.
Any dentist who has seen a number of decemented crowns will have an idea of what
an unretentive preparation looks like. However,
there are no absolute guidelines for preparation
dimensions which risk decementation. An
in-vitro study20 has shown a significant increase
in resistance and retention as axial walls extend
from 23 mm in height and recommended
3 mm as the minimum preparation height. As a
working rule this seems reasonable but there will
be a multitude of exceptions and caveats
depending on factors such as taper, cement
selection and occlusal loading.
Where the preparation is over-tapered it is
possible to up-right the axial walls at the base of
the preparation, but this can result in a deep
shoulder, excessive destruction of tooth tissue
and possible compromise of pulpal health. If the
bulk of remaining core or tooth tissue permits, a
series of near parallel steps can be made in the
over-tapered axial walls which results in a much
less destructive preparation.
Other less destructive approaches of dealing
with an unretentive preparation are:
Retentive preparation features ie grooves and
boxes
Resin cements
Surgical crown lengthening
Pins and cross-pinning
Fig. 7 Preparations (a) and (b) have similar retention (similar axial surface area
and convergence angle) but (a) has much greater resistance. Application of
oblique force to occlusal surface results in potential rotation of crown (a) around
a fulcrum (f). Rotation is resisted by the cement above the arc of rotation of the
base of the crown being thrown into compression represented by arrow.
Rotation of the shorter crown (b) results in tensile forces fracturing the cement
lute. It is therefore important that the radius of rotation intersects the opposing
axial wall.28
Fig. 8 Placement of axial grooves

increases resistance by effectively
reducing the radius of rotation
Grooves and boxes provide increased retention by presenting additional near-parallel sided
walls to the preparation and limiting the path of
insertion. Resistance is improved by preventing
rotation of the restoration (Fig. 8). They are used
mainly for metal and metal-ceramic restorations
but are generally impractical for all ceramic
crowns.
finish line. To be effective the groove should be

sunk to at least half the burs diameter. When
placing grooves in tapered axial walls be very
careful to ensure that the walls of the groove do
not conflict with the path of insertion. This
requires the bur to be held parallel to the path of
insertion and not parallel with the tapered axial
wall. Providing these precautions are taken,
grooves provide a simple, effective means of
improving resistance.
Grooves
Grooves can be placed in one or more of the
axial walls using a minimally tapered bur. The
bur chosen should be of sufficient diameter to
provide a groove that will not be blocked out on
the die with die-spacer (see flat-end tapered diamond in Fig. 4). The groove should be placed
within a sound bulk of tooth tissue or core not
leaving any weak surrounding areas which are
liable to fracture. The tooth may also be less vulnerable to the effects of micro-leakage if the
base of the groove is kept 0.5 mm clear of the
Boxes
Boxes function similarly to grooves in providing
increased resistance and retention, but are less conservative so it is difficult to justify them being cut
into sound tooth structure unless there are other
reasons for their presence (eg provision of a crown
with an intra-coronal attachment). Nevertheless, a
tooth may have previously contained a restoration
with a box form. Instead of using the box to retain a
core the box can be incorporated into a crown
preparation. This is a useful approach where the
core would otherwise be thin and weak. You may
567
PRACTICE
need to take care to ensure the resulting crown is
not so bulky that casting porosity or thermal sensitivity becomes a problem.
Boxes need not necessarily be sited solely on
axial walls For example, it is sometimes very
useful to cut an intra-coronal box, resembling
an occlusal inlay, into the occlusal aspect of a
substantial core. Clearly, this approach would
be inappropriate if it weakened the core appreciably.
Resin cements
Resin cements (to be described in Part 13 of the
series) provide a relatively simple option to overcome the low tensile strength and poor adhesion
of conventional cements. Resin cements have
much higher tensile strength21 and when used in
combination with dentine bonding agents are less
sensitive to repetitive dislodging forces.22,23 They
are, however, technique sensitive and are not supported by long term clinical data. Current clinical
wisdom is, where possible, to combine sound
retentive design with resin cementation.
Crown lengthening
Exposure of a greater height of clinical crown
may involve either gingivectomy (with a scalpel
or electrosurgery) or flap surgery with osseous
recontouring. It is an invaluable means of
enhancing retention, but can be a substantial
undertaking and has to be balanced against the
disadvantage of patient discomfort. Details of
technique are described elsewhere.24 Crown
lengthening needs to be planned in advance of
tooth preparation (Fig. 9). If the ultimate position of the gingival margin is critical then good
provisional restorations should be provided and
worn for 23 months before the final impression
to allow the gingival tissues to recover fully to

their final form.
Pins and cross-pins

Pins and cross pins are rarely used as they are
technically demanding and have become even
less popular since the introduction of resin
cements. Pins may be considered where there
is a good bulk of tooth tissue. They are incorporated during the construction of the
restoration and are sunk through the occlusal
surface.
Cross-pins are placed following cementation
and are screwed transversely through the axial
surface of the crown into the underlying preparation.
TOOTH PREPARATION
To avoid any unwanted surprises, the structural, endodontic, periodontal, aesthetic and
occlusal factors outlined in the previous parts
of the series should be checked before bur is
put to tooth.
There are a variety of burs which can be
used for crown preparations and operators will
have their own preferences. Some operators
may prefer a flat ended bur for shoulder production. However, the round ended bur has the
benefit of producing a rounded junction
between the finish line and axial walls which
will help reduce stress concentration in this
vulnerable part of the preparation and is less
likely to cut steps.
Most practitioners in the UK use air rotor
handpieces, although in continental Europe
and elsewhere speed increasing handpieces
are favoured. Whatever option is chosen a
water spray is absolutely essential to avoid
Fig. 9 When clinical crown height is short, plan ahead. a) Upper anterior teeth needing crowning with PFMs b) Crown
lengthening using apically repositioned flap and osseous recontouring c) Preparations made 3 months after surgery.
Note no incisal reduction needed as vertical dimension to be increased d) Preparations viewed occlusally (mirror view)
showing retention grooves in cingulum of UL2 (22)
568
PRACTICE
pulpal damage and endodontic complications.
Following air rotor preparation, a speed
increasing handpiece can be useful for finishing the preparation, defining finish lines and
placing retention devices such as grooves or
boxes.
Preparation sequence
There are definite advantages in following a set
order of tooth reduction and ensuring that each
element of reduction is complete before starting
the next. For instance, if the occlusal surface is
prepared first there will be better access for the
more difficult proximal preparation. Depth cuts
placed before embarking on larger areas of tooth
reduction help ensure controlled removal of
tooth tissue but where the proposed crown is to
be shaped differently from the original tooth a
preparation matrix, as described in Part 6 of the
series, is more helpful. During axial preparation
it is best to complete the most difficult wall first
so if any alignment modifications are required
they can be made in more accessible areas.
Each stage of reduction has its own special
considerations and these will now be discussed
in the sequence of preparation that we would
recommend.
Posterior preparations
Occlusal reduction
Before any reduction is carried out it is important
to assess the occlusion and note any space already
available between opposing teeth. For example,
a mesially tilted molar may require little or no
reduction of its mesial occlusal surface so depth
cuts can be confined to the distal occlusal area. If
the reduction follows the cuspal contours you will
get maximum axial wall height available for resistance and retention, but clearly this is not so critical
where long axial walls are to be prepared. The
functional cusp bevel, shown in Fig. 10, is a useful
feature of the occlusal reduction and ensures space
for adequate bulk of crown material in a site of
heavy occlusal contact. The functional cusp (or
holding cusp) must be identified and, after bevelling, adequate clearance should be confirmed in all
excursive movements. This small simple step helps
avoid the creation of an occlusal interference or
perforation of a crowns occlusal surface.
Lingual reduction
Lingual access may be difficult. However if the
lingual surface is the first axial surface to be
prepared, it reduces the likelihood of producing an over tapered preparation especially if
the bur is held parallel to the long axis of the
tooth. Subsequent alignments to the prepared
lingual wall are then carried out on more
accessible surfaces.
Buccal reduction
Good retention relies on near parallelism cervically of the buccal and lingual axial walls. However, it is also important to ensure that the
preparation is in harmony with the buccal contours of the adjacent teeth so that sufficient
Fig. 10 Functional cusp bevel (FCB)

of the holding cusps required for
occlusal clearance
space is available for good aesthetics. It is worth

viewing the tooth from both occlusal and buccal
aspects to ensure the correct planes of adjustment have been made.
On molars the preparation may extend
towards the furcation region where a concavity
of the buccal surface can be found. To avoid creating a crown with an over-bulky buccal surface, the finish line should be cut to its full depth
in this area and the concavity should be extended up the buccal axial wall to the occlusal surface. This approach, which may also need to be
used on other axial walls with cervical concavities, eg the mesial aspect of upper first premolars, results in a preparation having a kidney
shaped appearance when viewed occlusally.
Proximal reduction
During proximal reduction many adjacent teeth
are damaged.25 If a fine tapered bur is used for
the preliminary cut it can be kept safe by ensuring a fine sliver of tooth or core material remains
between the preparation and the adjacent tooth.
This sliver can then be flicked away before refining the reduction with a bur of larger diameter.
To ensure clearance of the proximal contact, try
to keep the tip of the bur at the level of the proposed finish line. There is no doubt that this is
the most difficult stage of the preparation.
Once the basic preparation is complete, check
the path of insertion and taper. Again, if you
view the preparation from both occlusal and
buccal aspects you should ensure that no undercut goes undetected. A surface reflecting mirror
is especially useful for such inspection. When
viewing occlusally do so with one eye closed
because an undercut can be perceived as a near
parallel taper when seen with two eyes. Take
special care to check the junction between proximal and buccal/lingual reductions which are a
common site for undercuts.
On PFM preparations, where the deeper
reduction for porcelain and metal meets the shallower reduction for metal (this is shown from the
occlusal aspect in Fig. 3a) there is often a distinct
step in the axial wall. This feature is termed
569
PRACTICE
Fig. 11 Single plane reduction (a) can result in either shine through of the porcelain
core (feint outline) or pulpal damage. Problem solved by two plane reduction (b).
Three plane reduction (c) needed for long clinical crowns giving a slightly more
buccal path of insertion
rather confusingly the wing, resulting in generations of students creating a bizarre preparation
resembling a small bird in flight, but correctly cut
it is a useful feature providing some increase in
resistance and helps guide the technician in the
position of the porcelain-metal junction. Should
a metal proximal contact be required the wing
should lie buccal to the contact. Conversely, if a
porcelain proximal contact is planned the wing
should lie lingual to the contact. To avoid undercut it is important that the wing is made parallel
to the buccal axial reduction.
Fig. 12 Ensure occlusal clearance in

both ICP and excursions
Finish line
Ideally, this should be placed supra-gingivally26,27
on sound tooth tissue, but in reality this is often
not possible. Sometimes aesthetics dictates a
margin is placed subgingivally and in these situations it should extend by 0.51 mm, but certainly no more than half the depth of the gingival sulcus, to ensure the epithelial attachment is
not compromised. Packing of retraction cord in
the gingival sulcus prior to preparing the finish
line will allow displacement of the gingival margin for access and help minimise gingival trau-
ma during preparation. Whether a finish line

should ever be placed on core rather than tooth
is an area of contention. Some consider the practice acceptable if the core has a perfect margin.
However, in practice it is rarely possible to guarantee the condition of the core margin and we
would generally recommend the preparation
should be extended sub-gingivally to finish onto
sound tooth tissue. Where the finish line is likely
to be extensively sub-gingival a crown lengthening procedure can often facilitate crown provision and ensure a more accessible crown margin.
Whatever type and location of finish line is
chosen it is important that:
It has no unsupported lips of tooth structure at
the edge which can either break away on the
die causing problems with crown seating or
break away from the tooth resulting in a marginal gap. Use hand instruments to plane these
away
It is in harmony with the outline of the gingival margin which will optimise aesthetics of
crowns finished at or above gingival level,
and, for sub-gingival margins, will ensure
there is no localised over-cutting
The technician will be able to detect it on the die
There is sufficient space to provide a crown
with an appropriate gingival emergence
profile.
Additional retention features

At this stage consider whether, as described earlier, there is a need for grooves or boxes to
enhance resistance and retention in a short or
tapered preparation.
Final finishing
Complete smoothing of the preparation is not
essential, may diminish micro-mechanical
retention and may also risk overheating the pulp
if it is not done under water spray. However, the
final preparation must be free from irregularities, sharp line angles and corners. These cause
difficulty in casting models and result in dies
which are vulnerable to damage leading to an
ill-fitting crown. An area which is often neglected is the axio-occlusal line angle but it is important that all line angles and corners are carefully
rounded. This is especially so for preparations
for all ceramic restorations to reduce areas of
potential stress concentration.
Anterior preparations
With the exception of provision of a functional
cusp bevel, anterior preparations need similar
consideration to posterior preparations. However,
a few additional points need highlighting:
Fig. 13 Full veneer crown preparation LL6 (36) and three quarter preparation at
LL5 (35): a) Occlusal reduction carried out on both teeth. In the same way each
axial surface was completed sequentially. Note the depth grooves on the occlusobuccal aspect of LL6 (36); b) The completed preparations showing the mesial finish
line on a sound amalgam core
570
Incisal reduction is best carried out first. This

will improve subsequent preparation access
and helps to ensure correct proportioning of
axial reduction planes
The reduction of the labial surface should be
in two or more planes to achieve good aesthetics and conserve tooth tissue. Long cliniBRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 10 MAY 25 2002
PRACTICE
cal crowns will often need to undergo three
plane reduction; Figure 11 illustrates this
The palatal reduction needs to reproduce the
natural concavity of maxillary teeth if space is
to be provided for the development of anterior
guidance; Figure 12 illustrates this. Unless
clearance during lateral and protrusive movements has been checked, it is very easy to end
up with a crown which occludes satisfactorily
in the intercuspal position, but which interferes during excursions.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Multiple preparations
Preparation of multiple teeth can be stressful for
both patient and dentist. Where possible try to
sequence treatment so that no more than four
teeth are prepared at one sitting or perhaps six if
dealing with the maxillary anteriors.
If you are able to prepare multiple teeth with
a mutual path of insertion it will facilitate the
construction of provisional restorations and
helps with cementation of definitive crowns.
However, this must not be done at the expense of
excessive tooth reduction. To ensure a mutual
path of insertion it is usually best to prepare
each surface sequentially for all the teeth rather
than fully complete each preparation before
moving onto the next (Fig. 13).
CONCLUSION
Crown preparations are destructive to underlying tooth tissue and can affect the pulp. Therefore, the type of crown selected should have
the least destructive preparation in keeping
with the patients functional and aesthetic
requirements. Where appropriate the use of
less destructive, adhesively retained restorations should be considered.
The authors would like to thank Mr Alan Waller, AudioVisual Department, for help with the diagrams. Thanks also
to Drs Eoin Smart and Ian Macgregor for their constructive
criticism and careful proof reading.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Shillingberg H T, Hobo S, Whitsett L, Jacobi R, Brackett S E.

Fundamentals of fixed prosthodontics. 3rd ed. Chicago:
Quintessenence, 1997.
Burke F J T. Fracture resistance of teeth restored with dentinbonded crowns: the effect of increased tooth preparation.
Broderson S P. Complete-crown and partial-coverage tooth
preparation designs for bonded cast ceramic restorations.
Rosner D. Function placement and reproduction of bevels for
gold castings. J Prosthet Dent 1963; 13: 1160-1166.
Ostlund L E. Cavity design and mathematics: Their effect on
gaps at the margins of cast restorations. Operative Dent
1985; 10: 122-137.
Gavilis J R, Morency J K, Riley E D, Sozio R B. The effect of
various finish line preparations on the marginal seal and
12.
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15.
16.
17.
18.
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21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
occlusal seat of full crown preparations. J Prosthet Dent

1981; 45: 138-145.
Dykema R W, Goodacre C J, Phillips R W. Johnstons Modern
Practice in Crown and Bridge Prosthodontics. pp.24.
Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co., 1986.
Shillingburg H T, Hobo S, Fisher D W. Preparations for Cast
Gold Restorations. pp.p16. Chicago: Quintessence Publishing
Co., 1974.
Tylman S D, Malone W F P. Tylmans Theory and Practice of
Fixed Prosthodontics. pp.103. St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Co.,
1978.
Jorgensen K D. Relationship between retention and
convergence angle in cemented veneer restorations. Acta
Odontol Scand 1955; 13: 35-40.
Kaufman E G, Coehlo D H, Colin L. Factors influencing the
rentention of cemented gold castings. J Prosthet Dent 1961;
11: 487-502.
Dodge W W, Weed R M, Baez R J, Buchanan R N. The effect of
convergence angle on retention and resistance form.
Quintessence 1985; 16: 191-194.
El-Ebrashi M K, Craig R G, Peyton F A. Experimental stress
analysis of dental restorations. Part III. The concept of the
geometry of proximal margins. J Prosthet Dent 1969; 22:
333-345.
Ohm E, Silness J. The convergence angle in teeth prepared for
artificial crowns. J Oral Rehabil 1978; 5: 371.
Eames W B, ONeal S J, Monteiro J, Roan J D, Cohen K S.
Techniques to improve the seating of castings. J Am Dent
Assoc 1978; 96: 432.
Mack P J. A theoretical and clinical investigation into the
taper achieved on crown and inlay preparations. J Oral
Rehabil 1980; 7: 255.
Norlander J, Weir D, Stoffer W, Ochi S. The taper of clinical
preparations for fixed prosthodontics. J Prosthet Dent 1988;
60: 148-151.
Noonan J E, Goldfogel M H. Convergence of the axial walls of
full veneer crown preparations in a dental school
environment. J Prosthet Dent 1991; 66: 706-708.
Kent W A, Shillingburg H T, Duncanson M G. Taper of clinical
preparations for cast restorations. Quintessence Int 1988;
19: 339-345.
Maxwell A W, Blank L W, Pelleu G B. Effect of crown
preparation height on the retention and resistance of gold
castings. Gen Dent 1990; May-June: 200-202.
Michelini F S, Belser U C, Scherrer S S. Tensile bond strength
of gold and porcelain inlays to extracted teeth using three
cements. Int J Prosthodont 1995; 8: 324-331.
Wiskott H W, Nicholls J I, Belser U C. The relationship
between abutment taper and resistance of cemented crowns
to dynamic loading. Int J Prosthodont 1996; 9: 117-139.
Wiskott H W, Nicholls J I, Belser U C. The effect of tooth
preparation height and diameter on the resistance of
complete crowns to fatigue loading. Int J Prosthodont 1997;
10: 207-215.
Smith D G. Toothwear: Crown lengthening procedures. In:
Barnes I E, Walls A W G, editors. Gerodontol pp.109-117.
Oxford: Wright, 1994.
Moopnar M, Faulkner K D. Accidental damage to teeth
adjacent to crown-prepared abutment teeth. Aust Dent J
1991; 36: 136-140.
Silness J. Periodontal conditions in patients treated with
dental bridges. II. The influence of full and partial crowns on
plaque accumulation, development of gingivitis and pocket
formation. J Perio Res 1970; 5: 219-224.
Silness J. Periodontal conditions in patients treated with
dental bridges. III. The relationship between the location of
the crown margin and the periodontal condition. J Perio Res
1970; 5: 225-229.
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of artificial crowns. J Oral Rehabil 1977; 4: 201-207.
Details of burs mentioned in article

Bur
No
Supplier
Flat-end tapered diamond

Long, round-end tapered diamond
Long needle diamond
Chamfer diamond
Chamfer tungsten carbide
Large flame (rugby ball) diamond
554
503
557
877/010
282/101
257/023
Kent - AD Burs Ltd, Gloucester, UK

Komet-Brasseler gmbh, Lemgo, Germany
Komet-Brasseler gmbh, Lemgo, Germany
Horico-Hopf Ringled & Co GmbH, Berlin, Germany
571
PRACTICE
IN BRIEF
The functions of provisional (sometimes termed temporary) restorations

Diagnostic uses of provisional restorations
Provisional restorations for conventional preparations including: the concept of short,
medium, and long-term temporisation; materials; and direct and indirect provisional
restorations
Provisional restorations for adhesive preparations
Problem solving

Provisional restorations
R. W. Wassell1 G. St. George2 R. P. Ingledew3 and J. G. Steele4
The important role of provisional restorations is often overlooked. This may be because they are left until the end of an
appointment when time for construction is short or because they generally do not need to last for long. However, not only
can good provisional restorations help produce better final restorations, they can also save a lot of time and expense at
subsequent appointments. In fact time spent in their construction will be more than repaid in time saved doing additional
procedures, adjustments and remakes later on.

RESTORATIONS:

3. Pre-operative
assessment
4. Endodontic
considerations
vital pulps
veneer crowns
technique
of crowns
restorations

Dental School, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2
4BW; 3Senior Dentist, Boots Dental Care,
54-58 High Street, Maidenhead, Berkshire
SL6 1PY; 2Higher Specialist Trainee,
Eastman Dental Hospital, 256 Grays Inn
Road, London WC1X 8LD
*Correspondence to: Dr R. W. Wassell,
The Dental School, Newcastle upon Tyne
NE2 4BW
Refereed Paper
619630
This article discusses the need for provisional

restorations, the types and materials available.
Provisional restorations for adhesive restorations often pose a difficult problem and these
are considered separately. You may also
encounter other difficulties with provisional
restorations so we end the article on problem
solving.
Functions of provisional restorations

Provisional restorations are used in the interim between tooth preparation and fitting a
definitive restoration. The various functions
they fulfil are described in Table 1. With
crown preparations provisional restorations
are generally essential to cover freshly cut
dentine and prevent tooth movement. With
adhesive preparations protection of exposed
dentine is usually less of an issue and often a
provisional restoration is not needed, but
there are still occasions where it is important
to prevent unwanted tooth movement or
maintain aesthetics.
Provisional restorations can be invaluable for
testing out aesthetic and occlusal changes before
they are incorporated in the definitive restoration. They can also help stabilise the periodontal
condition prior to definitive restoration. These
diagnostic uses will be considered in more detail
in the next section.
As well as the prophylactic and diagnostic
uses, provisional restorations have other practical applications. For example, callipers may be
used to test the thickness of a provisional
restoration to ensure sufficient tooth preparation
to accommodate the proposed restorative material (Fig. 1). Occasionally, a provisional restoration may be used to provide a coronal build up
for isolation purposes during endodontic treat-
BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 11 JUNE 15 2002
Fig. 1 Provisional restorations have many functions other

than just protection of the prepared tooth. Here an
Svensen gauge is used to assess sufficient tooth
reduction to accommodate the proposed restoration
ment. A period of long-term provisional restoration may also be advisable to assess teeth of
dubious prognosis. Finally, a provisional
restoration may find a use as a matrix for core
build ups in grossly broken down teeth, simply
by removing the coronal surface to allow placement of restorative material.
DIAGNOSTIC USES
Provisional restorations, especially those used
for conventional preparations, are invaluable in
situations where aesthetic, occlusal or periodontal changes to a patients dentition are planned.
The principles behind such changes are discussed later.
Aesthetic changes
Proposed changes to the shape of anterior teeth
are best tried out with provisional restorations to
ensure patient acceptance, and, approval from
friends and family; clearly, it is easier to trim or
add acrylic than it is porcelain. Once happy, an
619
PRACTICE
Table 1 The functions of provisional restorations

1) Comfort/tooth vitality
2) Occlusion and positional stability
3) Function
4) Gingival health and contour
5) Aesthetics
6) Diagnosis
7) Other practical uses
To cover exposed dentine to prevent sensitivity, plaque build up,

subsequent caries and pulp pathology.
To prevent unwanted tooth movement by the maintenance of
intercuspal and proximal contacts. It may be necessary to
establish a holding contact on the provisional restoration.
Depending on the patients occlusal scheme, the provisional
restoration may need to provide guidance in protrusive and
lateral excursions, or disclude to prevent working or non working
interferences. Interproximal contacts also need to be maintained
to prevent food packing.
Attention to 1) and 2) will ensure the patient continues to
function adequately.
To facilitate oral hygiene and prevent gingival overgrowth
provisional restorations require accurate margins and cleansable
contours. They can be used in the interim where the level of the
gingival margin has yet to stabilise (e.g. after crown lengthening
or removal of a crown with defective margins).
To provide an adequate interim appearance provisional
restorations should either mimic the tooth just prepared, or the
final intended restoration.
To assess the effect of aesthetic and occlusal changes. The ability
to re-shape can also be used to overcome phonetic problems
before construction of the definitive restoration.
To measure tooth reduction, to isolate during endodontics, to
assess prognosis, to act as a matrix for core construction.
Fig. 2 A diagnostic wax-up is an

invaluable way of planning changes,
which can be tried out with the
provisional restorations. The patient
would be more impressed by tooth
coloured wax!
alginate is recorded so that the technician can

copy the shape into the definitive restoration. If
only one or two teeth are involved it is perfectly
possible to contour provisional restorations at
the chair side. It is however important to balance
the time spent doing this against the advantages
of having a diagnostic wax up and matrix made
in the laboratory (Fig. 2). Alternatively, indirect
provisional restorations can be prescribed which
will be described later.
Occlusal changes
A patients tolerance to changes in anterior
guidance or increased occlusal vertical dimension is best tried out with provisional restorations. Again, a diagnostic wax up is advisable,
and, with occlusal changes, the importance of
using casts mounted on a suitable articulator
cannot be overstated (Fig. 3). Direct or indirect
provisional restorations are then constructed
from these and cemented temporarily after
adjusting to provide even occlusal contact in
the intercuspal position and guidance or disclusion if required. The patient can then be
examined at a further appointment and the
occlusal surfaces copied as long as the following criteria are met:
620
Restorations are still cemented

