10 Chapter 3
10 Chapter 3
10 Chapter 3
48
understand the term "Deccan" and to examine the evolution of the historic
Deccan and the validity of its geo-political concept in order to place the
history of medieval Deccan in its wider perspective and to locate Golconda
and Hyderabad region innately.
In this regard a brief account of the historicity of the Deccan and
Golconda and Hyderabad regions have been dealt tracing the origin of their
name, royal lineage and their accomplishments.
Etymology of the term "Deccan" and its meaning:
The historicity of Deccan reveals that "Deccan" as a geographic, ethnic
and political entity played a significant role in shaping history. A survey of
its history during this era (C17th - 18th AD) is a seemingly unending
sequence of political wars, economic progression, cultural contributions and
artistic achievements.
The term "Deccan" "Dekkan" or "Dakhan" is apparently derived from the
word Dakshina meaning, "right hand" or south.1 The Deccan is referred to in
the epics as the 'Dandakarayana1 and is associated with the life of Rama in
the forest." The sacred literary works like puranas (Maitreya, Vayu) and
other Sanskrit works refer to it as "'Dakshinapada" or "Dakshinavadha"
meaning "The Southern Region.3 That the name Deccan was in usage in
ancient times is proved by the fact that the authors of the Periplus refers to a
portion of peninsular India as ' Dachinabades '.4 This was on account of the
fact that "Dachonos" was the language of the then natives.5 In the beginning
of the 5th C AD Fahien, the Chinese traveler, remarked that towards south,
there is a country called 'Ta-Thsin' which corresponds to the Sanskrit word
'Dakshina'.
49
It left an imprint
on cultural history not only because of its geographical position but also on
account of its continuous history.
Geographically, the land of Deccan is traversed by several rivers like
Narmada, Tapti, Godavari, Krishna, Bhima, Indravathi and Tungabhadra.
This expansive rocky plain is separated from north by Vindhya and Satpura
mountain ranges. These luxuriant mountains and green beauty gave Deccan
a pleasant look.
Three main distinct geographical areas of Deccan namely- the march
land Deccan or the area of political assimilation, the heartland Deccan or the
area of political control and the peripheral Deccan or the area of political
influence can be perceived. 8
Mullah Washi a poet of the Qutb Shahi Court commented on the
greatness of Deccan as:
"Dakhan hai nageena, angoothi haijag,
Anghoothi kon hurmat, nageena hi lag."
The Deccan is the precious stone; the ring is the
world,
A
In
50
These influences of north and south mingled on the Deccan and the
collation of contrasting political and cultural forces gave medieval Deccan in
particular a distinctive character on which evolved many royalistic
kingdoms, the prominent being Golconda of Qutb Shahis and Hyderabad of
Asaf Jahis.
Regarding the greatness of medieval Deccan, Allama Iqbal remarked:
"Noor ke Zarron se qudrat ne banayee ye zamin.
Ainah tapke Deccan ki khak agar paye fishar "
Which means nature has created this earth with the particles of divine
light; the atmosphere of the Deccan radiates light and shines like a mirror.11
51
sports, festivals, education, literature and the picture of religion and culture
in medieval Deccan.
52
The historicity of this Golconda fort which played important role in 17th
Century lies in the fact that it existed from early medieval Deccani era.17
Sultan Quli Strengthened the ramparts of famous Golconda fort and built
several parts of it like fabrication, living quarters, Turkish baths, etc.
Thevenot who visited Golconda in 1666 AD remarked that it was named as
Golconda by Sultan Quli Qutb Shah himself ,18 The legend says a shephred
(golla) guided Sultan Quli to the fort and hence forth, it came to be known as
Golla or Golconda meaning in Telugu 'the plateau of the shepherd.19
Within few years the feud among the Afaqis and the Deccanis ultimately
led to the break - up of the Bahmani kingdom and with its disintegration,
Sultan Quli assumed virtual independence and thus laid the foundation of the
great Qutb Shah dynasty with Golconda region as his capital. This royal
dynasty - founded in 1518 AD - lasted till its end in 1687, when Mughal
suzerainty of Aurangzeb dominated.
Sultan Quli made all efforts to subjugate the perennial feuding smaller
rulers and to extend the territories by a policy of annexation. With this
expansion, the resources of Golconda also increased. It expanded along with
its army, civilian population and habitations.
