Chapter 1

Earth as a living planet

The solar system in which we are located is living and ever

evolving. Live in time periods of billions of years and distances of
light years. Sun which gives us magnetic force, radio magnetic
spectrum is living and ever evolving. Live in time periods of
billions of years and distances of billions of kilometers.

The earth‟s crust, mantle, outer core and core is living and ever
evolving. Live in time periods of billions of years and distances of
thousands of kilometers. The surfaces of the earth breathe, shake
and live in time periods of billions of years and distances of
thousands of kilometres.

1
 Table 1.1 Living pulses of the earth – EARTHQUAKES and VOLCANIC ERUPTION releasing pressure of the earth‟s
interior

Types of breathes Energy release Time period Result

and shakes
Earth tremor/ 1 Hiroshima 1 – 5 Seconds with 1 Shake
Volcanic tremor bomb after shock
Earthquakes below 2 to 3 3 –7 Seconds with 1 Shake and break
4.5Richter scale/ Hiroshima to 2 after shocks
volcanic gas burst
bombs
Earthquakes 4.5 to 2 to 4 3 – 10 Seconds with Shake and break – temporary buildings,
5.4 Hiroshima 1 to 2 after shocks vehicles speeding over 100km/hr can be
Richter scale/ bombs thrown out of the road
volcanic
pyroclastic flow
Earthquakes 5.5 to 20 Hiroshima 3 –15 Seconds with 2 Shake and break – temporary buildings,
6.4 bombs to 3 after shocks some weak well constructed buildings,
Richter scale/ low vehicles speeding over 60 km/hr can be
level volcanic thrown out of the road, mud slides and
explosions landslides can be generated

2
Earthquakes 6.5 to 200 Hiroshima 5 – 20 Seconds with Shake and break – temporary weak and
7.4 bombs 3 to 4 after shocks even some well constructed buildings,
Richter scale/ vehicles speeding over 40 km/hr can be
moderate level thrown out of the road, mud flow, and
volcanic explosions landslides and small Tsunami can be
generated
Earthquakes 7.5 to 2000 10 – 20 Seconds with Shake and break – all buildings without
8.4 Hiroshima 4 to 5 after shocks earthquake proofing, vehicles parked can be
Richter scale/ high bombs thrown out of the road – mud flow,
level volcanic landslides and Tsunami can be generated
explosions
Earthquakes 8.5 to 10,000 20 – 30 Seconds with Shake and break – all buildings without
9.4 Hiroshima 5 to 6 after shocks earthquake proofing and even some
Richter scale/ bombs earthquake proofed heavy buildings,
disastrous vehicles parked can be thrown out of the
volcanicexplosions road, mud flow, landslides and Tsunami
generated

* 1 Hiroshima bomb (atomic) is equal to about 500,000 claymore mines.

3
 Table 1.2 Living pulses of the earth - LANDSLIDES - moving masses of soil and rock

Types of Time Velocity Material involved Result

breathes period
and
shakes
Landslide Seconds 60 to 150 Soil, rock, gravel, mud, Destruction of any
to few km/hr vegetation and water human construction on
minutes its path
Mud Few to 90 to 300 Mostly mud and sand and few Destruction of any
slide many km/hr rocks and vegetation human construction on
seconds its path
Gravel Few to 30 to 70 Mostly gravel, rocks and Destruction of any
slide many km/hr vegetation human construction on
seconds its path
Rock fall Few to 150 to 400 Mostly large blocks of rocks and Destruction of any
many km/hr some soil human construction on
seconds its path

4
Creep Few 2 to 5 cms/hr Mostly large blocks of soil Destruction of any
minutes to and regolith. Sometimes human construction on
many rock and boulders are its path
days and embedded in it.
some
times
many
years
Flow Few 30 to 60 Mostly small quantities Burial of any human
seconds to km/hr mud, sand and gravel construction on its
minutes path

5
Table 1.3 Living pulses of the earth - STREAMS (smaller than 5 meter of channel width) and RIVERS (5 meter or
bigger than 5 meter channel width)

Types of Time period Velocity Material involved Result

breathes and
shakes
Low flow Vary on 3 to 6 km/hr Water, mud and sand Gentle flow -
rainfall enjoyable
Medium flow High rainfall 5 to 10 km/hr Water, mud sand and Moderate flow – be
vegetation careful
High flow Very high 20 to 30 Water, mud sand, gravel High flow – be very
rainfall km/hr vegetation and careful
settlement debris
Flood flow Extremely 30 to 50 Water, mud sand, gravel Flood – be
high rainfall km/hr vegetation and extremely careful
settlement debris
Catastrophic Extremely 30 to 70 Water, mud sand, gravel Raging Flood – stay
flood high rainfall km/hr vegetation and away from the
settlement debris stream or river

6
Table 1.4 Living pulses of the earth - WIND

7
Types of breathes Time period Velocity Material involved Result
and shakes
Gentle wind 80 to 90 2 to 5 Dust and light objects (paper and Enjoyable
percent of km/hr polythene bags)
the time
Moderate wind 8 to 20 4 to 7 Dust, fine sand and light objects (leaves, Manageable but
percent of km/hr paper, paper bags, polythene bags and discomfort to women as
the time heavy plastic bags and bottles) long dresses and hair
shaking, cycling becomes
difficult, kites can fly
Strong winds 1 to 2 8 to 15 Dust, fine sand, coarse sand, light objects Difficult to manage
percent of km/hr leaves, paper, paper bags, polythene bags discomfort to women as
the time and heavy plastic bags and bottles, twigs long dresses and hair
and dry branches. Dust rises above the shaking, cycling becomes
head. very difficult, kites can fly
high, felt by motor
vehicles. Difficult to carry
umbrellas.
Light Gale force Less than 15 to 30 Dust, fine sand, coarse sand, light objects Very difficult to manage
winds 0.3 percent km/hr leaves, paper, paper bags, polythene bags serious discomfort to
of the time and heavy plastic bags and bottles, twigs women as long dresses and
and dry branches. Dust rises above the hair shaking, cycling
head. Weak branches break. Some becomes extremely
temporary housing and bird‟s nests will difficult, kites will tumble,
break. felt strongly by motor
vehicles. Cannot carry
umbrellas.
Strong gale force Less than 30 to 60 Objects leaves, paper, paper bags, Dangerous to be outside.
winds 0.1 percent km/hr polythene bags and heavy plastic bags Low visibility and limited
of the time and bottles, twigs and dry branches. Dust flying
rises above the head. Weak branches
break. New branches break, weak trees
fall, weak roofing fly. All temporary
housing and bird‟s nests will break.
8
Children under 10 kilos will fall. Cats and
dogs will have difficulty in staying
upright. All animals will go into hiding
Cyclonic/Hurricane/ Less than Over 60 All objects not built from reinforced All humans and animals
Typhoon/Tornado 0.01 percent and up concrete or steel is subjected to damage can die. Low visibility and
/Khamsin type of the time to 300 or destruction. All human and animal life No flying
winds km/hr is in danger.
Table 1. 5 Living pulses of the earth – CLOUDS

9
Type of Time period Velocity Size , location in the sky, Material Result
formation involved
Cirrus 1 percent 5 to 10 Small – above 1000 m, Ice particles Dry weather
km/hr
Stratus - 2 percent 10 to 15 Small above 1000 m, Ice particles and Dry weather and
cirro km/hr some water droplets sometimes dew
Stratus - 3 percent 10 to 20 Moderate to big, above 1000 m, Ice Dry weather and
cumulo km/hr particles and some water droplets sometimes dew
Stratus 20 to 25 percent 6 to 20 Moderate to big, form over oceans Wet weather and some
km/hr above 1000m , drift to land, Water times long duration gentle
droplets rain
Strato - 8 percent 10 to 30 Moderate to big, form over oceans Wet weather and gentle to
Nimbus km/hr above 1000m drift to land, Water moderate rain
droplets
Strato – 4 percent 10 to 30 Moderate to very big, form over warm Wet weather and gentle to
Nimbus – km/hr oceans above 1000m and drift towards strong rain of long
depressional land, large from 200 square kilometres duration
clouds to 3000 square kilometres, Water
droplets
Cumulus 50 to 60 percent 5 to 30 Moderate to big Water droplets, form Wet weather and some
km/hr at 3000 to 10000 meters above ground times long duration rain
and drift down to about 1000 meters
Cumulo- 11 percent 10 to 40 Big to very big, form at 3000 to 10000 Rain to short duration
Nimbus km/hr meters above ground and drift down to heavy rain with lightning
about 1000 meters, Water droplets
Double Cell 0.2 percent 20 to 60 10 droplets form at
Big to very big, Water Rain and high intensity
Cumulo- km/hr 3000 to 10000 meters above ground rain. Low visibility and
Nimbus and drift down to about 1000 meters No flying
Multiple 0.01 percent 40 to 300 Big to very big, form at 5000 to 10000 High intensity rain and
Cell km/hr meters above ground and drift down to winds Cyclonic and
cumulus about 1000meters, Water droplets Tornado. Low visibility
and No flying
Table 1.6 Living pulses of the earth – RAINFALL/ SNOW FALL / ICE FALL

Types of Time period Velocity Size , Material involved Result

breathes
and
shakes
Slight 10 to 20 minutes 0.2 to 0.3 meters 0.005 mm to 0.001 mm, Water droplets snow and
rain/ per second water droplets, snow flakes ice flakes these can make
Snow and ice flakes the ground slippery.
drops
Moderate 10 to 30 minutes 0.4 to 0.6 0.003 mm to 0.01mm, Water droplets and large
rain/ meters per second water droplets, snow flakes snow and ice flakes these
Snow fall can make the flow and
ground slippery
Heavy 10 to 45 minutes 0.4 to 0.8 0.01 mm to 0.5 mm, water Water droplets and snow
rain / meters per second droplets, snow flakes flakes.
Snow fall
Torrential 20 to 45 minutes 0.4 to 1.0 0.01 mm to 0.5 mm, water Water droplets and snow
rain/ meters per second droplets, snow flakes flakes. Low visibility and
Snow No flying
Storm
(Blizard)

11
Table 1.7 Living pulses of the earth – DUST STORM

Types of Time period Velocity Size , Material involved Result

breathes and
shakes
Dust devil 1 to 10 minutes 20 to 30 km/hr Small (1 meter square) to Flying dust at high speed.
large (5 meter square) Health hazard and traffic
hazard
Dust storm 20 minutes to 3 10 to 30 km/hr 20 square kilometres to Slowly drifting dust for
days 2000 square kilometers long periods of time.
Health hazard and traffic
hazard. Low visibility
and No flying
Sand strom 10 minutes to 45 15 to 150 km/hr 5 square kilometres to High speed dust flow
minutes 2000 square kilometres with very low visibility
Serious health hazard and
traffic hazard. Low
visibility and No flying.

12
Table 1.8 Living pulses of the earth – Glaciers (ice rivers)

Types Time Velocity Size , Result

of period Material
breathes involved
and
shakes
Glacier Geological Few centimetres Ice, snow, Maintenance of rivers, lakes and supply of
climatic per year rock debris, cool water to the ocean. The rapid melting of
change soil ice sheets are causing flooding and drop of
ocean temperature, which can result in dry
climates globally.

Table 1.9 Living pulses of the earth – Sea and Ocean Waves

Types of Time Velocity Size , Material involved Result

breathes period
and
shakes
Gentle 99.8 4 to 6 km/hr 10 to 50 square meters – water and Gentle sea and
waves percent light organic debris enjoyable beach
of the
time
High 0.18 10 to 15 km/hr 100 to 200 square meters –water Rough sea and
13
 percent and light to heavy organic and dangerous to be in the
of the inorganic debris – can shake a beach
time canoe violently
Streaming 0.02 Above 20 km/ hr 500 to 1000 square meters –water Dangerous to be at the
percent and heavy organic and inorganic beach, can drag a
of the debris can throw a mechanised human being on the
time boat splash and take out to
sea.

14
Types Time period Velocity Size , Material involved Result
of
breathes
and
shakes
Tides Diurnal and 1cm/ minute Millions of cubic kilometres, sea Coastal areas are washed
Seasonal water, plankton and fish and cleaned
Surface Seasonal 5cm/ minute Millions of cubic kilometres, sea Coastal areas are made
currents water, plankton and fish more wet or dry
Deep Continuous 1 cm /day Billions of cubic kilometres, sea Earth‟s air conditioner,
sea water and chemical deposits cool the tropics and warm
current the temperate areas

Table 1.10 Living pulses of the earth – OCEANIC CIRCULATION AND DEEP SEA CURRENT

15
The above tables show that earth is always at work with its
pulses of quakes, slides, flows, storms and oceanic flows.
This is why we say that earth is a living planet. These
activities make the earth suitable for the growth of plants,
breeding of animals including man.

The present global environment is a result of a 6 billion year

living and evolution of the lithosphere (minerals and rocks),
atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), and biosphere (plants
and animals including man). Since the advent of fire and
wheel, man has separated himself from the other animals and
lives in a cocoon of technosphere (constructive knowledge).
Living in a technosphere has resulted in the increase of the
complexity of natural ecosystem and need for the use of
environmental management in our daily lives.

16
Chapter 2

Ecosystem

The definition of ecosystem has to change from one type of

study to another, as the relationship between man and his
ecosystem is studied for various reasons. The best suitable
for the purpose of this study is

“ The ecosystem is an interdependent and dynamic system of

living organisms with their physical and geographical
environment”.
The aim of environmental management is to first understand
the interdependency of the ecosystem and then study how
well society can utilise and manage the physical and
geographical environment to reap optimum benefits.

Ecosystems form from the interactions of abiotic, biotic, and

cultural (anthropogenic) components. They are a set of
interacting, interrelated parts that form a unitary whole. All
ecosystems are "open" systems and energy and matter are
transferred in and out constantly. The Earth as a single
ecosystem converts solar energy into many types of organic
products and increase the biological complexity over time
since its formation.

Natural ecosystems are made up of abiotic factors (air,

water, rocks, energy) and biotic factors (plants, animals, and
micro-organisms). The Earth‟s biosphere, including the
atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), and litosphere (land),
constitutes a feedback of a cybernatic system that reflects
what Rene Dubos referred to as "a co-evolutionary process"
between living things and their physical and chemical
environments.

