Developmental Psychology (PDE 102)

Developmental Psychology (PDE 102)
PDE 102: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
Our concern as teachers is to assist the child to develop the appropriate personality. This implies
that we must not only know the subject matter but the child. Knowing the child includes
knowing how the child grows and develops. The knowledge of the assumptions about how child
develops and his/her inherent characteristics which give rise to personality will afford the teacher
the opportunity to guide the teaching and learning processes towards optimal performance.
Studying the growth and development of the child becomes necessary because
the knowledge of the child as he/she is presently will assist the teacher in guiding his/her
future.

to understand a child as he/she is presently, we must understand what had gone before.
knowing what happened during the early stages of development will help the teacher to
give appropriate remedy to later learning difficulties.
In view of the above, you need to gather the knowledge and experiences on general growth and
development patterns of your students and their implications for education.
As you go through this module, you should constantly reflect on your past experiences during
childhood and adolescence. Such reflections will help you empathize with your students and be
able to give realistic help and support to them.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this module, you would be able to
(i)
Define correctly, the basic concepts of growth and development.
(ii)
Describe the factors that affect growth and development.
(iii)
Explain the principles of growth and development.
(iv)
Describe the theories of development.
(v)
Describe the stages of human development
(vi)
Explain the educational implications of the various stages of human development.
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UNIT ONE:
BASIC PROCESSES OF GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
The study of human development from conception to adulthood is the concern of developmental
psychology.
The teacher should have the knowledge of how children grow and develop in order to guide and
shape their future development. It is at the early formative years that the childs personality and
behaviour are determined.
The child is a product of both nature and nurture. This implies that the hereditary factors
interplay with the environmental factors to determine how the child grows and develops.
In this Unit, we shall discuss the basic processes of growth and development. We shall also
briefly discuss the principles of growth and development and their educational implications.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
This is an aspect of psychology which deals with the development, growth and behaviour in
human beings right from the time of conception to the period of adolescence when most of the
functions of the body become matured. It also deals with the factors which determine what a
child will become in future.
DEVELOPMENT
This refers to qualitative changes in an organism. It is a progressive series of orderly and
coherent changes in human beings.
Progressive in that the changes are distinctional and lead forward. Orderly and coherent because
there is a definite relationship between a given stage and the stages which follow it.
Development can be described as a complex process of integrating many structures and functions
in an organism.
As a result of the integration, changes are dependent upon what preceded them and they in turn
affect what comes after.
The qualitative changes that come upon an organism are as a result of the accumulation of
experiences. The experiences derive from hereditary and environmental influences. Thus
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individuals reflect on their experiences and become more refined and matured in dealing with
new and novel situations.
DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES
(1)
Growth
Growth refers to quantitative changes in an organism. This usually involves permanent
increase in size and structure of organisms. These quantitative changes are both physical
and mental. These include physical changes in height, weight, girth, internal organs and
mental changes in memory, reasoning, perception and creative imagination.
All these changes make the child to be physically grown and mentally responsive. The
quantitative changes in height, weight, girth etc are as a result of multiple cell divisions
called MITOSIS (Mitotic Cell Division).
This usually involves body cells called Somatic Cells (Vegetative cells).
Somatic cells always have 23 pairs of Chromosome (i.e. 46) called the Diploid number
(2n).
In the process of Mitosis, one cell divides into two, then into four, eight etc. Each
daughter cell is always similar in every way to the parent cell and they always have the
Diploid number (2n) of Chromosomes.
2n
2n
2n
2n
2n
2n
2n
Mitosis
n = 23 Chromosomes
(2)
Maturation
Maturation is the process of gradual unfolding of the inborn potentialities of traits present
in the individual because of hereditary endowment. According to Gessel, Maturation is
the net sum of the effects operating in a self-limited life-cycle. This definition connotes
individual differences.
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Maturation goes along with physical growth and the development of the central nervous
system. Time and experience are also inevitable. Maturation is a function of two major
factors, which are in turn dependent on time and experience viz:
(i)
Phylogenetic Functions
These are functions, which are common to all members of a species. These include
crawling, creeping, sitting, walking, etc.
Experience is not necessary to these functions as they are time, age and physical and
mental maturity dependent.
(ii)
Ontogenetic Functions
These depend on experience. They are functions common to individuals. Some of these
functions are swimming, climbing, painting, speech, etc. Here, without experience or
training, development can not take place.
It should be noted that no hereditary tendency can mature fully without environmental
support i.e. environment influences development.
ACTIVITY I
Distinguish between maturation, growth and development.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
Every species follows a pattern of development peculiar to that species.
Prenatal and postnatal developments have a genetic sequence with certain traits or personal
qualities appearing at fixed intervals.
Genetic study of children over a period of time has shown that development follows a fixed
pattern and the pattern is influenced by experience. Every child has a unique pattern of growth.
Such patterns are however, a part of an established order of nature. The identified principles that
are true to human development are referred to as the general principles of development.
1.
Cephalocaudal Growth Patterns