53
structures. There upon Golconda Kingdom was at its height under his
successors.22 Here it is apt to point out that these details of Golconda's
historic origin with royal foundational lineage, gives insight of the beginning
of a new era that promoted extensive artistic traditions of medieval Deccan
resulting in a new brand of paintings in 17th Century.
Sultan Quli was succeeded by Jamshid Quli who took over the reign of
rule with blood-strained hands as he murdered his father Sultan Quli at the
ripe old age of ninety.23 There was political instability due to frequent wars
and antagonist relations between the Deccan kingdoms. His rule was marked
mainly by people's resentment over his patricide.
54
when the title of Hydermahal was bestowed upon her, the name of the city
was accordingly changed to Hyderabad.30 The new city was built with
Charminar as its focal point.31 There are several versions of historians
supporting as well as contradicting this naming of the region.32
The new city was very dear to Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah. Hence, he
prayed for the progress of the city as
This magnificent city was prepared on the plans of his Peshwa Mir
Mumin.
The noted historian Ferishta remarked that, "There is no other city in the
whole of India like the city of Hyderabad either in the east, west, north or
south.'This city was adorned in 17th century with magnificent royal building
of fine architecture and superb gardens of greenery. Maulana Hali, a famous
poet, remarked: "If anybody enters the garden for work, he will certainly
return with the aroma and fragrance of flowers. Hyderabad is indeed a
garden city; its doors of prosperity are open to all."34
It is apt to point out two important points, first of all such descriptions are
worthy in the sense that such scenes were represented in paintings of the
time and secondly, it was this great city which in 18th century became the
capital of Asaf Jahis, who ruled over Deccan region after the fall of
Golconda and Mughal suzerainty.
During Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah's reign, Golconda kingdom reached
highest pinnacle of glory and witnessed golden age of Qutb Shahi dynastic
55
rule, with his compassionate rule as a planner, patron and foster of medieval
Deccani atmosphere.
Sultan Mohammad Qutb Shah succeeded his father-in-law.35 His reign
was most peaceful period in the history of Golconda marked by neither
internal problems nor external attacks. He administered the kingdom with
loyal, trustworthy, sincere and honest officials, strewed ministers and a
gallant army.36
The reign of his successor Abdullah Qutb Shah saw the decline of
Golconda.37
The
eight-month
strong self-defense,
56
Dynasty,
Hyderabad'.
41
'Dar-al-Jihad
57
and Raju warrior peasant castes, who served as military commanders, found
themselves redundant after 1687 AD and many disappeared into obscurity.42
Among the prominent officials during this time were Rohilla Khan,
Yousuf Khan, Mubarak Khan and Mir Quamuruddin. Nearly for 37 years
Hyderabad came under the direct rule of these subedars appointed by
Mughal emperor. Large scale migrations in and out of Golconda took place
during this period.
58
Wazir, Dabir, Kotwal, Sarkhel and other noted officials.45 They lived in a
dignified style fulfilling the loyal and royal responsibilities. Sultan always
had a critical eye on their actions and deeds. A total outlook presents that the
legal and administrative framework was provided by Sharia-Quran (the Holy
Book of Muslims) and Hadith (Sayings and actions of Prophet Muhammad),
Sharia (Consensus) amongst the most learned of the Prophet's companions,
and Urf'(Local customs and practices.). The rulers issued decrees and orders
in various residuary and secular matters known as firmans (Official
Documents).
Rajamahendravaram,
Ahobilam,
Vinukonda,
Khammam,
59
47
60
tradition being fighting against a foreign enemy in Deccan united with other
Deccani powers in case of emergency, not withstanding the dimensions and
quarrels they had earlier.
The rulers conducted durbars at intervals, which were marked by great
pomp and show. The nobles and subordinate attended the ministerial
councils which held regularily. Persons of honesty and loyalty were
appointed in this council by Sultan, who discussed the problems of the
public. Nobility also equally participated in state-matters and because of
their support cool Sultans could hold-up and were successful in crushing
enemies owing to near selection of advisors of worth and merit.48
Another interesting feature of their polity was that Qutb Shah's had
intimate contacts with great Shia state Iran especially with Safawids, ever
since the establishment of the dynasty.49 They recognized Persian emperor as
their overlord.