The Earth Ecosystem is made up of many smaller

ecosystems interlocked through cycles of energy and
chemical elements. The flow of energy and matter through
ecosystems, therefore, is regulated by the complex
interactions of the energy, water, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,

17
 phosphorus, sulfur, and other cycles that are essential to the
functioning of the biosphere.
Components of the Ecosystem

Lithosphere

Figure 2.1 Structure of the earth

18
 Basic structure is composed of a crust, mantle and a core.

Table 2.1 Detailed information on the basic structure 1

Unit Structure Process Result

Crust The layer at the surface and it is The theory of Plate Tectonics Earthquakes and
made out of two major types of provides the best explanation volcanic eruptions
rocks. Silica alumina (sial) and for processes in the crust. are the two most
silica magnesia (sima) are these two The crust is divided in to five violent activities
types. Silica alumina rocks are light major and about 29 minor produced by the
coloured and low density rocks ( blocks and move in three processes of the
granite, granulites,gneiss, schist, ways. earth crust.
crystalline limestones, sandstone, 1. towards each other-
shale and limestone). Silica collision system Landslides, creep
magnesia rocks are dark coloured 2. away from each other and subsidence can
and high density varieties like – tension and break also occur on the
basalt, obsidian and migmatite. 3. past each other – crust as a result of
sliding past each other and crustal processes.
The rock outcrops in Rajarata crushes both
University of Sri Lanka, campus are
mainly of granulite type and in
some places there are gneisses.

19
 Table 2.2 Detailed information on the mantle of the earth

Unit Structure Process Result

Mantle Mantle is formed of The convection currents Earthquakes and volcanic

magnesia rocks and semi- transfer the heat of the core eruptions are the two most
liquid type of material. to the mantle and mantle violent activities produced
Mantle is about 1500 slow down the force and by the processes of the
degrees Centigrade hot with transfer the remaining mantle coming to surface
hot lava convection pressure to the crust. These through the crustal plates.
currents. currents supply force to
volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes.

Table 2.3 Detailed information on the core of the earth

Unit Structure Process Result

Core Core of the earth is in The outer core is fluid and Earthquakes and volcanic
two parts. act as a filed coil in a eruptions at the surface of the
dynamo. It produces the earth are the two most violent
1. outer core – magnetic field which resist activities produced by the
fluid micro waves at the outer processes of the core.
surface of the atmosphere
and prevent them entering
2. inner core – the lower atmosphere. Outer
solid and iron core shoots lava flumes
20
compunds which travel slowly through
the mantle and enter crust
(Fe and Ni) and result in volcanic
eruptions and sometimes
form earthquakes.

Inner core is soild and act as

the bar of a dynamo and help
the outer core to produce
gravitational stability and
resist entry of micro waves
from the sun into
atmosphere.

21
Table 2.4 Structure of matter, processes present and connectivity to the system in the lithosphere.

Type Matter Structure Process System factor

Minerals Chemical solids, Platy, Columner, Interactive, Basic units of
liquids and gas Cubic, Mixing, Isolation, mineral
Hexagonal, Interdependent particles
Octagonal,
Complex
Rock Chemical solids Massive, banded, Igneous, Plates and
crystallised metamorphic, Continents,
sedimentary Material
storage
Regolith Chemical solids and Platy, Columner, Weathering Conversion
liquids Cubic of material
begins
Soil Chemical solids and Platy, Columner, Leaching, Conversion
liquids Cubic mottling, to basic
salination, mineral
laterisation particles.
Sand, silt and
clay.

22
Table 2.5 Economic value of minerals, rock, regolith and soil (approximate annual production and value)
Type Products Economic Employment Economic Employment
value –world in millions - value –Sri – Sri Lanka
US $ billions world Lanka
Rupees
billion
Minerals All iron and 1000 8.6 9.3 125,000
steel industrial
goods and many
other
Rock For road, 650 3.5 12.0 50,000
concrete and
filling
Regolith For filling 1240 11.7 43.0 80,000
Soil For filling and 467 1.2 21.0 45,000
cropping

23
Following is a list of major, minerals, rock, regolith and
soil type resources obtained from the lithosphere.

Aluminum
Antimony
Arsenic
Asbestos
Barite
Bauxite and Alumina
Beryllium
Bismuth
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Cement
Chromium
Clays
Coal Combustion Products
Cobalt
Construction Sand and Gravel
Columbium (Niobium) and Tantalum
Copper
Crushed Stone
Diamond (Industrial)
Diatomite
Dimension Stone
Explosives
Feldspar and Nepheline Syenite
Ferroalloys
Fluorspar
Gallium
Garnet
Gemstones
Germanium
Gold
Graphite
Gypsum
Helium
Indium
Industrial Diamond
Iodine

24
 Iron and Steel
Iron and Steel Scrap
Iron and Steel Slag
Iron Ore
Iron Oxide Pigments
Kyanite
Lead
Lime
Lithium
Magnesium
Magnesium Compounds
Manganese
Manufactured Abrasives
Mercury
Mica
Molybdenum
Nickel
Niobium (See Columbium (Niobium) and Tantalum)
Nitrogen
Peat
Perlite
Phosphate Rock
Platinum-Group Metals
Potash
Pumice and Pumicite
Quartz Crystal (See Silica)
Rare Earths
Recycling-Metals
Rhenium
Salt
Sand and Gravel
o Construction Sand and Gravel
o Industrial Sand and Gravel (See Silica)
Selenium and Tellurium
Silica
Silicon
Silver
Soda Ash
Stone, Crushed
Stone, Dimension
Strontium
Sulfur
Talc

25
Thorium
Tin
Titanium
Tripoli and Special Silica (See Silica)
Tungsten
Vanadium
Vermiculite
Wollastonite
Zeolites
Zinc
Zirconium and Hafnium

It is very clear that the present industrial development and

good life of the present world is not possible without
lithospheric resources. It is estimated that the value of
rocks and minerals, which can be produced in Sri Lanka
exceeds about 100 to 200 billion rupees, but poor industrial
management and financial corruption reduces the income
to the nation to about 15 to 20 billion rupees.

Just imagine Mihinthale without Granulite and Gneiss rock

outcrop. The Mihinthale temple will not be there as
Venerable Mahinda Thera will not select this are if there
was no rock, because there will be no rock caves and
springs. If there were no granulites and gneisses, people of
the Ancient civilisation would not have had the opportunity
to construct most of the wonderful and amazing structures
we see today, because all other types of rocks are either too
hard or too soft for their needs. Maligawila Buddha statue,
Dowa Buddha statue and many other large Buddha statues
were damaged because there was an error in the selection
of rock. These errors led to decay of weak minerals and the
statues are either broken or highly disfigured. Awukana
statue is a statue with great power and beauty, because it
was carved into a hypersthene granite, which is considered
to be the best carving granite in the world. Polonnaruwa
Galvihara statues look live and moving because they are
constructed with some banded gneiss intrusions, which
give them a shad and light effect. Rock outcrops in the
Rajarata University main campus are of very high quality
and look scattered. This is because the original large
outcrops were used for the construction of many items in
the Mihinthale temple complex, and what we see today are

26
the remnants of the original wide and high ridges. The
waste blocks which were removed during the cutting of
stone pillars and slabs can be seen at the foot of the present
ridges.

Regolith (mixture of soil and half weathered regolith)

Regolith is the place where almost all the minerals are

found. For example the three major minerals in Sri Lanka :
Gems, Graphite and Phosphate are found in the regolith.
Iron ore, coal, bauxite (mineral to produce aluminium)
lead, nickel, chromium (the three minerals used for
plating), gold, silver and many other valuable minerals,
which support the modern civilisation is deposited in the
regolith or rock/regolith boundary.

Soil

Regolith
Boulders
Rock

Iron ore – forms near rock debris

Bauxite – forms near deep regolith

Coal – deposits near the surface

Gems – deposit at or near the surface

where basin shape is present

27
Rock

Rock is an aggregate of minerals. Minerals are bonded by a

mechanical clip and pasted with a chemical bond. Most
common minerals in rocks of the surface of the earth are
quartz (thiruwana), feldspar, calcite, biotite (kalu thalathu
miniran), muscovite (kaha thalathu miniran), amphibole,
pyroxene, and olivine.

Granite is mostly made of quartz, feldspar, calcite and

pyroxene.
Gneiss is mostly made of quartz, feldspar, calcite and
biotite or muscovite.
Granulite is mostly made of quartz, feldspar, calcite and
muscovite.
Migamtie is mostly made of quartz, feldspar, calcite,
pyroxene and biotite.

Rocks have the strength to hold pressure and connected by

chemical bonds. Therefore it can be used to construct
buildings by mixing it with cement, tar (bitumen) and clay.
Some rocks like Granite can be sliced to make sheets and
chips.

Rock weathering is the first transformation of the

ecosystem, which leads to form soil on which plants can
grow and provide food for animals. Man in turn will use
soil to plant crops for his food and industrial requirements.
In addition man will use all the edible vegetable and animal
products for his food.

Rocks weather due to pressure from temperature (cooling

and heating), dissolving of chemicals by rain water and
other sources of water (ground water, waste water), and the
chemical compounds produced by mixing of dissolved
chemicals formed inside the rock.

These weathered rock and dissolved chemicals provide

food to plant roots. This system of chemical transfer is
conducted by many biogeochemeical cycles in the earth
ecosystem. These cycles are also affected by human
activities of use of fossil fuels and livelihood activities.

28
Carbon cycle
Sulphur cycle
Oxygen cycle
Nitrogen cycle
Phosphorous cycle

Ref 01/

GEOLOGY OF SRI LANKA

This presentation relies heavily on Cooray (1967), to which

I am heavily indebted, He made me a hiker, rambler and
mountain climber and finally a geomorphologist, through
going to see most of the places mentioned as type areas in
the book, The Geology of Ceylon. Additional information
is taken from various sources given in the references and
my own fieldwork. I am grateful to Professors K.
Kularatnam and B.W. Vithanage for their guidance in
composing this document, as they were the people who
directed me first in 1968 to give lectures on this topic.

In terms of the rock types and geological structure, Sri

Lanka is like an old man with a good fitness, because it is
composed of rocks older than 500 to 650 million years, but
the surface area lack large-scale faults, which can initiate
powerful earthquakes or instability. However, the recent
activities in the Indian Ocean Plate indicate that the
geological structure of Sri Lanka will be shaken heavily
and some old parts may break of fracture more. Examples
can be taken from the occurrence of earthquakes from 1996
to 2005 December, which shook the backbone of Sri Lanka
as the seismic waves from the 9.2 Richter scale earthquake
travelled around the globe 3 times.

Nine-tenths of the island is made up of crystalline rocks of

the Palaeozoic and Pre-Cambrian era. These rocks consist
mainly of gneisses, granites and charnokites. These
formations are strewn with quartzites and schists.
However, the majority of these formations is known locally
as „kalu gal‟ and is easily forgotten of their interesting

29
structural features. (Details are given in the Tables 2.6.1 to
2.8.5 and Geology is given in Figure 1)

30
 Table 2.6.1 Highland series – 1600 to about 600 million years ago (Figures 1 and 2)

Group Description Locations to observe Structure

Khondalite Metamorphosed The hill country is mostly built up with Folds of varying
sediments – clays or these rocks. dimensions are
shales. Composed of Gneisses form the basis of most of the present. The
alumina rich minerals mountain ranges and blocks (the districts structural
such as sillimanite and of Matale, Kandy, Nuwaraeliya and features of
garnet. Some of these Badulla). larger folds are
rocks contain biotite Khondalites are the rocks with alternate in consistent
mica quartz and bands of light and dark color layers by with magnitude,
feldspar. Crystalline the side of the road if you travel in the strike and dip of
limestones and hill country. They have marks of red the Taprobanian
graphitiferous gneiss is color dots (garnet) or clumps of pink fold system.
also included in this squares (feldspar), shinning specs of Individual rock
group. platy mica and bands of white rocks strata or
(calcite or quartz). formations have
small to micro

31
 fold patterns of
various origin.

Table 2.6.2 Highland series – 1600 to about 600 million years ago (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to observe Structure

Charnockite Meatmorphosed sediments, basic and The major escarpments Structurally similar to
s volcanic rocks or both. These are the of the southern great khondalites, but micro
dark colored fine grained rocks with a wall from Haputale to features of folding are
greenish or dirty blue coloration. This Kunudiyaparvata and rare.
is a result of the quartz and feldspar the Bulutota massif are
minerals turning into green or blue in the best examples of
this group of rocks. this type of rock
Three major sub types formations. The
a) Acid type – quartz, feldspar and Kataragama complex is
small amounts of pyroxene also mostly built up of
b) Intermediate type – all the minerals charnokites.
of the acid group and some mica and
hornblende.

32
 c) Basic – mainly of plagioclase,
pyroxene, and some hornblende.

The common factor mineral is

hypersthene a magnesium iron calcium

silicate. The origin of these rocks are a

highly debatable issue, but the recent
research indicate that they are of more
of a metamorphic origin than direct
igneous as earlier suggested.

Table 2.6.2 Highland series – 1600 to about 600 million years ago (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to observe Structure

Kaduganna The rocks of this group appear as massive, Kadugannawa pass, Rock structure has
wa gneiss schistose or banded. These rocks are mainly Dolosbage area many attractive
composed of hornblende, plagioclase, Akurana- banding and lack
feldspar, mica. Alawathugoda and definite folding
Galagedara area. patterns.

33
 Table 2.7.1 VIJAYAN SERIES – A group of polymetamorphic rocks, which were associated with heavy
granitic activity. 1200 to 500 MILLION YEARS AGO (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to observe Structure

Bintenna A well banded rock with quartz and feldspar in From Kalkudah in the north
gneisses the lighter bands and hornblende and biotite in the to Hambantota in the south Away from the
(in the south darker bands. Sometimes these are bordered by or and bounded by the southern highland
eastern mixed with some granitic material. and eastern hill country in series, the
lowlands) Foliation is evident clearly with irregular, folded the west. folds become
or contorted patterns. At the boundary with the highly
highland series the rocks are a mixture of irregular and
charnockites, granitic and migmatic gneisses. turn
sometimes E-
W. There are
some domed
structures and
many
fractures,
though large
scale faults are
rare.

Table 2.7.2 VIJAYAN SERIES – A group of polymetamorphic rocks, which were associated with heavy granitic
activity. 1200 to 500 MILLION YEARS AGO (Map 1)
34
 Group Description Locations to observe Structure
Wanni Gneiss Variety of pinkish to Thonigala area is the Mostly follow the
reddish gneisses best area to observe trend lines of the
dominate this region this rock type, which highland series
from Madhu area in the contain a group of and heavily
north to Panadura- gneisses, granites jointed. Some
Horana in the south. and pegmatites. times the fractures
and shear zones
turn the rock
formation into a
shattered
appearance.