Occlusal contacts have been maintained, with
no drifting of teeth
Teeth are not mobile, or existing mobility is
not increasing
There is no discomfort
Guidance surfaces can be copied between
provisional and definitive restorations by using
a custom guidance table as described in Part 5
of the series.
Where it is decided to increase the patients
occlusal vertical dimension, provisional restorations provide a way of assessing tolerance to the
increase, as well as assessing aesthetics and the
overall occlusal scheme. However it is often wise
to make an initial assessment of such changes
with a more reversible method, such as a splint,
before the teeth are prepared.
Periodontal changes
It may be necessary as part of a patients periodontal treatment to remove overhanging restorations
to allow access for cleaning and resolution of
inflammation. Long-term wear of properly fitting
and contoured provisional restorations allows the
health of the gingival margin to improve and its
position to stabilise before impressions are recorded for definitive restorations.
Following periodontal or apical surgery the
tissues will also need time to stabilise before the
final finish line is cut for definitive crowns.
Where surgical crown lengthening is used to
increase clinical crown height, it is best to allow
6 months before definitive restoration, especially if the aesthetics are critical.1 If provisional
restorations are provided soon after crown
lengthening it is important to avoid taking the
preparations subgingivally as this may set up a
chronic gingivitis which is difficult to resolve.
Changes in tooth shape avoiding problems
For the majority of people, minor adjustments in
tooth shape are unlikely to cause any problems,
but for others, eg singers and wind instrument
musicians, the eventual restorations, if poorly
planned, may interfere with the patients
embouchure. This term describes the fine mouth
movements and lip/tooth contact required for
speech production or sound generation in the
case of a musical instrument. Also the incorpo-
Fig. 3 Casts need to be mounted on a semi-adjustable

articulator to wax occlusal changes
PRACTICE
ration of wider cervical embrasure spaces, to
facilitate interproximal cleaning, may occasionally cause embarrassment because of air leakage. Therefore it makes sense to copy the features of successful provisional restorations, to
avoid patient dissatisfaction and expensive
remakes.
PROVISIONAL RESTORATIONS FOR

CONVENTIONAL PREPARATIONS
The variety of provisional restorations available
can seem bewildering. To help you through the
maze we need first to consider the materials and
then the techniques by which provisionals can
be made. Most provisionals are made directly at
the chair side, but for long term wear or diagnostic use there can be advantages in having them
laboratory-made.
It is worth emphasising that the length of
time between preparation of teeth and cementation of final restorations can vary from a
few days for straightforward cases (shortterm), to several weeks (medium-term) or
even, in the case of complex reconstruction,
several months (long-term). The longer provisional restorations are in the mouth, the
greater are the demands on the material from
which they are made.
Materials
Materials used in the surgery comprise preformed crowns (made of plastic or metal), self
cured or light cured resins or resin composites
and cements. Laboratory formed temporaries are
generally made in self cured or heat cured
acrylic, or cast metal.
Pre-formed crowns
Also known as proprietary shells, these come in
a series of sizes but usually need considerable
adjustment marginally, proximally and
occlusally. Plastic shells are made from polycarbonate or acrylic, and, with good aesthetics, are
commonly used for anterior teeth including premolars. Metal shells may be made from aluminium, stainless steel or nickel chromium and are
only used on posterior teeth. Both plastic and
metal shells can be relined with self cured resin
to improve their fit.
Self or light cured resins
A variety of materials is available for either
direct or indirect techniques:
Polymethyl methacrylate (self or heat cured)
(eg Vita K&B Acrylics)
Polyethyl methacrylate (eg Snap, Trim)
Bis acryl composite (eg Protemp, Quicktemp)
Urethane dimethacrylate (light cured) (eg
Provipont DC)
Restorative composite
Polymethyl methacrylate is strong, has a
high wear resistance, is easy to add to, and has
good aesthetics, which is maintained over
longer periods.2 However, it does have three
main disadvantages:
Fig. 4 Examples of resins used for

provisional restorations:
(a) Polyethyl methacrylate (powderliquid presentation); and (b)
Bis-acryl composite (syringe mixed)
i) Polymerisation shrinkage which can affect

fit
ii) Polymerisation exotherm which can damage
pulp3
iii) Free monomer may cause pulp and gingival
damage
It is, however, a good material for indirect provisional restorations. Self cured acrylic can be
polymerised under pressure in a hydroflask which
effectively reduces porosity.4 Alternatively, heat
cured acrylic can be used.
Polyethyl methacrylate (Fig. 4a) is suitable
for intra-oral use as it shrinks less and is less
exothermic than polymethyl methacrylate.
However, strength, wear resistance, aesthetics
and colour stability are not as good. Some presentations come with a good colour range (eg
Trim II) while others have only light and dark
shades (eg Trim).
Bis-acryl composites (Fig. 4b) produce less
heat and shrinkage during polymerisation
than other resins, resulting in a better marginal fit.5 Despite being reasonably strong they
are brittle in thin section and difficult to add
to. Aesthetically they are reasonable, but few
shades are available and they stain easily if the
unpolymerised surface layer is not removed
which may be accomplished with alcohol and
polishing. They are more colour stable than
polyethyl methacrylate materials and are
therefore better suited for use as long-term
provisionals.6
Most recently, visible light cured resins have
been introduced based on urethane dimethacrylate eg Provipont D.C. These relatively expensive
resins have good mechanical properties and,
being light cured, the operator has some control
over the materials working time. Generally
more shades are available than bis acryl composite and the colour is relatively stable, but is
still prone to staining. Marginal fit can be poor,
621
PRACTICE
Fig. 5 Temp Bond and Temp Bond NE: The modifier (central tube) can be mixed with Temp Bond
Base and Catalyst to ease crown removal with retentive preparations. Regular Temp Bond contains
eugenol, which can soften composite cores. Temp Bond NE (shown to right of photograph) does not
contain eugenol and will avoid this problem
Direct provisional restorations techniques

Most provisional restorations will be made
directly in the mouth. As mentioned earlier it is
worth taking time in their construction. As a rule
of thumb, the time taken to temporise a tooth
should be similar to the time taken to prepare it.
This approach ensures sufficient time is devoted
to good fit and contour. The techniques available
are listed overleaf:
Fig. 6 (a) A familiar polycarbonate

shell crown relined with Trim; and
(b) The provisional is carefully
trimmed to help maintain gingival
health
but the material can be added to. Light cured

materials, especially unfilled ones, have a higher
exotherm than chemically cured materials
because of their greater speed of reaction.7 This
exotherm may have implications for pulpal
health.
Restorative composites, normally used for
filling teeth, can be used as a provisional material for adhesive preparations, as described later.
Other restorative composites are designed for
laboratory fabrication but may be useful for
long-term provisional restorations.
Cast metal
Alloys used include nickel chromium, silver and
scrap gold. Copings can be cast with external
retention beads for acrylic or composite. In less
aesthetically critical areas of the mouth, metal
may be used on its own. Cast metals are very
durable, but rarely used unless provisional
restorations have to last a long time.
622
Provisional cements
Provisional restorations are usually cemented
with soft cement. Traditionally, a creamy mix of
zinc oxide eugenol was used, but nowadays
most dentists prefer proprietary materials such
as Temp Bond (Fig. 5). This material comes with
a modifier, which is used to soften the cement, as
described later in the article, to ease removal of
the provisional restoration from more retentive
preparations. Temp Bond NE is a non-eugenol
cement which may be used for patients with
eugenol allergy or where there is concern over
the possible plasticising effect of residual
eugenol on resin cements and dentine bonding
agents. Certainly, surface hardness11 and shear
bond strength of resin12 to resin can both be
affected by eugenol and it is worth noting that
eugenol cements can significantly reduce the
bond of resin cements to composite cores.16
However, resin bond strengths to enamel13 and
dentine14 are not affected if the eugenol residue
is removed with pumice and water before conditioning. Microleakage15 is also unaffected by the
use of eugenol.
Occasionally, hard cement is needed to retain
a provisional on a short preparation. This is considered later in the problem solving section.
Fig 7 (a) Aluminium shell crowns are convenient, but

suitable only for short term use on posterior teeth; and
(b) Crimping of the crown margins will improve
retention and fit
PRACTICE
Shells (proprietary or custom)
Matrices (either formed directly in the mouth
or indirectly on a cast)
Direct syringing
To avoid confusion with terminology, a shell

is incorporated into the provisional restoration
whereas a matrix is merely used to form it.
Proprietary shells
Shells can be divided into proprietary and custom made. Proprietary shells made of plastic
(Fig. 6) or metal (Fig. 7) are used commonly in
practice when only one or perhaps two preparations are involved.
Proprietary plastic shells: A crown with the
correct mesio-distal width is chosen and placed
on the tooth preparation. The cervical margins
are trimmed to give reasonable seating and adaptation. The preparation is then coated with petroleum jelly and the crown, containing a suitable
resin eg Trim, is reseated. While the resin is still
incompletely set, the proximal excess is removed
using a sharp bladed instrument such as a half
Hollenback amalgam carver. The crown is then
removed and replaced several times to prevent
resin setting in undercuts. Finally, the crown is
adjusted and polished using steel or tungsten
carbide burs and Soflex discs. Diamond burs are
best avoided, as they tend to melt the shell and
resin because of the heat generated.
Proprietary metal shells: Aluminium crowns
are really only suitable for short-term use as
they are soft resulting in wear and deformation.
Furthermore, they can produce galvanic reactions in association with amalgam restorations.
Their fit is usually poor unless considerable time
is spent trimming and crimping the margins followed by relining with a resin. Stainless steel or
nickel chromium crowns may occasionally be
used on molar teeth opposed by flat cusps where
heavy occlusal loading would quickly wear or
break a resin crown.
Custom shells
Some operators favour custom shells for multiple tooth preparations. The shell is made in
advance of tooth preparation so the desired
external contours are pre-formed, but relining
and careful marginal trimming are necessary
prior to fitting. Custom shells are of two types,
either beaded acrylic or Mill Crowns. Both offer
the advantage of being able to use the superior
properties of polymethyl methacrylate, whilst
avoiding pulpal damage by constructing the
shell out of the mouth.
The beaded acrylic shell is formed within an
impression taken of the teeth prior to preparation
or of a diagnostic wax up. A thin shell of polymethyl methacrylate is constructed in the impression by alternately placing small amounts of
methyl methacrylate monomer followed by polymer, taking care not to make the shell too thick,
otherwise it will need time-consuming adjustment later. Once set, it is trimmed and then relined
in the mouth as with polycarbonate crowns.
Fig. 8 (a) A commonly used matrix is

an alginate impression of the
unprepared tooth; and (b) The flash
must be removed and the linked
provisionals trimmed prior to
cementation
Mill Crowns are formed by first cutting minimal crown preparations on a stone cast. A prepreparation matrix is then filled with polymethyl methacrylate and placed over the
preparations. The trimmed and adjusted provisional crowns are again relined in the mouth.
Matrices
Many operators prefer matrices (Fig. 8) to shell
crowns for making single or multiple provisional crowns. This is because matrices closely duplicate the external form of satisfactory existing
teeth, or, if changes are required, a diagnostic
wax up. If the matrix is carefully seated minimal
adjustments are generally needed other than
trimming flash at the crown margin.
There are three main types of matrix:
Impression (alginate or elastomer)
Vacuum formed thermoplastic
Proprietary celluloid
The simplest way of making a matrix is to
record an impression of the tooth to be prepared
either in alginate or silicone putty. Impression
matrices are quick, easy and inexpensive, and
can be formed while the local anaesthetic is
allowed to take effect. When impression matrices are used some judicious internal trimming
may be helpful to improve seating and bulk out
critical areas of the provisional restoration.
These aspects are covered later when we deal
with problem solving. Alginate matrices are
best at absorbing the resin exotherm3
although the temporary should have been
removed before this stage of set. Elastomeric
impression matrices have the advantage of
being reusable, allowing them to be disinfected
and stored in case they are required again.
Polyvinylsiloxane putty impressions are frequently used because of their ease of handling
and long-term stability.
625
PRACTICE
b
Fig. 9 Where aesthetic or occlusal
changes are proposed, provisional
crowns can be formed in the mouth
with laboratory-made matrices:
(a) A putty or alginate matrix can be
formed directly on the wax-up
(remember to soak cast first); and
(b) A vacuum formed matrix can
also be made, but on a stone
duplicate of the wax-up to prevent
the wax from melting (matrix shown
prior to trimming)
If a tooth is broken down or its shape needs

to be changed, it will first need to be built up.
Soft red wax can be used for this purpose, but
anyone who has tried this will know that it
does not stick well. Adhesion can be improved
dramatically by first painting the tooth with a
coat of varnish (eg copal ether or glass
ionomer varnish) and allowing it to dry. The
opposing teeth are smeared with petroleum
jelly to allow their form to be stamped into the
wax should it be necessary to build up the
occlusal surface. Rather than try and achieve
perfection with an intra-oral wax-up it is better to aim for a slight over-contour, which can
be corrected by trimming the provisional
restoration. It is best to avoid putty for making
the matrix as it can distort or displace the wax
when the impression is seated.
There is no doubt that the above technique is
invaluable, however, when dealing with multiple crowns it is a much better strategy to first
carry out a diagnostic wax up on mounted casts
(Fig. 3). The intended aesthetics and occlusion
can be formed much more efficiently and
patients appreciate being able to see a blue
print of the definitive restorations on the articulator. Moreover, the wax up can be used to form
a suitable indirect matrix.
Indirect matrices can be made from impression material (Fig. 9a) or you can ask your
laboratory for a vacuum formed matrix made
of clear plastic (Fig. 9b). If you decide to make
an indirect matrix from impression material
remember to first soak the cast for five minutes. In this way you will avoid the embarrassment of sticking impression to cast. Immersion in warm water (not hot) has the
advantage of speeding up the impression
materials setting time.
Vacuum formed matrices are made of clear
vinyl sheet produced on a stone duplicate of the
626
waxed up cast. This is necessary to avoid melting the wax when the hot thermoplastic material
is drawn down. Not everyone is enthusiastic
about using a vacuum formed matrix because
they are flexible and can distort when seated,
especially if there are few or no adjacent teeth to
aid location. Where it is necessary to rely on the
soft tissues for matrix location we prefer to use
an impression matrix.
Whilst vacuum formed matrices are not without problems, being made of clear plastic they
are indispensable for moulding light cured
resins. A proprietary celluloid matrix can be
used if only a single provisional crown is to be
formed using light cured resin.
Whatever matrix is chosen care must be
taken in its use. After tooth preparation, a thin
smear of petroleum jelly is placed over the
reduced tooth and adjacent teeth. The matrix is
blown dry and the mixed resin is syringed into
the deepest part of the appropriate tooth recess,
taking care not to trap air, especially at the
incisal angles. After reseating, the matrix is left
until the resin reaches a rubbery stage. It is then
removed and interproximal excess removed in
the same way as for the proprietary shell. Setting
can be monitored to some extent by testing the
consistency of a small portion of material
syringed onto the front of the seated impression.
Following removal, the crowns are trimmed,
polished and cemented.
Direct syringing
When no shell temporary can be found to fit
and, for whatever reason, no matrix is available
it can be useful to syringe material directly
around a preparation. For this purpose the polyethyl methacrylate materials are best as they can
be mixed to sufficient viscosity not to slump but
are still capable of being syringed. This property
whereby a material undergoes an apparent
decrease in viscosity at high rates of shear, as
when passed through a syringe nozzle, is called
shear thinning. It is also seen with the polyether
material, Impregum.
When syringing, start at the finish line and
spiral the material up the axial walls. Overbuild
the contours slightly as it is easier to trim away
excess than to have to add later.
Indirect provisionals
Many dentists will not have used indirect provisional restorations and may find it hard to justify
laboratory costs. However, indirect provisionals
offer certain advantages with complex cases
needing long-term temporisation. Firstly, materials which are stronger and more durable can be
used eg heat cured acrylic or self cured acrylic
cured in a hydroflask. Secondly, if aesthetic or
occlusal changes are to be made these can be
developed on an articulator. Indirect provisionals
can certainly save clinical time, especially with
multiple restorations and most particularly where
there is to be an increase in vertical dimension,
especially where the patient is a bruxist (Fig. 10).
Whether or not major changes are indicatBRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 11 JUNE 15 2002
PRACTICE
ed, it is best to decide on the type of provisional restoration during treatment planning.
If indirect restorations are chosen, sufficient
time can be scheduled either to make them
whilst the patient waits or an additional
appointment can be made to fit those made in
the laboratory.
Some operators favour making indirect provisional restorations from self cured acrylic at
the same appointment the teeth are prepared. If
the surgery has an on site technician (or suitably trained nurse) this can be a very efficient
way of working as it allows the dentist to do
something else while the provisional restorations are being made. An alginate impression is
recorded of the prepared teeth and this is cast
up in quick setting plaster. The plaster model is
then coated with cold-mould seal and a suitable shade of self cured acrylic mixed up. The
acrylic is then flowed into a matrix made from
the diagnostic wax up (eg silicon putty or vacuum formed) which is then seated onto the cast
and its position stabilised with elastic bands,
taking care not to distort it. Polymerisation
takes place within a hydro flask following
which the matrix is removed; the relatively soft
plaster dug out and the acrylic flash trimmed
back to the margin. Additions may need to be
made to the margins of the crowns where polymerisation shrinkage has produced a gap. This
can be done in the mouth or on a cast. If done
in the mouth, then the tooth needs lubricating
with petroleum jelly and the crowns removed
before excessive heat is generated.
Clearly, an extra appointment will be necessary if indirect provisional restorations are
made in an outside laboratory. In the interim
direct provisional restorations will also be
needed. This approach can be very effective,
however, where an increase in vertical dimension is prescribed. A number of strategic teeth
can be prepared and interim provisional
restorations made directly to conform to the
existing occlusion (eg from polyethyl
methacrylate or Bis acryl composite). On
return, the indirect provisional restorations
can be used to establish the increased vertical
dimension on multiple teeth. Often these cases
require minimal or no occlusal preparation as
occlusal clearance is provided by the increase
in vertical dimension. When this happens the
interim provisional restoration will resemble a
tube with no occlusal surface, which is usually
acceptable for short periods.
PROVISIONAL RESTORATION OF ADHESIVE

PREPARATIONS
Provisional restorations for conventional tooth
preparations (eg full veneer crowns, 3/4 crowns,
and onlays) obtain retention in a similar way to
the final restorations ie via cement on preparations with long, minimally tapered axial walls.
The lack of conventional retention provided by
most adhesive preparations results in temporary
cements being ineffective. A number of strategies can be used to deal with this problem, some
Fig. 10 Metal and acrylic

provisionals used in the occlusal
reconstruction of a bruxist:
(a) A relined NiCr shell at tooth
LL7 (37) where the previous acrylic
provisional crown had fractured
repeatedly; and (b) The upper arch
has acrylic heat cured onto beaded
metal copings in an attempt to
improve fracture resistance
however a good bond between metal
and acrylic is needed for success
of which are more appropriate for certain situations than others:

No temporary coverage may be necessary eg
with veneer preparations involving minimal
dentine exposure and not removing intercuspal or proximal contacts. Where space has
been created with a Dahl appliance, the appliance can be used in the interim to retain the
teeth in position
A simple coat of zinc phosphate cement to
protect exposed dentine eg in tooth preparations which are not aesthetically critical and
where the occlusion is either not involved or
the restoration can be returned rapidly from
the laboratory and fitted before significant
tooth movement occurs
Composite resin bonded to a spot etched on
the preparation eg veneer preparations which
are aesthetically critical or occlusally critical
or have sensitive, fresh cut dentine. The provisional restoration is fabricated using either
directly placed composite which is time consuming, or composite and a clear vacuum
formed matrix made from a preoperative cast.
For longer lasting provisionals, acrylic
veneers may be made in the laboratory. Limiting the area of bonding facilitates composite
removal, but the bonded area must be ground
back to tooth substance when the definitive
restoration is fitted. If the composite is cut
without water spray it is easier to distinguish
between the powdery surface of the ground
composite and the glassy appearance of the
underlying tooth
Composite resin bonded to the opposing tooth
to maintain occlusal contact and prevent
over-eruption (eg shims or veneers where
some additional occlusal reduction is
required). After the definitive restoration is
placed, the opposing composite is removed
627
PRACTICE
Conventional
provisional
restorations
cemented with either a non-eugenol temporary cement or a hard cement such as zinc carboxylate. This approach may be used for
adhesive restorations having some mechanical retention eg an inlay or resin bonded
crown. The choice of cement will depend on
how retentive the preparation is.
It is sensible to expect provisionals for adhesive preparations to be effective only in the short
term. Certainly, their diagnostic usefulness in
testing changes in aesthetics and occlusion is
much more limited than with provisional
restorations for conventional preparations.
PROBLEM SOLVING
A number of problems are encountered when
making provisional restorations. Some of these
are discussed below:
Insufficient bulk of material
The axial walls of resin provisionals are often
thin which makes them prone to damage during
removal from the mouth. This is particularly the
case when minimal amounts of tooth are
removed eg preparations for gold crowns. To
Fig. 11 Where the resulting

provisional restoration would be too
thin, the inside of the alginate
matrix can be trimmed to give a
greater bulk of resin
prevent damage, the provisional should be made

temporarily wider by relieving the appropriate
part of the impression with a large excavator
(Fig. 11). The excess resin can be contoured after
it has completely set.
Gross occlusal errors, air blows and voids

An impression matrix not being reseated fully
often causes gross occlusal errors and may occur
for two reasons:
Fins of interproximal impression material
being displaced and sandwiched between the
impression and the occlusal surface trim
away any suspect areas from the inside of the
impression with a scalpel or scissors before
reseating
Hydrostatic pressure built up within the unset
resin during reseating of the impression
matrix consider cutting escape vents cut
from the crown margin to the periphery of the
impression with a large excavator.
Avoid voids by syringing material directly
onto preparations. Of course, material is also
loaded into the impression, ensuring the tip is
always in the resin, to prevent the incorporation
of air.
628
Locking in of provisional restorations

Provisional restorations are often locked in by
extruded material engaging the undercuts
formed by the proximal surfaces of adjacent
teeth. The technique of cutting out a triangular
wedge of material from the gingival embrasure
space with a half Hollenback instrument has
already been mentioned. This must be done while
the material is still soft and before any attempt is
made to remove the provisional restoration from
the preparation. Once removed, any thin flash
should be trimmed with a pair of scissors, and the
crown reseated a number of times to ensure it
does not lock into place when set.
Provisional inlays can be a particular problem because of the difficulty in removing excess
resin proximally on posterior teeth. A time saving technique is possible using two light cured
resins,8 a soft one for the cavity floor and base of
the box (eg Fermit), and a harder one for the
occlusal surface (eg Provipont DC). A vacuum
formed, transparent matrix is also needed. The
softer resin is condensed into the cavity using a
conventional matrix band to limit proximal
extrusion. The cavity is filled to the level of the
proximal contacts after which the resin surface
is pock marked with a condensing instrument to
provide mechanical retention for the harder
resin. Following light curing the matrix band is
removed. The coronal portion of the restoration
is formed from the harder resin by means of the
vacuum formed matrix. After light curing, the
matrix is removed along with the provisional
restoration, which can be further cured from the
fitting surface. The amount of flash produced by
this method is minimal, and the manufacturing
of the inlay up to the point of trimming can be
completed in less than 4 minutes.8
Marginal discrepancies
Although polymerisation shrinkage can cause
marginal discrepancies, it is our opinion that
most problems are caused simply by distortion of the margin when the provisional
crown is first removed from its preparation.
Such distortion results from excess material
engaging proximal undercuts and can easily
be prevented by following the advice in the
previous section.
Should a marginal discrepancy occur with
a provisional resin crown, the simplest solution is to reline it. A useful tip is to flare out
the inside of the crown margin with a bur. This
approach provides a greater bulk of reline
material and more area for it to bond. To facilitate seating it is best not to fill the whole
crown with resin, but to confine the reline
material to the inner aspect of the crown margin, thus reducing hydrostatic pressure.
Multiple crowns
When several adjacent preparations require provisional restorations, reseating an impression containing resin invariably results in all the restorations being joined together as material passes
through the thin and often torn interproximal
PRACTICE
area. Splinting teeth together in this way has the

advantage of preventing drift due to poor interproximal and occlusal contacts. However, it is
extremely important to ensure the gingival
embrasures are opened sufficiently to give good
access to tooth brushing (Fig. 12a-c). This is best
accomplished with a flame shaped bur (Fig. 12d).
Ideally, provisional crowns should be separate, but separation can result in unwanted gaps
between them. One way9 of overcoming this is
to place small pieces of celluloid strip, roughly
1cm long, between the teeth to be prepared. The
strips should have holes punched in their buccal
and lingual portions with a rubber dam punch
to aid retention in the over-impression. A small
amount of alginate is smeared over the celluloid
strips retentive holes before seating the tray.
When the impression is removed, the strips stay
embedded in the alginate and separate the resin
crowns while they are made.
Premature decementation
Premature loss of provisional restorations is
frustrating for both patient and dentist. This
problem can be largely avoided by ensuring harmony with the occlusion. A few seconds spent
marking up and adjusting occlusal contacts will
save time in the long run.
Occasionally, it is necessary to use a stronger
cement, such as zinc polycarboxylate, especially
where retention is limited.
Partial denture abutments
A provisional crown used as a partial denture
abutment is made best from an acrylic resin
(eg Trim) as additions are easy to make. The
following technique is recommended: The provisional crown should initially be kept clear
from where rest seats and guide planes are to
contact. Fresh resin is then placed in these
areas before reseating the partial denture with
Fig. 12 Provisional restorations and

gingival embrasures: (a) No gingival
embrasure space provided between
the maxillary incisors; (b) Bleeding
from the resulting gingival
inflammation prevented impressions
being recorded; and (c) Patients
maintain gingival health best where
there are open gingival embrasures
(as shown in this provisional bridge)
to allow toothbrush penetration
interproximally; and (d) Gingival
embrasures under linked provisionals
need to be opened out with a flame
shaped bur
Fig. 13 A handy tip to facilitate

removal of set cement (either hard
or soft); loop floss under each
connector of linked crowns and
apply petroleum jelly to external
surfaces
its components lubricated with petroleum jelly.