However, Persia
61
This
62
favorite in Persia and were exported from Masulipatnam. The metals like
copper, Zinc, lead and quick silver ivory, coral and other products required
for textile handicrafts were also imported. Precious stones and metals were
largest item of imports at that time.59 Metals, corals, pearls and lead were
mainly imported from Holland
60
commodities from abroad like horses from Arabia and Persia, lead from
England, broad cloth from France, dried fruits from Bukhara and Persia,
Porcleain from China and cloves from Ceylon. Saltpeter used in the
manufacture of gunpowder was another important item of import.
Among all these there were extensive commercial and trade relations
especially with Persia. Textiles, tobacco, gunpowder, rubies, wooden
furniture, constituted the main exports and carpets, ceramics, glass, silver,
pearls, fruits and horses were main imports from Persia. Slaves also
constituted important item of trade. Masulipatanam, Nizampatnam and
Srikakulam were the principal ports of the kingdom.62 Narsapur on the banks
of river Godavari was known for flourishing ship building activity. It is
interesting here to note that the Persian word for port was Bandar, which is
used for a town's name even now at Machilipatnam. Bullockcarts, horses
were used for travel.
The royalty and nobility participated actively in the trade.63 Due to this
extensive trade and commercial contacts, kingdom got filled with rich
population was one of the reasons, which made the Sultan to construct the
famous Hyderabad city with four Kamans, 14,000 shops and 12,000
mohallasin 1591 AD.65
During Abdullah time several trunk roads were laid such as Hyderabad
to Machilipatnam and Hyderabad to Madras. Golconda kingdom had their
own mint, where gold, silver, copper, tin coins were minted, while hons
(gold coins) remained of high value, cowries were of lowest value. Coinage
exhibited a great variety consisting of the Persian, Mughal, Vijaynagar,
Dutch, French, English, Portuguese, Venetian, Spanish and other coins. Yet,
unit of gold coinage was the Vijaynagar and that of silver coinage the
Mughal rupee. 66
Keeping in view the pressing economic exigencies, the Qutb Shahi
Vxx\%<k>m watocvraW^ &e,\io\,d. \\s, etvet^s, to raujtove fmarvcial revenues. The
main source of revenue to \he state was \and revenue and its collection was
done through the tax-farming system. This ultimately paved the way for the
peasant exploitation and mass migration of peasants.67 Land revenue was
paid either in cash or kind. Agricultural land was farmed out to highest
bidder. Efficient commercial linkages with outside world not only led to
economic impulse but also brought additional revenue to the kingdom.
Feudal tenure system was in vogue in medieval Deccan known as Mirasidar
tenure, where land was mainly under the control of Reddis.6 The word
mirasi is derived from hereditary rights. It differs from the qaul or uppan
64
tenure (cowl in early English documents), which was a lease at will for a
short period. They being hereditary landlords looked after matters of village
called as gotsabha, which was essentially a feudal assembly consisting of
watandars, mirasidars qauldars or other feudal lords of the locality. They
generally belonged to the locally reddi, karnam and Nayudu castes and were
given rent free land to support them in order that they might be able to serve
all classes of people.
European travelers Tavernier, Bernier and Thevenot who visited
Golconda gave a clear picture of economic activities and the encouragement
given by Qutb Shahis rulers, which in turn resulted in revenue progress.
Particularly the system of peshkash or presents to the royal court for the
work done, on behalf of the European companies started in the beginning of
17th century.69
sources of revenue were octroi was levied on tobacco, salt, excise duty on
toddy and export duties. There was also a tax on diamonds. Tavernier who
visited mines of Kollur recorded that 30,000 men worked in them and
diamonds up to 900 carats were mined.70 There was also a system of jagirs,
which were generally granted to poets, litterateurs to promote literary
activity.71 They also used to reward those who were engaged in gardening
and horticulture.
All these trends indicates the wealth of the kingdom and the affluence of
the state treasury can be seen in the fact that inspite of incessant wars, wealth
flowed into the kingdom, which was spent lavishly for the constructional
works, architectural structures, furniture and decorators, procession scenes
and promotion of arts.72 For instance during Ibrahim coronation ceremony, a
procession of seven hundred Arab horses and two hundred war elephants all
fully caparisoned in the cloth of gold were led. This indicates majestic
outlook and proverbial wealth of the Qutb Shahs. It is interesting to note that
such procession scenes reflecting wealth of kingdoms were also painted in
miniatures of Golconda. This wealth was visible apparently in the gold
jewelry worn by both women and men, especially by the dancers and
courtesans for whom Golconda was renowned.