DENUDATION PHASE BETWEEN350 TO 180 MILLION YEARS AGO – the Island was under heavy denudation
and finally submerged under an inland sea. Between 190 and 140 million years ago the sediments of Andigama and
Thabbowa deposits were laid down in a trough of this inland sea.

Table 2.8.1 JURASSIC – 180 MILLION YEARS AGO (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to Structure

observe
Tabbowa and The only truly sedimentary rocks of Sri Lanka. Tabbowa and Laid down in fault
Andigama beds A part of the regional GONDWANA SYTEM. Andigama. basins. The
These beds consist mainly of feldspathic sedimentary history
sandstones (arkose), siltstones and mudstones. reveals that, sands
Deposited in fault basins in the Vijayan series. and clays were
deposited in a deltaic
environment during a
semi-arid phase.

35
Table 2.8.2 MIOCENE LIMESTONES – 25 MILLION YEARS AGO (Map 1)

Group Description Locations Structure

to observe
Miocene (Tertiary) Flat bedded limestone which dips Jaffna Laid down in a west dipping sea
gently to the west. peninsular has formed the present trend and
to Puttlam dip of the beds. The rock is hard,
along the partly crystalline, compact, not
west coast clearly bedded and creamy in
. colour.

Table 2.8.3 MINHAGALKANDA BEDS - BETWEEN 25 AND 15 MILLION YEARS AGO (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to Structure

observe
Lower Miocene Beds with ferruginous grit and Minihalgalkanda. Extend about a quarter of
(Tertiary) sandstones at the base and sandy About 40 a mile inland and dip
and clayey sandstone at the top. kilometers east of steeply towards the recent
The formation suggests that the Hambantotta. deposits.
deposits were laid down closer to
36
 a shoreline

Table 2.8.4 QUARTERNARY SYSTEM - FROM 2 MILLION YEARS TO TODAY- Ratnapura Beds (Map
1)
QUARTERNARY SYSTEM - FROM 2 MILLION YEARS TO TODAY (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to observe Mineral resources Structure

and biotic
environment
Ratnap River and between Kuruwita and Gem bearing Top to bottom
ura lake deposits Balangoda in the area deposits. A Gravel – boralla – transported
beds laid down on generally known as valuable mineral nodular ironstones
Older the strike Denawaka valley. resource. Coloured clay – navan nila matta
group valleys. – river silt or lake clay
Leaf bed – Kola matta – lake
deposit
Plant remains with bituminous
clay – dali pas – lake or swamp
deposits
Grit – vali katuwa – coarse river
sand
Blue clay – nil matta – lake
deposit
37
 Fine white sand – seni veli – fine
river sand
Pebble bed – bola gal – river
deposit, possibly re-sorted terrace
gravel
Green sand with fossils – nil valla
– river sand
Grey gem bearing sand with
pebbles, boulders and fossils –
illama – river deposit

38
 QUARTERNARY SYSTEM - FROM 2 MILLION YEARS TO TODAY (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to Mineral resources and biotic Structure

observe environment
Coastal Basal ferruginous In a broad belt Mostly covered with shrubs in the Loose
regions gravel from Negombo to north and forests in the south. The gravel
Older A mixture of coarse Mannar and climatic factor is more important, but
sand , fragments of beyond the effect of gravel is seen on the
chert and pellets of density of vegetation.
ironstones. Some times
partly cemented.
Red earth From Maha oya Forms a number of low elongated Compact
Composed mainly of to Puttalam and ridges or domes and heavily cleared deposits
small rounded quartz beyond. for coconut plantations in the
grains in earthy southern sector.
material composed of
clay and iron oxides.
Essentially a clayey
sand or loam.
Terrace gravels Around Chilaw Extracted heavily for construction Compact to
A coarse quartz gravel and Battuluoya loose
39
areas
Kelani ganga
gravels

40
 Table 2.8.5 QUARTERNARY SYSTEM - FROM 2 MILLION YEARS TO TODAY-
Coastal regions – Younger (Map 1)

Group Description Locations to observe Structure

Coastal regions Littoral Near Colombo, Beruwala, Matara, Kalmunai, Sandy and pebbly -
Younger sandstones Batticaloa, Tirkkovil some examples can be seen Indicate the
Discontinuous changing levels of
reefs sea
Unconsolidated Sand dunes – Chilaw to Kalpitiya/Point Pedro to Sandy and pebbly
sands Elephant pass and highly mixed
Beach sands with human debris
Sand dunes -Indicate climatic
change and wind
directions
Lagoonal Muthurajawela Sandy clay and
deposits Deposits peaty/ mixed with
Shrub and tree group human debris -
Reed and segde group Indicate Climatic
Humus peat group change
Lowlands Alluvium All the river beds Sandy clay mixed
with gravel
inplaces- mixed
with human debris
-Climatic change
Coral reefs Colombo, Mt. Lavinia, Hikkaduwa, between Partially damaged –
Ambalangoda and Matara indicate climate
41
 change and rising
sea temperatures/
Climatic change
Lowlands and hills Laterite A highly weathered clayey, rock material rich in Hard pan, loose
secondary iron or aluminum oxides but poor in silica, gravel and
and either massive or vesicular (full of cavities) in clustered/ indicate
structure. West coast climatic change
Nodular Dry zone Loose gravel and
ironstones indicate climatic
change
Lowlands Mixture of River beds, reservoirs, wet lands and urban fringe Sand, gravel, silt,
human made clay, plastics,
waste and industrial
complex range chemeicals and
of sediments farm chemicals

42
Atmosphere

The Earth is surrounded by an envelope of air, which we

call the atmosphere. It extends to about 560 kilometers
(348 miles) in to space from the surface of the Earth. Its
existence is a result of our planet's magnetic field, which
keeps the atmosphere from scattering out into space. The
atmosphere absorbs energy from the Sun, recycles water
and other chemicals, and works with the electrical and
magnetic forces to provide a moderate climate to the
surface of the earth. The atmosphere also protects us from
high-energy radiation and the cold vacuum of space.

Troposphere

The troposphere begins from Earth's surface and extends 8

to 14.5 kilometers high (5 to 9 miles). As we climb into
troposphere the temperature drops from about 17 degrees
Celsius at the bottom to about -52 degrees Celsius at the
top. All our weather is formed and activated in this region.

Ist transitional layer

Tropopause separates the troposphere from the next layer.

Lower part of this is more like the troposphere and the
upper part is like stratosphere. This is about 5 km deep.

The Tropopause and the troposphere are known as the

lower atmosphere.

Stratosphere

The stratosphere starts just above the troposphere and

extends to 50 kilometers (31 miles) high. Compared to the
troposphere, this part of the atmosphere is dry and less
dense. The temperature in this region increases gradually to
-3 degrees Celsius, due to the absorbtion of Ultra violet
radiation. Ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters the solar
ultraviolet radiation, is in this layer. Ninety-nine percent of
"air" is located in the troposphere and stratosphere.
43
Stratopause

The second transitional layer, stratopause separates the

stratosphere from mesosphere.

Mesosphere

The mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere and

extends to 85 kilometers (53 miles) high. In this region, the
temperatures again fall as low as -93 degrees Celsius as
you increase in altitude. The chemicals are in an excited
state, as they absorb energy from the Sun.

Mesopause - The mesopause separates the mesophere from

the thermosphere.

Thermosphere

The thermosphere starts at the upper end of mesopause and

extends to 600 kilometers (372 miles) high. The
temperatures go up as you increase in altitude due to the
Sun's energy. Temperatures in this region can go as high as
1,727 degrees Celsius.

Composition of the atmosphere

The atmosphere is primarily composed of Nitrogen (N 2,

78%), Oxygen (O2, 21%), and Argon (Ar, 1%). A myriad
of other very influential components are also present which
include the water (H2O, 0 - 7%), "greenhouse" gases or
Ozone (0 - 0.01%), Carbon Dioxide (CO2, 0.01-0.1%).

Atmosphere in action

Convection – transfer of heat / any other energy through air

and gases in currents
Conduction – transfer of heat / any other energy in solids
like earth
Absorption – soaking of heat/ any other energy into air, gas
and solids
Scattering – dispersion of light, heat and radiation

44
Reflection – resend light, heat and radiation as it bounces
off the object

This balance makes the earth to be heated correctly and

keep warm enough for the survival of the biosphere. Even
the slightest increase of heat will lead to changes in rainfall
activity and disease scenario. The increase is mainly due to
accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which
will block long wave radiation which take out the heat of
the atmosphere back to space. Greenhouse effect is formed
due to this blockage of long waves.

Increase of 0.7 Degrees Celsius in the last 10 years in Sri

Lanka has increased tornado activity, ratio of high intensity
thunderstorms, lightning voltage, cyclonic strength and
dust flow. These have caused an increase in respiratory
diseases.

45
 Heat Balance of the atmosphere

Incoming Reflected back

Short wave into space by
Radiation the ground and
100 atmosphere

40

Absorbed
by the Reaches
atmosphere ground
15
45

Surface of the earth Oceans

46
Weather and Climate

Weather is the condition of climatic elements and factors in

a short period of time, like hours and time of the day.

Climate is the average condition of climatic elements and

factors for a period of 30 years.

However the terms weather and climate is used

colloquially in various dimensions. In scientific studies the
above definitions have to be used and presentation of
scientific ideas and concepts should be based on it.

Climate is the most important of all the natural forces on

the living planet. It decides the nature of water at the
surface of the earth (water, snow or ice), types of
vegetation (forest, grassland), types of animals (lion, tiger,
cheetah, leopard, elephant, deer, hippo, polar bear, grizzly
bear), colour of the skin of human beings (white, black and
brown), types of dress worn (cotton and wool) , crops
cultivated (rice, wheat, maize), housing designs (gentle
sloping roofs, steep sloping roofs, underground housing),
time of cultural practise and festivals and vacation periods
( summer and winter festivals). Then it shapes the life of
all the living things and decides what is located where on
the surface of the earth.

47
Major climatic conditions at the surface of the earth (all temperature data is in Degree Celsius and Rainfall data in
millimetres)

Major type Sub type Yearly averages Extremes

Tn Tx Rlv Rhv T R
Warm Warm humid 22 31 1500 2000 35 4000
Warm dry 24 33 1000 1800 38 2500
Cool Humid 05 15 350 450 25 600
Dry 00 10 250 350 25 600
Cold (deserts) Dry -05 05 100 200 10 400
Hot (deserts) Dry 40 55 05 25 70 0

Key:
Tn mean annual minimum temperature
Tx mean annual maximum temperature
Rlv low mean annual rainfall
Rhv high mean annual rainfall
T temperature
R rainfall

48
Weather in tropical areas like Sri Lanka is identified in relation to high or low temperature, slight or heavy rain,
nature of wind and humidity (Temperatures are in degree Celcius, Rainfall in Millimeters by 15 millimeter
intensity, humidity in Relative Humidity percent, wind in kilometres per hour)

The following chart can be used to identify weather at a given place, in a given period of time
(only for Sri Lanka)

Type Temperature Rainfall Humidity% Wind

Cool Below 22 NA Low/ 30-35 Low
Cold Below 18 NA Low/ 20-25 Low/High
Warm 23 to 28 NA High / 40 –60 Low
Hot (sweating) 28- 35 NA High / 50-80 Low
Windy NA NA NA 15-20
Very windy NA NA NA 20 to 30
Gust NA NA NA Above 30
Cyclonic NA NA NA Above 60
Drizzle Will not drop Below 5/15 60-65 Low
Rain Will drop by a Above 10/15 80-85 High

49
 degree or 2
Heavy rain Will drop by 2 to Above 25/15 90-95 High to Very
3 degrees high
Very heavy rain Will drop by two Above 30/15 90-99 Very high
to four degrees

50
Sri Lanka has four major climatic seasons constructed by the
types of rain forming mechanisms. The following tables present
all the details necessary for the understanding of the climate of
Sri Lanka within the study of environmental management.

51
 Extract from- Seneviratne (2004) Man and his Physical Environment, Open University Work Book, Open
University Press, Colombo
Climate of Sri Lanka/Tropical Monsoon Climate
Seasonal rainfall on a monsoon system - inter-monsoonal convection and tropical convergence activity.

PROCESS NATUrE IMPORTANCE PRESENT STATUS AND

CHANGE

52
South-west monsoon The tropical maritime The most readily awaited The global climatic change
Monsoon is an airmass with a airmass (massive and rainfall process in Sri has seriously affected the
massive amount of stratus clouds. a powerful climatic Lanka, which brings rain to regularity, reliability and
These clouds are pushed by the upper scenario) move over all the upper catchment the rainfall status of the
atmospheric trade winds and reach Sri the island in a south- areas of the major rivers – south west monsoon. The
Lanka riding on wave disturbances. west north- east Mahaweli 60 percent/ prime reason for the above
They form overcast sky and rainy direction between Kelani 80 percent/ Kalu 80 situation stems from the
spells with moderate intensity long may and September. percent/Walawe 40 percent/ effect of Ozone hole and El
duration rain. A few rainy days are Enters the island Maha oya 80 percent/ Ging Nino and La Nina
broken by a dry spell of two to three from the south-west 80 percent - scenarios. These elements
days. and run to the The source of water for the affect the direction of flow
Stages of the Monsoon western hills. cultivation of wet paddy in and the quantity of water
1. Arrive in the island in the The system originates the wet zone and irrigated vapor supplied to the air
beginning of June and stay active till in the southern Indian paddy in most of the newly mass. The open air nuclear
the middle of September. ocean/ deflected by established settlements in testing in the south pacific
2. The burst of the monsoon (the the coriolis force/ the dry zone. Supports the in the 1950-60s may have
strong wind currents and heavy rain pulled by the heat cell plantation system in the hill caused the primary damage
occurs around 10 to 15th June. formed in the north and mountain country of Sri and is being accelerated by
(sometimes the burst will not occur Indian plains and Lanka. The spice the global warming.
like in 2001 and 2002). Thar surface low cultivation and the The strength of the south
3. A break may occur in August. pressure/ monsoon air vegetable and fruit westerlies may be
4. In some inland areas the stratus mass drifts over Sri cultivation depends heavily weakened in the next 50 to
clouds will encourage the growth of Lanka loosing height on it. Can be called the life 100 years as predicted by
cumulus clouds strong enough to and converging on blood of the nation. the climatologists.
activate Thunderstorms. the south western and
53
western faces of the Causes floods in the
central hill country. western lowlands. The
western mountains are
subjected to prolonged rain,
which causes landslides and
gravel flow on steep slopes.
The time of the monsoon is
the period of heavy soil
erosion in the area affected
by it.