After the resin has set, the denture is removed
and the crown is finished.
Eugenol containing temporary cements and

adhesion
As discussed previously, eugenol-containing
cements should be avoided where it is intended
to cement the definitive restoration to an underlying composite core.
Removing temporary crowns
Although it is desirable for provisional crowns
to remain cemented during function, they
should still be easily removed when impressions are taken, adjustments are needed, or
definitive restorations need cementing. When
preparations are of optimal height and taper,
the use of even comparatively weak temporary cements may make removal difficult,
especially when the provisional restoration
needs to remain undamaged for recementation or when definitive crowns are cemented
on a temporary basis.
To make removal easier, the cement should
be applied in a ring around the inner aspect of
the margin. Alternatively, the manufacturers
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Crispin B J, Caputo A A. Color stability
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Donovan T E, Hurst R G, Campagni W
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Marginal fidelity of crowns fabricated
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Lang R, Rosentritt M, Leibrock A, Behr
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Gulati A J. Physical properties of
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Dilts W E, Miller R C, Miranda F J,
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eugenol-containing and eugenolfree temporary cements on
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modifier should be added to the cement (Fig.

5). Equal lengths of base and catalyst with a
third of a length of modifier will soften the
cement appreciably. Therefore, the proportion
of modifier needs to be gauged for each case.
Either finger pressure or instruments such as
towel clips can then remove the restorations,
without risking damage to the preparation
margin.
Removal of excess cement

Temporary cement removal is facilitated by
pre-applying petroleum jelly to the outside of
the restorations and placing floss under each
connector of linked crowns before seating
(look at Fig. 13). Once set, the excess cement is
easily removed with the strategically positioned floss.
List of products mentioned in the text:
Fermit
Protemp II (hand-mix)
Protemp Garant (syringe mix)
Provipont DC
Quicktemp
Snap
Soflex Discs
Temp Bond
Temp Bond NE
Trim II
Vita Autopolymerizing
K+B Acrylics
CONCLUSION
Quality restorative dentistry needs quality
provisional restorations for predictable
results. Dentists therefore need to be familiar
with the range of materials and techniques for
short term, medium-term and long-term temporisation. Forethought and planning are also
needed to ensure the most appropriate provisional is used, especially when multiple teeth
are to be prepared or where occlusal or aesthetic changes are envisaged. Such changes
are best tried out with provisionals so that
modifications can easily be made intra-orally
and when satisfactory copied into the definitive restorations. In this respect an initial
diagnostic wax-up is invaluable to facilitate
the construction of laboratory formed provisionals or matrices.
Ivoclar-Vivadent UK Ltd, Leicester, UK

ESPE, Seefeld, Germany
ESPE, Seefeld, Germany
Ivoclar-Vivadent UK Ltd, Leicester, UK
Davis, Schottlander & Davis Ltd, Letchworth, UK
Parkell, Farmingdale, USA
3M Dental Products, St Paul, USA
Kerr UK Ltd, Peterborough, UK
Kerr UK Ltd, Peterborough, UK
Harry J. Bosworth Co, Illinois, USA
Panadent, London, UK
PRACTICE
IN BRIEF
An overview of impression materials

A rationale is put forward for the choice of elastomeric materials
Solutions are provided to common problems encountered by the clinician in producing good,
accurate impressions
An emphasis on the need for feedback between the laboratory and the dentist
10

Impression materials and technique
R. W. Wassell1 D. Barker2 and A. W. G. Walls3
Well-fitting indirect restorations can only be made if there are accurate models of the oral tissues available, made from high
quality impressions. Waiting for an impression to set may be more stressful for the dentist than the patient. Should the
impression need to be repeated there is the embarrassment of having to explain this to the patient, the cost implications of
material and time wasted and the aggravation of running late for the next appointment. Yet, if a Nelsonian eye is turned to a
defective impression we can only expect a substandard restoration in return.

RESTORATIONS:

3. Pre-operative
assessment
4. Endodontic
considerations
vital pulps
veneer crowns
technique
of crowns
restorations
2Higher Specialist Trainee, 3Professor,
NE2 4BW;
NE2 4BW
Refereed Paper
679690
Sometimes impression defects only come to light

after the cast has been poured. Thus laboratory
inspection is an important part of quality control, but many technicians find it difficult to feed
back to their dentists for fear of the messenger
being shot. Feedback between laboratory and
dentist is critical to the establishment of an open
and honest relationship. Hopefully, an improved
understanding of impression materials coupled
with techniques to overcome problems will
encourage higher standards and the confidence
to accept appropriate advice.
The first part of this article considers the
factors influencing choice of impression material. To have a practical understanding of impression materials it is not necessary to have a PhD
in dental materials science. Nevertheless, to
select an appropriate material it does help to
have a feel for the classification of impression
materials as well as concepts such as working
time, setting time, permanent deformation and
dimensional stability. There are certainly other
important factors that will influence your decision such as ease of manipulation, taste and
tackiness but these have so far eluded quantitative measurement.
The putty-wash technique has proven popular not least for its ease of handling, but there are
drawbacks that can have significant effects on
its accuracy and these will be discussed.
The final part of the article will consider how
to overcome the problems routinely encountered
in recording impressions.
CLASSIFICATION OF IMPRESSION MATERIALS

Impression materials are commonly classified
by considering their elastic properties once set.
Therefore, they can be broadly divided into
non-elastic and elastic materials as shown in

Figure 1. Non-elastic impression materials are
generally not used for obtaining impressions of
crown preparations because of their inability to
accurately record undercuts. The elastic impression materials can be divided into two groups:
the hydrocolloids and the synthetic elastomers.
Table 1. details the physical properties of the
major groups of elastic impression materials
available.
Hydrocolloid impression materials

The two types of hydrocolloids used in dental
impressions are agar and alginate. Agar is a
reversible hydrocolloid because it can pass
repeatedly between highly viscous gel and low
viscosity sol simply through heating and cooling. However, alginate once converted to the gel
form cannot be converted back into the sol, and
is therefore said to be irreversible hydrocolloid
material.
Agar and alginate may be used independently
or in combination to record crown impressions.
Agar was first introduced into dentistry for
recording crown impressions in 1937 by Sears1
and was the first elastic impression material
available. It is not commonly used in dental
practice today however, because of the need for
expensive conditioning baths and water cooled
trays. Alginate, unlike agar, does not require any
special equipment. Being easy to use and inexpensive it is popular for less critical applications
eg opposing casts and study models.
Alginate and agar produce impressions with
reasonable surface detail. They are both relatively hydrophilic and are not displaced from
wet surfaces as easily as the elastomers.2 However, in respect of recording crown prepara679
PRACTICE
lems associated with the hydrocolloids, namely
poor dimensional stability and inadequate tear
resistance.
IMPRESSION MATERIALS
Non-elastic materials
Impression plaster
Impression compound
Impression waxes
Synthetic elastomers
Hydrocolloids
Reversible
Irreversible
Polysulphides
Polyether
Silicones
Condensation
Addition
Fig. 1 Classification of impression materials
tions these materials have two major disadvantages. Firstly, very poor dimensional stability because of the ready loss or imbibition of
water on standing in dry or wet environments
respectively. Secondly, low tear resistance
which can be a real problem when attempting
to record the gingival sulcus.
Some work supports the use of combined
reversible and irreversible hydrocolloid
impression systems.3,4 These systems are used
in a way similar to the putty-wash technique
for silicone rubbers described later in this article, with the agar injected around the preparation to capture surface detail and the more viscous alginate in the impression tray. The
advantages of this combination system compared with agar or alginate used individually is
the minimisation of equipment required to
record an agar impression (no water cooled
tray is needed) and the fact that agar is more
compatible with gypsum model materials than
alginate. It is also relatively cheap in comparison to many synthetic elastomers. Lin et al.5
demonstrated that the accuracy of this combination system is better than either the
reversible or irreversible materials used separately and is comparable to that of polysulphide impression materials. However, the
problems of low tear resistance and poor
dimensional stability still apply resulting in
the need for impressions to be cast up immediately. For these reasons, most practitioners
tend to reject the hydrocolloids in favour of
the synthetic elastomers to produce accurate
and stable impressions.
The synthetic elastomers

First introduced in the late 1950s, synthetic
elastomeric impression materials quickly
became popular as dental materials because
they significantly reduced the two main prob680
Polysulphides
The polysulphide impression materials have the
longest history of use in dentistry of all the elastomers. Interestingly, they were first developed
as an industrial sealant for gaps between sectional concrete structures.6 They are available in
a range of viscosities namely, light bodied (low
viscosity), medium or regular bodied and heavy
bodied (high viscosity).
These are now relatively unpopular materials.
The setting reaction of polysulphides tends to
be long with setting times often in excess of
10 minutes (acceleration is possible by adding
a small drop of water to the mix). They are
also messy to handle and have an objectionable odour.
Dies resulting from polysulphide impressions
are generally wider and shorter than the tooth
preparation. This distortion, which worsens the
longer the delay in pouring up, is the result of
impression shrinkage which is directed towards
the impression tray hence the wider die.
Shrinkage occurs firstly as a result of a continued setting reaction after the apparent setting
time, and secondly through the evaporation of
water produced as a by-product of the setting
reaction. A special tray, providing a 4 mm uniform space, is needed to reduce distortion from
the shrinkage of a large bulk of material. The
recommended maximum storage time of the set
impression is about 48 hours.6
A significant advantage of polysulphide,
however, is its long working time. This is especially useful when an impression of multiple
preparations is required and some dental schools
stock a few tubes to help students deal with this
difficult situation. Another advantage of these
materials is that they possess excellent tear
resistance, undergoing considerable tensile
strain before tearing. Unfortunately, their elastic
properties are not ideal and some of this strain
may not be recovered (high value for stress
relaxation 2 minutes after setting time see
Table 1). To optimise the recovery of these viscoelastic materials, the impression should be
removed with a single, swift pull as the strain
imparted on the material is a function of the
time for which the load is applied. This method
of removal of impressions should be adopted
when using any impression material, irrespective of its elastic properties.
Polyethers
A popular polyether impression material,
Impregum (Espe GmbH, Germany), was the first
elastomer to be developed specifically for use in
dentistry and introduced in the late 1970s. Initially available only in a single regular viscosity, slight modification of the viscosity is possible
with the use of a diluent. More recently a heavy
light bodied system has been intoduced (Permadyne, Espe GMbH, Germany).
PRACTICE
Polyether impression materials tend to have a
fast setting time of less than 5 minutes and, for
this reason, have been popular for the recording
of single preparations in general practice. In
contrast to polysulphides, they undergo an addition cured polymerisation reaction on setting
which has no reaction by-product resulting in a
material with very good dimensional stability.
The set material may however swell and distort
because of the absorption of water on storage in
conditions of high humidity. Impressions should
therefore be stored dry. They should also not be
stored in direct sunlight. Ideally, impressions
should be poured within 48 hours of them being
recorded.6 An advantage of their relative
hydrophilicity is that polyether impression
materials are more forgiving of inadequate
moisture control than the hydrophobic polysulphides and silicone rubbers.
Polyether impression materials have adequate tear resistance and very good elastic properties. However they do have a high elastic modulus and consequently are relatively rigid when
set, hence considerable force may be required to
remove the impression from both the mouth and
the stone cast (Table 1, stress to give 10% compression). This may preclude their use in cases
where severe undercuts are present.
Silicones
Silicone impression materials are classified
according to their method of polymerisation on
setting, viz. condensation curing (or Type I) silicones and addition curing (or Type II) silicones.
Silicone rubbers are available in a similar
range of viscosities to the polysulphides (ie
light, medium and heavy). However, the range is
supplemented by a fourth viscosity; a very high
viscosity or putty material. The high filler
loading of the putty was initially devised to
reduce the effects of polymerisation shrinkage.
The putty is commonly combined with a low
viscosity silicone when recording impressions, a
procedure known as the putty-wash technique
which will be discussed in some detail later in
the article.
Condensation curing silicones were introduced to dentistry in the early 1960s. As with the
polysulphides, the setting reaction produces a
volatile by-product, but with type I silicones it is
ethyl alcohol, not water. Loss of the by-product
leads to measurable weight loss accompanied by
shrinkage of the impression material on storage.
The dimensional changes of condensation silicones are slightly greater than those of polysulphides, but the changes in both types of material
are small in comparison to the changes which
occur with alginate. Nevertheless, to produce the
most accurate models, regular and heavy body
impressions should be cast within 6 hours of
being recorded.6 This may be a problem if the
laboratory is not close to the practice.
In contrast, addition cured silicone rubbers
are considered the most dimensionally stable
impression materials. Like polyethers, they set,
not unexpectedly, by an addition cured polymerisation reaction. No by-product is produced
during cross-linkage resulting in an extremely
stable impression which has been shown to
remain unchanged over a substantial period of
time, hence allowing impressions to be poured at
leisure some days after they were recorded.
As with polysulphides, silicone rubbers are
very hydrophobic so unless the teeth are properly dried blowholes are likely to be produced in
the set impression.
Both types of silicone rubber have the best
elastic properties of any impression material, the
recovery of strain being said to be almost instantaneous (Table 1, stress relaxation at 2 minutes
after setting time). Like the other elastomers,
they have adequate tear resistance. They are
non-toxic and absolutely neutral in both colour
and taste.
A great deal of recent research has been centred around the production of hydrophilic silicone rubbers. Some commercial addition cured
products have recently been introduced (eg
Take 1 Kerr US, Misssouri USA). A study by
Pratten and Craig7 showed one of these
hydrophilic addition silicone materials to have
a wettability similar to that of polyethers. Other
studies have also shown that treatment of
impression materials with topical agents,
including surfactants, results in a decrease in
the number of voids found in the final impression and the dies poured from them.811
THE PROBLEMS OF PUTTY-WASH

The putty-wash technique is probably that most
commonly used in general dental practice. As
with most techniques it has its problems, the
most common of which is invisible when the
impression is recorded only becoming apparent
when the restoration is tried in and fails to seat
satisfactorily.
Table 1 Properties of elastomeric impression materials

Property
Coefficient of thermal expansion (106 oC1)

Volumetric polymerisation concentration (%)
Weight Loss at 24h (%)
Stress to give 10% compression (MPa)
Stress relaxation (%) at 2 mins after setting time
Tear strength (MPa)
Elongation at break (%)
Polysulphides
270
0.3
0.15
70
45
0.5
500
Condensation
silicones
Addition
silicones
Polyethers
190
1.0
0.9
110
10
1.6
350
190
0.4
0.05
160
5
2.8
150
300
0.4
0.02
400
11
1.5
300
681
PRACTICE
As has been mentioned already, putties were
developed initially to reduce the shrinkage of
condensation silicones, but the heavy filler loading is not needed for addition silicones since
their polymerisation contraction and dimensional stability are in any case excellent. Presumably, addition silicone putty-wash impressions are preferred principally for their handling
characteristics.
There are essentially three ways of recording
a putty-wash impression:
One stage impression putty and wash are
recorded simultaneously (also called twin mix
or laminate technique)
Two stage unspaced putty is recorded first
and after setting relined with a thin layer of
wash
Two stage spaced as for two stage unspaced
except a space is created for the wash. This
space may be made by:
Polythene spacer over the teeth prior to
making the putty impression
Recording the putty impression before tooth
preparation
Gouging away the putty and providing
escape channels for the wash.
The problem that causes invisible, but sometimes gross distortions, is recoil. Recoil can
result in poorly fitting restorations and makes a
mockery of using what should be accurate materials. Recoil works in the following way. Considerable forces are needed to seat putty impressions, which can result either in outward flexion
of the tray wall or the incorporation of residual
stresses within the material. On removing the
tray from the mouth the tray walls rebound
resulting in dies, which are undersized buccolingually.12 This has been demonstrated clearly
with plastic stock trays used with the one stage
technique.
Although putties of lower viscosity are available they produce similar distortions with plastic
trays.1315 Rigid metal trays however can minimise such distortions and are to be recommended for putty-wash impressions.
The two stage technique is not immune to
distortion which may occur as follows:
1. Where it is used unspaced hydrostatic pressures can be generated during the seating of
the wash impression, which can cause deformation and subsequent putty recoil2 on
removal. This problem can occur even with
rigid trays. It may be reduced but not necessarily eliminated by spacing.
2. The putty impression may not be reseated
properly causing a stepped occlusal surface
of the cast and a restoration requiring excessive occlusal adjustment. It is often difficult
to reseat an impression where the material
has engaged undercuts especially interproximally. As such, unspaced or just locally
relieved impressions are most at risk.
In summary, the most convenient and reliable way of recording a putty-wash impression
682
is to use the one stage technique with addition

silicone putty in a rigid metal tray. There is no
doubt that plastic stock trays are convenient
but whilst unreliable with putty-wash they can
produce accurate results with a combination of
heavy and light bodied addition silicones.1214
Special trays are only needed for heavy light
bodied addition silicone impressions where
stock trays are a poor fit.
DISINFECTION OF IMPRESSION MATERIALS

It has long been recognised that a potential
exists for cross-infection as a result of contaminated dental impressions.1618 Consequently
such impressions pose a hazard to laboratory
personnel; it is therefore important that all
impressions are disinfected prior to being transferred to a laboratory.
A study by Blair and Wassell (1996)19 considered a number of solutions used for disinfecting impression materials. It highlighted that
there is no universally recognised impression
disinfection protocol available but showed that
the use of a disinfectant of some description, at
least in dental hospitals, had increased from
1988.20 The recommendations of the study are
supported by the British Dental Association;21
namely that all impressions should at least
undergo a disinfecting procedure by immersion
in 1% sodium hypochlorite for a minimum of
ten minutes.
PROBLEM SOLVING
At Newcastle senior members of staff check all
impressions for indirect restorations on removal
from the mouth and again in the laboratory. It is
surprising how often an impression, appearing
satisfactory to a cursory glance, is fatally flawed
when viewed alongside the resulting cast. We
would encourage dentists to audit their own
work in this way with peer review providing the
best stimulus for improvement.
Visible flaws related to impression technique
which occur commonly include:
Finish line not visible

Air bubbles in critical places
Voids or drags
Unset impression material on surface of
impression and cast
Invisible impression flaws, resulting in an

apparently good fit of the restoration on the die
but a poor fit on the tooth, may also occur
because of:
Tray and impression recoil (as described for
the putty-wash technique)
Detachment of impression from tray
Permanent deformation
Where multiple preparations are recorded the
likelihood of an impression defect occurring is
increased and it is useful to have strategies to
cope with this problem.
Whilst we cannot cover every eventuality we
hope that the advice given below will help in
reducing problems. Specific techniques have
PRACTICE
Fig. 2 Two cord technique: (a) A piece of fine retraction

cord is placed in the gingival sulcus; (b) A thicker cord
is placed over the first leaving a tag for removal;
(c) The thicker cord is removed after washing (note
clearly defined sulcus); and (d) The resulting impression
of the lower first premolar
been summarised in the tables. For full accounts

of potentially damaging but useful techniques, such as electrosurgery and rotary curettage, the reader is referred elsewhere.22
Visible flaws
Finish line not visible
If the technician cannot identify the finish line
on the impression, the resulting crown will
inevitably have a poor fit with a compromised
prognosis. It is therefore of some concern that
recent studies report impression defects at the
finish line in over a third of cases.23,24 These
defects are usually the result of inadequate gingival management in the following circumstances:
Gingival inflammation and bleeding. Every
effort should be made to ensure that tooth
preparations are being carried out in a healthy
mouth which means patients should have effective periodontal treatment prior to recording
impressions for definitive restorations. Bleeding
from inflamed gingivae will displace impression
material resulting in an inaccurate cast. Furthermore, if inflammation has not been controlled
and a sub gingival margin placed, there is a risk
of gingival recession leaving the margin as an
unsightly tide line. Where the potential for a
successful outcome is low, it is often sensible to
delay taking the impression until the gingival
condition is resolved.
Certainly there are times when contours and
ledges on pre-existing defective restorations
make it impossible for the patient alone to
resolve the inflammation. Prior to recording the
impression the defective part, or more usually
the whole restoration, should be removed and a
well contoured provisional restoration placed. In
order to obtain a satisfactory margin on the provisional restoration some localised electroBRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 12 JUNE 29 2002
surgery and gingival retraction may be required

(see later). Leading up to the removal of the
defective restoration and during the time of temporisation, it may be helpful to prescribe an
antimicrobial rinse (eg Chlorhexidine gluconate
0.12%) for 2 weeks.
Subgingival finish line. The more subgingival a preparation the more difficult it is to
record the finish line adequately. Preparations
finished at the gingival margin can occasionally be recorded without gingival retraction, but
retraction cord will often give a more predictable result. Preparations finished within the
gingival sulcus will certainly require gingival
retraction. Any one or a combination of means
can achieve retraction:
Retraction cord (plain or impregnated) with or
without accompanying solution
Two-cord technique (described in Fig. 2)
Rotary curettage
Electrosurgery
Copper ring
The techniques (summarised in Table 2)
become potentially more invasive towards the
bottom of the list but may be essential to manage more difficult cases. We find the most consistently helpful approach for subgingival
impressions to be the two-cord technique25
used with ferric sulphate solution (Table 3)
where necessary in combination with electrosurgery (Fig. 3). The principal advantage of the
technique is that the first cord remains in place
within the sulcus thus reducing the tendency of
the gingival cuff to recoil and displace partially
set impression material. This approach not only
helps to control gingival haemorrhage and exudate but also overcomes the problem of the sulcus impression tearing because of inadequate
bulk an especially important consideration
683
PRACTICE
Table 2 Techniques to capture subgingival finish lines

Description
Indications
Comments
Hazards
Retraction
cord
Standard method of retraction

using twisted or knitted cord
Gingival or subgingival
finish lines.
Trauma and recession from

excessive packing pressure.
Cord contaminated by gloves
may prevent impression of
gingival sulcus from setting
Florid inflammation if first
cord not removed.
Chemical
solutions
Used to soak retraction cord prior

to insertion and may be applied
topically to stop gingival bleeding.
Solutions include:
Epinephrine (1:1000 conc.)
Alum (eg Aluminium
potassium sulphate)
Ferric Sulphate (15.5%)
Best used routinely with retraction

cords plain cords result in
bleeding on removal in >50%
cases.38 Impregnated cords
twice as effective if first
soaked in solution.39
With ferric sulphate the initially
soaked cord can be removed from
the sulcus and further solution
applied with a special applicator
to help stabilise the coagulum.
Single cord often results in inadequate

gingival retraction. Two cord technique
where first small diameter cord is left in
place during impression recording
improves definition. Wetting the cord
just before removal helps control
haemorrage even when solutions used
(see below). Occasionally the first cord
provides sufficient retraction and the
second cord is not needed. Obviously,
no cord tag should protrude from the
sulcus whilst the impression is recorded.
Alum and epinephrine similarly
haemostatic,39 retractive40 and both
give minimal postoperative
inflammation.41 Clinically, ferric sulphate
appears better haemostatic agent but
needs to be rubbed firmly onto bleeding
gingival sulcus. Solutions need to be
washed off before impression recorded.
Electrosurgery
Controlled tissue destruction by

rapid heating from radio
frequency (>1.0 MHz) electrical
current passing from wire tip
(high current density) through
patient's body into large area
collecting electrode (low
current density).
Uses:
1. Widen gingival sulcus
(troughing) before cord placed.
NB Avoid using on thin
gingiva as unwanted recession
can result.
2. Gingivectomy for overgrown
tissue or to crown lengthening
3. Coagulation (ball electrode)
but produces most tissue
destruction and slow healing.
Current types:
Troughing- 'cut/coag' setting (fully
rectified, filtered)
Rotary
curettage
(Gingettage)
Use of chamfered diamond

bur to remove epithelial
tissue within healthy sulcus to
expose subgingival finish
line during its preparation.45
For subgingival preparations in

healthy gingivae. Gingival sulcus
depth must not exceed 3 mm and
there should be adequate
keratinised gingivae.46
Palatal tissues respond better than

thinner buccal tissues..47 Not suitable
technique if a periodontal probe in
the sulcus can be seen through the
gingiva.
Copper
ring
A closely adapted copper ring

is used as a vehicle to carry
impression material subgingivally.
A rigid impression material
(composition) or an elastomer
may be used.
Often used in an attempt to

retrieve the situation where
multiple preparations are
recorded in an elastomeric
impression and a localised
impression defect has occurred
Dies from composition impressions

are either electro formed or made in
amalgam. Elastomeric copper ring
impressions can also be cast in
stone.
Gingevectomy 'cut' setting