65
These economic conditions indicate that Sultans always tried and aimed
at strengthening of the realm and replenishment of the treasury with
enduring progress on all fronts. This economic finance acted as a pillar of
support to the system of administration not necessarily denying the
importance and existence of other spheres.
The social picture of Golconda presents a combination of various ethnic,
religious, linguistic and caste identities, where Sultans tried to foster a sense
of harmony and maintain social solidarity not only to have peaceful
atmosphere but also to maintain themselves as rulers who are in real sense
are aliens to local population. There was continuous flow of people from
Turkistan, Khurasan, Arabia and the adjacent lands into Golconda which
resulted in the formation of different cultures with different sects, castes, and
tribes such as Shias, Sunnies, Brahmans, Komtis, Bundelas, Pindaries, etc. 74
Two main points are to be observed at societal level. Muslim conquerors
were accommodated into a different culture and religion of Deccani Society
at one level and at another level, the local population had to face the impact
of foreign social customs and traditions. But both the divisions mainly
Hindus and Muslims inspite of influences, maintained their identity and
individuality. However dynastic changes had only a marginal impact on
social life of people. Sultans took upon themselves the cultural synthesis
rather than indulging in sectarian castes and creeds. They created amiable
atmosphere in which all sections gave great importance to human values,
feelings and sentiments.
Most importantly a remarkable contribution of Mohammed Quli Qutb
Shah's reign was that 'Deccani Culture' came into being which is a judicious
blend of Hindu- Muslim cultural traditions. He popularized this culture by
participating in the local customs and traditions. This exchange of cultural
aspects penetrated into the literature, where literary compositions of Telugu
contained Urdu words at many instances.
Qutb Shahi Sultans extended their patronage to Telugu, Urdu, Persian,
and Arabic and to the learned men and scholars settled in their dominion.
This interaction of culture and intimate relationship let to the birth of a new
tradition of language known as Dakhni Urdu.75
66
67
68
from their desire to strengthen the socio- economic structure that was feudal
in nature and also to stabilize their alien rule in new land of Deccan.
Though Qutb Shahi rulers were Shias, they gave importance to religion
of Hindus, their customs and traditions and beliefs and even participated in
their religious ceremonies to the fullest extent. For instance there are as
many as nine poems on vasant or basant in the collection of Mohammed
Quli Qutb Shah's
festival
82
equal fervour and enthusiasm. The rulers and their subordinates made a
number of land grants to temples and Brahmans
83
donated
Palvancha
and
Sankaragiri
to
Bhadrachalam
temple.
69
(89)
70
remained the prime factors for the growth, progress and existence of
miniature paintings.
rubies".
71
Khan
Nizam-ul-Mulk.
His
predecessors
Khwaja
Abid
and
Ghaziuddin Khan Firoz Jung acquired great honors during the reign of Shah
Jahan and Aurangzeb. Nizam-ul-Mulk was the scion of a respectable family
of Turkistan.
72
and exalted post and fought against plundering Marathras and alarming
Sayyid brothers in order to stabilize his position as well as to restore the
empire of the old flourishing state. But unfortunately his undisputed power
and rapid rise eventually incurred the wrath of the Mughal emperor
Muhammad Shah, who gave order for his fall. The task of carrying out this
plot was entitled to Mubariz Khan, the local governor of Hyderabad.
At this juncture, Mubariz Khan invaded Aurangabad. As a result of
which Nizam met the challenge at the battlefield of Shakar Kheda near
Aurangabad on 11th October 1724 AD against Mubariz Khan.91 The battle
instigated by Mubariz khan was suppressed and he was slained. This
decisive battle is of great significance in the history of medieval Deccan. For
all practical purposes, the foundation of new independent Asaf Jahi dynasty
was laid in 1724 AD. It marked the establishment of Nizam-ul-Mulk's
hereditary rule in medieval Deccan soil. After this victory, Nizam left for
Hyderabad and made it as his head quarters of administration guided by two
factors, as it was far away from Marathas attack and near to other southern
regions on which he wants to tighten his grip.
He reorganized administrative structure, systematized finances and
alleviated Marathas.
recalcitrant people.
reached the emperor Muhammad Shah, who felt conciliation is the best
policy issued a farman conferring on the Nizam the title of 'Asaf Jah' and the
Subedat of Deccan.92 From then Nizams were known as Asaf Jahis and their
flag bore the sign of kulchas.