54
PROCESS NATURE IMPORTANCE PRESENT STATUS AND
CHANGE
North – east Monsoon is an A result of the The most readily awaited rainfall The global climatic change
airmass which draws moisture tropical maritime process in the eastern lowlands and has seriously affected the
from the Bay of Bengal on its airmass moving over mountains of Sri Lanka, which brings regularity, reliability and
way from the Central Asia to the island in a north- rain to all the upper catchment areas the rainfall status of the
the equatorial low pressure. east /south-west of the major rivers – Loggal oya, north-east monsoon. The
These clouds are pushed by the direction between Badulu oya, Uma Oya, Maduru oya prime reason for the above
upper atmospheric trade winds November and Gal oya, Menik ganga. In addition situation stems from the
and reach Sri Lanka riding on February. this brings rain to the reservoir system effect El Nino and La Nina
wave disturbances. They form The system originates of the North, north central, Eastern scenarios. These elements
overcast sky and rainy spells in the Siberian high and Uva provinces of Sri Lanka. affect the direction of flow
with moderate intensity long pressure/ deflected by The source of water for the and the quantity of water
duration rain. A few rainy days the coriolis force/ cultivation of wet paddy in the dry vapor supplied to the air
are broken by a dry spell of two pulled by the heat cell and intermediate zones and irrigated mass. This is a result of the
to three days. formed in the equator paddy in most of the newly global warming.
drifts over Sri Lanka established settlements in the dry The strength of the north
Stages of the Monsoon loosing height and zone. Supports the cultivation of easterlies may be weakened
converging on the many types of vegetables and fruits of in the next 50 to 100 years
1. Arrive in the island in the North eastern plains the eastern lowlands and hills. as predicted by the
55
beginning of November and and the hill and climatologists.
stay active till the middle of mountain ranges of
March. the eastern highlands. Causes floods in the western
lowlands. The western mountains are
2. In some inland areas the subjected to prolonged rain, which
stratus clouds will encourage causes landslides and gravel flow on
the growth of cumulus clouds steep slopes. The time of the
strong enough to activate monsoon is the period of heavy soil
Thunderstorms. erosion in the area affected by it.

3. North-east monsoon is a
weaker airmass than the south-
west monsoon.

56
 Inter-monsoon periods

There are two inter-monsoon periods in the climatic regime of Sri Lanka.

1. October to November – Thunderstorm and Depressions (Cyclonic activity)

2. March to May - Thunderstorm and wave disturbances (weak depressions)

October to November – Thunderstorm and Depressions (Cyclonic activity)

PROCESS NATURE IMPORTANCE PRESENT

STATUS AND
CHANGE
Thunderstorms of Sri Most of the The thunderstorms are an It has been
Lanka originate from the thunderstorms are of important element of rain in the noted that the
sea-land breeze activity or moderate intensity, but intermediate zone. They intensity of
the water vapor supplied by some of them can be provide a valuable component thunderstorm
the easterly waves of the deep and rise to a of heavy rain to these areas. rain has
tropical convergence. height of 6 to 10 However they can activate increased as a
57
 kilometers and produce heavy erosion and landslides. result of global
Cyclonic activity is rare in heavy lightning and warming.
the Weather of Sri Lanka, torrential rain.
but the depressions The global
originating in the Bay Of Cyclonic rain is heavy warming has
Bengal area can develop and winds can damage reduced the
into cyclonic status. These property and lives. frequency and
cyclone generally travel They cause damaging intensity of
across Sri Lanka in a south- flash floods and mud cyclones in
easterly/ north westerly flows. recent past.
direction along a line from
Batticaloa to Mannar.
Sometime the powerful
waves can affect the wide
valleys of the highlands.

58
 March to May - Thunderstorm and wave disturbances (weak depressions)

PROCESS NATURE IMPORTANCE PRESENT STATUS AND

CHANGE
Thunderstorms of Sri Lanka Most of the The thunderstorms It has been noted that the
originate from the sea-land thunderstorms are of are an important intensity of thunderstorm rain
breeze activity or the water moderate intensity, element of rain in the has increased as a result of
vapor supplied by the easterly but some of them can intermediate zone. global warming.
waves of the tropical be deep and rise to a They provide a
convergence. height of 6 to 10 valuable component The global warming has not
kilometers and of heavy rain to these much affected these wave
The wave disturbances form the produce heavy areas. However they disturbances type activity.
pre-monsoon rains, which lightning and can activate heavy
sometime resemble a mini- torrential rain. erosion and
monsoon. These generally landslides.
travel across Sri Lanka either Wave disturbances
from the south west to north bring moderate rain.
59
east (riding the front of the
south-westerlies) or enter Sri
Lanka from the east riding the
equatorial easterlies. These last
for a maximum of 2 to 3 days
and bring considerable rain.

60
Hydrosphere

Hydrosphere is the area of water of the earth. Fresh water that can
be used by the plants, animals and man is stored in the ice sheets,
rivers, glaciers, streams, lakes and storage reservoirs. Out of the
total water available on earth it is only 4 percent is usable by plants,
animals and man. However this amount is sufficient for the system
when it is properly used with available technological and
environmental management techniques.

Hydrosphere is a result of the processes of evaporation,

condensation and precipitation. All the water in the oceans, streams
and rivers and storage in lakes and man made reservoirs originate
from the process of precipitation. The process of precipitation is a
highly complex and a sensitive system connected to solar, global
and biosphere systems. The solar system provides the energy to the
precipitation system and set the geological controls of the
precipitation system. The lithospheric system provides the form of
land in mountains and plains where clouds rise or fall, winds flow
or rise, heat is accumulated or dispersed and direct the lower
atmospheric condition required for precipitation.

Nature of hydrosphere

Unit Matter Process Management system

61
Oceans Salt Currents Manufacture of salt and other
water chloride related products. Oceans
are sensitive to chemical waste.
Global warming is seriously
affecting ocean temperatures and
expected to react first to any
climatic change, which will occur
as a result of global warming.
Oceans are expected to expand with
melting of ice sheets in the next
century and sea level rise may be in
the region of 30 to 60 centimetres
from today. This will bury all the
low-lying areas below 1-meter
mark around present coasts. In Sri
Lanka it is expected that about 1/3
of the population in the area
between the coast and 300 meters
from the coast will be affected. All
the buildings within 100 meters of
the coast in Colombo will have to
be abandoned.

Unit Matter Process Management system

62
Streams Fresh Flow Rivers are the major provider of
and water and drinking water with storage
rivers storage reservoirs feeding most urban and
rural water supply systems.
Pollution of the streams is a major
problem in the developing
countries. The global warming has
reduced rainfall and increased the
intensity of rainfall. This change
has resulted in the reduction of
stream and river storage, which has
resulted in the lowering of ground
water levels. Reduction of ground
water levels has resulted in the
lowering of water levels of local
wells and storage systems like
lakes, weva and pond. The loss of
capacity of streams and rivers is
estimated to be about 30 percent
reduction in the last 40 years and
expected to be another 20 percent in
the next 30 years. Sri Lanka is
expected to suffer from serious
water shortages in the next 10
years.

63
Unit Matter Process Management system
Storage Fresh Storage Storage of water is used for the
systems water and generation of hydroelectric power,
flow irrigation farming and drinking
water supply. All the storages in
the world are loosing their capacity
due to global warming and
reduction of rainfall. The storage
systems today hold almost about 16
percent of all the water in the rivers
and streams and only a further
about 10 percent is available for
storage holding. Storage system of
Sri Lanka will loose its capacity in
the next 20 years from
sedimentation of reservoirs and
drying-up of springs in the upper
catchments. A massive shift of
population is expected from the dry
zone to wet zone and intermediate
zone in the next 50 years if
recycling systems are installed.

Hydrology of Sri Lanka

Hydrological environment of Sri Lanka is composed of three major

water sources and their storage systems.

1. Highland spring system originating from the water bearing

rocks
2. Lowland underground water system which feeds the
extensive well network and
streams
3. Dryzone and semi arid zone water sources fed by seasonal
streams, deep water bearing rocks and limestone seepage in some
areas.

64
 Drainage and Hydrology of Sri Lanka - Present situation

Type Present situation Result Field data from a six months survey
in a rural area of the Matale
District (along the road 9
kilometers)
Streams of Except for the streams located The destruction of soil conservation measures 11 sites were identified as
1,2 and 3 in the high mountains and during heavy rains with more than 60 to 80 problematic out of which 4 sites
of the inaccessible parts of the hill mm/hr intensities. The destruction of, home have destroyed gravel surfaced
Strahler country these streams are garden plots and some high terraced paddy is roads and the adjoining land.
system totally destroyed by human a result of the hiding of this category streams. Estimated damage in Rs. 10,000.00
(Mostly intervention. Blockage of these per rainy season
ephemeral) or plough across them have
removed them from the tea,
rubber, coconut and paddy
cultivated areas.
Streams of Except for the streams located This group of streams is with extremely high Three sites were identified as
4 and 5 of in the high mountains and erosive power during storms of 60 to 80 damaged. Estimated damage about
the Strahler inaccessible parts of the hill mm/hr and above. The overflowing of these Rs. 30,000.00
system country these streams are either streams result in destruction of farm land,
(Mostly not controlled properly or roads, railways and affect hill slopes to form
seasonal) redirected without proper study slides through undercutting. On average
of its erosive power. about 10 to 15 incidents relating to the
activity of this type of streams are reported in
65
 the national dailies during the rainy season or
rains.
Type Present situation Result Field data from a six months survey
in a rural area of the Matale
District (along the road 9
kilometers)
Permanent Affected by extensive use for Flash flooding is common in the mountains Field data suggests that the
streams multi-purpose human activities and hill ranges. Rainfall with more than 80 sediment flow to these streams and
and rivers all the permanent streams and mm/hr intensity in their cathcments have rivers mostly originate from small
rivers have changed their resulted in serious erosion within the bed and scale farming units and households.
regimes. The effect of climatic the valley sides. Sedimentation in the The pollutants come from the urban
change is beginning to reduce reservoirs results from this high erosive power areas within their catchments. Lack
the annual flow. resulting from lack of conservation of the of storm drains in the farmlands,
catchment areas. The catchment area urban areas and village centers
conservation plans have not seriously result in pollution of these streams
considered the effect of household unit and and rivers. The continuing low
sedentary farming on the erosion and water levels have affected the water
sedimentation system. supply and irrigation supplies in the
last 10 year period more than
before.

66
Unit Problem Reason for the problem Probable solution
Wet zone Water logging during rainy Lack of long term Provision of proper drainage through pumping
lowland season or rains. planning into a canal system to take it to the dry zone
Flooding
Dry zone Seasonal water logging. Lack of long term Provision of basins to collect or direct to the
lowland Flooding planning nearest reservoir if necessary by pumping
Hills and hill Local flooding and bank and Lack of long term Conservation of the stream lines and associated
ranges bed erosion of the streams, planning reservations, prevention of heavy sediment
which cause damage to discharges to the streams. Possible canalization of
human environment the streams which flow through the settlements.
Establishment of weirs and diverting the water
through a network of storm drains to the rivers.
Some of the existing human constructions should
be relocated.
Mountains Local flooding and bank and Lack of long term Strict conservation of the stream lines and
bed erosion of the streams, planning associated reservations, prevention of heavy
which cause damage to sediment discharges to the streams. Possible
human environment canalization of the streams which flow through
the settlements. Establishment of weirs and
diverting the water through a network of storm
67
 drains to the rivers. Some of the existing human
constructions should be relocated.

68
Major geo-hydrological units

Unit Sub Unit Altitude limits in meters

Plains Coastal 0 to 30
Inland – low 31 to 75
Inland - high 76 to 150
Highland Over 1800
Hills Erosional remnant 30 to 150
Dissected range type 151 to 300
Mountains Ridges – base ranges 301 to 1500
Ridges - high ranges 1501 and above
Hill and mountain blocks Blocks Above 150

Major geo-hydrological sub-units of the Plains

Sub unit Valley profile Inter-valley profile Processes Land use and Capability
environmental
problems
Coastal Wide lowland Wide low profile Sheet and Urban areas- sub-urban A highly
Plain valleys with highland with rill flow settlements or fishing valuable
meandering concave slopes. dominant. villages The inter- geomorphic sub
0 to 30 m rivers Covered with a Water valley areas are unit for
sandy gravelly soil logging and generally used for recreation,
often laterite Flood coconuts and home tourism and
mixed. erosion is a garden crop complex. fishing. Heavily

69
 hazard Pollution and under-utilised
destruction of corals, due to problems
littoral sandstones and of ownership
beaches. and neglect by
the planners.

Sub unit Valley profile Inter-valley Processes Land use and Capability
profile environmental
problems
Inland Wide to narrow Wide to Rill and gully Urban areas- sub- A highly valuable
Plain – valleys with narrow flow urban settlements or geomorphic sub
Low 31 meandering rivers highland with dominant. large units of unit for the
to 75 and flood plains lower Water industrial and service production of
meters. concave and logging, gully oriented industries in food crops and
Mostly higher convex erosion and the western and export crops like
depositi slopes. Most Flood erosion southern provinces. tropical flowers
onal and of the ridge is a hazard. In the other parts of and herbs.
emergen like highland the island the Heavily under-
t. is topped by farming villages utilised due to
tor like or dominate the scenery problems of land
isolated rock with heavy acreage ownership and
outcrop type of paddy on the neglect by the
formations. 70 lowlands. The socio-political
Covered with highland is covered authority and
a soil mixture with home garden planners.
with some complex and
laterite in coconut.
places.
Sub unit Valley profile Inter-valley Processes Land use and Capability
profile environmenta
l problems
Inland Moderately Moderately Rill and gully Mostly The source regions of the lowland
Plain – High broad to broad to flow covered by springs. Cultivation of rubber and
76 to 150 narrow narrow dominant. the areas tea in the higher slopes of the high
meters. valleys with highland with Creep, slide designated as hills has led to the rapid lowering
Mostly winding lower convex and gully rural and of water levels in the last five to
erosional rivers and and higher erosion is a covered with six decades. This is the area where
narrow flood concave hazard. Gully paddy in the most of the new settlements in the
plains slopes. Most erosion is the valley wet zone have been located in the
of the ridge dominant bottom, home last four decades due to rapid
like highland process and garden along increase in population. Low
is formed by the streams in the valley capability marginal land, which
hills these areas side, coconut, needs close supervision by the
sometimes provide heavy rubber, environmental planners.
topped by tor sediment cinnamon and
like loads to the sometimes tea
formations. local rivers (Galle and
Covered with and Matara

71
a soil mixture reservoirs. districts) on
with some Today most the hill
laterite in of this slopes. The
places. sediment is hills are of
originated in two types.
the areas of The elongated
home garden ridge like or
complex and isolated hill
the vegetable type.
cultivation,
which lack
any overall
conservation
system.