(fully rectified)
Coagulation 'coag' setting
(unrectified, damped)
with the hydrocolloids, which have low tear

strength. The main disadvantage of the two-cord
technique is failing to remove the first cord
thereby inflicting a painful, florid gingival reaction. It is worth pointing out that where ferric
sulphate solution is used, it must be applied
firmly in order to stabilise the coagulum. This
approach differs to the gentle technique used
with other solutions.
Preparations that extend beyond the epithelial attachment may have finish lines adjacent to
the alveolar bone. In such cases the above techniques are unsuitable and surgical crown
lengthening with osseous recontouring may be
indicated to ensure that the gingival attachment
has an adequate biological width (ie 24 mm of
gingival tissue above the alveolar crest).26
684
Concerns over 'epinephrine

syndrome' (raised heart rate,
respiratory rate and blood
pressure) when epinephrine
solution used on lacerated
gums in susceptible patients.42
Concentrated solutions of
Alum can cause severe
inflammation and tissue
necrosis.43 Solutions will
concentrate if top left off bottle.
Ferric sulphate can stain the
gums yellow-brown for a few
days.
Contra-indicated in patients
with cardiac pacemakers.22
Modern pacemakers are
relatively well shielded44 but
still good practice to evacuate
pacemaker patients from
adjacent areas.To avoid
unwanted arcing and tissue
burns use plastic mirrors
and check integrity of tip
insulation. Similarly, do not
touch against metal restorations.
Keep collecting electrode away
from rings and buckles etc.
A slight deepening of the
sulcus may result.47 Poor
tactile sensation during
instrumentation gives high
potential for overextension
and damage.
Attempts to locate a die from a
copper ring impression into the
relevant recess in a full arch
elastomeric impression are
rarely accurate and best
avoided for bridgework.
Brgger et al.27 have shown that whilst in most

patients the gingival margin is stable following
crown lengthening, in 12% of sites 24 mm of
recession occurred between 6 weeks and 6
months. These findings emphasise the need, in
aesthetically critical areas, to delay recording
the impression until the stability of the gingival
margin is assured.
Localised gingival overgrowth. This annoying
problem is often seen when replacing crowns
with open margins where an ingrowth of
inflamed gingiva prevents access to the finish
line. It also occurs after a patient loses a crown
with subgingival margins or a poor quality temporary crown is cemented prior to the impression
stage. In these circumstances packing with retraction cord can be onerous and may be useless. A
PRACTICE
better approach is to remove the overgrown tissue

with electrosurgery and then use a fine, straightwire electrode to create a sulcular trough into
which retraction cord may be placed (Fig. 3).
Retraction cord displaced from sulcus. In this
circumstance the gingival tissues conspire to
eject the cord from the sulcus almost immediately after placement. This frustration may occur
where healthy gingivae are tightly bound to the
tooth or where there are adjacent tooth preparations. In the latter situation placement of cord
into one proximal sulcus compresses the papilla
and displaces the cord already packed into the
adjacent sulcus. Again, electrosurgery to create
a trough into which the cord may be packed is
the easiest way to deal with the problem. It is
inappropriate to use electrosurgery where the
gingival tissues are thin, eg buccal aspects of
lower incisors, as unwanted gingival recession
may result. Where the tissue is thin a small
diameter retraction cord should be packed carefully using a sustained, controlled force. A half
Hollenback amalgam carver or proprietary cord
packing instrument is useful for the purpose. A
second instrument can be used to help retain
cord already packed.
Air bubbles in critical places

Air bubbles in impressions form either as a result
of mixing, tray loading, syringing or tray seating. Compared with spatulation, syringe mix
systems significantly reduce incorporated bubbles but are not foolproof.28 Prior to placing the
mixing nozzle, a small amount of material
should be extruded from the cartridge to ensure
no blockage present. A partial blockage will
make extrusion difficult and detrimentally alter
the base-catalyst ratio. A complete blockage can
cause the cartridge to rupture. Blockages can
usually be cleared with a Briault probe.
Syringing impression material around a
preparation requires a certain amount of skill.
Fig. 3 Troughing with electrosurgery

prior to packing retraction cord (a, b).
The buccal tissues are relatively thin
and great care is needed to avoid
recession. Where subgingival finish
lines need to be uncovered (c,d)
electrosurgery is invaluable. Sufficient
haemostasis can usually be achieved
with ferric sulphate solution to allow
the impression to be recorded
Table 3 Gingival retraction using ferric sulphate solution

Ensure adequate isolation and moisture control a flanged salivary ejector is needed for impressions
of lower posterior teeth.
Consider need for electrosurgery (either troughing or gingivectomy or both), one or two cord
technique. If gingival inflammation needs to be resolved, temporise with well fitting margins
Soak cord in ferric sulphate solution (15.5% w/v) and pack
Apply further solution using syringe applicator or pledget of cotton wool (beware solution
tastes foul)
After 5 minutes wash cord well and remove carefully so that lining of sulcus is not stripped out
Continue to wash preparation with atomised spray and dry well, especially the more inaccessible parts
of the preparation. The inner aspect of the sulcus will often appear black with stabilised coagulum.
Remove any coagulum adhering to tooth preparation or finish line
Only start mixing the impression if the gingivae are adequately retracted and dry
If bleeding starts, reapply ferric sulphate solution and repack with soaked cord for a further 5 to 10
minutes before reattempting impression
Air can easily be trapped at the gingival sulcus

as the syringe tip circumnavigates the tooth and
a good tip is to keep the syringe tip in the
expressed material during syringing. Another
piece of good advice where access for the tip is
restricted is to start syringing from the most difficult area usually the disto-lingual. First
express the material into the distal interproximal
sulcus so that it extrudes through to the buccal.
Continue along the lingual sulcus and then
express material into the mesial interproximal
sulcus again extruding through to the buccal.
Next place the syringe tip into the disto buccal
extrusion and syringe along buccally finishing
with the tip in the mesial extrusion. Finally
syringe up onto the occlusal surface and then
use a three in one syringe to blow the light body
evenly over the preparation.
Voids and drags

To obtain a void free impression it is necessary
for the material to wet the teeth and soft tissues.
In addition, the tray must effectively constrain
687
PRACTICE
the material to prevent it from flowing away
from critical areas thus inducing impression
drags that are commonly seen on the distal
aspects of teeth adjacent to edentulous spaces
and in undercut regions. Preparations and
occlusal surfaces must be adequately dried with
a three in one syringe or the relatively
hydrophobic elastomers will be repelled and,
much like a skidding lorry on a wet motorway,
aquaplane away from the tooth. We have found
the new generation of hydrophilic addition silicones (eg Take 1, Kerr US, Misssouri USA) to
offer much improved performance in overcoming these effects.
All experienced dentists will recognise the
scenario of repeating an impression only to find
that the offending void or drag has reappeared
in the same place. The cause is often a poorly
adapted tray and the answer is to either adapt
the stock tray with a rigid material (eg compound) to give more consistent spacing in the
critical area or have a special tray made up. Special trays are best avoided for putty-wash
impressions since there is a significant risk of the
rigid, set impression locking into undercuts and
then having to be cut free from the patients
mouth.
Gingival control has already been considered
but it is worth re-emphasising that crevicular
fluid and haemorrhage will displace impression
material and result in voids and rounded, indistinct finish lines.
Yet another cause of voids is premature
syringing of impression material intra-orally
prior to seating the tray. The set of the syringed
material is accelerated by the warmth of the
mouth, resulting in a poor bond between
syringed and tray materials and the appearance
of a fissure at the interface between them. This
type of void may be exacerbated by salivary
contamination of the syringed material. The
skilful use of cotton wool rolls, flanged salivary
ejector and high volume aspiration is critical to
effective moisture control.
Unset impression material

This problem usually does not become apparent until the impression is cast-up and a telltale smear of unset impression material is seen
on the surface of the die and the surrounding
teeth; the affected stone cast often has a characteristic granular appearance. Alternatively,
the putty in a putty-wash impression may
refuse to set. The most likely cause of both
these problems is contamination of the impression by ingredients of latex rubber gloves,
which poison the choroplatinic acid catalyst of
addition silicones.29,30 Not all brands of latex
gloves are responsible31 and the simple expedients are to change brands or to use non-latex
gloves (eg polyethylene) for impression procedures. Where the string variety of retraction
cord is used, twisting it tight. It in gloved hands
to make it more easily packable also has the
potential to contaminate and prevent impression setting.32 This is less of a problem with
688
knitted or woven cords, which should not be

twisted prior to insertion. Perhaps surprisingly,
retraction solutions have not been shown to
effect impression setting significantly.32
Invisible flaws
Impression and tray recoil
A visible impression flaw may be made invisible
by attempting a localised reline with a little light
bodied material. It may be tempting but is not
good practice; seating pressures can result in
impression recoil and significant distortion.33
Moreover, the addition may bond poorly and
subsequently peel away. If an impression is
unsatisfactory it should be retaken.
As already discussed the use of putty-wash in
non-rigid trays can result in tray wall recoil and
undersized dies.
Detachment of impression from tray
Detachment of the impression from the tray can
result in gross distortion of the cast. It may occur
on removal from the mouth and may often go
unnoticed. Prevention of detachment relies on
the proper use of adhesive and having a tray
with adequate perforations.34 It is a good idea to
select the tray and apply adhesive before the
tooth is prepared. Doing so will allow time for
the adhesives solvent to evaporate and for adequate bond strength to develop.35 Painting the
tray immediately before recording the impression is not a good idea. This advice applies to
elastomers and alginates. Alginates are more
easily debonded from the tray so it is good practice to use a scalpel to cut away excess alginate
from the tray heels to facilitate inspection of this
vulnerable area. The excess needs to be removed
before putting the impression down or the
impression will distort.
Elastomeric impressions may require to be
poured up more than once, especially if critical
air blows in the stone affect the resulting die.
The repour will be grossly inaccurate if impression material has lifted away from the tray
because of the lack of adhesive.36
Where a special tray is made it is important
that the wax spacer does not come into contact
with the tray acrylic; contamination will
reduce the strength of the adhesive bond. Technicians may need to be instructed to place a
layer of aluminium foil over the surface of the
wax before forming the tray.35 Furthermore, a
self cured acrylic tray should be made at least a
day in advance to allow for its polymerisation
contraction.
Permanent deformation
Withdrawal from an undercut will test an
impressions elastic recovery. As already mentioned the addition silicones have good resistance to permanent deformation, however, there
are situations where an impression can be
deformed and the small but significant deformation is unlikely to be detected. In this respect
gingival embrasure spaces cause especial difficulty in two situations. Firstly, significant ginBRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 12 JUNE 29 2002
PRACTICE
gival recession with the loss of the interproximal papilla will lock set impression material
into the space. The impression will either be
torn on removal from the mouth or deformed or
both. This problem is best dealt with by blocking out embrasure spaces with soft red wax or a
proprietary blocking out material. Secondly,
where there is a significant triangular interproximal space below the preparation finish
line it is best to extend the finish line gingivally. The space is thereby opened up to allow the
impression to be withdrawn without tearing or
distortion.
Special trays should be given sufficient spacing (at least two layers of baseplate wax) to give
sufficient thickness of impression material to
resist undue stress and strain on removal from
undercut areas.
Finally, the elastic properties of materials are
not fully developed at manufacturers stated setting times. So it is worth remembering that a significant improvement in resistance to permanent deformation occurs if addition silicone
impressions are left a further minute or two
before removal from the mouth.13
The problem of recording multiple preparations

It is always distressing when in an attempt to
record multiple preparations one or two areas of
the impression have a critical defect. There are
several strategies for dealing with the situation:
Retake the whole impression
Record a separate impression of the preparation (or preparations) having the impression
defect. A copper ring may be used as described
previously in Table 2. The resulting die is then
located in the defective region of the first
impression before pouring up the master die.
Not surprisingly, it can be difficult to locate
the die reliably and there is a risk of causing
occlusal or proximal contact discrepancies.
Retake sufficient impressions to ensure that
there is an adequate impression available of
each preparation. The patient is re-appointed
for a transfer coping pick-up impression.37 In
the interim individual dies are made by copper
or silver plating (Table 4). On each die is
formed an accurately fitting acrylic (Duralay,
Reliance Dental Co, Illinois, USA) transfer
coping. At the next appointment the transfer
copings are tried onto the preparations and
the fit checked. Copings having the same path
of insertion are linked together with wire and
Table 4 Copper and silver-plated dies; which

impression materials can be electroplated
Addition silicone
Condensation silicone
Polyether
Polysulphide
Impression compound
Copper plate
Silver plate
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Some
Yes
Yes
No
acrylic so that stability of coping position is

ensured within the pick-up impression. Alternatively, excrescences of acrylic can be added
to a coping to ensure it is retained within the
pick-up impression. After recording the pickup impression individual dies can be secured
within their copings using sticky wax before
the master cast is poured. The technique can
be used with stone dies, but there is a risk of
the die being abraded by the construction of
the acrylic coping. This problem can be overcome by double pouring each die. The coping
is made on one die, which is then discarded,
and the other die is used for the master cast.
Where it is clearly going to be a problem to
record many preparations on a single impression
this should be taken into account and planned
for. There are few cases that cannot be broken
down into smaller more manageable stages even
if this means using provisional restorations to
stabilise the occlusion while say four or six
definitive anterior crowns are constructed.
When it is absolutely necessary to record simultaneously more than six teeth in one arch it is
wise to use the transfer coping and pick-up
impression technique from the outset.
CONCLUSION
The ability to record consistently good impressions is both a science and an art. We hope this
article has shed light on both aspects. It is worth
bearing in mind that the impression influences
not only the quality of the subsequent restoration but also the technicians perception of the
dentists skill. As none of us can achieve perfection every time there is much to be said for
encouraging technicians to feed back when they
receive a substandard impression.
1.
Sears A W. Hydrocolloid impression technique for inlays and

fixed bridges. Dent Digest 1937; 43: 230-234.
2. Brown D. An update on elastomeric impression materials.
Br Dent J 1981; 150: 35-40.
3. Heisler W H, Tjan A H L. Accuracy and bond strength of
reversible with irreversible hydrocolloid impression systems:
a comparative study. J Prosthet Dent 1992; 68: 578-584.
4. Appleby D C, Parneijer C H, Boffa J. The combined reversible
hydrocolloid/ irreversible hydrocolloid impression system.
J Prosthet Dent 1980; 44: 27-35.
5. Lin C, Zeiber G J. Accuracy of impression materials for
complete arch fixed partial dentures. J Prosthet Dent 1988;
59: 288-291.
6. Craig R G. Restorative Dental Materials. 10th ed.pp.281-332.
London: Mosby, 1997.
7. Pratten D H, Craig R G. Wettability of a hydrophilic addition
silicone impression material. J Prosthet Dent 1989; 61: 197202.
8. Vassilakos N, Fernandes C P, Nilner K. Effect of plasma
treatment on the wettability of elastomeric impression
materials. J Prosthet Dent 1993; 70: 165-171.
9. Millar B J, Dunne S M, Robinson P B. The effect of a surface
wetting agent on void formation in impressions. J Prosthet
Dent 1997; 77: 54-56.
10. Ozden N, Ayhan H, Erkut S, Can G, Piskin E. Coating of
silicone-based impression materials in a glow-discharge
system by acrylic acid plasma. Dent Mat 1997; 13: 174-178.
11. Boening K W, Walter M H, Schuette U. Clinical significance of
surface activation of silicone impression materials. J Dent
1998; 26: 447-452.
12. Wassell R W, Ibbetson R J. The accuracy of polyvinylsiloxane
impressions made with standard and reinforced stock trays.
J Prosthet Dent 1991; 65: 748-757.
689
PRACTICE
13. Abuasi H. Accuracy of polyvinyl siloxane impressions. [PhD].
University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 1993.
14. Abuasi H A, Wassell R W. Comparison of a range of addition
silicone putty-wash impression materials used in the onestage technique. Eur J Prosthodont Restor Dent 1994; 65:
748-757.
15. Carrotte P V, Johnson A, Winstanley R B. The influence of the
impression tray on the accuracy of impressions for crown
and bridgework. Br Dent J 1998; 185: 580-585.
16. Ray K C, Fuller M L. Isolation of Mycobacterium from dental
impression material. J Prosthet Dent 1963; 13: 390-396.
17. Leung R L, Schonfeld S E. Gypsum casts as a potential source
of microbial cross-contamination. J Prosthet Dent 1983; 49:
210-211.
18. Powell G L, Runnells R D, Saxon B A, Whisenant B K. The
presence and identification of organisms transmitted to
dental laboratories. J Prosthet Dent 1990; 64: 235-237.
19. Blair F M, Wassell R W. A survey of the methods of
disinfection of dental impressions used in dental hopitals in
the United Kingdom. Br Dent J 1996; 180: 369-375.
20. Watkinson A C. Disinfection of impressions in UK dental
schools. Br Dent J 1988; 164: 22-23.
21. BDA. Advice sheet A12: Infection Control in Dentistry. pp12:
British Dental Association Advisory Service, 1996.
22. Shillingburg H T, Hobo S, Whitsett L D, Jacobi R, Brackett S E.
Fundamentals of fixed prosthodontics. 3rd ed. pp257-279.
Chicago: Quintessence, 1997.
23. Carrotte P V, Winstanley R V, Green J A. A study of the quality
of impressions for anterior crowns received at a commercial
laboratory. Br Dent J 1993; 174: 235-240.
24. Winstanley R B, Carrotte P V, Johnson A. The quality of
impressions for crowns and bridges received at commercial
dental laboratories. Br Dent J 1997; 183: 209-213.
25. Cloyd S, Puri S. Using the double cord packing technique of
tissue retraction for making crown impressions. Dent Today
1999; 18: 54-59.
26. Ingber F J S, Rose L F, Coslet J G. The Biologic Width - A
concept in periodontics and restorative dentistry. AlphaOmegan 1977; 10: 62-65.
27. Brgger U, Lauchenauer D, Lang NP. Surgical lengthening of
the clinical crown. J Clin Periodont 1992; 19: 58-63.
28. Chong Y H, Soh G, Lim K C, Teo C S. Porosities in five
automixed addition silicone elastomers. Operative Dent
1991; 16: 96-100.
29. Noonan J E, Goldfogel M H, Lambert R L. Inhibited set of the
surface of addition silicones in contact with rubber dam.
Operative Dent 1985; 10: 46-48.
30. Kahn R, Donovan T, Chee W. Interaction of latex gloves and
polyvinylsiloxane impression materials: a screening survey.
Int J Prosthodont 1989; 2: 342-346.
690
31. Baumann M A. The influence of dental gloves on the setting

of impression materials. Br Dent J 1995; 179: 130-135.
32. de Camargo L M, Chee W W L, Donovan T E. Inhibition of
polymerization of polyvinyl siloxanes by medicaments used on
gingival retraction cords. J Prosthet Dent 1993; 70: 114-117.
33. Bomberg T A, Hatch R A. Correction of defective impression
by selective addition of impression material. J Prosthet Dent
1984; 52: 38-40.
34. MacSween R. Peel bond strengths of five impression material
tray adhesives. J Can Dent Assoc 1991; 57: 654-657.
35. Davis G B, Moser J B, Brinsden G I. The bonding properties of
elastomer tray adhesives. J Prosthet Dent 1976; 36: 278285.
36. Tjan A H. Comparing effects of tray treatment on the
accuracy of dies. J Prosthet Dent 1987; 58: 175-178.
37. Howat A P, Capp N J, Barrett N V J. A colour atlas of occlusion
& malocclusion. pp182. Aylesbury: Wolfe Publishing Ltd,
1991.
38. Pelzner R B, Kempler D, Stark M M, Lum L B, Nicholson R J,
Soelberg K B. Human blood pressure and pulse rate response
to r-epinephrine retraction cord. J Prosthet Dent 1978; 39:
287-292.
39. Weir D J, Williams B H. Clinical effectiveness of mechanicalchemical tissue displacement methods. J Prosthet Dent 1984;
51: 326-329.
40. Bowles W H, Tardy S J, Vahadi A. Evaluation of new gingival
retraction agents. J Dent Res 1991; 70: 1447-1449.
41. de Gennaro G G, Landesman H M, Calhoun J E, Martinoff J T.
A comparison of gingival inflammation related to retraction
cords. J Prosthet Dent 1982; 47: 384-386.
42. Donovan T E, Gandara B K, Nemetz H. Review and survey of
medicaments used with gingival retraction cords. J Prosthet
Dent 1985; 53: 525-531.
43. Shaw D H, Krejci R F, Cohen D M. Retraction cords with
aluminium chloride: effect on the gingiva. Operative Dent
1980; 5: 138-141.
44. Riordan A T, Fosko S W. Electrosurgery and cardiac devices. J
Am Acad Dermatol 1997; 37: 250-255.
45. Ingraham R, Sochat R. Rotary gingival curretage
A technique for tooth preparation and management of the
gingival sulcus for impression taking. Int J Periodontol
Restorative Dent 1981; 1: 9-33.
46. Brady W F. Periodontal and restorative considerations in
rotary curettage. J Am Dent Assoc 1982; 105: 231-236.
47. Kamansky F W, Tempel T R, Post A C. Gingival tissue response
to rotary gingival curretage. J Prosthet Dent 1984; 52:
380-383.
PRACTICE
IN BRIEF
The stages of fitting and cementation of crowns are considered including:

The clinical stages of try-in and adjustment of restorations prior to cementation
Conventional and adhesive cements
A rationale for the use of different cements based on their various physical and
chemical properties
Crown cementation with conventional cements
11

Try-in and cementation of crowns
R. W. Wassell1 D. Barker2 and J. G. Steele3
Having successfully negotiated the planning, preparation, impression and prescription of your crown, the cementation stage
represents the culmination of all your efforts. This stage is not difficult, but a successful outcome needs as much care as the
preceding stages. Once a restoration is cemented there is no scope for modification or repeat. You have to get it right first time.
Decemented crowns often have thick layers of residual cement suggesting problems with either initial seating or cement handling.
When the fate of restorations costing hundreds of pounds depends on correct proportioning of cements and the quality of
the mix, the value of a well-trained and experienced dental nurse is easy to see. Both dentist and nurse need a working
knowledge of the materials they are handling.