Although Nizam obtained a hereditary viceroyalty almost entirely by his
own efforts, he never ceased to acknowledge the overlordship of the Mughal
emperor.
73
He conducted wars,
74
external assistance for the protection of their territofr as well as for dealing
with internal matters.
Hence after the death of Asaf Jah-I, Deccan became one of the centres of
Anglo-French rivalry for power. Wars, treaties and treacheries marked their
reign. These rulers though were confirmed as the Subedars by the Mughal
Emperor were not given title of Asaf Jah or Nizam and hence were not
historically recognized as reigning sovereigns. However they patronized arts
and letters. For instance Nasir Jung was proficient in Persian, Arabic and
Sanskrit. He was well versed in music, painting and calligraphy. He himself
was a poet in Persian and Urdu.
It was during the reign of Salabat Jung, Mughal emperor Shah Alam-II
issued a farman appointing Nizam AH khan's (fourth son of Nizam-ul-Mulk)
as a subedar of the Deccan and bestowed on him the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk
Asaf Jah-II. Salabat Jung was deposed by Nizam AH Khan and was
imprisoned at Bidar in 1762 AD after which Nizam AH Khan shifted his
capital from Aurangabad to Hyderabad.
From then onwards Hyderabad became the main seat of attraction, glory
and dignity of Asaf Jahis. Being centrally located, it was away from attacks
and helped in economic growth and expansion and in its rising importance
and prosperity.
Nizam Ali khan's reign was one of the important episodes of Deccan
history of Asaf Jahis being longest as well as most eventful and challenging.
He ruled Hyderabad at a more critical period by saving the dynasty from
complete fall. His reign was marked by British dominance and treaties and
alliances with them, signaling the decline of Nizam's power and sovereignty.
Nizam Ali Khan was succeeded by his son Sikander Jah Asaf Jah III. It
was during his rule a new township of Secunderabad was constructed mainly
as a military camp for British. Though independent ruler but due to lack of
courage, talent and will power made to remain at a subordinate position to
growing British power. An important military aspect during his reign was
anti-British sentiments in Hyderabad which made Britishers to re-organize
Nizam's army.96 Britishers even interfered in the administrative matters
mainly in the appointment of ministers that brought chaos in the kingdom.
75
76
77
sagacity,
78
104
l07
79
the British ecquired from the ruling Nizam the coastal Andhra districts lying
to the North of Madras and later the hinterland districts. Though the major
part of Andhra country came under British rule, parts of the Telugu speaking
areas, known as the Telangana region remained under Nizams dominion.
These are culmination of political scenario under Nizams royalty. Royal
buildings constructed during their time remained as museums of art treasures
and palaces possessing priceless collection of paintings, statues and furniture
of multitude from different places.
On economic front of Nizams rule, the wealth can be seen in the piled up
stacks of gold bricks, chests of diamonds and pearls and mountains of silver
rupees. Wealth is spent in organizing social gatherings, in designing the
architectural styles and in aesthetic and moral resurgence by way of
patronizing poets and artists. Wealth kept on increasing with Nazaras or
offerings from nobles clustered around Hyderabad royal courts and men of
faith from different parts of world.
There were instances of financial crisis also, where rulers had to
mortgage their jewels to meet the expenses. They had to give away northern
circars to British and few towns to French not only to consolidate their
kingdom against rivals but also to meet the expenses incurred on them.
The rulers had penchant for autonomy and economic progress. They took
special care of economy and settlement of land revenue, which remained as
main source of revenual income. Hyderabad during their rule remained as
most lightly taxed kingdoms. Rigorous economy was maintained in every
branch. Nizams appointed separate revenue collectors, tahsildars and
Jagirdars for collection of revenue.108 They were subject to the control and
direction of the provincial Diwan, who in turn was guided in his transactions
by the orders of the rulers.
This new economic arrangement was devised to ensure regular flow of
revenues and to maintain the financial stability of the kingdom. Apart from
rulers, nobility too played a good role to extricate kingdom from financial
crisis and maladministration with remarkable assiduity, governance, and
observation. Cement, paper and sugar factories gained momentum. Locally
made articles were given importance and paper was manufactured at
80
Kaghaziguda.
109
were the places where paper industry flourished. The Nima and Jama cloth
was manufactured at Nanded.