72
Sub unit Valley profile Inter-valley Processes Land use and Capability
profile environmental
problems
Highland Moderately Concave - Rill flow Mostly covered by The source regions of
Sub unit Valley profile Inter-valley Processes Land use and Capability
plains over broad to convex profile dominant. the areas environmental the highland springs.
1800 meters narrow slopes. The Creep and designated as
problems Low capability
(Horton- valleys with plain surface slide are conserved forests, marginal land, which
Hills – Mostly Rugged with Rill and gully Mostly barren, but Some of the larger
Moon- Elk winding is dissected common but the needs close
erosional convex- scattered dominate in most of them have remnants are source
and rivers. by high hazards. establishment of supervision by the
remnants concave and debris from and around been used as regions for local
Kandapola) intensity Source areas Nuwaraeliya, environmental
30 to 150 combination the remnants, the erosional temple or devala streams and should
Located on rainfall and of major Kandapola and planners. A massive
meters of scarp face but in most remnant. lands since pre- be preserved. When
the node area mimic a streams of the Pattipola reconstruction plan
and steep places the history. Salgala, the rock type is of
of the high surface of principal river settlements by the should be the only
slope area covered Warana, Ethugala, commercial
mountains basket of systems of Sri British has begun answer, but the socio-
segments are is negligible. Dambulugala, importance quarrying
eggs. Lanka. the activities political pressure may
present. The Ritigala, Namal has become an
Covered with leading to the never allow the
lowland Uyana, Rumassala important economic
a soil mixture decay of this recovery of this land
valleys are are a few. Most of activity. The granites
with some valuable unit. However the
similar to the kande vihara or of Ambagaspitiya and
peat in places. environment. climatic change is
lowland-high kande devala are Thonigala areas are
Today covered expected to bring
type of located on this type used for making thin
with tea and extremely heavy
valleys. of hills. In the sheets and memorial
vegetable farms the rainfall into this area
Plantation areas stones. Most of these
lower reaches of which may encounter
covered by are high in esthetic
this valuable destruction of
Coconut and value and can be used
highland plain is massive proportions
Rubber these hill successfully as a
completely by landslides in the
tops have become resource in the tourist
destroyed by man. next 50 to 100 year
73 either sites for a trade.
Recent tourism period.
lodge or a
development has
bungalow.
begun to destroy
the highest and the
most permanent
water source areas
since 1980s.
74
Sub unit Valley Inter-valley Processes Land use and environmental Capability
profile profile problems
Hills – Mostly Rugged with Rill and gully These hills are the prim These are the source regions of
Dissected convex- scattered dominate the regions of coconut, rubber, local drainage, which provides
range concave and debris from erosional cinnamon and sometimes water subsistence farming in the
type 151 combination the steep environment. lowland tea (Southern and valley bottoms. Many thousands
to 300 of scarp face slopes. The This unit is Sabragamuwa provinces). of weirs were constructed during
and steep gentle and the largest The collapse of the plantation the latter part of the colonial rule
slope moderately supplier of industry in the last 30 years and early part of the independent
segments are steep slopes erosional has resulted in the rule to provide water for irrigation
present. The are covered debris to the abandonment of most of the in the wet zone. The dry zone hill
lowland with a deep streams and plantations in this unit. The ranges are the home to shifting
valleys are regolith and a rivers in Sri areas closer to towns and cultivation, but with the
similar to thin layer of Lanka as cities have been used for new expansion of settlements, these
lowland-high soils. The these are housing and in the rural areas areas are being used for home
type of wet zone hills heavily new housing for the landless gardens. However most of the
valleys. are composed settled. are constructed on these hills. hill ranges of the dry zone plains
of many These hill areas record the remain forested with low density
types of highest rates of soil erosion forest and scanty wild life. This
podsols while and falling water levels in Sri is a unit for intense conservation.
the dry zone Lanka. The unit can be The wet zone areas should be
hills have identified as the most organized into a system of
latosols destroyed natural landform modeled home garden units,
combinations unit in Sri Lanka, which is while the dry zone hills should
. Laterite is a responsible for the local not be used for any intensive type
common 75 of springs and
drying-up of land use.
occurrence rapid fall of the water table.
within this
hill ranges.
Sub Valley profile Inter-valley Processes Land use and environmental problems Capability
unit profile
Ranges Mostly convex Rugged Rill and These ranges are the prime regions of tea, These are the major supply regions
– 301 - and with gully vegetable and potato cultivation. The of national drainage, which
1500 combination of scattered dominate collapse of the plantation industry in the last provides water for the multi-
scarp face and debris from the 30 years has resulted in the abandonment of purpose dam complex of the hydro
steep slope the steep erosional most of the plantations in this unit. The power generation and irrigation
segments are slopes. environme areas closer to towns and cities have been system. The initial destruction by
present. The The gentle nt. This used for new housing and in the rural areas the colonial program of
valleys are of and unit is the new housing for the landless are constructed indiscriminate clearing of forests
three major moderately second on the lower slopes of the ranges. These hill for coffee and tea and later
types. steep largest areas record the second highest rates of soil abandonment without proper
a) Open V slopes are supplier of erosion and falling water levels in Sri reforestation has lowered the
shaped covered erosional Lanka. The unit can be identified as the capability of this land unit by more
b) Narrow V with a deep debris to second most destroyed natural landform than 60 percent. The former
shaped regolith the streams unit in Sri Lanka. This destruction is colonial master (presently UK)
c) Gorge and a thin and rivers responsible for the local drying-up of should be asked to provide aid in
type. layer of in Sri springs and rapid fall of the water table. the massive reconstruction program,
The open V soils. The Lanka as The present crisis of water shortage, which which may require about a billion
shaped are wet zone this area is has affected the hydro power generation and US dollars over period of about 25
mostly located ranges are heavily water supply system of the densely years.
in the gentle composed cultivated populated upcountry towns and large village The recent abandonment and

76
 sloping sides of of many with tea s. unplanned nature of the
the ranges and types of and used The intermediate zone ranges are the home establishment of new villages has
the other two podsols for to upcountry vegetable farming, which put this unit much closer to its total
types are in the while the upcountry produce more than 60 percent of the annual destruction. Coupled with the
high ranges. intermediat village sediment load in Sri Lanka. This is result of decreasing effects of the SW
Rocky e zone hills expansion the friable soils on deep regolith. The deep Monsoons and its shift of axis over
channels, have program in regolith is responsible for the heavy Sri Lanka has further endanger the
boulder strewn latosols the last 30 presence of mass wasting systems, such as survival of this unit. This is a unit
channel beds combinatio years. creep, slide and fall. The density of for intense conservation. This area
and falls of ns. occurrence of these type of events (any should be organized into a properly
various heights Lithosols type) is between 3 to 4 sites per kilometer planned units of conservation with
are a common are a during the rainy season. The cultivation of strict adherence to rules and
occurrence. common lithosols and river bed erosion are the two regulation governing conservation.
occurrence major factors responsible for the higher The system of modeled home
within this frequency of mass wasting processes. garden and farmland unit should be
mountain However, in the last 30 years the used in this program. Any further
ranges. establishment of new villages, abandonment large scale clearance should be
of tea plantations and road widening has coupled with strict conservation
added more sites for mass wasting. practices.

Sub unit Valley Inter-valley Processes Land use and Capability

77
 profile profile environmenta
l problems
Ranges – Mostly Rugged with Rill and gully These ranges These are the second major supply
1501 and convex and scattered debris dominate the are the prime regions of national drainage, which
above combination from the steep erosional regions of provides water for the multi-
of scarp face slopes. The environment. highland tea. purpose dam complex of the hydro
and steep gentle and This unit was This unit is power generation and irrigation
slope moderately originally under system. The initial destruction by
segments are steep slopes are degraded due to immense the colonial program should be
present. The covered with a the establishment pressure from assessed and reconstruction should
valleys are of thin regolith of \highland tea\ man and to be carried out as in the lower range
two types. and a thin layer estates. The be saved unit
a)Narrow V of soils. The encroachment immediately. Coupled with the decreasing effects
shaped wet zone farmers and the This of the SW Monsoons and its shift of
b)Gorge type. ranges are illegal forest destruction is axis over Sri Lanka has further
ranges. composed of clearance by elite responsible endanger the survival of this unit.
Rocky many types of in the last thirty for the This is a unit for intense
channels, podsols while years have begun drying-up of conservation. This area should be
boulder the to accelerate soil springs and organized into a properly planned
strewn intermediate erosion and land rapid fall of units of conservation with strict
channel beds zone hills have sliding in this the water adherence to rules and regulation
and falls of latosols unit. table, which governing conservation. The
various combinations. affects the system of modeled home garden
heights are a Lithosols are a flow of major and farmland unit should be used in
common common rivers in Sri this program. No new clearance
occurrence. occurrence Lanka. should be allowed unless the forest
within this high harvesting based on the truly
mountain scientific principles.
ranges.

78
79
Sub unit Valley Inter-valley Processes Land use and Capability
profile profile environmental
problems
Blocks Mostly Rugged with Rill and gully The base and the These areas are incapable of providing any
and convex and scattered debris dominate the lower slopes of these long term benefits from any form of economic
Scarp combination from the steep erosional blocks and scarp activity other than water storage and
faces – of scarp face slopes. The environment. faces were used as tea recreation. This aesthetically supreme areas
150 to and steep slopes show the The major sites or rubber plantations of Sri Lanka are located in this unit. The
1501 and slope rapidity of of the during the colonial highest water falls, cataracts and narrow
above segments are mass wasting landslides in rule. This unit gorges in this region can support a massive
present. The and gully the country are mimics the tourist industry within the scope of
valleys are of erosion. At located in this landscapes of the programmed conservation.
two major places the unit. Covered highlands of UK and
types. valley slope is by lithosols the Europe and the The World‟s End, Bambarakanda Falls,
a) Narrow V a combination soil rests on a original names of the Nonperil – Belihul oya valley, Lihinigala,
shaped of boulder boulder mixed plantations indicate Kunudiya Parvata, The parrot shaped
b) Gorge fields, terraced thin regolith the psychology of the Benasamanalagala, Ohiya aretes, Ella rock
type. formed by soil early planters. These and Rawana Ella falls, Hakgala Triangles,
Rocky creep. Massive blocks are the prime Namunukula Nine Tops, Samanala Gala,
channels, scars of older safe havens of virgin Mahaberiyatenna Rock, Ragala Gala,
boulder landslides are forest and wild life. Kandapola scarp, Kuda Hunnasgiriya and the
strewn visible along Most of the virgin 17 Elbow Bend area, Corbets Gap, Knuckles
channel beds the major river forest and wild life is (the knuckles shaped tops), Dumbanagala,
and falls of valleys. Some extinct due to large Riverston and its slopes, Ritigala,
various of them have scale valuable timber Toppikanda, Inginiyagala, Nuwaragalkanda,
heights are a formed the harvesting and Diyaluma precipe, Beragala rocks, ,
common base for the organized hunting of Wahulalagala, Watawala slopes, Ramboda
occurrence. formation of wild life carried out Scarp, Kotmale – Uda Pussellawa precipe,
natural by the colonial rulers Kadugannawa hills, Alagalla, Batalegala,
mountain and later by the elite Gongala – Sinharaja complex are the most
passes like indigenes. valuable assets within this unit.
Beragala,
Ramboda and 80
Ella.
Why water shortage?

Reason Status Remedy

Climatic change Climatic change has resulted A proper environmental
in the reduction of mean management through,
annual rainfall, increased rain water harvesting,
intensity of thunderstorms spring rejuvenation,
and increase of temperature spring regeneration,
and evaporation. Details are strict reduction of pool
in effect and recycling.
Increased human use

Domestic use Population has increased by Strict control of waste

50 percent in the last 20 years
Strict recycling by large
Industrial and commercial This use has increased by commercial and
use about 500 percent industrial units
Waste About 10 to 15 percent of National Policy on
cleaned water supplied by the Water has no capacity at
National Water Supply and the moment to
81
 Drainage Board is wasted implement any
through leakages and use of meaningful water policy,
cleaned water for low quality therefore a future based
water requirements water policy has to be
prepared. (USA has
installed a Water Police
to monitor water use).

Biosphere

Plants and environment

Global system

Type Location Structure Present status

Forests In wet areas of the world, Mostly trees and shrubs. Highly exploited. In the developed world
where mean annual Reptiles and selected forests are reforested successfully with forest
rainfall is higher than group of water loving harvesting
mean annual evaporation mamals
for a minimum of 6 to 7
months.
Grassland In wet and dry climates, Mostly grass, but along Highly exploited. In the developed world these
where mean annual rivers there is gallery are controlled well and used successfully for
rainfall is higher than forest. The richest animal animal husbandry.
mean annual evaporation kingdom with all types of
for a minimum of 4 to 5 mammals, reptiles, birds
months. and insects
Wet In all climates Wetland vegetation with Highly exploited. In the developed world these
82
lands special plants. Specialised are controlled well successfully re-established.
group of reptiles and
amphibians.
Semi- In very dry or cold Grass and specialised Highly exploited in the developing world and
desert climates thorny plants. Highly desertification is active destroying this area.
scrub specialised types of
reptiles and mammals.

83
Sri Lanka in General

Forests

About 85 percent of the land area of Sri Lanka is identified as covered by forest
vegetation in vegetation groupings of the world. However only about 20 to 30 percent
of these forests remain as forests today, because of human intervention in the forest
ecosystem. The following table gives some basic information.