RESTORATIONS:

3. Pre-operative
assessment
4. Endodontic
considerations
vital pulps
veneer crowns
technique
of crowns
restorations
2Higher Specialist Trainee, Department of
Restorative Dentistry, The Dental School,

Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4BW;
NE2 4BW
Refereed Paper
1728
Crown seating relies on a satisfactory try-in and

this subject will be covered first. We will then
consider the topics of cements, their selection
and usage.
TRY-IN PROCEDURE FOR CROWNS

This involves three stages: firstly pre-operative
evaluation of crown on its die, secondly seating
on the tooth and finally evaluation of the seated
crown.
Checking the crown on the die
It is always worth checking the fit of the crown
on the cast before trying it in the patient. In this
way problems involving marginal fit, aesthetics
and articulation can be anticipated prior to try
in. Always check the fit surface of the crown for
defects and the die for damage, preferably with
a good light and under magnification (Table 1).
Detecting these problems before try-in will
allow you either to address the problem yourself or to negotiate with your laboratory from a
position of strength. It is surprising how often
clear ledges or deficiencies can be detected at
this stage. Subsequent stages then rely on the
crown being checked in the mouth and then
often back on the die again when there is a
problem with the fit.
Seating the crown
Having checked the crown on the cast, any temporary restoration is removed and the preparation is carefully cleaned of all residues of temporary cement, especially in retention grooves. The
try-in procedure can normally (though not
always) be accomplished without the need for
local anaesthetic. This is advantageous in that
BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 193 NO. 1 JULY 13 2002
the patients tactile sense is not impaired which

is valuable in assessing the occlusion and tightness of proximal contacts.
The crown should be tried in without forcing
it onto its preparation; if it fails to seat there are
a range of reasons why this may have happened.
It pays to use a systematic approach to localise
problems:
1. First, ensure there is no retained temporary
cement or trapped gingival tissue
2. Then check and adjust tight proximal contacts
(see following section) as these often prevent
seating. Also check the original cast for damage to the stone in these contact areas
3. Then re-check the crown for the most obvious
laboratory errors, including casting blebs,
damaged or chipped dies or grossly overextended margins. Casting blebs can be removed
with a bur. Over-extended margins should be
adjusted from the axial surface, not from
underneath (Soflex discs are useful for this
purpose see Fig. 1). To avoid the abrasive
dragging metal over the margin, run the disc
so that the abrasive travels in the direction of
the occlusal surface, not towards the margin
4. Where the crown still does not seat burnish
marks on the internal walls of a sandblasted
metal crown may indicate where it is binding.
The identification of these points may be aided
by the use of disclosing wax or aerosol sprays.
Any imperfections may be lightly ground with
a bur or stone before retrying the crown.
With modern day addition silicones, impression distortion is an unusual cause of ill-fitting
restorations but may be responsible where no
apparent fault can be detected on restoration or
17
PRACTICE
Table 1. Check list of laboratory errors affecting marginal fit

Error
Cause
Remedy
Tight proximal
contacts
Imprecise die location or abrasion of

the adjacent stone contact points
Casting blebs on
fit surface
Over-extended
crown margins
Under-extended
crown margins
Air bubbles trapped during investment
Check for displacement of the dies

when the crown is seated on the
working cast. Identify tight contact by
interposing articulating paper, grind
and polish
Identify under magnification and
remove with small round bur
Trim from axial surface (Fig. 1) and
polish consider returning crown to lab
If under-extension obvious and
impression satisfactory have crown
remade. Alternatively retake
impression
Always try and determine why the die
is damaged. If the crown does not fit
after adjusting blebs or over-extended
margins return it to laboratory
Lack of spacer results in a tightly
fitting crown which may not seat
during try in and may lift further
after cementation
Poor impression, poor die trimming,

surplus untrimmed wax or porcelain
Poor impression, poor die trimming,
difficulty identifying finish line
Damaged dies
Finish line chipped because of careless

handling or abraded when casting reseated
with blebs or overextended margins
No die spacer
(Space needed to
accommodate
cement lute)
Technician not aware of technique or

forgot to apply
die. Problems can occur where an impression is

removed too soon or where unset impression
material results from glove contamination (look
out for the tell tale smear of unset impression
material on the surface of the cast). If you cannot
get the crown to seat easily and can find no
obvious reason, you may rightly suspect that
there is an impression distortion. In that case,
save time and just take a new one.
Finally, it is important to distinguish between
a crown that rocks on its preparation because of
binding somewhere on the fit surface and one
that just has a loose fit resulting from the use of
die spacer. In fact, tightly fitting crowns confer
no additional retention after cementation1 and
may interfere with seating.
Assessment of the seated crown

There is no point in making a detailed assessment of proximal contacts, marginal fit, aesthetics and occlusion until the crown is seated fully.
a)
b)
Once you have got to this stage, providing you

and the laboratory have taken care with preceding clinical and technical stages, minimal or no
adjustment should be necessary. Again it is
important to adopt a systematic approach.
Proximal contacts
The tightness of proximal contacts can be tested with dental floss and should offer some
resistance but not make its passage too difficult. If these are too tight they can be ground a
little at a time and polished. This requires the
greatest care as it is easy to open the contact
accidentally, and it is very problematic trying
to rebuild it at this stage. Prior to adjustment it
may be helpful to mark the proximal contact
by sandwiching a small piece of articulating
paper between crown and tooth either on the
cast or in the mouth.
Open contact points occur less frequently
and can only be modified by returning the
c)
Fig. 1a) Marginal discrepancy caused

by an overextended lingual margin;
b) Reduce the overextension from
the axial surface not from
underneath; and c) Seating
achieved with the axial bulk
removed, incorrect adjustment
results in a deficient margin
18
PRACTICE
crown to the laboratory for addition of porcelain or gold solder.
Assessment of marginal fit

Crowns really must have an accurate marginal
fit if you intend them to survive in the long term.
There is a full spectrum of fit, from perfection
(which is probably rarely achieved) to open margins around the entire crown. It is up to you,
your own clinical standards and perhaps your
patient at what point on that spectrum you
decide that the marginal fit becomes unacceptable. A combination of clinical experience and
empirical data suggest a marginal opening of
100 m2 is at the borderline of acceptability,
especially where the margin can only be
probed.3 Maintaining the highest possible clinical standards at this stage has long-term benefits; ill-fitting margins will render the tooth
more susceptible to cement dissolution, plaque
retention and recurrent caries. Defective subgingival margins compromise gingival health by an
alteration in local bacteria.4
Poor fit can present as a gap or an overhanging margin (positive ledge) or deficient margin
(negative ledge). Overextended margins and
positive ledges may be corrected by adjusting
the crown from its axial surface until it is possible to pass a probe from tooth to crown without it catching. A larger problem, necessitating
that the crown be remade if it is unacceptable,
occurs when a margin remains deficient or has
a negative ledge.
Gold restorations should have their accessible
margins burnished before cementation. The set
cement is likely to be cracked if the margin is
burnished afterwards. There is no evidence that
burnishing improves longevity but it can insure
that a discerning patient does not catch a fingernail at the margin! The procedure involves dragging the gold from restoration to tooth using a
rotary instrument such as a green stone or steel
finishing bur. Where only minimal burnishing is
needed a sharp hand instrument such as a proprietary gold knife or half Hollenback instrument is useful. Once burnished the restoration
must be re-polished taking care to avoid the fine
edge of marginal gold.
Aesthetics
For porcelain crowns, some adjustment of
shape and shade is possible at this stage but it
is best to ensure minimal adjustment by following the advice given in Part 6 of the series.
Grinding with diamond burs can alter crown
contours and porcelain additions can be made to
metal ceramic crowns if necessary. Shades that
are slightly too light may be darkened by the
addition of stain and re-firing while all ceramic
crowns with no cores may have their shade
modified slightly by the luting composite in the
same way as veneers. If you anticipate the need
for substantial adjustments, a try-in at biscuit
bake can be specified so that the crown can be
glazed when you are happy with the final
appearance. Obviously the patient will need to
see the restoration and comment on it prior to

cementation. If the shape and shade are clearly
unacceptable it is better to acknowledge this
rather than risk a dissatisfied patient with the
possibility of having to cut off the restoration
and repeat all the preceding stages.
Assessment of the occlusion

The occlusion is the last assessment to make, but
there is no point thinking about making any
adjustment to the occlusal surface until the
crown is finally seated. It is then best to remove
it and identify a pair of adjacent occluding teeth,
termed index teeth, which, after re-seating, can
be used to assess visually, and with shim stock,
how much adjustment is needed.
Visually checking the occlusion gives only a
gross indication of the amount of adjustment
needed; articulating foils and shim stock are
needed too. Figure 2 shows shim stock, which is
a 10 m thick Mylar film, held in mosquito forceps and used as a feeler gauge between occluding teeth. Shim stock can be bought from dental
suppliers or can be made, very inexpensively, in
the dental surgery by passing a space blanket
(the sort of thing marathon runners wrap around
themselves after a race, available at camping
shops) through an office shredder and then cutting it into 2 cm lengths.
Millers forceps, used to support articulating
d
b
Fig. 2 Occlusal assessment. With the

restoration out select a pair of index
teeth, which hold shim stock (a).
Mark with black articulating foil
and adjust ICP (b). Mark with red
and adjust excursive interferences
and deflections (c). Adjustment
complete (d)
19
PRACTICE
ASSESSMENT OF THE
OCCLUSION
It is important you have a
clear idea of the pattern
of occlusal contact you
are trying to achieve
20
foils so that they do not crumple during intraoral placement, are also an advantage (again
look at Fig. 2). Some articulating papers resemble blotting paper in consistency and thickness.
They are prone to leave false marks and may
alter the patients position of closure. These
papers can be as thick as 200 m, which is over
ten times as thick as the best thin foils such as
GHM (GHM Occlusion Prf Folie, Germany),5
which are infinitely preferable. Despite their
slightly higher cost, the accuracy and precision
with which they will mark a restoration can save
a great deal of time and effort provided the teeth
are dry.
With posterior teeth, both restoration and
adjacent teeth should hold shim stock firmly in
the intercuspal position (ICP). With anteriors, if
the other incisors hold shim stock lightly the
restoration should be made to do so too. Failure
to do so can result in the crowned tooth being
overloaded, which in turn can cause pain,
mobility, fracture or displacement. As well as
using shim stock and articulating foils, it is also
worth listening to the occlusion with and without the crown in place as small occlusal discrepancies can readily be heard with the teeth being
tapped together.
Dentists will often have a favourite bur for
occlusal adjustment. We prefer a large flame
shaped diamond in an air rotor or speed
increasing handpiece. Occasionally, it may be
necessary to adjust the tooth opposing a
restoration to avoid crown perforation or exposure of rough opaque porcelain. Such adjustments should be planned with the patients consent and not sprung on them part way through
the procedure. A thickness gauge (eg Svensen
Gauge) is invaluable for predicting areas vulnerable to perforation.
Once ICP has been re-established the excursions can be checked, preferably with a different
coloured foil (eg red). ICP contacts are then remarked with the original colour (eg black) allowing the excursive contact to be differentiated
and refined. The decision about whether the
restoration is to be involved in guiding jaw
movement (which it often is with anterior teeth)
or whether there should be disclusion (as often
occurs posteriorly) should have been made well
before this stage and it is important you have a
clear idea of the pattern of occlusal contact you
are trying to achieve. Finally, it is worth guiding
back the mandible into the retruded path of closure to ensure the restoration is not introducing
a new deflective contact.
Occasionally, a restoration will be short of
occlusion. This is used as a deliberate ploy in
some laboratories to eliminate the clinical need
for occlusal adjustment. A thin card spacer
placed over the cast of the opposing tooth creates clearance. This may seem an innocuous,
perhaps even a desirable practice, but can result
in serious immediate problems presenting where
multiple restorations are fitted. The lack of contacts can affect occlusal stability whilst
destructive interferences may occur as teeth
erupt back into occlusion. It may often be

acceptable to monitor infra-occluding restorations and adjust interferences as necessary. In
more critical cases occlusal additions of porcelain or solder may be indicated or the restoration remade. The point is that it should not be
necessary to do this at all because all of these
problems can be avoided by taking care at the
preceding stages, especially with impressions
(including opposing impressions), jaw registration and temporary restorations.
Finishing and polishing

The final stage prior to cementation is polishing.
A rough surface, especially in porcelain, will
rapidly wear the opposing tooth6 and so it is
very important to use a sequence of abrasives
designed for the material in question to achieve
a smooth surface. Details of the materials we use
are shown at the end of the article. Metal surfaces can be finished with finishing burs followed by rubber abrasive points (Kenda: blue,
brown and green). Abrasive discs (eg Soflex) are
useful for flat areas such as proximal contact
points and can be used on either metal or porcelain. Porcelain can be also be finished with composite finishing diamonds (Premier: yellow and
white stripe), but a light touch and water spray is
needed to avoid stripping off the diamond coating. Further finishing is achieved with rubber
abrasive points (Kenda: white) followed by a felt
wheel or rubber cup charged with diamond polishing paste (Super Diglaze). Alternatively, a
metal ceramic crown can be reglazed.
CEMENTS
When the fit of the crown is considered satisfactory and all adjustments have been made, the
crown can be cemented using one of the materials described in this section.
Cements may be classified as soft or hard.
Soft cements can be used for provisional cementation of definitive crowns when a trial assessment period is needed, for example if the occlusion or aesthetics is being significantly altered.
Hard cements are used for definitive cementation. This article deals principally with hard
cements.
Hard cements
Many types of hard cement have been developed and continue to be available. This diversity of choice suggests no one cement meets all
of the requirements of an ideal cement however some are more suitable than others for certain applications.
There are essentially three types of hard
cement: conventional, resin or a hybrid of the
two. Conventional cements (eg zinc phosphate,
zinc polycarboxylate and glass ionomer) rely on
an acid-base reaction resulting in the formation
of an insoluble salt (the cement) and water. Resin
cements set by polymerisation.
The mechanisms by which cements secure
restoration to prepared tooth include non-adhesive luting, micro-mechanical bonding and
PRACTICE
molecular adhesion. The mechanisms of nonadhesive luting and micro-mechanical retention
are the main methods of action of conventional
cements. Molecular adhesion on the other hand
is more significant in the case of resin cements
and hybrid cements. Although some conventional cements have adhesive properties, such as zinc
polycarboxylate and GIC, these are limited by the
cements tensile strength. Furthermore, adhesion
to noble metals is negligible but can be improved
in the case of GICs by the use of tin-plating. Texturing the fitting surface of the crown, as after
sandblasting, increases the resistance of the
cement to dynamic lateral loading.7
We will now go on to discuss the advantages
and disadvantages of each of the major groups
of cements and make recommendations for
their use.
Zinc phosphate cement

Advantages
Long track record
Good compressive strength (if correctly proportioned)
Good film thickness
Reasonable working time
Resistant to water dissolution
No adverse effect on pulp although initially
acidic
Disadvantages
Low tensile strength
No chemical bonding
Not resistant to acid dissolution
Recommendations
Good default cement for conventional crowns
and posts with retentive preparations
Working time can be extended for cementation of multiple restorations by incremental
mixing and cooled slab
Zinc phosphate has the longest track record
and has remained popular for luting purposes
due mainly to its high compressive strength, relatively long working time and ability to form a
low film thickness between crown and tooth.
Look at Table 2 for the relative physical properties of cements and it is clear that in common
with the other conventional cements, zinc phosphate possesses high compressive strength but
low tensile strength. It is this low tensile

strength, which dictates the importance of
preparation geometry in reducing the development of disruptive tensile stresses within the
cement lute resulting in loss of retention of the
restoration.
The retaining action of zinc phosphate
cement is one of micromechanical interlocking
between surface irregularities of the crown and
tooth. It does not bond to tooth substance or
crown material.
It is normally supplied as a powder (essentially zinc oxide) and liquid (phosphoric acid
buffered with zinc and aluminium ions), which
are mixed together by hand. The proportions of
powder and liquid are not normally measured
and therefore care must be taken to produce a
mix, which provides a cement of low initial viscosity to form a thin film, but with sufficient
powder incorporated to give adequate strength
once set.8 The powder should be incorporated in
increments to prevent the cement setting too
quickly as a result of the exothermic reaction.
A slab cooled in the refrigerator can further
extend working time. The consistency of zinc
phosphate may be checked by lifting the cement
on the spatula and holding it over the slab. It
should string out slightly between the spatula
and slab before running back onto the slab. If it
requires to be pushed off the spatula it is too
thick and conversely, if it runs off too quickly it
is not thick enough. Given how critical this is, it
is worth making sure that you and your chair
side assistant both understand fully what is
required, and are prepared to stop and mix again
if a problem arises.
All cements are to some extent soluble.
Zinc phosphate has a low solubility in water
but erosion leading to loss of the cement lute
and failure of the restoration is not normally
associated with this cement, crowns tending
to be lost more because of a poor retentive
design of the preparation. However, cement
erosion is seen in patients with acid regurgitation (Fig. 3).
Historically, zinc phosphate cements have
been identified as having a potential irritant
effect on the pulp.9 This has been attributed to
the low pH of the cement at the time of cementa-
Table 2 Cement properties

Cement
Compressive
strength
(MPa)
Zinc phosphate
Zinc polycarboxylate
GIC
RMGI
96133
5799
93226
85126
Resin cement
180265
Tensile
strength
(MPa)
3.14.5
3.66.3
4.25.3
1324
without DBA
1420
with DBA
3437
Bond
strength
to dentine
(MPa)
Film
thickness
(m)
Solubility
in water
(% in 24h)
0
2.1
35
1012
25 max
2548
2224
1022
0.2 max
< 0.05
0.41.5
0.070.4
59
79
6-8
5.56.0
0.13
45
1830
1320
Setting time at
37C and 100%
humidity (mins)
with DBA
23
PRACTICE
Disadvantages
Can deform under loading
Can be difficult to obtain low film thickness
Recommendations
Traditionally used for vital or sensitive teeth,
but no evidence to support efficacy (dentine
bonding agents used to seal preparation prior
to cementation may be a better option)
Occasionally useful to retain an unretentive
provisional crown
Fig. 3 Erosion of zinc phosphate
cement seen in a patient with acid
reflux
tion, but preparation trauma, temporisation and

bacterial contamination may also have been
responsible. Although zinc phosphate is acidic
on mixing (pH 23.5 depending on brand) this
acidity reduces over the first 24 hours and stabilises at a near neutral pH of 6.5. Despite this
acidity Brannstrom and Nyborg10,11 found no
irritating effect on the pulp per se and, in practice, this potential irritant effect does not seem to
be significant.
At one time cavity varnish was advocated to
coat a preparation prior to cementation to protect it from cement but this adversely affected
retention.12,13 Nowadays a dentine-bonding
agent could be used and, anecdotally, this has
helped with some teeth, which have been sensitive after preparation, but controlled studies are
needed to assess the long-term consequences. If
the dentine is to be etched it is essential that the
primer seals all the open tubules or sensitivity
may worsen and bacterial invasion may jeopardise the pulp.
Zinc oxide eugenol cements

Cements based on zinc oxide and eugenol are
classical soft cements. Attempts have been made
to create a more permanent cement by adding
o-ethoxy-benzoic acid (EBA) to zinc oxideeugenol and by reinforcing it with aluminium
oxide and polymethylmethacrylate. Based on
in vitro tests, this type of cement was reported to
have good strength and be less soluble than zinc
phosphate cement.14,15 Unfortunately, its performance was much poorer in vivo and studies
have shown that it deteriorates much more rapidly in the mouth than other cements.16,17 It cannot be recommended as a definitive lute for
restorations.
Polycarboxylate cements
Advantages
Reasonable track record
Good compressive strength (if correctly proportioned)
Adequate working time
Bonds to enamel and dentine
Adequate resistance to water dissolution (but
less good than zinc phosphate)
No adverse effect on pulp and less acidic than
zinc phosphate on mixing
24
Zinc polycarboxylate (or zinc polyacrylate)

has a relatively long history as a luting cement.
Unlike zinc phosphate, polycarboxylate cement
does bond to tooth tissue, its bond strength to
enamel being greater than that to dentine. It also
bonds to stainless steel so dental instruments
must be cleaned before the material sets to prevent a tenacious bond forming.
The tensile strength of polycarboxylate compares favourably to that of zinc phosphate
although its compressive strength tends to be
lower and it is difficult to achieve an equally low
film thickness.
Zinc polycarboxylate cement is not as acidic
on mixing (approx. 4.8) as zinc phosphate. There
appears to be little irritation to the pulp18 possibly
because there is little penetration of the large
polyacrylic acid molecules into the dentine
tubules. The liquid for the cement is either a viscous solution of polyacrylic acid or water. If water
is used the acid is contained in its anhydrous state
within the zinc oxide powder. More recently
developed polycarboxylate cements contain fluoride salts, which may aid caries prevention.
Correctly mixed polycarboxylate cement has
a consistency similar to that of honey and the
cement may appear too viscous to allow proper
seating. However, this is normal and should not
be of concern since the cement undergoes sheer
thinning which reduces the apparent viscosity
during the seating of the crown.19
Glass ionomer cements

Advantages
As for polycarboxylate cement but cement has
similar acidity to zinc phosphate on mixing
Fluoride release
Disadvantages
Sensitive to early moisture contamination
Has been accused of causing post-operative
sensitivity but a controlled trial reports it is no
worse than zinc phosphate
Recommendations
Used empirically for conventional crowns
where patient has had a previously high caries
rate
May be used as an alternative default cement
to zinc phosphate
Conventional glass ionomer cements were
first introduced into dentistry as a filling materiBRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 193 NO. 1 JULY 13 2002
PRACTICE
al in 1972.20 Like polycarboxylates, glass
ionomers may be supplied as a powder and
aqueous acid (polyalkenoic) or powder and
water. The aluminosilicate glass powder of GIC
luting cements has smaller particles than GIC
filling materials to reduce film thickness, which
may be similar to or lower than that of zinc
phosphate cements.
For luting purposes, mixing is generally
carried out by hand and where provided the
manufacturers powder and liquid dispensers
should be used. Encapsulated glass ionomer
luting cements are also available and have the
advantage of providing the correct powderliquid ratio.
GIC compares favourably with zinc phosphate with regard to compressive and tensile
strength (Table 2). GIC has a significant advantage to zinc phosphate in that it forms a considerable bond to tooth tissue by reaction with
the calcium salts in the tooth structure and
releases fluoride ions.
The higher solubility in water of GIC in comparison with zinc phosphate and zinc polycarboxylate cements has been identified as a problem when the cement is used for luting purposes.
This solubility is adversely affected by early
moisture contamination and the cement lute
margins should be protected with a varnish following cementation, although this may be difficult when the crown margin is subgingival. Solubility is not a great problem clinically once the
cement is set. Another disadvantage of GIC is
that its pH during setting is even lower than that
of zinc phosphate and some concern has been
expressed regarding post-cementation hypersensitivity.21 However, a randomised, double
blind trial of GIC versus zinc phosphate showed
no significant difference in sensitivity,22 but it
should be noted that cementation procedures
were carefully controlled, including the use of
encapsulated mixing. Dentine desiccation may
on occasion be responsible for sensitivity; some
authorities are convinced that dentinal fluid is
drawn into the setting cement, which may cause
problems if the preparation is over-dried with an
air syringe.
Resin modified glass ionomer cements and

compomers
Advantages
Good compressive and tensile strengths (if
correctly proportioned)
Reasonable working time
Fluoride release
Disadvantages
Short track record
May expand and crack overlying porcelain
because of water absorption
Recommendations
Worth trying for metal or metal ceramic
crowns especially where preparation retention is borderline
Currently unclear which RMGI cements can
be used safely with ceramic crowns
Resin modified glass ionomer (RMGI)

cements are a hybrid of traditional glass
ionomer cement with small additions of light
curing resin23 and generally have the advantages of both in that they are purported to
combine the strength and insolubility of resin
with the fluoride release of GIC. They were
introduced with the aim of overcoming the
moisture sensitivity and the low strength of
conventional glass ionomers. Examples
include Vitremer and Fuji Plus. Compomers are
also composed of resin and glass ionomer but
are more closely related to composites with the
glass ionomer setting reaction occuring slowly
as moisture is absorbed into the set resin
matrix. Examples include Dyract Cem and
Dyract Cem Plus.
The use of RMGIs for luting purposes is
becoming more popular because of their relatively high bond strength to dentine, and their
ability to form a very thin film layer. RMGIs
leach fluoride, but it is unclear how useful this
is in preventing secondary caries formation.
Several RMGIs are available but whilst they
may seem promising clinical studies are still
in their infancy. There have also been anecdotal reports of high strength porcelain
crowns fracturing following cementation with
RMGIs, possibly as a result of expansion of
the cement from water sorption.24 These have
been supported by an in-vitro study showing
that ceramic crowns crack between 3 and 12
months after cementation with both RMGIs
and compomers.25 RMGIs contain the resin
HEMA and absorb significantly more water
than composites. In view of these concerns it
is best to restrict the use of RMGIs and compomers to metal restorations. Furthermore,
when cementing porcelain or composite
restorations a better aesthetic result can be
achieved with composite resin cements.
Resin cements
Advantages
Good compressive and tensile strengths
High tensile strength (relative to conventional cements)
Relatively resistant to acid dissolution
Can enhance strength of ceramic restoration
if bond obtained
Disadvantages
Film thickness varies substantially between
materials
Excess material extruded at margin may be
difficult to remove especially proximally
Recommendations
Must be used with or incorporate an effective
dentine bonding agent
Material of choice for porcelain veneers,
ceramic onlays and resin bonded ceramic
crowns
May be used to improve retention where
preparation geometry sub-optimal, but clinical studies needed to determine long-term
success
GLASS IONOMER
CEMENTS
A randomised, double
blind trial of GIC versus
zinc phosphate showed
no significant difference
in sensitivity
RESIN MODIFIED GLASS