Nizam's minted coins of variety. They appointed news reporters and
postal runners for the delivery of messages. They established Dak Chaukis
(postal offices) for communication. Money lending became the most paying
and attracting occupation. Vetti system (forced labour) resulted due to feudal
aristocracy. Cobblers, engaged in tanning of leather, for drawing water, were
forced to supply these to landlords free of cost, while the rest of peasantry
paid a fixed quantum of grain. Boyalu, Bestalu, Chakali, were forced to carry
palanquins of landlords. Similarly toddy-tappers, weavers, washer men,
potters, shepherds, barbers were exploited to maximum extent possible.
Paigahs, samsthanas, jagirdars, banjardars, maktedars, inamdars or
agraharams were the various kinds of feudal oppressors. Some of them used
to have their own revenue officers to collect the taxes of which they paid
small quarter to the kingdom. Here paigas were estates granted to Muslim
feudals, especially to Nizams relatives for maintaining armed persons to help
Nizam during emergencies. Deshmukhs and Deshpandes were other officers
who as tax collectors grabbed thousands of acres of best fertile cultivated
land oppressing peasantry. In particular Nizams appointed revenue collectors
called Tahsildars for the realization of additional sum
ll0
81
unmarried
daughters were
exempted
culture of the South itself, a blend of Maratha, Telugu and Tamil influences
and last of all a little of the Western world. "4
82
83
sections. This religious synthesis of Hindu and Iranian Islamic cultures can
also been seen in art and architectural aspects like depiction of cultural
themes in paintings and construction of blend of Indo-Islamic architectural
styles making Hyderabad tradition rich and unique.
Thus to conclude of political history of medieval Deccan mainly from
17th to 18th centuries reflects three phases:
-In the first phase of 17th century one can see the political advancement
of Qutb Shahis despite
domination
-In the second phase of 18th century one can witness the changing
political
-In the third phase one can perceive the ultimate rise of Asaf Jahi's to
glory and power.
The entire peninsula of medieval Deccan often lay disunited involved in
frequent wars and conflicts. The relations between Golconda and other
Deccani powers were harsh due to frequent enemity for acquisition of power
and territories and for religious supremacy mainly when related to nonMuslim kingdoms. But there were instances when Golconda formed
alliances of goodwill and support with other Deccani powers mainly with
Islam-oriented kingdoms against invading enemies. Similarly Nizams made
defensive alliances with European powers to protect themselves from
extinction. Their fights aroused patriotic feelings of the subjects against their
rivals. In the administrative structure a multi-centered system of power with
royalty, nobility and other officiality existed, who shared the authority of
kingdom, according to hierarchical order. Kingdoms sustained mainly due to
its extensive military strength and tactics and of course the willing support of
the populace. Autocratic rule coupled with benevolence and aristocracy
remained the hallmarks of kingship. In the influential spheres of polity nonMuslims mainly Hindus also shared equal responsibilities and were given
posts of priority. For instance popular brothers Madanna and Akkanna of
Golconda did their jobs perfectly as high-ranking officials. This mingling of
inter-religions was even extended to military and cultural aspects.
84
85
to both inland and sea-borne trade let to hectic commercial activities with
extensive imports and exports with numerous countries and islands of Indian
Ocean, Burma, China, and Portugal etc. Kingdoms exhibited a great variety
of Persian, Mughal Vijayanagar, Dutch, French, and English and Spanish
coins signifying the commercial contacts. Wealth of their kingdoms was
reflected in their extensive gold jewellery, silver rupee coins and gifts and
utensils of variety.
The resultant prosperity and the generation of a large amount of surplus
through agriculture or trade enabled the Sultans to generously promote
varieties of art forms and this ultimately led to the cultural extravaganza of
the kingdoms. This provided the necessary incentive for the promotion and
development of the art of miniature painting It can be noted that the lucrative
textile trade with the middle east and south-east Asia, the rich crops, the
discovery of the diamond mines in the Golconda and the ancestral wealth of
the Nizams increased its revenue and economic prosperity and compelled the
rulers to turn due attention towards the development of the kingdom and
promotion of varieties of arts.