84
Location Structure Present status
Tropical Rain Thick forest with a minimum of Highly threatened by human activity.
forest 50 to four layers. Strict natural Reserves of Sinharaja is
1000 meters Tall, Medium and low trees, the best remaining. Most of the animals
two layers of shrubs, lianas and are under threat of extinction.
orchids
Tropical Thick forest with a minimum of Highly threatened by human activity.
midland rain four layers. Almost extinct. Strict natural Reserves
forest (wet) Tall, Medium and low trees, on isolated patches in the wet zone hills.
350 to 1500 two layers of shrubs, lianas and Most of the animals are under threat of
meters orchids extinction.
Tropical Thick forest with a minimum of Highly threatened by human activity.
monsoon three layers. Almost extinct. Strict natural Reserves
lowland forest Tall, Medium and low trees, on isolated patches in the dry zone hills.
(dry) two layers of shrubs and lianas (Ritigala) Most of the animals are under
50 to 350 threat of extinction.
meters
Tropical Thick forest with a minimum of Most of it was cleared for tea, coffee
highland rain two layers. and cardamom and patches are
forest Medium and low trees, two preserved in the central highland and
1500 meters layers of shrubs, lianas and Knuckles range Most of the animals are
and above orchids under threat of extinction.
Tropical cloud Thick forest with a minimum of Preserved now in the Peak wilderness
forest two layers. Most of the animals are under threat of
Medium and low trees, two extinction. Some recent extinctions
layers of shrubs, lianas and have been reported.
orchids

85
Other types : grassland, scrub and wet lands

Location Structure Present status

Grass land – wet Wet grassland known as Wet Seriously damaged by tea
Pathana exists in the highland cultivation and recent land
areas over 350 meters, where alienation. Few areas are
mean annual rainfall is over 1500 preserved in the peak wilderness.
millimeters.
Grass land – wet Dry grassland known as Dry Seriously damaged by chena
Pathana exists in the eastern and cultivation and recent land
northern dry zone area below 350 alienation. Few areas are
meters. preserved in the aboriginal
reserves.
Scrub Mixture of thorny shrub and Seriously damaged by chena
grass exists in the lowlands of the cultivation and recent land
dry zone below 350 meters. alienation. But most of the land
area is in the conflict zone at
present.
Wetlands Coastal, lagoon and flood plain Seriously damaged by urban
wetlands of Sri Lanka is development and conversion into
seriously damaged in the last 20 farmland. Some attempts are
years due to urban expansion being made to protect them.
along the coasts and on flood
plains.

86
Plants are the only units, which are capable of utilising energy of sun to produce food.
This process is known as photosynthesis. The only other food construction system of
the earth operates deep in the waters near the volcanic or rift vents of the earth surface,
where life has managed to use chemical compounds through a process of
chemosynthesis.

Plant Ecosystems

The excessive production of carbon dioxide and other chemical pollutants like carbon
monoxide and chemical salts have seriously affected the plant environment and many
natural species have begun to stunt or die. The yield of many other valuable food plants
is affected by many chemical pollutants and results in a high variation of production
from year to year. In addition this type of pollution has accelerated the global warming
process leading to drought and food scarcity in most parts of the developing world.

SOILS OF SRI LANKA

Soils form the materials of the ground cover. It provides the base material for the plant
growth and thus constructs life. The nature and dynamics of soil determines the value
of land with reference to its, agricultural capacity, industrial use and construction.

Geology, climate, landform and natural vegetation are the major factors, which decide
the type of soils formed and its primary composition. The geology provides the basic
mineral material, which accounts for about 90 percent of soil. Sand and clay particles
of soil are formed directly from the weathering of hard rocks. Silt is formed through
the combination of mineral and organic material derived form the vegetation.

Geology provides the basic raw materials for the formation of the mineral content of
soils. The primarily acidic rocks of Sri Lanka produces acidic soils. The reddish and
reddish brown soil group covers more than 75 percent of the surface area of Sri Lanka,
which indicate the prolific nature of oxidation of acidic basic soil forming material.
The mineral composition produce the brown earths from Charnokitic rocks, light
colored soils from alluvium and beach deposits. Therefore most of the soil formed on
acidic rocks are subjected to heavy leaching and have moderate to low fertility.

Climate decides the meteorological environment of the weathering through processes

like solution in warm humid areas and shattering in the cold areas. These physical
processes lead to the decay and disintegration of rock to produce a weathered mantle,
which finally forms the soil. Further the fluvial, arid and glacial climatic environment
display their own set of processes through which the system of erosion and
sedimentation can lead to soil formation.

Landform depicts the slope and the overland process, which determines the rate of soil
forming process through the thickness of soil in a given profile. The natural

87
environment and the landform combines to produce the optimal soil profile. The steep
slopes have a thin cover of soils and gentle slopes are covered with a thick layer of soil.
The development of laterites or hard pan may be partially a result of the landform
profile. Therefore the two most important landform units to be identified in the study of
soils are the depositional or erosional surface. The depositional surface is a place where
the soil is being deposited continuously, while an erosional surface has more erosion
than deposition.

The vegetation provides the soil with its organic matter and compounds. The nature
and amount of organic matter in soil is highly influenced by the type of vegetation
cover. The forests, grasslands and scrub-land show a marked variation of soils between
them. The grasslands have deeper soils, while the forest soils are more acidic.

Man has made many modifications to the soil forming environments since he began
practicing agriculture. Therefore in a country like Sri Lanka, which has a long history
of agriculture and irrigation, the present status of soil has to be studied with a
continuous reference to its past culture. This should be an important element in the
study of soils of Sri Lanka.

General Soil types

Soils of the dry zone and semi-dry intermediate zone

1. Reddish brown earths and low humic gley soils : undulating terrain
2. Reddish brown earths and solodized Solonetz : undulating terrain
3. Reddish brown earths Non-calcic brown soils and low humic gley soils : undulating
terrain
4. Reddish brown earths and immature brown loams : rolling hilly steep terrain
5. Non-calcic brown soils, soils on old alluvium and Solodized solonetz : undulating
terrain
6. Red yellow latosols : flat to slightly undulating terrain
7. Calcic red yellow latosols : flat terrain
8. Solodized solonetz, solonchacks and soils on recent marine calcareous sediments :
flat terrain
9. Grumusols : flat terrain
10. Alluvial soils of variable drainage and texture : flat terrain
11. Regosols on recent beach and dune sands : flat terrain

Soils of the wet zone and semi-wet intermediate zone

12. Red yellow podzolic soils and mountain regosols : mountainous terrain
13. Red yellow podzolic soils: steeply dissected, hilly and rolling terrain

88
14. Red yellow podzolic soils with strongly mottled sub-soil and low humic gley soils :
rolling and undulating terrain
15. Red yellow podzolic soils with soft or hard laterite : rolling and undulating terrain
16. Red yellow podzolic soils with dark B horizon and red yellow podzolic soils with
prominent A 1 horizon : rolling terrain
17. Red yellow podzolic soils with semi prominent A 1 horizon : hilly and rolling
terrain
18. Reddish brown latosolic soils: steeply dissected hilly and rolling terrain
19. Immature brown loams : steeply dissected hilly and rolling terrain
20. Bog and half bog soils ; flat terrain
21. Latosols and Regosols on old red and yellow sands :flat terrain
22. Alluvial soils of variable drainage and texture : flat terrain
23. Regosols on recent beach sands : flat terrain

Miscellaneous land units

24. Rock knob plains and eroded lands

25. Erosional remnants
26. Steep rockland and lithosols

89
Soils and Agriculture

Soil type Major Cropping systems Cultural system

agricultural
activity
Reddish Sedentary Wet rice on the alluvial An unending effort to
brown earths cultivation deposits and highland cultivate what ever is useful
Irrigated rice on this soil produce goes on in these home
farming about 70 percent of the gardens. Almost all the wet
total rice produced in zone fruits and flowers are
the country. Once planted with varying results.
supplied the granaries Managed intensively home
of an ancient hydraulic gardens can produce well.
civilization from
around 200 BC to about
1100 AD. Home garden
complex of crops.
Red yellow Tree crops Wet rice on the alluvial An unending effort to
podzols Sedentary deposits and tree crops cultivate what ever is useful
cultivation on the highland. The goes on in these home
„forest garden‟ of the gardens. Almost all the wet
wet zone lowland, hill zone fruits and flowers are
and mountain country planted with varying results.
is in this group. Managed intensively home
Coconut, Rubber, Tea gardens can produce well. If
and Cinnamon are the used intensively, there is high
major cash crops potential for the production of
cultivated. Until late various types of tropical
70s these plantations fruits, vegetables, flowers and
were the backbone of spices in these gardens or
the economy of the units of cultivation.
nation.

Soil type Major agricultural Cropping systems Cultural

activity system
Calcic red yellow Known as the Jaffna Intensive farming Home gardens
latosols limestone soil , this is with irrigation are gathered
regarded as a soil in on the sandy
which dry area areas and the
vegetables and rice is clayey soil
successfully cultivated surfaces are
intensively
cultivated by
the indigenous
Tamil people.

90
Soils in the landscape

Low humic gley soils

Reddish brown earths

Alluvial
soils

Quarts vein and rubble

Underlying regolith or bedrock

Podzols : Highland areas

Red yellow podzols

Alluvial
soils

Underlying regolith or bedrock

91
Podzols : Lowland areas

Red yellow podzols

Alluvial
soils

Underlying regolith or bedrock

Technosphere

Technosphere is the sphere of human constructed knowledge, which affect all the
geologically constructed spheres of the earth. The inventions from the discovery of fire
and wheel to micro-computers and cruise missiles have influenced the way we think
about our living planet. The technosphere directs the consumer to be aggressive and
has created a massive destruction of limited resources of the earth. However, the most
recent concepts of environmental management through the invention of biodegradable
plastics, forest harvesting, water recycling and large scale bioenergy production has
indicated that the technosphere may not always be damaging to the earth.

The deeper understanding of geological phenomena and social behaviour will help to
manage environment better in the future. The knowledge gained on technology is
already helping the world population to live more safely than ever in a more unstable
world.

Sri Lanka will face more earthquakes, cyclones and tornadoes in future. Creep and
slide resulting from rock decay and rock structure breakages and road construction in
mountainous areas will increase causing serious damage to property, livelihood and
government expenditure. However, these can be controlled to minimise damage by
using scientific systems already available.

For example

92
Earthquakes – insertion of clay into pressure zones to create many small quakes than a
big one, Adjusting construction systems to suit the strength of shock and pressure

Asteroid hit – use of nuclear bomb to deviate or destroy asteroid

Core – use of an untanium vehicle to go to core and explode nuclear bombs to

reactivate

Landslides – heavy barriers and tunnels for escape routes

Tsunami – massive sea walls, reliable prediction systems

Floods – water transfer, stronger levees

Cyclones – seed the cloud with salts or pulp to reduce power

Drought – inter basin transfer – use of ice bergs – transport of water in massive
polythene bags, artificial rain. In USA already 15 percent of rain in the dry areas is
artificial.

Insect invasions – use of bio-killing systems

Discipline – reduction of socio-political corruption, literacy, ethical behaviour and use

of mannerisms

Misbehaviour – application of law and correct punishment

Roads – use of strict law and fines reduce death on roads

Pattern of thought in Sri Lanka is that these remedial measures are

Expensive
Too high technology
We have no expertise
But, the reality is that we have no master plan for our national environment in which we
live.

93
Chapter 3

Development: General Theory

Development is a scientific process, which operates logically within the confines of the
selected socio-economic environment. It has to be conducted with the given principles
of the ideology used and supported by a steady growth in the economy and
improvement in living standards.

Modernisation

The modern development theory is known by various names like modernisation, neo-
classical approach, and development perspective and as neo-colonialism in the political
arena of some developing countries. The most commonly used term is the
modernisation.

The modernisation theory is based on the Keynesian ideology, which paved way for a
new idea of the role of the government in managing the economy (Preston 1996).
Keynes was of the belief that government borrowings can finance expenditures, which
in turn would generate more revenue and these additional revenues and higher tax
returns from increased revenue can be used for the repayment of borrowings.
Therefore, the modernisation theory believed in authoritative intervention, through the
use of economic growth models and aid mechanisms.

The modern development theory is based on the experiences of the western world and
its economics, sociology, political and scientific views and the poor countries were to
follow this method for their development. This theory was explained by many on the
basis of a structural and dynamic programme, with stages and categories.

Rostow (1960), presented a model based on five stages, which are to be experienced by
all societies in the transformation of their economy from undeveloped to develop. It
assumes that the increased production leads to growth and that the redistribution of
capital will occur in the process of growth. The capital accumulation, growth of labour
force and scientific and technological advancement are woven into the process of
development through five major stages given in this theory. This theory remained a
pre-eminent theory of modernisation in the early 1960s (Preston, 1996).

The major criticism against Rostow's theory was that it was principally an economic
programme, which did not consider the historical aspect of the development process in
the developing countries or their colonial type relationship with the western developed
nations. Firstly, the newly independent developing countries were not able to guide

94
themselves towards their economic goals due to social and political problems associated
with the formation of new states as given in Hettne, (1990). Hettne (1990) was of the
view that development is a national goal that cannot be separated from be other
political goals and has to be treated as equal to political goals.

Secondly, the inability of the new states to identify their priorities of development as
well as high levels of official corruption did not enable the capital accumulation,
scientific development or growth of a skilled labour force.

Lund (1993) is of the view that after independence colonies were unsuccessful in
economic improvement and local elite was busy keeping themselves in power, fighting
neighbours or suppressing rebellions.

Crew and Harrison (1998) and Dube (1988) identify the eurocentric nature of the
modernisation paradigm, as a major factor for its failure in the developing countries.
Crew and Harrison, (1998) indicate that rationality, the search for objective truth, and a
movement towards modernity was expected in the ideology but not practised in the
developing nations.

Therefore, the criticisms of the modernisation paradigm have been extended to include
its heavy dependence on economic theory and the failure to understand the complex
social situations. However, the modernisation remained a powerful tool in development
planning in the developing countries well into the late 1970s, mainly because its
utilisation by the international development agencies and funding authorities.

The crisis faced by the modernisation theory led to the formulation of some alternative
perspectives of development. Though these approaches have some change in the
secondary strategies, they still believed in the transformation of societies, international
exploitation and domination. The intention was to make a more service oriented
development and aid redistribution of wealth. Within this framework, there was a
struggle in the poor nations and some tried to establish socialist societies, while others
worked towards national capitalism.

The dependency school formulated the underdevelopment theory through the writings
of many radical researchers, which contained the elements of Marxist language, mode
of analysis and ideological and theoretical projects (Aina, 1993). This wing was headed
by Andre Gunder Frank, Samir Amin, Walter Rodney and a host of others, and which
has been called the underdevelopment theory, which is Neo-Marxist in formation.
(Aina, 1993).

A parallel to the theory of under-development, the problems of modernisation were

discussed in the structural Marxism originating from the French school of Marxist
studies. This theory explained the importance of class relations in the development
and gave a strong critique of capitalism and explained the process of development with
the use of impeccable logic and convincing inter-linkage.

95
These two variants managed to introduce alternatives to the modernisation on social
transformation, production and political organisation and became popular in the
undeveloped world as it gave a deep critique of capitalism, colonisation and neo-
colonial imperialism.

Frank (1966) presents the best overview of this group of theories, which studies the
overall exploitation of the satellite states by the central powerful industrial states. His
view was that the industrialised countries have become rich through the exploitation of
the poor countries.