IONOMER CEMENTS
Reports of high strength
porcelain crowns
fracturing following
cementation with
RMGIs, possibly as a
result of expansion of
the cement
25
PRACTICE
RESIN CEMENTS
The tensile strength of
resin cements is about
ten times that of zinc
phosphate
RESIN CEMENTS
The Richwil crown
remover is not unlike a
sticky sweet
26
Resin cements are composites composed of a

resin matrix, eg bis-GMA or urethane
dimethacrylate, and a filler of fine inorganic
particles. They have been available as direct filling materials since the early 1950s26 but it was
not until the early 1970s that a composite resin
was introduced for crown and bridge cementation.27 Resin luting cements differ from restorative composites primarily in their lower filler
content and lower viscosity. Following on from
their successful use in the cementation of resin
bonded bridges and veneers, their popularity has
been increasing in recent years for crown
cementation because of their use in conjunction
with dentine bonding agents (DBA). However
even when DBAs are used, resin cements are not
without problems (see later).
Composite resin cements are available as self
cured, light cured and dual cured materials. The
self cured materials are typically used as luting
cements because of the inability, or at best difficulty, of light to pass through porcelain and
metal restorations. Examples include Panavia,21
All Bond 2 luting cement and Superbond.
Mechanical and physical properties of resin
cements compare favourably with the other
cements discussed above (Table 2). In particular,
tensile strength is about ten times that of zinc
phosphate, which in combination with the high
bond strength explains why preparation geometry is of less importance to retention than with
conventional cements. This makes resin cements
useful for bonding restorations on tooth preparations that would not be retentive enough to
succeed with conventional cements. Moreover, a
well-bonded composite lute will confer much
greater strength to an overlying porcelain
restoration than a weaker conventional cement.
This feature has been demonstrated in vitro with
porcelain veneers28 and in vivo with porcelain
inlays29 which were almost five times more likely to fracture when cemented with conventional
glass ionomer. It should be noted that effective
resin bonding to some high strength porcelain
cores (eg In-Ceram) could not be achieved by the
usual etching with hydrofluoric acid because of
the lack of pores in the material.30
Problems with the use of resin cements for
luting full crowns include excessive film thickness with some materials,31,32 marginal leakage
because of setting shrinkage, and severe pulpal
reactions when applied to cut vital dentine.
However, this latter problem may be related
more to bacterial infiltration than to any chemical toxicity. The use of DBA under resin cement
is critical to its success unless the preparation
has been cut only into enamel. Pulpal response
is reduced by the use of DBAs, presumably by
sealing dentine tubules and reducing microleakage.33 Adhesive resin cement was found to produce a better marginal seal than zinc phosphate
cement.34 However, even if the problems of
microleakage and film thickness could be
solved, the problem of adequately removing
hardened excess resin from inaccessible margins
may preclude the use of resin cement for crowns
with subgingival margins. Indeed, proximal

extrusions of resin cement are often radiolucent
and may remain undetected.35
CROWN CEMENTATION
When a crown has been successfully tried-in and
the cement chosen, cementation may then take
place. This section will consider conventional
cementation. Cementation with resin cements is
covered more fully in Parts 12 and 13 of this
series on porcelain veneers and resin bonded
metal restorations respectively.
Trial cementation
Most dentists are in the habit of fitting crowns
and then cementing them with hard cement.
Whilst this approach is usually satisfactory there
are times where it is difficult to predict a
patients response to changes in aesthetics or
occlusion. If such a patient returns unhappy the
offending crowns must be cut off a distressing
experience for all concerned. In cases of doubt it
is useful to have a period of trial cementation
using soft cement, but you must ensure that the
definitive restoration can be removed without
damage to it or the underlying preparation. To
make removal easier the cement should be
applied in a ring around the inner aspect of the
crown margin. It is important that the manufacturers modifier is added to the cement. Equal
lengths of base and catalyst with a third of a
length of modifier will soften cements such as
Temp Bond. Alternatively, a non-setting zinc
oxide eugenol material (eg Optow Trial Cement)
can be used for short periods of soft cementation
where preparations are retentive. This material
has the advantage that it is easily pealed out of
the crown like a membrane, but it cannot be
relied upon for more than a few days retention.
Restorations can be removed either by finger
pressure or by the application of a matrix band.
In cases of difficult removal a Richwil crown
remover can be helpful. This crown remover is
simply a material, not unlike a sticky sweet,
which is softened in hot water, positioned over
the crown and the patient asked to bite. Once the
material has hardened the crown is removed by
asking the patient to snap open. Another way of
applying a dislodging force to a soft-cemented
crown is to use an impact mallet. The problem
with this technique is finding a point of application on the crown. One solution to this problem
is to incorporate small lugs resembling mushrooms on the lingual aspect of the crowns metal
work.36 The lugs are removed, of course, prior to
hard cementation.
Controlling cement film thickness
The interposition of a cement lute inevitably
affects crown seating. Consequently, the art of
cementation is to choose a cement with an
inherently low film thickness and use techniques
which allow it to escape whilst the crown is
being seated.
Cement flow can be hindered by preparation
features, which cause a build up of hydrostatic
PRACTICE
pressure.37 Thus, retentive preparations, which
are long, near parallel and have a large surface
area, are most at risk of not seating fully. This
problem can be overcome by die spacing and
controlled cement application or by venting the
crown. These techniques need to be used for all
crowns not just apparently retentive ones.
Die spacing is the most common method of
achieving space for the cement lute.38 It involves
painting several layers of die relief agent over
the whole of the die but avoiding the finish line.
The increased cement space results in more rapid
seating with decreased deformation of the
restoration.3941 Die spacing results in a slightly
loose fit of a crown on its preparation, but its
effect on retention is unclear with some studies
reporting an increase in retention37 while others
report a decrease or no effect. A recent study
concluded that decreasing the width of the
cement layer increases the resistance to dynamic
lateral loading.7 This variability may occur
because of differences in cement film thickness.
A very thin cement lute may have higher stress
concentrations than a slightly thicker one.42
However, too thick a cement lute is also undesirable as it is liable to fracture.
Another factor which influences the vertical
seating of crowns and hence marginal adaptation is the amount of cement loaded into the
crown prior to cementation. A study on the
effect of volume of zinc phosphate cement,
reported that lesser amounts of cement placed
within a crown resulted in smaller marginal discrepancy and better occlusal accuracy.43 Indeed,
a crown treated in such a way seated almost 70%
better than an identical crown completely filled
with cement. However, care must be taken in
applying cement in this way not to exceed the
working time or the cement may be too viscous
at the time of seating.
Venting is an effective8 but less popular
method of reducing cement film thickness. External venting involves creating a perforation in the
occlusal surface of the crown, which is sealed with
a separate restoration after cementation. With
internal venting an escape channel is created
either in the axial wall of the preparation or the fit
surface of the crown to help cement escape.
The amount of force required to allow maximum seating of cast crowns has been shown to
be cement specific.44 Seating forces are discussed
next in relation to cementation technique.
Technique
Isolate the preparation and ensure good moisture control. If the gingivae have overgrown the
finish line use either retraction cord with
haemostatic agent or if more severe use electrosurgery. A breakdown in technique at any of the
following stages will predispose to failure:
Coat the fit surface with cement - do not overfill

Only apply cement to preparation if cementing a post
The crown should be seated quickly with firm
finger pressure until all excess cement has been
expressed from the margins. Seating force must
be adequate to ensure complete seating of the
crown onto the preparation, but sudden excessive force may result in elastic strain of the dentine, creating a rebound effect, which results in
the crown being partly dislodged when the force
is removed.34 Karpidis and Pearson (1988)45
revealed that crowns seated on preparations in
bovine dentine with a force of 300 N/cm2 could
be removed more easily than those cemented
with half the force.
Depending on the angulation of the tooth,
pressure may then continue to be exerted onto
the crown by the dentist or by the patient biting
onto a cotton roll. Some operators prefer a
wooden orange stick or similar implement for
cementing posterior restorations as this can
reduce film thickness. However care must be
taken as these are rigid and may only contact
part of the occlusal surface of the crown resulting in tipping. Pressure should be maintained for
about one minute. Maintaining pressure beyond
this time has no appreciable additional effect.46
It is worth checking the accuracy of the fit at this
stage using a sharp probe on the margin and if
necessary fine gold margins can be burnished
before the cement sets.
Adequate moisture control should be maintained until the cement has set to prevent moisture contamination of the unset material at the
crown margin. In the case of conventional
cements, excess cement should be left until after
the cement sets. For resin-based cements,
removal of excess before setting is recommended as it can be very difficult to remove following
setting but may still remain despite our best
efforts.47 Some operators apply a smear of petroleum jelly to the outside of the crown which also
helps with removal of set cement, but if you do
this take great care to prevent contamination of
the fit surface. A common failing is for excess
cement to be left, especially interproximally.
Your nurse can help by having a piece of floss
ready. This can be made more effective by tying
a knot in the middle of the floss and passing it
through the interdental space. Following clean
up, a final evaluation of the cemented crown can
be made including rechecking the occlusion.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Clean the preparation and crown with water

spray
Air dry but do not desiccate preparation
Mix cement according to manufacturers
instructions
5.
TECHNIQUE
Force must be adequate
to ensure complete
seating, but sudden
excessive force may
result in elastic rebound
and the crown being
partly dislodged
Kaufman E G. The retention of crowns before and after

cementation. NY Univ J Dent 1967; 25: 6-7.
McClean J W, von Fraunhoffer J A. The estimation of cement
film thickness by an in vivo technique. Br Dent J 1971; 131:
107-111.
Christensen G J. Marginal fit of gold inlay castings. J Prosthet
Dent 1966; 16: 297-305.
Lang N P, Kiel R A, Anderhalden K. Clinical and
microbiological effects of subgingival restorations with
overhanging or clinically perfect margins. J Clin Perio 1983;
10: 563-578.
Kelleher M G D, Setchell D J. An investigation of marking
materials used in occlusal adjustment. Br Dent J 1984; 156:
96-102.
27
PRACTICE
6.
Monasky G E, Taylor D F. Studies on the wear of porcelain,

enamel and gold. J Prosthet Dent 1971; 25: 299-306.
7. Wiskott H W, Belser U C, Scherrer S S. The effect of film
thickness and surface texture on the resistance of cemented
extracoronal restorations to lateral fatigue. Int J Prosthodont
1999; 12: 255-262.
8. Kaufman E G, Colin L C, Schlagel E, Coelho D H. Factors
influencing the retention of cemented gold castings: the
cementing medium. J Prosthet Dent 1966; 16: 731-739.
9. Langeland K, Langeland L K. Pulp reactions to crown
preparation, impression, temporary crown fixation and
permanent cementation. J Prosthet Dent 1965; 15: 129-143.
10. Brnnstrm M, Nyborg H. Bacterial growth and pulpal
changes under inlays cemented with zinc phosphate cement
and Epoxylite CBA 9080. J Prosthet Dent 1974; 31: 556-565.
11. Brnnstrm M, Nyborg H. Pulpal reaction to polycarboxylate
and zinc phosphate cement used with inlays in deep cavity
preparations. J Am Dent Assoc 1977; 94: 308-310.
12. Smith D C, Ruse N D. Acidity of glass ionomer cements
during setting and its relation to pulp sensitivity. J Am Dent
Assoc 1986; 112: 654-657.
13. Chan K C, Svare C W, Horton D J. The effect of varnish on
dentinal bonding strength of five dental cements. J Prosthet
Dent 1976; 35: 403-406 .
14. Brauer G M, McLaughlin R, Huget E F. Aluminium oxide as a
reinforcing agent for zinc oxide-eugenol-o-ethoxy-benzoic
acid cements. J Rest Dent 1968; 47: 622-628.
15. Phillips R W, Swartz M L, Norman R D, Schnell R J, Niblack B F.
Zinc oxide and eugenol cements for permanent cementation.
J Prosthet Dent 1968; 19: 144-150.
16. Osbourne J W, Swartz M L, Goodacre C J, Phillips R W, Gale
E N. A method for assessing the clinical solubility and
disintegration of luting cements. J Prosthet Dent 1978; 40:
413-417.
17. Mesu F P, Reedijk T. Degradation of luting cements measured
in vitro and in vivo. J Rest Dent 1983; 62: 1236-1240.
18. Going R E, Mitchem J C. Cements for permanent luting: a
summarising review. J Am Dent Assoc 1975; 91: 129-137.
19. Lorton L, Moore M L, Swartz M L, Phillips R W. Rheology of
luting cements. J Rest Dent 1980; 59: 1486-1492.
20. Wilson A D, Kent B E. A new translucent cement for dentistry.
Br Dent J 1972; 132: 133-135.
21. Smith D C, Ruse N C. Acidity of glass ionomer cements
during setting and its relation to pulp sensitivity. J Am Dent
Assoc 1986; 112: 654-657.
22. Kern M, Kleimeier B, Schaller H G, Strub J R. Clinical
comparison of postoperative sensitivity for a glass ionomer
and a zinc phosphate luting cement. J Prosthet Dent 1996;
75: 159-62.
23. Sidhu S K, Watson T F. Resin-modified glass ionomer
materials. A status report for the American Journal of
Dentistry. Am J Dent 1995; 8: 59-67.
24. Kanchanavista W, Arnstice H M, Pearson G J. Water sorption
characteristics of resin-modified glass-ionomer cements.
Biomater 1997; 18: 343-349.
25. Leevailoj C, Platt J A, Cochran M A, Moore B K. In vitro study of
fracture incidence and compressive fracture load of allceramic crowns cemented with resin-modified glass ionomer
and other luting agents. J Prosthet Dent 1998; 80: 699-707.
26. Schouboe P J, Paffenbarger G C, Sweeney W J. Resin cements
and posterior type direct filling resins. J Am Dent Assoc 1956;
52: 584.
27. Lee H, Swartz M L. Evaluation of a composite resin crown and

bridge luting agent. J Rest Dent 1976; 51: 756.
28. Brandson S J, King P A. The compact fracture resistance of
restored endodontically treated anterior teeth. J Rest Dent
1992; 72: 1141.
29. berg C H, van Dijken J W V, Olofsson A-L. Three-year
comparison of fired ceramic inlays cemented with composite
resin or glass-ionomer cement. Acta Odontol Scand 1994;
52: 140-149.
30. Awliya W, Oden A, Yaman P, Dennison J B, Razzoog M E.
Shear bond strength of a resin cement to densely sintered
high-purity alumina with various surface conditions. Acta
Odontol Scand 1998; 56: 9-13.
31. White S N, Yu Z, Kipnis V. Effect of seating force on film
thickness of new adhesive luting agents. J Prosthet Dent
1992; 68: 476-481.
32. White S N, Kipnis V. Effect of adhesive luting agents on the
marginal seating of cast restorations. J Prosthet Dent 1993;
69: 28-31.
33. Qvist V, Stolze K, Qvist J. Human pulp reactions to resin
restorations performed with different acid-etch restorative
procedures. Acta Odontologica Scandinavia 1989; 47: 253263.
34. Tjan A H L, Dunn J R, Brant B E. Marginal leakage of cast gold
crowns luted with an adhesive resin cement. J Prosthet Dent
1992; 67: 11-15 .
35. ORourke B, Walls A W, Wassell R W. Radiographic detection
of overhangs formed by resin composite luting agents.
J Dent 1995; 23: 353-357.
36. Pameijer J H N. Periodontal and occlusal factors in crown and
bridge procedures. pp394. Amsterdam: Centre for Post
graduate Courses, 1985.
37. Carter S M, Wilson P R. The effect of die-spacing on crown
retention. Int J Prosthodont 1996; 9: 21-29.
38. Grajower R, Zuberi Y, Lewinstein I. Improving the fit of
crowns with die spacers. J Prosthet Dent 1989; 61: 555-563.
39. Wilson P R, Goodkind R J, Sakaguchi R. Deformation of
crowns during cementation. J Prosthet Dent 1990; 64:
601-609.
40. Wilson P R. The effect of die spacing on crown deformation
and seating time. Int J Prosthodont 1993; 6: 397-401.
41. Wilson P R. Effect of increasing cement space on
cementation of artificial crowns. J Prosthet Dent 1994; 71:
560-564.
42. Kamposiora P, Papavasilious G, Bayne S C, Felton D A. Finite
element analysis estimates of cement microfracture under
complete veneer crowns. J Prosthet Dent 1994; 71: 435-441.
43. Tan K, Ibbetson R. The effect of cement volume on crown
seating. Int J Prosthodont 1996; 9: 445-451.
44. Wilson P R. Low force cementation. J Dent 1996; 24:
269-273.
45. Karipidis A, Pearson G J. The effect of seating pressure and
powder/liquid ratio of zinc phosphate cement on the
retention of crowns. J Oral Rehabil 1988; 15: 333-337.
46. Jorgensen K D. Structure of the film thickness of zinc
phosphate cements. Factors affecting the film thickness of
zinc phosphate. Acta Odontol Scand 1960; 18: 479-501.
47. Mitchell C A, Pintado M R, Geary L, Douglas W H. Retention
of adhesive cement on the tooth surface after crown
cementation. J Prosthet Dent 1999; 81: 668-677.
List of materials mentioned in text

All Bond 2 dentine bonding agent and luting cement: Bisco Inc, Itasca, IL60143, USA
Dyract Cem and Dyract Cem Plus: Dentsply UK Ltd, Hamm Moor Lane, Addlestone, Weybridge, Surrey KT15 2SE
Fuji Plus: GC, Tokyo, Japan
Premier composite finishing diamonds (white and yellow stripe): Panadent Ltd, 15 Great Dover Street, London SE1 4YW
Kenda polishing points (blue, brown and green for metal; white for porcelain and composite): Austenal Ltd, 4 Crystal Way, Harrow, Middlesex HA1 2HG
Optow Trial Cement: Teledyne Getz, Elkbrook Village, Illinois, USA
Panavia 21: Cavex Holland BV, Haarlem, Holland; supplied by J&S Davis, Summit House, Summit Road, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3EE
Richwil Crown and Bridge Remover: Horizon Dental, PO Box 14, Disley, Stockport SK12 2RP
Soflex discs: 3M Health Care Ltd, 3M House, Morley Street, Loughborough
Super Bond: Sun Medical Co Ltd, Moriyama, Japan
Super Diglaze, sub-micron diamond polishing paste: Distributed in UK and Eire by Panadent Ltd, 15 Great Dover Street, London SE1 4YW
Temp Bond: Kerr UK Ltd, Peterborough, UK
Vitremer luting cement: 3M Dental Products, St Paul, Mn, USA
28
PRACTICE
IN BRIEF
The development of porcelain veneers

Longevity and factors affecting it
Tooth preparation, and management of existing restorations
Impression recording and temporisation (in those few cases which require it)
Try in, bonding and finishing
Non-standard porcelain veneers
12

Porcelain laminate veneers
A. W. G. Walls1 J. G. Steele2 and R. W. Wassell3
Porcelain veneers are resin-bonded to the underlying tooth and provide a conservative method of improving appearance or
modifying contour, without resorting to a full coverage crown. The porcelain laminate veneer is now a frequently prescribed
restoration for anterior teeth. The sums spent by the Dental Practice Board on this type of treatment increased from quarter
of a million pounds in 1988/89 to over seven million in 1994/95,1 representing some 113,582 treatments. Since that time the
number has stabilised at over 100,000 veneers prescribed each year.2 The objective of this paper is to give a practical guide
on providing these restorations.

RESTORATIONS:

3. Pre-operative
assessment
4. Endodontic
considerations
vital pulps
veneer crowns
technique
of crowns
restorations
1*Professor of Restorative Dentistry,

Dental School, Newcastle upon Tyne
NE2 4BW;
*Correspondence to: Prof A. W. G. Walls,
Dental School, University of Newcastle
upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4BW
E-mail: a.w.g.walls@ncl.ac.uk
Refereed Paper
7382
Whenever possible guidelines for provision of

porcelain laminate veneers are based on data
from the dental literature, but where this is not
possible they will be based on our clinical experience and practice. Veneers are often placed on
the buccal aspect of maxillary anterior teeth but
other applications are possible and these are
described at the end of the article.
HISTORY
The concept of veneering was first described in
the dental literature some time ago,3 although it
is only with the advent of efficient bonding of
resins to enamel and dentine and the use of
etched, coupled porcelain surfaces that aesthetically pleasing, durable and successful restorations can be made.4 These restorations are now
an accepted part of the dentists armamentarium.57 Custom-made acrylic resin veneers preceded them, but these showed unacceptable levels of failure and of marginal stain.8 Alternative
veneering materials are still available, usually
either direct or indirect composite resin materials. However, these may suffer from degradation
of surface features and accretion of surface stain
with time.911
Porcelain veneers have traditionally been
made from aluminous or reinforced feldspathic
porcelains, which have relatively poor strength
in themselves but produce a strong structure
when bonded to enamel. Porcelain veneers can
be made from most of the high strength ceramics
discussed in the second article of the series. Such
materials may hold promise for the future. A
study of 83 IPS Empress veneers placed over a
6-year period in private practice reported only
one failure, but as yet there are no clinical data
making a direct comparison between these and

the traditional materials.
That the strength of traditional porcelain is
generally adequate for anterior porcelain
veneers is supported by a number of clinical
studies. Some authors9,1217 have reported low
rates of failure because of the loss of retention
and fracture (05%) with short and mediumterm studies of up to 5 years. Indeed, a long-term
follow-up18 of veneers placed over a 10-year
period shows a survival rate of 91% at 10.5 years
(calculated with the Kaplan Meyer method).
These excellent results may, amongst other
things, reflect careful case selection, but it is
worth noting that other authors,5,13,19,20 have
reported much higher rates of failure of between
714% over 25 years. Such studies suggest that
the risk factors for veneer failure are:
Bonding onto pre-existing composite restorations (which is considered later)
Placement by an inexperienced operator
Using veneers to restore worn or fractured
teeth where a combination of parafunction,
large areas of exposed dentine and insufficient
tooth tissue exist.
Another risk factor, shown up by in-vitro
work, is the tendency for thermal changes in
combination with polymerisation contraction
stresses to cause cracking of the veneer when the
porcelain is thin and the luting composite
thick.21 A thick composite lute may occur as a
result of a poorly fitting veneer or the use of
copious die spacer in an attempt to mask underlying tooth discolouration. Least cracking was
seen with a ceramic and luting composite thickness ratio above 3.
73
PRACTICE
Fig. 1 A 1 mm round diamond bur

being used to create depth marks on
the buccal surface of UR1 (11)
In-vivo, minor chipping and cracking may be

smoothed or repaired without the need to
remove the whole veneer. Dunne and Millar
reported that the incidence of such repairable
defects (8%) was similar to the number of
veneers requiring total replacement (11%).5
It is useful to be aware of the above data when
patients ask how long their proposed veneers are
likely to last. It may also be prudent to warn them
that although most (80100%)7 patients remain
satisfied with the aesthetics, veneers are prone to
marginal staining, the amount of which will vary
from patient to patient. Staining may be caused
by one or more of the following:
Microleakage at the cervical margin, especially where located in aprismatic enamel or,
worse still, dentine
Wear and submargination of the luting composite, especially with an open margin
Marginal excess of luting composite
To some extent, these factors can be controlled or influenced by careful attention to clinical technique.
CLINICAL TECHNIQUE
A key element in success with porcelain veneers
is carefully controlled but appropriate tooth tissue reduction.2224 The aims of tooth preparation are to:
Provide some space into which the technician
can build porcelain without over-contouring
the tooth
Provide a finished preparation that is smooth
and has no sharp internal line-angles which
would give areas of high stress concentration
in the restoration
Maintain the preparation within enamel
whenever possible
Define a finish line to which the technician
can work.
It may be possible to prepare veneer preparations without local anaesthetic. However, in our
experience, sub-gingival margin placement,
inadvertent dentine exposure and the unpleasant coldness from the water spray and aspirator
usually make its use advisable.
Depth of preparation
It is desirable for the tooth preparation to remain
within enamel so careful control of preparation
depth is important. Obviously, the enamel thick74
ness varies from the incisal edge to the cervical

margin. Hence the preparation depth will need to
vary over the length of the tooth to avoid (if possible) exposing dentine. The preparation depth
should be of the order of 0.4 mm close to the gingival margin, rising to 0.7 mm for the bulk of the
preparation. This is best achieved by using a
depth mark of some sort. In our experience formal
depth grooves can be of limited value in this area
as there is a tendency for the bur to catch and run
into the groove during buccal reduction, accentuating the groove. The alternative is to use depth
pits prepared on the surface of the tooth using a 1
mm diameter round bur sunk to half its diameter
(Fig. 1). The buccal surface reduction can then be
undertaken to join the base of the pits. The reduction should mimic the natural curvature of the
tooth in order to provide an even thickness of
porcelain layer over the tooth surface, hence it
should be in at least two planes.24
When the tooth concerned is markedly discoloured, it is sensible to undertake a greater level
of reduction to give the technician more chance to
mask the underlying stain without over-contouring the tooth. This will have obvious disadvantages, as the preparation is likely to extend into
dentine with greater depth of tooth reduction.
Nattrass et al.25 have demonstrated that even
with experienced operators and careful control
of cutting instruments there is a tendency for
dentine to be exposed in the cervical and proximal regions of the preparations, where the
enamel is thinnest. This should be borne in mind
when deciding on the type of luting agent to be
used in veneer placement. They also found that
there was a tendency for variations in tooth
preparation depth across their samples with least
reduction in the mid-incisal region. There is no
suggestion in the literature as yet that this causes any long-term damage to the tooth or affects
the longevity of the veneer.
Incisal edge reduction

One important decision to make before commencing the preparation is whether or not the
incisal edge of the tooth is to be reduced. There
are four basic preparation designs that have
been described for the incisal edge (Fig. 2):
Window, in which the veneer is taken close to
but not up to the incisal edge. This has the
advantage of retaining natural enamel over the
incisal edge, but has the disadvantage that the
incisal edge enamel is weakened by the preparation. Also, the margins of the veneer would
become vulnerable if there is incisal edge wear
whilst the incisal lute can be difficult to hide.
Feather, in which the veneer is taken up to the
height of the incisal edge of the tooth but the
edge is not reduced. This has the advantage
that once again guidance on natural tooth is
maintained but the veneer is liable to be fragile at the incisal edge and may be subject to
peel/sheer forces during protrusive guidance.
Bevel, in which a bucco-palatal bevel is prepared across the full width of the preparation
PRACTICE
and there is some reduction of the incisal
length of the tooth. This gives more control
over the incisal aesthetics and a positive seat
during try in and luting of the veneer. The margin is not in a position that will be subjected to
direct shear forces except in protrusion. However, this style of preparation does involve
more extensive reduction of tooth tissue.
Incisal overlap, in which the incisal edge is
reduced and then the veneer preparation
extended onto the palatal aspect of the preparation. This also helps to provide a positive
seat for luting whilst involving more extensive tooth preparation. This style of preparation will also modify the path of insertion of
the veneer which will have to be seated from
the buccal/incisal direction rather than the
buccal alone. Care needs to be taken to ensure
that any proximal wrap around of the preparation towards the gingival margin does not
produce an undercut to the desired path of
insertion for the veneer. It may be necessary to
rotate such veneers into place by locating the
incisal edge first then rotating the cervical
margin into position.
There is little data available upon which to
base a decision over incisal edge preparation.
Hui et al.26 demonstrated that veneers in window preparations were best able to resist incisal
edge loading and that an overlap design fractured at the lowest loads. However, the magnitude of loading at which the overlap design
veneers failed was much greater than that
encountered clinically for such teeth. Furthermore, a clinical study was unable to distinguish
any difference in failure rate between incisal
preparation designs after two and a half years of
service.27 If the operator intends to either
improve the incisal edge aesthetics or to increase
the length of a tooth then either an overlap or
bevel design would be the preparation of choice.
If it were not necessary to extend the incisal
edges, then it may be possible to use a featheredge design, however the operator has less control of incisal edge aesthetics with this approach.
Nordbo et al.14 report no failures but 5% incisal
chipping at 3-years for veneers placed using a
feather-edge design and 0.3 to 0.5 mm buccal
tooth reduction.
The authors would not recommend the buccal
window, as it is very difficult to mask the incisal
finish line of the restoration. As this style of
restoration is used to improve the appearance of
teeth, the introduction of an aesthetic defect
would be inappropriate. If the incisal edge is to be
modified then the length should be reduced by
some 0.50.75 mm28 to allow adequate strength
within the porcelain incisal edge without elongating the tooth. Depth grooves can be used to monitor accurately incisal edge reduction (Fig. 1); we
would strongly recommend this approach.
Axial tooth reduction