For instance one can perceive abundance of wealth in the lavish use of
gold jewellery, gold brocades worn by both men and women and also in the
utensils and furniture illustrated in the paintings. Apart from this
encouragement, the contact with foreign countries also brought significance
influence on the emerging character of the Deccani miniatures. For example
in the medieval Deccan, paper and cotton used for paintings was largely
imported from China, Turkey, Iran, East Asia and Persia116
Qutb Shahis and Nizams preferred more of the foreign artifacts in
account of their appeal to curiosity and interest. Nizams in particular were
interested in collection of rare manuscripts and art objects from different
parts of the world and established specially for their preservation, Museums
and Treasure houses. This interest of rulers and their foreign appeal made an
impact on art history and inturn Sultan's artist looked in the same direction
for pictorial inspiration, which resulted in variety of themes and paintings.
Telugu
works
like
Sukasaptati
of
Palavekari
Kadiripati
and
European factories and their trading activities."7 They acted as middle men
and gathered huge profits to the loss of natives.
Though certain negative trends like oppressed peasantry, during Qutb
Shahis and financial crisis seen in loss of jewellery and circars to British
during Nizams rule persisted, but in general wealth can be perceived at royal
court, which was the main base for artistic trends and pursuits.
The social picture of Golconda and Hyderabad presents a combination of
varieties of people with different ethnological and community backgrounds.
Both Qutb Shahis and Nizams tried to foster sense of harmony and
maintained social equality by protecting their populace irrespective of their
origin. Each kingdom possessed particular social identity, though games,
past-times, food and dress culture were mostly similar. However society was
not averse to common societal problems like sati, rigid caste-system, and
superstitious beliefs. There was diverse activity in the society due to constant
inflow and outflow of humans like mendicants, philosophers, traders,
soldiers, ambassadors, poets and artists. This led to intermingling and intersynthesis of people at societal level. Their participation in each other cultural
ceremonies and festivals of importance led to the emergence of a composite
culture namely Deccani and Hyderabad cultures under Qutb Shahis and
Nizams respectively. The atmosphere of equality, liberty and harmony
provided by Sultans also led to cultural contribution to various aspects of art
and literature and encouraged scholars and artists from distant lands to settle
on Deccan soil . U 8
This composite Deccani and Hyderabadi cultures representing customs,
manners and traditions of Hindus-Muslims and its striking feature of
synthesizing in nature became a theme for many artists of the time and was
reflected in the splendid miniature paintings. But due to the royal patronage
and rich gentry's contribution, the themes on art mainly centered on the royal
court, pursuits of hunting, nobility and other pleasures with which royalty
got involved rather than the ordinary toiling masses that formed the bulk of
the population. However though commoners were not directly involved in
87
this aesthetic aspect of painting, yet they were interested in the employment
opportunities that the royalty created for them. ' 19
For instance, the karkhan for the production of miniature with an
elaborate work shop employed the energies of these commoners and artists
who were proficient in the production of painting material and in preparing
paper, brushes and colours.
In religious realm, it can be observed that Qutb Shahis and Asaf Jahis
laid the foundation a secular kingdom. They tried to preserve their religion
namely Islam and their institutions and at the same time respected the
sentiments and feelings of other faiths mainly the local population and gave
them full scope to follow their religious rules and beliefs. They gave
importance to religio-cultural uniformity rather than indulging in communal
clashes and conflicts. This peaceful religious atmosphere and social
equanimity led to the development of human feelings and artistic patterns.
The secular attitude of the rulers prevented the indigenous religions to
determine the art forms exclusively and led to the incorporation of secular
aspects and themes in the realm of art.
Thus the medieval Deccan or the political economic and social
background of Golconda and Hyderabad School of paintings from 17th - 18th
centuries with remarkable political patronage, economic splendor and sociocultural religious atmosphere, made its valuable contribution to various
aspects of historical entity and maintained an identity both in historical and
artistic realms. It presents a variety of environment, fusion of races, new
trends in literature and emergence of cultural and artistic traditions
incredibly rich in historical heritage. They brought into existence the
Deccani miniatures and endowed them with a multi-faceted character.
Atmosphere during this period was such that it enabled Qutb Shahis and
Nizams to have their influence on the cultural order of the times and to give
impetus to the growth of art history particularly to the tradition of miniature
paintings that reached a high degree of excellence representing an important
epoch in the history of art of medieval Deccani era and served as a
sophisticated medium through which the royal life and cultural trends of
medieval times were profoundly illustrated.
89
References:
Dipakkarjan Das, Economic history of the Deccan (From the first
to 6th Century AD), Delhi, 1969, p .1
2
Bawa.V.K. (ed.),
p.16.