It is pertinent to look at Myrdal (1970), who brought forward the concept of circular
cumulative causation, which became popular through the notion of vicious cycle of
poverty. He regarded the development as a social process and stressed that the power
structures of the developing world have to be changed either by evolution or revolution
as a prerequisite for development. He further explained that this should be followed by
changes in orientation on the part of the developed world.

However, the modernisation paradigm survived in the developing world as a major

instrument in the process of development from its beginnings to 1980s and the
influences of theories of underdevelopment and Marxist alternatives were not capable
of making a marked impact. This is a result of the strong presence of nationalism,
ethnicity and corruption in the developing world , which were more easily
accommodated within the modernist capitalist philosophy (Aina, 1993). Giddens
(1991) claims that the inability of the theories of underdevelopment to consider cultural
and political factors in detail may have led to their weaknesses. According to Lund
(1993), the renewal of interest in the modernist thinking was initiated by the rise of a
few newly industrialised countries in the East Asian region. These countries have used
joint ventures with multi-national or trans-national companies and have built an export
oriented industrial base, which led to the transformation of the economy . A similar
rapid growth was noticed in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka in the early 1980s. However, it
should be noted that this rapid growth and diversification was mostly associated with
the financial and tariff support given by the industrialised countries.

Alternative development

The continuing poverty of the developing world led to a rethinking of the validity of the
modernist and dependency theories and a search for a better alternative of development
discourse. The Cocoyoc conference in 1974 discussed the idea of sustainable
development and the international foundation for development alternatives (IFAD)
recommended the establishment of a humanist model of development (Friedmann,
1992)
Following the above attempt, in the 1980s, along with ecological crisis and poverty,
which threatened not only the developing world, but also the developed world, many
world gatherings were convened to find a serious alternative to the current development
strategy. The need for a paradigm, which can focus on the ways of improving the

96
productivity of poor through social, economic and political empowerment, became
vital.

Therefore, the alternative development approach became action oriented based on

humanistic and post-structuralism methods.

The alternative development therefore, brought forward practises like provision of basic
needs, informal sector utilisation and redistribution of wealth. This is a result of the
recognition of the importance and dignity of the ordinary people over the
institutionalised systems. However, the response to this ideology was slow, because
most of the developing nations were either holding onto neo-Marxist theories of
development or embroiled in corruption and regional conflicts. Lund (1993), indicates
that the alternative development was not utilised well because it was too optimistic, and
not capable of providing rapid solutions to development problems.

The difficulty to see the clarity of the many faces of the initial alternative development
paradigm, resulted in the establishment of the notions of empowerment, sustainability
and participation.

As Friedman (1998) explains, the people in their pursuit of life and livelihood needs to
acquire three kinds of power: social, political, and psychological. This is conducted by
the households, which are production centred and public. In the discussion of the
politics of alternative development and the existing power imbalances in the world
today, Friedmann (1998:36) indicates that the capacity of the alternative development to
depend on the local social, political and psychological situations.

The participatory strategy in development can also be discussed within the alternative
development, because the development within it demands for citizen participation
(Friedman, 1998). The origin of the participatory strategy can be traced back to the late
1960s and early 1970s in rural development work (Aina, 1993). This has been mainly
in operation in micro-scale projects and exhibit some difference to empowerment.

The alternative development has not indicated that it is capable of the establishment of a
better process of development and the developing world is still immersed in poverty or
getting poorer than before. There are many debates on the nature of the development
paradigm needed for the two worlds, developed and developing.
The modern development has had major negative impacts on the environment and on
existing social structures. Many livelihoods have been seriously affected by
excessive use of forests, water systems, and fisheries. Urban areas in developing
countries suffer from serious pollution and congestion in transportation, poor quality
water, and solid waste disposal problems. By 1990 it was clear that if this damage is not
checked properly it may retard development of these areas. Then the occurrence of
massive destruction through increased intensity of cyclones, landslides and droughts
resulting from El Nino effect between 1990 and 2000 prompted the World
Organisations to take note of effects of global warming resulting from the process of
development in the highly industrialised countries of the world.

97
World Bank President James Wolfensohn and chief economist Joseph Stiglitz
acknowledged in 1999 that these issues are crucial to address if global development has
to bring any meaning to livelihoods of millions in the developing world which rested
outside the centalised government control. Richard Norgaard, identifies a fundamental
error in the modernisation thinking which prevented us from identifying environmental
concerns.

Extract from
Seneviratne, H.M.M.B. (2003) Environment and Health, PhD. Thesis, NTNU, Norway.
ISBN 82-471-5222-3, Trondheim (in Rajarata University Library).

Sustainable Development

The term sustainable development is used as a global remedy for all the ills including
poor environmental management. Economically sustainable system is a system which
to produce goods and services without being heavily indebted and not causing
environmental damage (Harris, 2000). In here environmental sustainability is to
maintain natural resources at a level where they are not threatened with serious damage
which cannot be remedied with the use of available technology. A social sustainability
is achieved through the operation of a free and fair government and social institutions
where equity of all is honoured. However, it should be remembered that in a
developing world where corruption, gluttony and conflicts arising from ethnicity,
religious fanatism and extreme nationalism has continued to effect the livelihoods this
form of sustainability has only a nominal meaning.

Chapter 4

98
Economics of Environment

Environment is the primary economic resource for all human activities. The natural
geological environment provides air, water, minerals, vegetation and animals required
for economic activities. The human environment provides the humans and technology
required for economic activities. The economics and its subsidiary branches of
knowledge provide a logical structure for the provision of stable livelihoods.

Modern economics has indicated that nations where scientific environmental

management is practised have the highest level of human comfort and development. For
example the nations with the highest levels of human development index like Norway,
Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, Denmark and Austria have strict application of scientific
environmental management.

The process of scientific environmental management depends on the principles of

scientific environmental management.

The scientific environmental management uses concepts like Environment Impact

Assessment Analysis, SWOT Analysis in addition to Cost benefit Analysis.

The traditional economics is heavily used in nations and countries in the developing
world (including Sri Lanka) where corruption and gluttony prevails. In these countries
the impact reports are prepared, but the true application of the guidelines are not
properly implemented due to corruption.

The two following calculation systems indicate that the scientific evaluation is required
and should be followed for the long-term stability of the environment.

99
Net Percent Value (NPV) = Bt –Ct / (1-r) t

Bt = benefit over time

Ct = cost over time

(1-r) t = discount rate over time

Environmental Percent Value (EPV) = (V) - (Rcet - Vet )

V = value added to economy

Rcet = Replacement cost to environment over time
Vet = Value deducted from environment over time

Environmental Percent Value (EPV) is different from the Net Percent Value in many
ways and it is adjusted to suit developing nations where strict environmental
management practises are not followed.

Value in V is the total gross gain to the economy through collection, transportation,
wholesale and retail of the product. If the product is intangible kind then the customer
satisfaction have to be measured accordingly by evaluating the time saved or quickness
achieved. The gross gain is taken because it creates many avenues of informal
employment and benefits in disorganised economies of the developing world.

Rcet is the replacement cost originating due to extraction of a certain geological or

societal resource from the environment. Any activity in the environment will require
some form of digging or cutting which will damage a certain area of the environment.
For example, any form of cultivation and construction will loosen soil, insert some
foreign chemicals, remove material and add new material to the existing environment.
Some or all of these activities have to be reduced to a level which will not lead to
environmental problems in the future. For example in Norway in urban areas the water
is not allowed to flow over-ground for more than a distance required by the design of
the area, because it is an accepted fact that it is freely running water which damages
road surfaces. The road is the primary resource in any urban area as urban activity
depends on supply of goods and customers to the market quick. If the roads are
damaged this activity cannot be performed properly and traffic delays consume extra
fuel adding an extra damage to environment and economy.

Therefore all types of human activities have their own scientific and logical way of
management, which humans must follow if to avoid environmental damage. It is
impossible to replace totally any material removed from the environment. However, it
is possible to replace the impact to a level of minimal damage of environment. This
minimum damage control is a highly balanced situation, which must be decided only by
scientific analysis.

100
Vet is the total value deducted from the environment. This is the value of the primary
product, the secondary product (any other product which may be there in-line) and the
cost of damage to processes. If a road is constructed the following will occur)

Change of geological environment

Loss of soil and vegetation surface
Loss of soil water due to compaction of material
Change of water flow direction

Change of human environment

Increase population density
Increase housing density
Increase mobility

101
Chapter 5

Regional variation of the living planet

The variations created by climate and geomorphic characteristics form various regions
on the surface of the earth. In association with human activities three major regions can
be identified.

1. tropical
2. temperate
3. cold

The criteria used in the identification of these three major regions are given below with
their association to human environment and development.

Region Major criteria Human development

Tropics Warm and humid All the developing and
Between N and S 35 throughout the year – poor countries are located
degrees latitude suitable for large scale in this region. However all
human settlements the prosperous ancient
About 60 percent of the civilisations were located
population of the world in this region
live in tropics
Temperate Cool and wet – suitable for All the developed countries
Between N 35 and 65 large scale settlements are located in this region
degrees latitudes in the About 40 percent of the and until modern
northern and southern population of the world development was
hemisphere live in temperate areas introduced these regions
remained undeveloped
Cold In the extreme north and Remains a frontier with
Between 65 degree latitude south of the earth and in only frontier settlements
and poles in the northern the areas higher than 3000
and southern hemisphere meters above seal level –
not suitable for human
settlements

102
Selected countries and their location

Country Region and other features Development level

Sri Lanka Tropical wet and tropical wet and dry Low /poor
Malaysia Tropical wet and tropical wet and dry Fast developing
China Tropical wet, tropical wet and dry and dry/ Fast developing
temperate cool and cold
Australia Tropical wet, tropical wet and dry and dry/ Developed
temperate cool
New Temperate cool and cold Developed
Zealand
Iran Tropical wet and dry and dry/ temperate Low
cool and cold
Egypt Tropical wet and dry and dry Moderate
Nigeria Tropical wet and dry and dry Moderate
Norway Temperate cool and cold Highly developed
Sweden Temperate cool and cold Highly developed
Russia Temperate cool and cold Developed
USA Tropical wet and dry and dry/ temperate Highly developed
cool and cold
UK Temperate cool and cold Highly developed

Managing Tropics

Managing tropics is the most difficult economic and social challenges man has ever
faced as it has a massive population and a natural environment with high energy
transfer. This high energy environment is product of its temperature, which in turn
produces rapidly circulating air, deep clouds, and thunderstorms, high rates of mass
movement, soil erosion and floods. These extremities have resulted in the inability to
develop tropics and Malaysia is the only country with a sizable landmass which is fast
developing and the only model available for development of a tropical country. Israel
has developed, but it has taken the western model culture in to development which is
not directly applicable to cultures of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

In addition to the above mentioned natural extremities, many social ills have also
resulted in the problems of management in the tropics. Almost all the developing
countries have no democratic governance, cultural instability, religious fanatics and
terrorism within their borders. These countries are troubled with public service
inefficiency and corruption with elitist power overrunning the rights of the masses. This
unpleasant situation has forced many developing countries in the tropics to remain poor
and unstable. The result is that these countries in the tropics are constantly troubled by
103
natural and societal hazards which affect their economic development. In 2006 about 87
percent of the deaths and 84 percent of the damages recorded world wide were reported
from developing countries located in the tropics. Total estimated damage to property
was about 2 trillion dollars (200,000 billion rupees). Most of these disasters occur due
to lack of scientific understanding and non-utilisation available scientific environmental
management system in these countries by the inefficient public service systems.

The facts to be understood

Tropical environment is of high energy – high temperature/ high humidity/ rapid

convection (circulation of warm air)/ high energy thunderstorms with lightning/ fast
moving air masses, which bring heavy rains and strong winds ( large gatherings of
clouds moving rapidly)/ heavy cultural and religious mix (Hinduism – Buddhism –
Islam and Christianity with sizable number of followers in all religions)/ many ancient
cultural belief systems (it is estimated that there are about 2000 languages and 20,000
dialects in the tropics).

Tropical environment has local extremes of environment - Locally there are extreme
warm temperatures (average 28 to 30 degree C), wide daily range ( day and night
difference) , high humidity (most of the time over 65% (which results in sweating), high
run off from heavy rainfall which erode soil easily (muddy streams and rivers), rapid
weathering of rocks ( resulting from high daily range and humidity), high rates of
oxidation and calcification (reddish soils and lime flavour water), deep soils with semi-
weathered rock particles in them ( liable for landslides), high salinity in seas water
(more particles for cloud formation) and high level of diversity of plants and animals
(high biodiversity).

The present social structure of the tropics is based on a mixture of ancient and modern
belief systems, which has not yet found the path to development. In reality, the mixture
of old and new has not been stabilised by legislation either from the old or the new
systems of governance. Therefore the discipline in the process of development which
can be seen clearly through environmental management systems (waste control through
strict scientific legislation/ societal control through fair application of rule of law) in the
developed world are not utilised by the countries of the tropics. Further, the developed
world utilises their high status of development to exploit the weaker developing world
through global business and monetary institutions.

The tropics are the poor area of the world which were under many empires and
kingdoms from the ancient past to the end of European colonisation. The effect of
colonisation is present in the tropics from the physical (environmental change
conducted through the establishment of plantation agriculture and establishment of food
production programmes using western models of irrigation) and societal ( construction
of new hybrid culture centred on the language of the colonist and trade links)
transformation the colonists left behind.
The utilisation of the theory of modernisation in the development process was the norm
after the second world war. This was not practised in the tropical developing world as

104
the colonists required to keep tropics as the raw material suppliers to their
manufacturing. The faithful of the colonists were brought to political power through the
cultural connection and these leaders could not provide the impetus for national
development. The coming of the cold war brought a division in the poor developing
countries of the tropics and for about 1980 this division was responsible for the slaying
of many national leaders and , bloody revolutions. These revolutions brought confusion
to the poor tropical world and many fanatical systems emerged against the
destabilisation forces supported by the western system.