Axial tooth reduction is best undertaken using
diamond burs in either an airotor or a speed
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fig. 2 Four incisal preparations are possible for veneers: a) window , b) feather , c) bevel or
d) incisal overlap
Fig. 3 Straight sided torpedo-shaped

diamond bur provides more
predictable axial reduction in
association with depth marks than a
flame-shaped bur
accelerating handpiece with a conventional

motor. It is easier to achieve predictable tooth
reduction using either a parallel sided or tapered
bur with straight sides rather than a flameshaped bur (Fig. 3). Some clinicians advocate
preparing the gingival finish line as the first step
using a round diamond bur of appropriate diameter, which will automatically produce a chamfered finish line. Alternatively a torpedo shaped
bur can be used to produce both the axial reduction and the gingival finish line (Fig. 4), which is
the method we prefer.
Conventional diamond burs leave a macroscopically roughened surface on enamel. Further
preparation of the tooth using either a small particle size diamond bur or a multi-fluted tungsten
carbide finishing bur will smooth the surface of
the preparation and can be used to refine the finishing margin. At this stage the gingival tissues
75
PRACTICE
The rounded internal line angle will help to
reduce stresses in the margin of the veneer that
may otherwise develop during firing. Also,
porcelain will adapt more readily to this shape
during manufacture. The finish line should lie
just at the crest of the free gingival margin,
unless the veneers are being used to mask severe
staining when greater sub-gingival extension
may be required for aesthetic reasons. This position for the gingival extension of the veneer
usually gives the best compromise between aesthetic control of the finished restoration and the
ease with which the clinician can control moisture during luting.
It is helpful to have a defined cervical finishing margin so that the porcelain technician will
be able to identify clearly the desired extent of
the veneer. However, there is a tendency for the
cervical margins of finished veneers to be overbulked to give greater durability during clinical
handling. These margins should therefore be
thinned as well as finished after luting.
Fig. 4 The torpedo bur can also be

used to create the gingival bevel
Fig. 5 A flat plastic instrument

protects the gingivae during
finishing of the chamfer with a
multi-fluted tungsten carbide bur.
A speed accelerating handpiece
provides greater control than an
airotor
can be protected from damage using a flat plastic instrument (Fig. 5) or gingival retraction cord
can be packed for the same purpose, which will
in turn facilitate the impression. It is often
impractical to provide provisional restorations
for porcelain veneers (see later) but some
patients are conscious of the roughened tooth
surface in their mouths, which should be
smoothed.
Proximal finish lines

It is best if the proximal finishing margins for
the preparation do not extend beyond the contact point in the incisal third of the tooth in
other words, the contact point with adjacent
teeth should be maintained. If it proves necessary to prepare through the contact area then
some form of provisional restoration would be
required to prevent inadvertent tooth movement
between tooth preparation and fitting of the
veneers. Cervically it may be necessary to
extend the preparation into the gingival embrasure to mask discoloured tooth substance in the
proximal zone immediately above the interdental papilla. Care must be used not to create an
undercut preparation in this area to the proposed
path of insertion of the restoration.
It is usually necessary to trim the proximal
finish line with a chisel to avoid the sharp lip of
enamel that often results from being unable to
take the bur to the very edge of the preparation.
In this respect it is better to change to a smaller
diameter bur to prepare the proximal margins of
a single tooth being veneered to permit limited
tooth reduction without damaging the adjacent
tooth.
Cervical finish lines
The cervical finish lines for a veneer should be a
chamfer with about a 0.4 mm maximum depth.
76
Coping with pre-existing restorations

Some teeth that require veneers will have existing composite resin restorations in place. There
are two ways to deal with this:
Bond to a prepared composite resin surface.
This is difficult, particularly if the composite
restoration has been in place for any length of
time. Water sorption, exposed un-silanated
surfaces of filler particles and limited opportunities for further polymerisation of the resin
component of the set material all contribute to
a reduced bond strength.
Replace the restoration. This can be done relatively easily, but should be done at the visit
when the veneer is luted to the tooth so the
new composite has the best chance of bonding
to the porcelain veneer as well as the tooth tissue. This makes the procedure for bonding the
veneer more complex. The old restoration
needs to be removed before the veneer is
attached to the tooth. The veneer is then luted
in place using the requisite bonding system
and subsequently the composite resin restoration replaced in the same manner as when
placing a conventional Class III or IV composite filling. It can be difficult to avoid producing overhanging margins using this technique, so care is required to ensure that any
such overhangs are identified and eliminated.
One of the causes for failure that Dunne and
Millar5 identified was that veneers were attached
to pre-existing restorations. It would seem sensible to replace such restorations at the time of
veneer placement to reduce this as a possible
cause of early failure of the veneer. Alternatively, if there are extensive restorations present it
may be more sensible to provide a crown.
Recording an impression
Impression technique and soft tissue handling
are dealt with elsewhere in this series, so we will
not go into great detail here. However it is
PRACTICE
appropriate to use short sections of retraction
cord around the margins of the preparations to
facilitate the capture of both the finishing edge
of the preparation and the adjacent area of
unprepared tooth. Electro-surgery is best avoided because of the risk of gingival recession
revealing the veneer margin.
An impression of the opposing arch is indispensable if the incisal edges of the veneers are
involved in guidance.
Laboratory prescription and manufacture

Again, communication with your technician and
achieving maximum aesthetics is covered elsewhere in this series. Of particular importance in
relation to veneers is careful shade selection,
especially if you are planning to modify the
colour of the tooth. If you intend to attempt to
modify the shade of the veneer with the luting
agent then it is sensible to ask the technician to
provide space for the luting resin using a proprietary die-spacing system but bear in mind that
the porcelain should not be so thin that there is a
risk of it being cracked by the thick composite
lute.21 In addition, if a diagnostic wax-up has
been used to demonstrate a modification in
anterior aesthetics then this should be sent to the
laboratory as well. It can also be beneficial to
send a study cast of the teeth prior to preparation if one is available should you want to preserve the original tooth form.
There are a variety of methods for manufacture of porcelain veneers using either a refractory die material, a platinum matrix laid down on
a conventional working model or one of the
castable ceramic materials prepared using the
lost wax technique. Sim and Ibbetson29 have
shown that the best quality of marginal fit was
obtained with a platinum foil system, followed
by a refractory die and that the worst fit was
associated with cast glass restorations.
It is best to ask your laboratory for the veneer
to be etched with hydrofluoric acid but not to
apply the silane-coupling agent. These agents
need to be applied just prior to luting the veneer
in place (whether or not the laboratory has
applied silane) and are provided in most commercially available resin luting kits. Too early an
application of a coupling agent, or contamination of the coupling agent coated surface prior to
bonding can reduce the strength of the attachment between resin and veneer. Also, two component silane systems must not be kept after
mixing as the silane polymerises to an unreactive polysiloxane, again with a reduction in
bond strength.7
Provisional restorations
It is difficult and time-consuming to provide
provisional restorations for teeth prepared for
porcelain veneers. It is often best simply to leave
the teeth in their prepared state providing the
patient is aware that this is going to happen and
the teeth are not sensitive.
A variety of techniques have been described
for placement of provisional restorations if they
are required. These include directly placed composite resin veneers and producing a transparent
matrix from a thermoplastic material to allow
multiple composite veneers to be made simultaneously.30 Such provisional restorations need to
be attached to the enamel surface and the only
practical way to do this is using the acid etch
technique. Obviously, only a very small area of
enamel in the centre of the preparation should
be spot-etched to provide attachment for the
composite resin, which can then be removed
easily during the next visit without damaging
the periphery of the preparation. It is best to
avoid the margins of the preparations when
doing this with spot etching at the centre only.
Provisional restorations should be made with
care, avoiding gingival excess. Any such excess
would cause gingival irritation whilst the
veneers are being made and may result in an
alteration of the position of the gingival margin
or cause difficulty with bleeding during luting.
Provisional restorations are useful when you
plan to alter the position of the teeth using
veneers. The diagnostic wax-up can be used to
prepare a thermoplastic matrix. This matrix is
then used to make composite resin veneers
directly in the mouth. This will allow the patient
to experience the planned changes to their teeth
at first hand and to approve the change in their
appearance before the definitive restorations are
made, avoiding a potential cause for grievance.
Trial placement. The veneers should be
returned from the laboratory in a foam-lined
box rather than on the working model of the
patient. It is important that neither you nor the
laboratory place the etched veneers back on the
stone dies. Any contact between the etched
porcelain surface and dental stone will result in
abrasion of the stone model and some stone dust
becoming trapped in the delicate veneer surface.
Swift et al.31 have shown that such contamination results in a substantial fall in the bond
strength between veneer and resin. They also
found that it was very difficult to clean an
etched porcelain surface that has been contaminated with dental stone.
Handling porcelain veneers can be difficult;
they are small and delicate. There are commercially available devices to help with this, either
in the form of a tiny suction cup or a small rod
with a tacky resin at one end. Alternatively a little piece of ribbon wax on the end of an amalgam plugger makes a useful substitute.
Check the quality of fit and gingival extension
of the veneer against the tooth, which should
have been cleaned with pumice in water prior to
the trial. Once you are happy that the quality of fit
is acceptable, the next stage is to assess the colour
match. The colour of a porcelain veneer cannot be
assessed if the veneer is simply placed on the surface of the tooth. Much of the overall colour for
the final restoration comes from the tooth structure, so a colour-coupling agent is needed
between the tooth and the veneer (Fig. 6).
In its simplest form water will allow the
colour of the tooth to be expressed through the
79
PRACTICE
Fig. 6 The advantages of using a

colour-coupling agent are seen here.
The veneer at UL1(21) looks
relatively translucent (try-in paste
used) compared with the opaque
UR1(11) (no try-in paste used)
Fig. 7 Prior to curing the luting

agent, excess material must be
removed from the margin of the
veneer and the gingival crevice.
Note the small sections of
Melamine matrix used to prevent
the luting agent from bonding teeth
together
veneer and give a reasonable guide to the overall

appearance if a neutral coloured luting resin is
to be used.
If it is necessary to try to modify the colour of
the finished restoration using the luting resin
then the veneer must be tried in with an appropriate colour of paste. This can either be the luting agent itself or, alternatively, some manufacturers provide trial pastes that will not set but
have similar optical properties to the luting resin.
If the definitive luting resin is used great care
must be taken to ensure that the resin does not set
under the action of the operating light and that
the paste used for the trial is removed completely
from the veneer. Some manufacturers trial
pastes are water-soluble making their removal
relatively straightforward. However if a resin
based trial paste is used this needs to be removed
using an organic solvent. Swift et al.31 found that
acetone, an agent that has often been suggested
and used for this role, produces markedly
reduced bond strengths. A more acceptable alternative would be ethanol. Once the quality of fit
of the veneer and the shade of the luting paste
have been assessed the etched surface of the
porcelain should be coated with a silane coupling
agent, following the manufacturers instructions
for the product chosen.
Luting the veneer

Having established that the veneer is of an
appropriate shade, or can be modified with a luting resin to be satisfactory, it is ready to be bonded to the supporting enamel and dentine. In view
of the reported high prevalence of dentine exposure on veneer preparations25 we would advise
the routine use of a dentine bonding agent.
Good moisture control is critical if adhesive
techniques are to work. Contamination of either
the prepared tooth surface or the veneer fitting
80
surface with saliva, blood or crevicular fluid will

result in reduced bond strengths. Moisture control can be achieved using rubber dam, but
where this is impractical gingival retraction cord
can be a helpful adjunct to prevention of contamination from the gingival crevice. The residual enamel should be cleaned using pumice and
water and then etched, washed and dried. Details
of technique will not be given here, as they are
so material specific. It can be tempting to cut
corners during this stage, but it is vital that you
use the luting resins as the manufacturer suggests to achieve optimal results.
Having applied the dentine/enamel bonding
system the veneer should be loaded with luting
resin and located on the surface of the tooth. At
this stage the excess of unset resin around the
periphery of the veneer can best be removed
using a metal instrument (Fig. 7) or a brush
dipped in unfilled resin. Removal needs to be
undertaken with care, as there is a tendency for
resin to be pulled out from the periphery of the
lute space leaving sub-margination, particularly
if dental floss is used.
Once all gross excess is removed the luting
resin can be cured using a visible light activation
unit. It is essential to ensure an adequate exposure
to cure fully the luting resin through the porcelain
veneer. Most manufacturers guidelines suggest
3040s cure times. This is inadequate with
research suggesting that 60s is more realistic.3234
Light-activation of a luting agent through an
opaque veneer or one of greater than 0.7 mm
thickness, is not adequately effective.35 In these
circumstances a dual-curing resin, which is initiated both by admixing the pastes to give a
chemical set and by visible-light activation,
should be used. Such dual-cure agents should
not be used on thinner veneers as they do not
polymerise as effectively as a visible-light activated equivalent alone and may be susceptible
to colour change with time as a product of the
residue of the chemical initiating system.36
Post placement finishing

The final stage for any restoration is finishing the
margins of the restoration and any functional
contacts to give a smooth and harmonious transition from tooth to restoration. It is particularly
important to eliminate any occlusal interferences.
The finishing process for porcelain veneers
involves using small particle size diamond burs or
multi-fluted tungsten carbide burs in either an
airotor or a speed accelerating handpiece (Fig. 8).
Burs are available in a variety of grit sizes to polish the margins progressively and ideally should
be followed by the use of 10 mm particle size diamond polishing paste to maximise the lustre on
the porcelain and the cement lute (Fig. 9). Finishing can also be achieved using rotating abrasive
disks that are available for composite resin
restorations (eg Soflex discs, Super-Snaps etc).
When finishing the gingival extent of the
veneer it is sensible to protect the gingival tissues using a flat plastic instrument. You will
want to show the finished result to your patient,
PRACTICE
who will not be impressed if the gingival tissues
are lacerated and bleeding! Many operators prefer to delay the detailed finishing until a subsequent appointment at which time any excess
material is much easier to identify.
NON-STANDARD VENEERS
Veneers are generally prescribed for the buccal
aspects of maxillary anterior teeth, but there are
a number of non-standard applications. These
include veneers for:
Fig. 8 Finishing the gingival margin

of the veneer with a small particle
size diamond bur in a speed
accelerating handpiece. Once again,
a flat plastic instrument protects the
gingival tissues
The palatal/lingual aspect of teeth which have

been worn or fractured
Diastema elimination using slips restricted to
the proximal aspects of teeth
Lower incisors
Posterior occlusal onlays
All of these applications require some careful
thought to ensure a satisfactory result.
Palatal veneers
There are two main problems with palatal
veneers.
Firstly, it is not possible to adjust the occlusal
contacts on the veneer until it is luted in place.
This will inevitably result in the need to adjust
porcelain in situ. When this is required it is
essential that the adjusted porcelain surface be
polished with graded abrasives, culminating in
diamond paste, to ensure that the opposing teeth
are not subject to excessive wear from roughened unglazed porcelain.
Secondly, the finish line for such veneers often
extends onto the buccal surface of the tooth. It
can be very difficult to disguise that line as the
resin luting agent can prove highly visible at the
junction between porcelain and tooth (Fig. 10).
One option is to try to hide the finish line as much
as possible. There are three ways to improve this:
Never make the finish line a straight line. The
human eye is very good at identifying straight
lines, but is less good at seeing wavy lines. If
the finish line is made serpentinous, using the
normal anatomy of the tooth to rise over the
mamelons and dip between them, it becomes
more difficult to see (Fig. 11).
Extend the finish line over onto the buccal
surface of the tooth significantly. Then ask
your technician to gradually increase the
quantity of translucent porcelain in the overlapping section so that more and more colour
from the restoration is drawn from the tooth
and less and less from the veneer. This avoids
sudden change in optical properties between
tooth and porcelain restoration. (Figs 10,11)
Use a luting agent that is colour neutral with
the tooth so that it blends as much as possible.
Lateral porcelain slips
There are once again two problems with this sort
of porcelain addition, commonly used to obliterate a diastema between teeth.
Care must be taken to avoid a bulky gingival
emergence profile. It is not acceptable to proBRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 193 NO. 2 JULY 27 2002
Fig. 9 Final polishing of the gingival

margin of the veneer using a rubber
cup and diamond polishing paste
Fig. 10 Unsightly, porcelain-tooth

junctions at the incisal overlap of
the palatal surface veneers at UL1,
UL2 and UL3 (21, 22 and 23). The
junctions are clearly visible due to
the abrupt change in optical
contrast and the straight finish line
duce artificial overhangs that are not cleansable and are liable to act as plaque traps.
The junction between porcelain and tooth
should be disguised. This is best hidden within
the natural anatomy of the tooth by placing
the finish line within the intermamelon
groove closest to the addition and by using the
same concepts as above to blend tooth and
porcelain. In this circumstance it may be possible to have a straight finish line, at worst it
mimics a crack on the crown surface.
An alternative is simply to extend the veneer
over the whole buccal surface with an appropriate extension into the proximal space.
Veneers for mandibular incisors

Mandibular incisors can be managed with
porcelain veneers but the preparation usually
has to be extended over the incisal edge of the
tooth, particularly if the tooth is in functional
contact. The incisal coverage of porcelain has to
be sufficiently thick to be durable under continuing rubbing contact with the opposing tooth.
This would necessitate incisal edge reduction by
between 0.75 and 1 mm. Obviously if the tooth is
not temporised there is a risk of over-eruption of
81
PRACTICE
11.
12.
13.
Fig. 11 Here the incisal overlap has

been hidden. The palatal veneers on
UR1 (11) and UL1 (21) have had
their incisal margins extended some
2mm onto the buccal surface of the
tooth with a gradual increase in
translucency of the porcelain to
improve colour transmission. Also,
the finish line is serpentinous
14.
15.
16.
the opposing tooth or the prepared tooth in the

period between preparation and fit of the
veneers. Space maintenance is best provided by
adding composite resin to the palatal surface of
the upper teeth to produce a stable occlusal stop
between the upper and lower arches, rather than
risking damage to the prepared enamel surface
of the lower.
Posterior occlusal onlays

Porcelain occlusal onlays (sometimes termed
shims) have the potential to offer an elegant
and aesthetic means of reconstructing the
occlusal surfaces of worn or broken-down teeth.
However, despite the initial enthusiasm of some
authors37 the results with traditional aluminous
or feldspathic porcelains have proved disappointing. We have experienced both debonding
and fracture, especially when restorations are
attached mainly to dentine, and subject to the
rigors of bruxism. It may be that one or more of
the high strength ceramics would be suitable for
this purpose,38 but it is too early to make any
firm recommendations.
CONCLUSIONS
Porcelain veneers are a useful adjunct to the
armamentarium of the dentist to help in the
management of aesthetic problems in patients,
both young and old. Care needs to be taken during tooth preparation and particularly during
the luting phase to ensure maximal results are
obtained for the patient.
DPB. Dental Data Digest of Statistics. Dental Practice Board,
1996.
2. DPB. Dental Data Digests of Statistics for 1997,
1998,1999,2000 and 2001. Dental Practice Board, 2001.
3. Pincus C. Building mouth personality. Alpha Omega 1948;
42: 163-166.
4. Horn H R. Porcelain veneers. Dental Clinics of North America
1983; 27: 671-684.
5. Dunne S M, Millar B J. A longitudinal study of the clinical
performance of porcelain veneers. Br Dent J 1993; 175:
317-321.
6. Guidelines. Restorative indications for porcelain veneer
restorations. In: Gregg T, editor. Faculty of Dental Surgery
National Clinical Guidelines. London: Faculty of Dental
Surgeons of Royal College of Surgeons of England, 1997.
7. Peumans M, Van Meerbeek B, Lambrechts P, Vanherle G.
Porcelain veneers: a review of the literature. J Dent 2000; 28:
163-77.
8. Walls A W G, Murray J J, McCabe J F. Composite laminate
veneers: a clinical study. J Oral Rehabil 1988; 15: 439-454.
9. Rucker L M R W, MacEntee M, Richardson A,. Porcelain and
resin veneers clinically evaluated: 2-year results. J Am Dent
Assoc 1990; 121: 594-596.
10. Harley K E, Ibbetson R J. Anterior veneers for the adolescent
17.
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patient: 1. General indications and composite veneers. Dent

Update 1991; 18: 55-6, 58-9.
Welbury R R. A clinical study of a microfilled composite resin
for labial veneers. Int J Paed Dent 1991; 1: 9-15.
Clyde J, Gilmoure A. Porcelain veneers: a preliminary review.
Br Dent J 1988; 164: 9-14.
Strassler H, Nathanson D. Clinical evaluation of etched
porcelain veneers over a period of 18-42 months. J Aesthet
Dent 1989; 1: 21-28.
Nordbo H, Rygh-Thoresen N, Henaug T. Clinical performance
of porcelain laminate veneers without incisal overlapping:
3-year results. J Dent 1994; 22: 342-345.
Peumans M, Van Meerbeek B, Lambrechts P, VuylstekeWauters M, Vanherle G. Five-year clinical performance of
porcelain veneers. Quintessence Int 1998; 29: 211-221.
Kihn P, Barnes D. The clinical evaluation of porcelain veneers:
a 48-month clinical evaluation. J Am Dent Assoc 1998; 129:
747-752.
Fradeani M. Six-year follow-up with Empress veneers. Int J
Periodont Rest Dent 1998; 18: 216-225.
Dumfahrt H, Schaffer H. Porcelain laminate veneers. A
retrospective evaluation after 1 to 10 years of service: Part
IIClinical results. Int J Prosthodont 2000; 13: 9-18.
Christensen G, Christensen R. Clinical observations of
porcelain veneers. J Aesthet Dent 1991; 3: 174-179.
Walls A W. The use of adhesively retained all-porcelain
veneers during the management of fractured and worn
anterior teeth: Part 2. Clinical results after 5 years of followup. Br Dent J 1995; 178: 337-40.
Magne P, Kwon K R, Belser U C, Hodges J S, Douglas W H.
Crack propensity of porcelain laminate veneers: A simulated
operatory evaluation. J Prosthet Dent 1999; 81: 327-334.
Calamia J R. Materials and techniques for etched porcelain
facial veneers. Alpha Omega 1988; 81: 48-51.
Garber D. Traditional tooth preparation for porcelain
laminate veneers. Comp Cont Ed Dent 1991; 12: 316, 318,
320, 322.
Harley K E, Ibbetson R. Anterior veneers for the adolescent
patient: 2 Porcelain veneers and conclusions. Dent Update
1991; 18: 112-116.
Nattrass B R, Youngson C C, Patterson C J, Martin D M, Ralph
J P. An in vitro assessment of tooth preparation for porcelain
veneer restorations. J Dent 1995; 23: 165-170.
Hui K, Williams B, Davis E, Holt R. A comparative assessment
of the strengths of porcelain veneers for incisor teeth
dependent on their design characteristics. Br Dent J 1991;
171: 51-55.
Meijering A C, Creugers N H, Roeters F J, Mulder J. Survival of
three types of veneer restorations in a clinical trial: a 2.5year interim evaluation. J Dent 1998; 26: 563-568.
Calamia J. Materials and techniques for etched porcelain
facial veneers. Alpha Omega 1988; 81: 48-51.
Sim C, Ibbetson R J. Comparison of fit of porcelain veneers
fabricated using different techniques. Int J Prosthodont
1993; 6: 36-42.
Raigrodski A J, Sadan A, Mendez A J. Use of a customized
rigid clear matrix for fabricating provisional veneers. J Esthet
Dent 1999; 11: 16-22.
Swift B, Walls A W, McCabe J F. Porcelain veneers: the effects
of contaminants and cleaning regimens on the bond
strength of porcelain to composite. Br Dent J 1995; 179:
203-208.
Strang R, McCrossan J, Muirhead M, Richardson S. The
setting of visible light cured resins beneath etched porcelain
veneers. Br Dent J 1987; 163: 149-151.
Warren K. An investigation into the microhardness of a lightcured composite when cured through varying thicknesses of
porcelain. J Oral Rehabil 1990; 17: 327-334.
OKeefe K, Pease P, Herren H. Variables affecting the spectral
transmittance of porcelain through porcelain veneer
samples. J Prosthet Dent 1991; 66: 434-438.
Linden J J, Swift E J, Jr., Boyer D B, Davis B K. Photo-activation
of resin cements through porcelain veneers. J Dent Res 1991;
70: 154-157.
Berrong J M, Weed R M, Schwartz I S. Color stability of
selected dual-cure composite resin cements. J Prosthodont
1993; 2: 24-27.
Mabrito C, Roberts M. Porcelain onlays. Curr Opin Cosmetic
Dent 1995: 1-8.
Denissen H, Dozic A, van der Zel J, van Waas M. Marginal fit
and short-term clinical performance of porcelain-veneered
CICERO, CEREC, and Procera onlays. J Prosthet Dent 2000;
84: 506-13.
PRACTICE
IN BRIEF
The indications for the management of worn teeth, in occlusal management, and following
molar endodontics
Design and tooth preparation for anterior and posterior teeth
Clinical procedures, including management of existing restorations and bonding
Problems with aesthetics and temporisation
Maintenance and, where necessary, rebonding
13

Resin-bonded metal restorations
A. W. G. Walls1 F. S. A. Nohl2 and R. W. Wassell3
Resin-bonded metal restorations is the final part of the series. Cast metal restorations which rely on adhesion for attachment
to teeth are attractive because of their potential to be much more conservative of tooth structure than conventional crowns
which rely on preparation features providing macromechanical resistance and retention.