According to this principle, development spread over the body from head to foot. This
means that improvement in structures and functions come first in the head area, then in
the trunk and leg region. The organs in the area of the head develop first and mature first
before the organs in other areas. The head develops and achieves its final forms before
the trunk and the legs.
The child is first able to see, hear sound and jingles before using his hands and legs in a
meaningful way.
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2.
Proxismodistal Growth Pattern

This principle holds that development proceeds from the central axis of the body towards
the extremities.
In the Foetus, the head and the trunk are well developed before the rudimentary limb
buds appear. The arm buds gradually appear and develop into the hands and lastly fingers
before his hands and fingers respectively and can use the latter as a unit before he/she can
control the movements of his/her fingers. Structure therefore precedes function.
3.
The Principle Of Differentiation

Development proceeds from simple to complex, from homogenous to heterogeneous and
from general to specific (from general and diffuse responses to more differentiated and
specific ones). Thus, coordination of large muscle groups precedes fine muscle
movements.
At conception, the mother egg-cell and the sperm from the father fuse to form the Zygote.
The Zygote itself contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. It starts to divide itself into 2 then 4
to 8 up to billions of cells that form a body, be it circulatory, muscular, nervous or
skeletal.
In both mental and motor responses, general activities always precede specific activities.
In any postnatal life, the infant can move its whole body but incapable of specific
responses.
The baby can wave his arms, in general movement before he/she is capable of any
specific reaching. In speech, the baby learns the general words before specific words e.g.
he/she learns to use the word toy before learning to call each toy by its name. He/she calls
every man Daddy. In writing the child learns to hold a big object before a pencil.
He/she learns to make a circle before triangle.
4.
The Principle Of Asynchronous Growth Or Split Growth

The principle holds that the changes that occur in the body proportion are due to
Asynchronous or Split Growth. This means that the different parts of the body have their
own period of rapid and slow growth; and that each reaches its own mature size at its
own time. Growth in all parts of the body is however continuous and concurrent e.g. a
childs brain does not stop growing while his/her muscles are growing (Growth is
continuous and not salutatory though there is asynchronies).
Asynchronous growth is particularly obvious when different parts of the body are
compared e.g. the muscles, bones, lungs and the genitals increase approximately 20 times
during the growth years, while the eyes and the brain which are relatively more
developed at birth increase much less. The eye balls complete their growth during the
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first 5 years and the brain also completes its growth during the first 10 years but the heart
and some other internal organs requires more than 20 years to complete their growth.
Organs-systems and function do not proceed at the same rate throughout development.
Though growth and development usually proceed in an orderly sequence, the rate of
growth often differs from one organ and system to the other and from one period to
another. During childhood, the development of the genitals is slow but very fast during
adolescence.
5.
Principles Of Discontinuity Of Growth

This principle posits that the rate of growth changes at different periods. There are
periods of acceleration and decelerations of growth.
During the first 9 months in the womb the growth is very fast. The child develops from a
microscopically small sperm cell to an infant of about 3kg mass. The growth is mainly
physiological and consists of all bodily structures.
For the first 14 days (during infancy) the growth is temporarily at a standstill. It is a
period when the new-born baby tries to adjust itself to a completely new environment
outside the mothers womb.
From babyhood until about 2-3 years of middle childhood up till the time of puberty,
growth is slow. Puberty changes are as a result of environment and individual
differences. There is a period of growth spur before adolescence.
From puberty till the age of 15 or 16 years, growth is fast. This period is followed by
gradual stability up to the time of maturity.
In brief, there are four stages of growth comprising 2 rapid and 2 slow stages viz:
a)
b)
c)
d)
6.
From birth 2 years

From 2 years to Puberty
Puberty 16 years
16 Maturity
Rapid growth.
Slow growth.
Rapid growth.
Growth is slow.
Principle Of Complexity Of Growth