Frank (1966) presents the best overview of this group of theories, which studies the
overall exploitation of the satellite states by the central powerful industrial states. His
view was that the industrialised countries have become rich through the exploitation of
the poor countries. It is pertinent to look at Myrdal (1970), who brought forward the
concept of circular cumulative causation, which became popular through the notion of
vicious cycle of poverty. He regarded the development as a social process and stressed
that the power structures of the developing world have to be changed either by
evolution or revolution as a prerequisite for development. He further explained that this
should be followed by changes in orientation on the part of the developed world. Crew
and Harrison (1998) and Dube (1988) identify the eurocentric nature of the
modernisation paradigm, as a major factor for its failure in the developing countries.
Crew and Harrison, (1998) indicate that rationality, the search for objective truth, and a
movement towards modernity was expected in the ideology but not practised in the
developing nations. There was no serious discussion of the modernisation theory until
the early 1970s and environmental degradation was becoming a problem, because role
of spatial variables and geographical contexts were not considered important Lund (
1993). She reiterates the validity of the cultural and historic factors of development in a
discussion of the newly industrialised countries of Asia and relates this development to
a pre-modern or modern phenomenon in the Rostowian sense. A continuation of this
process of change into the 1970s is related to the rapid growth of Sri Lanka and
Bangladesh, which was curtailed by the recession in the west in the 1980s.
Globalisation has nat managed to correct the situation, though it has managed to
provide marginal wealth to poor of the tropical developing world through flow of
foreign investment. A few countries like India, China, Brazil, Malaysia, Singapore,
Taiwan and South Korea have managed to be fairly developed due to existence of a
good political leadership and heavy support from western financial institutions.
However, the rest of the tropical developing countries are affected by many economic
and social problems and stay poor while many have become poorer than before.

There are two primary reasons for poverty in the tropics

First is its high energy physical environment which requires a different magnitude of
basic scientific knowledge in the utilisation and control of environment. All tropical
poor countries suffer from lack of utilisation of scientific knowledge in national
planning and the political problems have resulted in non-adherence to scientific
planning systems.

105
Secondly, the social complexities of the tropical nations require a different model of
governance from the types of governance in the western modern societies. Social
complexities arising from multi-culturalism have destabilised the nations resulting in
conflict and war within their boundaries, which retards economic development.

However countries like Malaysia, China and India have shown that a system
constructed in alliance with the modern world systems, but with local independence can
change the status of poverty. With this background knowledge of the tropics the
following tables are prepared and they will provide you information on the environment
of the tropics.

Tropics : major climatic subdivisions

The major environmental sub-divisions of the tropics in this book are based on climate.
In this book we utilise the simple system information from Koppen (1900).

106
Climate Area Major environmental characteristics Present situation Value
Tropical All the Forest has a minimum of four to five layered Heavily damaged by The most valuable
rainforest rainforest forest. Forest floor is covered with lianas and uncontrolled human carbon storage in
(Af) areas of High rainfall (mean annual rainfall over 3000 activities. Poverty has the world and place
Congo, mms) and high humidity (relative humidity forced many border where most of the
Amazon and over 65%, which is not conducive for humans) people to encroach in carbon dioxide
Indonesian makes this area to be very uncomfortable for to the forest. gases are processed.
Islands, humans. No dry season and there may be about However, the most Recent scientific
some 250 to 300 rainy days with about 90 percent of serious damage is investigations have
locations in the rain coming from Thunderstorms in the from illegal timber indicated that
Sri Lanka, afternoon or evening. High evapotranspiration collection and destriction of these
Southern makes the air constantly sticky and sweating. removal of medicinal forests can activate
India, Very few rainforest areas are inhabited and and flowering plants a rapid global
Northern mostly forest tribes occupy these areas. by hired labour of the climatic change.
Austarlia, Average population density is less than 25 local elites some
South east people/ per square kilometre. The soils depend times supported by The medicinal value
Asia on the continuous supply of organic matter corrupt westerners. of these forests is
(Malaysia from the forest and once the forest is cleared, In 2006 Sri Lankan considered to be
and southern soil looses its fertility rapidly. media reported 12 irreplaceable. With
Phillipines) Best suitable for forest harvesting in a cases related to the highes
East Africa ( scientific way, which can supply rare tropical damage to its biodiversity these
Kenya and hardwoods, medicinal products and flowering Rainforest and about forests may contain
Uganda) plants. Malaysia and Vietnam have begun 4 cases where the secrets of
forest harvesting in its rainforest. foreigners were medicine and the
Many species of baboons, orangutang and involved in export of global food chain.
chimpancies live in the forest with varied types rainforest plants and
of bats. In addition this is the home of many animals.
types of reptiles and amphibians.

107
Climate Area Major environmental characteristics Present situation
Tropical All the rainforest Forest has a minimum of two to three layered Heavily damaged by
rainforest (Am) areas of the monsoon forest. Forest floor is covered with srubs, herbs and uncontrolled human
Or Monsoon Rain lands are categorised lianas. activities. Poverty has
Forest under this type. Once Moderate rainfall ( mean annual 1500 to 2000 forced many border
of the largest forest millimeters) and moderate humidity ( relative people to encroach in
regions of the globe humidity of 75% to 55%)makes this area to be very to the forest.
which were utilised comfortable for humans. There is a minimum of 3 However, the most
by many ancient months dry season and rainfall is received mainly serious damage is
civilisations (Rajarata from the southwest monsoon in the south and south from illegal timber
of Sri Lanka, south west and north easterlies in the north and east of collection and
and Central Indian the areas. Convection is high and tropical removal of medicinal
civilisations ( depressions and cyclones are common. and flowering plants
Mayura, Chola and Thunderstorms are common in the periods of by hired labour of the
Gujarat Tamilnadu March-April and October – Novemebr. High local elites some
Vijayanagar- south evapotranspiration makes the dry season very dry times supported by
east Asian and windy. Today most of the populations of Asia, corrupt westerners.
civilisations - Africa and Latin America live in this area (total of In 2006 Sri Lankan
Angkorwat- and about 3.0 billion) The soils depend on the media reported more
central American continuous supply of organic matter from the forest than 170 cases related
indian Civilisations- and once the forest is cleared, soil looses its to damage to its
Inca and Aztec- ) fertility rapidly. monsoon forest.
which flourished Best suitable for tropical grain cultivation in
when these areas valleys, tree crops and forest harvesting in a
were slightly more scientific way. These forests carry highly
rainier than today. At ornamental tropical hardwoods, which are very
present these forests expensive in the global market. Further, medicinal
are limited to highly products and tropical fruit trees add value to this
localised small forest forest. India, Malaysia and Vietnam have begun
units. forest harvesting in its rainforest.
The boundary of this forest with tropical grasslands

108
is the home to many exotic mammals like elephant,
tiger, cheetah and lion. In addition many species of
monkey, deer, antelope, wild buffalos, many types
of reptiles and amphibians also live in this area.
This is the most visited forest in the world by
tourists local and foreign.

109
Climate Area Major environmental characteristics Present situation
Tropical Tropical Grasslands are known as Savanna in Africa Stepps in Asia, Heavily damaged by
Grasslands grasslands are Downs in Australia and Prairies in North America belong to uncontrolled human
(BS) located between this type of environment. Forest has a minimum of two to three activities. Poverty has
the monsoon layered forest. Grassland is about 80 percent grass with shrub forced many border
forest (Am) and forest along the river valleys. people to encroach in
the tropical Low rainfall ( less than 600 millimeters annually) and low to the grassland.
deserts. Some humidity ( between 35% to 60% for more than 9 months of the However, the most
ancient year) makes this area to be slightly uncomfortable humans. serious damage is
civilisations Rainy season is about 3 months and the rest of the year is dry. from increased
(Egyptian, Today this area is damaged by desert encroachment and animal rearing and
mesapotamian, humans have begun to migrate out. The grasslands of the killing of wild
Indo-gangetic, developed countries have been scientifically developed and animals for fun and
Persian, Middle sustain human habitation without many problems. However, the collection of body
Eastern and regions of developing countries suffer continuously from water parts. This activity is
Amerindian) shortage and related diseases. In Africa, Asia and Latin conducted by hired
flourished in this America the lowest life expectancy and highest children labour of the local
region when mortalities are reported from the grassland areas due to constant elites some times
these regions food shortages. People live in tribal groups which have a supported by corrupt
were slightly cultural attachments to the area. The soils depend on the westerners.
more rainy than continuous supply of organic matter from the grassland and In 2006 international
today. American once the grassland is cleared, soil looses its fertility rapidly and media reported about
indian begins to blow away in dust storms. 125 cases related to
Civilisations- Best suitable for tropical grain cultivation in a low intensive damage to tropical
Inca and Aztec- ) scientific way. Tropical grasslands is the home to many exotic grasslands and its
and today mammals like elephant, tiger, cheetah and lion. In addition biotic resources.
limited to highly many species of monkey, deer, antelope, wild buffalos, many
localised small types of reptiles and amphibians also live in this area. This is
forest units. the most visited forest in the world by tourists local and foreign.

110
Climate Area Major environmental characteristics Present situation
Tropical Tropical deserts Deserts like Sahara, Arabian, New mexico, Iranian, Thar Deserts are becoming
Deserts are located Taklamakan, Kyzylkum and Kara kum are in this category of hot hotter and desert
(BW) between the deserts. Mean annual rainfall is about 25 millimeters, but there dwellers are now
tropical may be no rain for two to three years. Humidty is low with about leaving the deserts.
grasslands and an average of about 30% which is not sufficient for humans. Some desert areas are
humid cool People living here live in mud houses near a permanent spring highle urbanised by
climates (humid created in the underground water. Most of the large settlements the oil wealth like in
mesothermal are located in the borders of the desert which is known as Sahel. the middle East.
climates). These Many large depressions and remnenets of lakes from the last Further, desert has
are the hottest glacial period of the earth are located in the Sahel. become the most
deserts of the active battleground
world where day However, Still some tribes who specialise in living in isolated for culture clash
temperatures can desert oasis (Bedouin and Tureg) live in these inhospitable between west and
be about 50 terrain. Their speciality is to utilise the limited supply of water to east.
degrees Celsius produce vegetables and fruits. Some times in a wet year they
and night may farm some grains. They rare domesticated desert goat (ram)
temperatures and camels for milk and meat. These people operate the caravan
lower than 10 trade between grassland area and the desert using camel
degrees Celcius. caravans, which carry salt and some salt minerals from the dry
These deserts lake beds in the desert and carry some food items, clothing and
have the largest tools back to their oasis village.
range of
temperature in It is well known that these people operate the trade of the Silk
the world. Route and Opium route in Asia, East-West and North-South
settlements Saharan caravan system. However, these people are affected by
oil exploration in the desert, which has brought them live in a
pore permanent way. The trans-saharan highway and trans asian
highway has drastically reduced caravan trade in the desert in the
recent years.

111
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Note for readers: The Department of Social Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka
collects data on hazards in the dry zone of Sri Lanka on a regular basis and publishes
the data sheet “ENINFO”. Detailed information is available from Dr. H.M.M.B.
Seneviratne of the Department of Social Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka.

115
 THE GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF
SRI LANKA

Simulated on the basis of available evidence given by

From Adams (1929), Wadia (1945), Kularatnam (1952) ,

Vithanage (1970), Cooray (1967), and Seneviratne (1968).

Adams, F.D., 1929 The geology of Ceylon. Can. J.Res.,

1:425–511
Cooray, P.G. (1967) Geology of Ceylon, National Museums,
Colombo.
Kularatnam, K. (1952) late mature Erosion Surfaces in
Ceylon and their Tectonic Relations in Proceedings of the
International Geographical Congress, Washington, D.C., p344
-349.
Seneviratne, H.M.M.B. (1968) A review on the identification
of the major landform units of Sri Lanka, Polawatalaya, The
Annual Magazine of the Geographical Society of University
of Colombo, (in Sinhala).
Vitanage, P.W., 1970 A study of geomorphology and
morphotecttonics in Ceylon. Proceedings of the Seminar on
geochemical prospecting methods and techniques,
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, University of Ceylon, pp 391–406
Wadia, D.N. 1945 The three superposed peneplains of Ceylon.
Prof. Pap. Ceylon Dep. Minerol., 1:25–32

STAGE 1

FORMATION OF THE GEOSYNCLINE – PRE CAMBRIAN

(more than 500-600 million years ago)

116
This is the phase of sedimentation, during which the earliest possible
sediments were laid down in the dawn of the Sri Lanka landmass. Sri Lanka
landmass was still a part of Gondwanaland and was located in the massive
landmass somewhere between present day Australia, Africa and Antarctica.
During the Pre-Cambrian and Cambrian

Probable
position of
Sri Lanka

117
THE FOLDING AND THE METAMORPHISM OF THE GEOSYNCLINE

PRE-CAMBRIAN AND CAMBRIAN (around 500 million years ago)

Mantle rocks

118
STAGE 3

POSSIBLE PENEPLANATION ( Possibly in Carboniferous-Devonian )

POSSIBLE MARINE TRANSGRESSION IN Mesozoic

119
STAGE 4

FAULTING AND EVOLUTION OF PRESENT SCENERY

(EN MASSE BLOCK UPLIFT – WADIA, CIRCUMSCRIBE BLOCK UPLIFT –
KULARATNAM, MULTIPLE BLOCK - COORAY/ VITHANAGE - MULTIPLE
BLOCK AND DIFFERENTIAL EROSION

The land mass was uplifted to various heights and the basis for present day structure was
established. The synclinorium structure was visible.

THIS HIGHLY SIMPLIFIED VERSION OF THE STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION IS

ONLY A PICTORIAL FORM AND SHOULD NOT BE TAKEN AS HYPOTHESIS

120
 Based on Cooray, (1967) and
Seneviratne (1977)
:

121
Key

Granites - pink

Other Granite intrusions

Thonigala

Warana

Ambagaspitiya

Thabbowa – Andigama Sandstones and Shales

Kataragama Granitic Complex -

Rathnapura beds

Kadugannawa Gneiss

122
 Appendix 1

Hazards observed, studied and predicted - landslides, mud flows,123rock

falls, embankment collapse, floods, flash floods, new diseases and
ethnic conflict. (based on public records, media reports and field visits)
Key:

Heat wave deaths (2006) -

Floods which led to loss of life and heavy property loss and
required substantial government help

Landslides which led to loss of life and heavy property loss and
required substantial government help

Tornadoes which were investigated – between 2 to 5 million rupee

damage

Flash floods which were investigated – between 1to 2 million rupee

damage

Long duration creep sites – damages in million of rupees

Roads with continuous blockage by mud flow, rock fall, gravel

slide and landslides in the rainy season. The road builders have not
taken these pressures seriously and road surfaces are damaged
continuously leading to increased journey time

Liable to damaging floods due to non adherence to advice on

climatic change

Liable to heavy local flooding due to increased intensity of

thunderstorm rainfall in the next 20 to 50 years

Occurrence of new diseases

124
Ethnic conflict related destruction

Probable fracture zones on which some shift of rock strata is

expected, creating landslides and creep

125