RESTORATIONS:

3. Pre-operative
assessment
4. Endodontic
considerations
vital pulps
veneer crowns
technique
of crowns
restorations
1Professor of Restorative Dentistry,

School of Dental Sciences, Framlington
Place, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4BW
2Consultant in Restorative Dentistry, The
Dental Hospital, Richardson Road,
Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4SZ
*Correspondence to: Prof A. W. G. Walls,
Dental School, University of Newcastle
upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4BW
E-mail: a.w.g.walls@ncl.ac.uk
Refereed Paper
135142
The past 25 years have witnessed great strides

in the development of adhesive dentistry.
Many would say that our day-to-day practice
has been influenced more fundamentally by
these advances than by any other recent dental
innovation.
One of the advances is the introduction of
resin-bonded metal restorations (RBMR). Anteriorly, the RBMR resembles a retentive wing of a
resin-bonded minimal preparation bridge. Posteriorly, the RBMR (sometimes termed a shim)
resembles a conventional metal onlay but usually without box forms or other mechanical means
of providing retention. Sometimes however,
where pre-existing restorations have been
replaced as part of the RBMR, the distinction
between onlay and shim becomes blurred; the
only differentiation being the means of cementation which has evolved from the technology
developed for resin-bonded bridgework.
The need to remove tooth substance to
achieve mechanical resistance and retention of
worn teeth for conventional crowns would seem
particularly counterproductive: RBMR can offer
conservative solutions in this situation. A number of case reports and two surveys1,2 have
appeared documenting and supporting the use of
RBMR on the palatal aspects of worn maxillary
anterior teeth (Fig. 1). The use of RBMR on the
occlusal surfaces of posteriors has also been
described (Fig. 2).24 However, there are no wellcontrolled clinical studies of the long-term success of RBMR in comparison with conventional
restorations. Other uses have included production of rests for the support of partial dentures5
and restorations to alter the morphology of
occlusal holding and guiding surfaces of
canines.6
The ability to bond cast metal alloys to teeth
BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 193 NO. 3 AUGUST 10 2002
Fig. 1 Occlusal view of anterior palatal resin-bonded

metal restorations
Fig. 2 Posterior resin-bonded metal restoration
was first demonstrated clinically by Rochette in

1973.7 His periodontal splint was made of cast
gold and retained macromechanically by composite resin extruded through countersunk perforations in the metalwork. Tooth surfaces were
etched with acid to provide micromechanical
retention for composite resin cement. The major
breakthrough was that other than etching no
destructive tooth preparation was required.
135
PRACTICE
As the adhesive minimal preparation bridge
became commonplace, methods of modifying
base metal alloys were developed to improve
adhesion of the retainers to tooth substance via a
resin-based cement. One technique was to incorporate irregularities into the fitting surface of
the retainers during pattern formation, which
were subsequently reproduced in metal; these
took the form of voids left after the wash out of
salt crystals, spheres or meshwork, but had the
disadvantage that castings were bulky and the
laboratory technique was exacting. Microscopic
etch patterns in the fitting surface of bridge
retainers greatly increase the surface area for
contact with luting agents and can be produced
by electrolytic corrosion in an acidic environment. Again this approach was technique sensitive but could produce reliable attachment
between metals and resin.8 Base metal retainers
can also be air abraded with alumina particles
that as well as increasing the surface area may
enhance the bond with some cements by chemical interactions.9
Lesser demands on rigidity with single unit
restorations enabled the use of precious metal
alloys (type III gold [ADA classification]) rather
than the nickel based alloys used in adhesive
bridgework. This gives advantages in casting
accuracy, ease of adjustment and finishing, the
potential for reduced wear of opposing teeth and
perhaps of appearance. Several precious metal
surface treatments have been documented.
These include tin plating,9 heat treatment of
high copper content gold alloys,10 air abrasion
of the cast metal surface,2,10 and the Silicoater.11
Air abraded base metal luted to etched enamel
using two chemically active cements gave higher bond strengths in-vitro than precious metal
alloy/surface treatment combinations.9 However, tin plating or heat treating air abraded precious metal alloys gave enhanced bond
strengths in-vitro compared with this alloy air
abraded alone.10 Clinically, air abraded nickelchromium anterior RBMRs cemented with
Panavia Ex gave a survival probability of 0.74 at
56 months,1 and air-abraded gold RBMRs (anterior and posterior), also cemented with Panavia
Ex, were associated with a survival probability
of 89% at 60 months.2 However it cannot be
assumed that because a metal surface treatment
works with one cement that it will necessarily be
effective with others.
INDICATIONS
In the management of worn teeth
RBMR can protect worn and vulnerable tooth
surfaces from the effects of further wear by
forming a barrier against mechanical and chemical insults.
Any technique, which could delay entry into
a restorative spiral necessitating ever enlarging
restorations with endodontic implications, is to
be welcomed. Although RBMR are susceptible to
debonding, marginal recurrent caries and marginal lute wear, the fact that little if any tooth
136
preparation has been carried out prior to placement means that cumulative insults to the pulp
are likely to be less than when conventional
restorations have been placed (assuming that the
bonding process to dentine is not damaging to
the pulp!).
Central to the provision of RBMR are techniques to create occlusal space for the restoration; suffice it to say that non-preparation techniques, such as the Dahl approach,11 involving
controlled axial movement of teeth are attractive. In this approach teeth are built-up to cause
their intrusion and the supra-eruption of others
taken out of occlusion. This topic is summarised
in Part 3 of this series. However, it is worth
emphasising that the build-up must result in
axial loading. Non-axial loading, resulting from
a deflective contact or interference on the buildup, can cause problems such as pain and tooth
mobility.
In occlusal management
RBMRs are made in the laboratory using the lost
wax casting technique. In conjunction with the
dental technician, the dentist has good control
over form of occlusal surfaces of RBMRs, which
can be used therefore to create occlusal stops
and guiding surfaces with a high degree of precision. RBMRs are particularly helpful when
such teeth are unrestored and where the alternative of conventional crowns would be unacceptably destructive.
A drawback of the technique is that the new
guidance surfaces cannot be tested using provisional restorations as with conventional crowns.
Guidance surfaces therefore need to be carefully
formed with the use of a semi-adjustable articulator and the dentist must accept that some
adjustment may be required after the RBMRs
have been cemented.
Following molar endodontics
Many posterior teeth which have been root
treated are at risk of fracture and will benefit
from a protective cusp covering cast
restoration.13 A RBMR with occlusal coverage
can provide a conservative restoration for a
tooth already compromised by the need for
endodontic access.
TECHNIQUES
Choice of metal
If facilities do not exist to heat treat or tin plate
gold after try-in, it may be more sensible to use
air abraded nickel-chromium, accepting that its
shade may look less harmonious in the oral
environment than yellow gold.
Design and tooth preparation: anterior teeth
Very thin portions of unsupported buccal enamel remaining on some worn maxillary anterior
teeth are highly vulnerable to damage on a stone
master cast resulting in a casting which will not
fit the tooth. Such enamel should be removed
prior to making the impression and defects
PRACTICE
waxed-up on the master cast before building up
patterns for RBMR (Fig. 3). After cementation,
composite resin can be packed against the RBMR
to replace lost buccal enamel. The latter technique can also be used to restore pre-existing
buccal tooth defects. No other tooth preparation
is required for anterior palatal RBMR.
Fig. 3 Enamel defects waxed up on master cast prior to

constructing restorations
To optimise adhesion, the maximum possible

palatal tooth surface should be covered by the
RBMR. Type III gold should probably be a minimum of approximately 0.5 mm thick though it
may be reasonable to use nickel-chromium in
thinner section because it is more rigid. It is necessary to incorporate features that aid accurate
location during seating of the RBMR. A layer of
metal overlying the whole of the incisal edge of
anterior teeth facilitates accurate seating and
following careful thinning can often be left in
place without affecting appearance significantly
(Fig. 4). In function, the latter feature should also
reduce the likelihood that opposing tooth contacts will act directly on the cement layer to
cause shear failure.
Table I Precautions for intra-oral air abrasion

Alumina particles are hazardous if inhaled, can scratch glass (eg spectacle lenses) and can leave patients
feeling like they have a mouthful of sand. To avoid these problems:
1. Use rubber dam where possible.
2. Pack-off area around tooth with wrung out wet paper towels (alumina will stick to towel not
rebound).
3. Cover patients whole face including spectacles, with wet paper towels. Fold to allow patient to
breathe from beneath towel.
4. Dentist and nurse must wear masks and eye protection.
5. Use high volume aspiration.
Whereas conventional crowns are designed

so that non-axial forces tend to put the cement
layer in compression (non-adhesive cements are
best able to resist compression), RBMR rely substantially on their adhesive luting agent to resist
tensile and shearing forces. Axial preparation is
useful in as much as it will facilitate accurate
orientation on the tooth during bonding. Such a
preparation would have an axial reduction of
approximately 0.5 mm depth extending down
the axial surfaces by one millimetre or so, terminating on a chamfer margin (Fig. 5). Axial
preparation will also give the advantage of
increasing the surface area for bonding to etched
enamel. To what extent axial preparation will
help resist peel and shear forces is currently
unclear.
Fig. 5 Preparation form for posterior

resin-bonded metal restoration
Fig. 4 Appearance of metal incisal coverage because of

anterior palatal resin-bonded metal restorations
Design and tooth preparation posterior teeth

The occlusal part of the restoration must be able
to withstand functional forces and, in the
absence of evidence to the contrary, dimensions
for gold alloy RBMR should follow those recommended for conventional cusp covering crowns
(see Part 6). As with anterior RBMRs it may be
possible to reduce these dimensions when using
nickel-chromium because it is more rigid.
Occlusal preparation should only be performed
where the treatment plan indicates that occlusal
space for the restoration is required (see Part 3).
Managing existing restorations

RBMR rely primarily on adhesion to enamel for
retention. Existing restorations which account
for a large proportion of the surface area available for adhesion but also extend beyond the
periphery of the RBMR are not be ideally suited
to restoration using this technique. The critical
factor is to finish the margin of the restoration
on enamel if at all possible.
Anterior teeth
Restorations deemed to be in need of replacement involving the labial surface of anterior
teeth can be managed in several ways:
1. Replace prior to impressions. However by the
time the RBMR is cemented the surface will
be waterlogged and may only offer sub-optimal bonding to chemically active cements.
Use of an intra-oral air abrasion device on
the plastic restoration may be beneficial.
2. Remove prior to cementation of RBMR and
pack fresh composite against either the trial
137
PRACTICE
seated or cemented RBMR. Placement of
composite against the cemented RBMR can
make the job of shade matching easier than
when replacement is carried out prior to
impressions because opaquers and appropriate shades of composite can be used over the
metal.
Posterior teeth
Some caution is required in relation to existing
restorations that will be completely covered by
the RBMR, as they may not offer as great a bond
to chemically active cements as etched enamel.
Much will therefore depend on the area of enamel available for bonding. Strategies to manage
existing restorations, which will be completely
covered by the RBMR, would include:
1. Leaving the restoration undisturbed. In this
case it may be best to assume that the old
restoration offers no additional retention.
An example for this approach would be a
small sound restoration surrounded by a
good periphery of enamel.
2. Air abrading the surface of existing restorations with the aim of providing micromechanical retention for the resin cement
(Table 1).
3. Replacement of an existing amalgam
restoration with GIC to facilitate bonding.
4. Removal of whole or part of the restoration
with the aim of providing a retentive intracoronal feature on the fit surface of the
RBMR and exposing tooth structure for
bonding. The resulting preparation will
resemble that for a conventionally cemented
onlay incorporating box forms, bevels and
flares.14 However, removal of old restorations may be associated with unnecessary
damage to the tooth and where necessary
undercuts should be blocked out with glass
ionomer cement.
Fig. 6 Appearance of heat-treated

gold just after cementation
Fig. 7 Floss ligatures to facilitate

isolation with rubber dam
138
Records
Impressions for the laboratory fabrication of
RBMR should meet the same quality criteria as
for conventional crowns (see Part 10 of this
series). Anterior palatal wear often spares a rim
of enamel in the proximity of the gingival
crevice which should be captured by the impression as it may enhance adhesion significantly. It
is helpful to use a gingival retraction technique
to achieve this.
Fabrication can be carried out by investing
and casting a pattern which has been lifted
from the master cast or by forming the pattern
for the restoration on refractory material
which is itself incorporated within investment.
Bonding
Although occlusal adjustments are more easily
polished if carried out before the RBMR is
attached to the tooth, stabilising the restoration
sufficiently to analyse occlusal contacts can be
difficult. A small amount of paraffin jelly
smeared onto the fitting surface of the RBMR
can provide some retention but needs to be
removed completely before bonding.
The fitting surface should ideally be air
abraded and steam or ultrasonically cleaned
before cementation. Gold alloy RBMR are heat
treated at this stage. A brief cycle in a porcelain oven is required (400C for 4 minutes in
air). Despite the colour of the oxidised alloy, no
further polishing should be carried out until
after the restoration has been cemented as to
attempt this risks contaminating the allimportant oxide layer developed in the heat
treatment (Fig. 6).
In the past there has been concern that the
quality of bonding of the chemically active
cements advocated for RBMR may be affected
by the presence of eugenol.15 However another
study16 indicates that eugenol containing temporary cements have no adverse effect on the
shear bond strength of a dual-curing luting
cement to enamel although there may be an
effect if a composite core is used.
Several chemically active cements are available to bond RBMR: the same cement as would
be chosen for adhesive bridgework. Manufacturers instructions for handling the chosen
chemically active cement must be followed
closely: it is the responsibility of the dentist to
ensure that this is so. Rubber dam is mandatory.
Floss ligatures can assist retraction of rubber at
the gingival margins of maxillary anterior
teeth (Fig. 7). Soft wax on the end of an instrument can be helpful to carry the RBMR to the
tooth but great care must be taken not to smear
wax onto the fitting surfaces.
After attaching a RBMR to the tooth,
removal of excess cement, occlusal adjustments and polishing can be achieved with hand
scalers and a sequence of rotary instruments
(Table 2). Care must be taken not to overheat
the restoration or the resin cement will be softened and the RBMR dislodged.
PRACTICE
Table 2 Suggested sequence of instruments for

removal of excess set cement at periphery of
resin-bonded metal restorations
Hand scalers
Fine and very fine high speed diamond burs
Rubber points
Polishing cup and prophy paste
Fig. 8 Recurrent erosion at the
periphery of resin-bonded metal
restorations in situ
PROBLEMS
Appearance
Maxillary anterior teeth, which have been
thinned by wear on their palatal aspects, may
transmit light easily. RBMR luted to the palatal
aspects of these teeth may cause a grey colouration that can be unacceptable and is more likely
if non-opaque cement is used. On the other
hand, opaque cements may help disguise metal
but can also cause a lightening in shade. At the
initial assessment it is wise to assess possible
shade change caused by a RBMR and its cement.
White modelling clay applied to the palatal
aspect of the thin tooth can mimic the effect of
opaque cement. Tin foil burnished onto the
palatal surfaces of teeth to be restored can indicate the effect of grey nickel chromium or dark
oxidised gold in combination with non-opaque
cement.
Showing metal is aesthetically acceptable to
some patients but simply not for others! Yellow
gold can look more harmonious in the oral environment than nickel-chromium. A useful technique is to use an air abrader to reduce the
reflectance of the polished RBMR. In our experience the surface produced by air abrasion also
picks up ink of occlusal marking tape more easily than metal left highly polished.17 A chairside
air abrader for intra-oral use is a ideal for this
purpose but needs to be used with care (Table 1).
The advantages of RBMR should be fully
explained to the patient: the informed patient
may accept this compromise in appearance.
Temporisation of RBMR
In many cases temporary restorations are
unnecessary but as with porcelain labial veneers
retention can be a problem. These aspects are
addressed in the ninth article in this series.
It is a significant disadvantage that RBMR
cannot be reliably attached to teeth for a trial
period using temporary cement. Glass ionomer
cement (GIC) may afford easy retrieval (or
unplanned loss) in some situations but in others
acts as a final cement!
MAINTENANCE
Erosion can cause loss of tooth tissue at the
periphery of a RBMR (Fig. 8). This problem may
occur as a result of not identifying or not controlling the aetiology of the patients presenting
tooth wear. Repair with an adhesive filling material may however be straightforward, although
concern has been raised about the ability of the
repairing material to bond to the metal casting.
A RBMR whose lute has failed is more likely
Fig. 9 Partially de-bonded adhesive

metal splint
to declare itself by debonding than a conventionally retained crown which may stay in place
long enough for the consequences of leakage to
take effect. Analysis of the cause of failure for a
RBMR may indicate that an attempt should be
made to re-attach it after appropriate cleansing
and surface treatments. All traces of old cement
should be removed from the RBMR, which
should then be handled and treated as new. An
air abrasion device, abrasive discs and ultrasonic
scalers are useful in removing cement from the
tooth surface. A round diamond bur can be used
without water in a turbine or speed increasing
handpiece. The powdery white surface of the
instrumented cement can easily be distinguished
from the glossy appearance of instrumented
enamel. Occasionally etching tooth surface can
help to establish whether or not cement remains:
areas not appearing frosty are either dentine or
residual cement. It is important to remove the
resin-infiltrated layer in both enamel and dentine and hence facilitate bonding. Cement
removal must be carried out carefully or changes
in tooth shape or fit surface of the RBMR will
result in an increase in lute thickness. Inevitably,
repeated attempts at reattachment are increasingly likely to fail as the lute thickness rises.
RBMRs linked rigidly together to act as a
post-orthodontic retainer or periodontal splint,
carry the risk that one or more retainers may
debond leaving the restoration as a whole
attached without causing any initial symptoms.
If this happens caries can progress unchecked
beneath decemented elements with disastrous
results (Fig. 9). Adhesive splints need careful follow-up: patients must be instructed to seek
attention if they think a tooth has become
debonded. It is often necessary to remove the
whole restoration and attempt to re-bond it. A
sharp tap to a straight chisel whose blade is positioned at the lute space is often sufficient to dislodge the cemented portions of an adhesive
141
PRACTICE
splint. Occasionally it is possible to accept the
compromise of removing a decemented retainer
if this is at the end of the restoration. Linking
RBMR should be avoided wherever possible.
7.
8.
9.
CONCLUSIONS
RBMR rely for their attachment on chemically
active cements. The choice is between precious
metal and base metal alloys with various surface
treatments to enhance adhesion with the
cement. RBMR have the potential to be very
conservative of tooth tissue but are technique
sensitive. To date few clinical studies exist
examining their success.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
142
Nohl F S, King P A, Harley K E, Ibbetson R J. Retrospective

survey of resin-retained cast-metal veneers for the
treatment of anterior palatal tooth wear. Quintessence Int
1997; 28: 7-14.
Chana H, Kelleher M, Briggs P, Hooper R.J. Clinical evaluation
of resin-bonded gold alloy veneers. J Prosthet Dent 2000;
83: 294-300.
Foreman P C. Resin-bonded acid-etched onlays in two cases
of gross attrition. Rest Dent 1988; 15: 150-153.
Harley K E, Ibbetson R J. Dental Anomalies- Are adhesive
castings the solution? Br Dent J 1993; 174: 15-22.
Lyon H E. Resin-bonded etched-metal rest seats. J Prosthet
Dent 1985; 53: 366-368.
Thayer K E, Doukoudakis A. Acid-etch canine riser occlusal
treatment. J Prosthet Dent 1981; 46: 149-152.
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11.
12.
13.
14.
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16.
17.
Rochette A L. Attachment of a splint to enamel of lower

anterior teeth. J Prosthet Dent 1973; 30: 418-423.
Livaditis G J, Thompson V P, Etched castings: an improved
mechanism for resin bonded retainers. J Prosthet Dent 1982;
47: 52-58.
Dixon D L, Breeding L C, Hughie M L, Brown J S. Comparison
of shear bond strengths of two resin luting systems for a
base and a high noble metal alloy bonded to enamel.
J Prosthet Dent 1994; 72: 457-461.
Eder A, Wickens J. Surface treatment of gold alloys for resin
adhesion. Quintessence Int 1996; 27: 35-40.
Hansson O. The Silicoater technique for resin-bonded
prostheses: clinical and laboratory procedures. Quintessence
Int 1989; 20: 85-99.
Dahl B L, Krogstad O, Karlsen K. An alternative treatment in
cases with advanced localised attrition. J Oral Rehabil 1975:
2: 209-214.
Sorensen J A, Martinoff J T. Intracoronal reinforcement and
coronal coverage: a study of endodontically treated teeth.
J Prosthet Dent 1984; 51: 780-784.
Shillingburg H T, Hobo S, Whitsett L D, Brackett S E.
Fundamentals of fixed prosthodontics. 3rd ed. pp171-180.
Chicago: Quintessence, 1997.
Paul S J, Scharer P. Effect of provisional cements on the bond
strength of various adhesive systems on dentine. J Oral
Rehabilitation 1997; 24: 8-14.
Jung M, Gnass C, Senger S. Effect of eugenol-containing
temporary cements on bond strength of composite to
enamel. OperDent 1998; 23: 63-68.
Kelleher M G, Setchell D J. An investigation of marking
materials used in occlusal adjustment. Br Dent J 1984; 156:
96-102.

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What are resin-bonded metal restorations and what are they used for?

What are resin-bonded metal restorations and what are they used for?

What factors should be considered when selecting materials for crowns and other extra-coronal restorations?

What factors should be considered when selecting materials for crowns and other extra-coronal restorations?

PRACTICE

An introduction to the series on Crowns and other Extra-coronal Restorations

Crowns and other extra-coronal restorations:

CONTENT OF THE SERIES

1*Senior Lecturer in Restorative Dentistry, 2Senior Lecturer in Restorative

Familiarisation with the broad spectrum of contemporary materials allowing better-informed

Crowns and extra-coronal restorations:

CROWNS AND EXTRA-CORONAL

1. Changing patterns and

Department of Restorative Dentistry, The

An understanding of the materials available,

ALL METAL RESTORATIONS

BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 4 FEBRUARY 23 2002

Gold and palladium alloys

GOLD AND PALLADIUM

BASE METAL ALLOYS

lower kinetic energy during casting which in

Base metal alloys

Itasca, USA). A worrying trend, however, is for

BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 4 FEBRUARY 23 2002

Fig. 1 A bent cast post has resulted in failure (note the

It is important to note that many gold alloys

the casting ring to bench cool slowly to room

ALL CERAMIC RESTORATIONS

TITANIUM KEY POINTS:

CAST POST AND CORES

We will first consider some of the materials

Methods of making indirect porcelain

Fig. 2 In-Ceram glass infused alumina cores prior to

In-Ceram Spinnel is a similar type of material

Cast glass ceramics

Choice of ceramic system

Machined densely sintered ceramics

Fracture toughness and fatigue are also

How much tooth reduction is needed?

Fig. 4 A die is scanned for a Procera AllCeram coping

nous PJC; that is a 1 mm shoulder and 1.5 to

Do all ceramic restorations fit well?

the restorations were cemented with conventional cements.

Will the system be aesthetic?

Some of the alloys already considered under

Metal composite copings

Fig. 5 A Captek coping for a ceramo-metal restoration

our experience with the material shows that it

BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 4 FEBRUARY 23 2002

OBrien W. Evolution of dental casting. In: Valega T, editor.

toughness of Dicor glass-ceramic after embedment

crowns. Biomater 1996; 17: 1891-1895.

List of products mentioned in the text

Innotek Dental Corp., Lakewood, USA

BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 192 NO. 4 FEBRUARY 23 2002

A long-term view of crown provision is essential (ten years or more)

Crowns and extra-coronal restorations:

CROWNS AND EXTRA-CORONAL

1. Changing patterns and