R.G.Bhandarkar, Early History of the Dekkan, Asian educational
services, New Delhi, 1985, p.l.
5
Satavahanas,
90
1495-96.
17
a mudfort. Its old name was Mankal. It was built on a hill, which was
once the territory of the Kakatiya kings of Warangal in 1143 AD.
Raja Krishnadev of Warangal handed over the fort in 1365 AD to
Muhammad Shah Bahmani of Gulbarga under a pact.
18
91
MSS.no.367.
22
Sultan Quli, the great architect of Golconda, had to meet his end at
and Golconda were rampant on one side and on other side stood
Hindu Vijayanagar Empire that supported them at some instances to
gain a political share and advantage.
23
Manoharlal
colour was incorporated into a tri colour consisting of red, white and
sky blue for these were the colours of the
the
lies between
92
wife Bagirathi.
29
needs and provided a pragmatic solution of building a new selfcontained satellite city in 1591 A D .
30
Publications, Hyderabad, 1991, p.33. It took more than a year for its
completion during which about two lakhs of gold hons were spent.
The structure of it was artistically designed and is said to be designed
by Muhammad Quli himself resembling Hazarath Imam Roza in
Mecca. Today it stands as a symbol of Hyderabad's charm and
connotes QutbShahi grandeur.
32
93
35
and his life ended as captive of mighty Mughals. Related to this life,
when Mughals finally arrived at Golconda, to capture him, 1687, he
received them courteously and remarked philosophically: "Events
take place as per the will of the god almighty. I spent 14 years as
fakir, later I became a Sultan, once again I am becoming a fakir."
39
QutbShahi dynasty.
40
Raza
AH
Khan,
Hyderabad:
400 years
(1591-1991)
Zenith
Ibid p.227.
43
Himayatnagar,
Hyderabad,
June, 1956.
94
45
Munshiram
(head),
Dabir
(secretary),
Kotwal
(police)
and
Sarkhel
(revenue officer).
46
India, Vol.11, S. Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi, 1979. p. 183.
47
H.K.Sherwani,
History
of the
QutbShahi Dynasty,
Munshiram
The Safawi dynasty ruled Persia from 1501-1721 and one of the
illustrious ruler was Shah Abbas the Great (1586-1628) who was
Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah's contemporary.
50
Qarni's,
Sketches
of Hydcrabad-400years
of the city
(1591-1991),
95
57
M.A.Ansari,
p. 136.
62
K.N.Chitnis,
Poona,1979p.53.
67
K. Chandraiah, p.54
Narendra Luther, Prince, Poet, Lover, Builder (Muhammad Quli
QutbShah-The founder
of Hyderabad),
Publications
division,
New
96
71
Sadiq N a q v i ,
Satyanarayana.K,
Religion
and Society
Satyanarayana.K,
Religion
and Society
of
Sadiq
Naqui,
APHC,
Satyanarayana.K,
of
84
There are little evidences to prove that forced conversions and the
Moreland,
Relations
of Golconda
in
the
early
17th
century,
Gopal R e d d y . Y ,
H.K
90
A n o n y m o u s author;
Tarikh-i-Qutb Shahi,
A.P
Stae Archives,
Hyderabad
91
Raza
AH
Khan,
Hyderabad:
400
years
(1591-1991)
Zenith
Ibid, P.84.
P.V.Kate, Marathwada under the Nizam (1724-1948), Mittal
98
99
Mir Mahboob Ali khan, was two years and seven months old when
his father died. He was installed on the throne by Salar Jung the
Great and Nawab Rasheeruddin Khan Shams-ul-Umaralll and the
resident who functioned as his regents.
100
subah
of
Hyderabad(l 726-1948).
Indian
history
Congress,
113
Marg, Vol.37 No.3, p.5. The author remarked that the Golconda
rulers were particularly fortunate in attracting painters from Iran.
116
Sukasptati, p 209,
" 8 George Michell, Marg, Master pieces of the Deccan Sultanates
Vol.37, No.3, p.5. In the introductory essay Schimmel.A remarked
that poets from Arabia, Yemen composed epics and allegorical
stories in Dakhni Urdu and there was inflow of painters.
" 9 .D.N.Varma, 'Socio-economic factors in the shaping of Deccani
miniatures' in Vijay Shankar Srivastav (ed.), Cultural Cantors of
India, 1981, Delhi, p.315.
100