Growth is an extremely complex process. It has different collective aspects. It is complex
because what happens to one area affects other areas. The effect of this is that it is not
easy to specify causal relationships since there can be other causes in other areas i.e.
causes for growth retardation in a child may be traced to reasons other than malnutrition.
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7.
Structure Generally Precedes Function

It may be because of emotional stress, illness, social isolation or physical harm. All
physical components of the body including the brain usually mature and get ready before
they can be functional. Before any organ can be used by the child, such an organ must be
physically and physiologically ready before they can perform developmental tasks.
8.
Principle Of Uniqueness Of Individuals

The principle asserts that every individual is unique; that there are no two people that are
exactly alike. Every childs pattern and rate of growth is peculiar to him or her. We may
say that an average age for a child to walk is 12 months, yet some children walk later or
earlier than this. Average is therefore theoretical however useful it may be.
Among twins of the same background, there are still some obvious differences. One may
be more active than the other. Uniqueness occurs in either specific, general, sensitivity or
vigour. By sensitivity we mean over-all reaction to stimuli. This is why homozygotic
twins of the same background could be different.
Some children like being quiet, others respond to stimuli gradually and yet others respond
very fast. This gives rise to individuality in the classroom. Some children are more active
and very vocal while others are quiet and calm.
9.
Modifiability Of Rates And Patterns Of Growth

The view of this principle is that growth is natural but the rate and pattern of growth can
be modified by various factors and techniques.
Some of these factors are
1.
Nutrition and Drug taken by the mother.
2.
Environmental Stimulation.
3.
Opportunity to Learn.
4.
Illness and Disease.
5.
Genetic aspect (Mutational changes).
The presence or absence of some of these factors can retard the rate and pattern of
growth.
Implications of the Growth and Development of Principles for Teaching and

Learning Processes
1.
The fact that the students in the class are at varying levels of growth and development,
have acquired different types of potentialities implies that though the same curriculum is
being used, the classroom setting must be appropriate and rich enough to accommodate
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these differences. The use of instructional aids of various types often helps greatly in this
situation.
2.
Also, the children are at various levels of developments meaning they can not all perform
the same developmental tasks. The teaching strategy of the teacher must reflect this in the
classroom otherwise not all the pupils will be carried along. This should be noted too
during skill performance.
3.
The need for child study by the teacher is emphasized.
ACTIVITY II
(i)
Give the principles of development.
SUMMARY
In this chapter we have discussed that development refers to a series of qualitative,

progressive and orderly changes in an organism.
These changes are brought about by the interplay of the forces of growth; maturation and
environmental factors.
Genetic study of children has shown that development follows a fixed pattern and the
pattern is influenced by experience. These patterns are ordered in nature. These are called
the principles of development. About eight of such principles have been identified in
human development and their implications for education were discussed.
ASSIGNMENT
Discuss the significance of
(a)
developmental psychology to the teacher.
(b)
the principles of development in the classroom.
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UNIT TWO:
FACTORS THAT AFFECT GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
An individual at any stage of his development is the product of organic and environmental
factors working hand in hand. At conception, the individual is endowed with all potentialities.
However, the environment has the last word. No organism, regardless of its potentialities and
basic qualities, can survive in the absence of a favourable environment. The genetic factors set
the limits while environmental influences complement genetic endowment. There is therefore
the need for you to understand these interplay of forces in order to provide adequate opportunity
for the students to learn and to be able to assist and support them appropriately.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
(i)
distinguish between environmental and genetic factors in growth and development.
(ii)
explain the role of each in growth and development.
(iii)
describe the mechanism of genetic inheritance.
(iv)
list and explain the effect of chromosomal abnormalities.
(v)
list and explain the effects of some environmental factors on growth and development.
HEREDITARY MECHANISMS
When the sperm fertilizes the ovum, all the characteristics the new life will ever inherit from
his/her parents and grand parents are set. After fertilization nothing can be changed except by
accident. According to Thompson and Kahles, Every individuals supply of genes, the bearers of
hereditary factors, is given him/her once and for all in alternation at conception.
At conception, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes, one half from the father and the other half
from the mother {46 chromosomes from both sides). These make up everything that determines
the heredity of the child.
MEIOSIS OR MEIOTIC CELL DIVISION (PRODUCTION OF GAMETES)
The normal body cell (Somatic cells) of an adult contains 23 pairs of chromosomes (2n) i.e.
diploid number. If the egg cell and sperm cell from the parents should also contain 2n
chromosomes, then an offspring with 46 pairs of chromosomes (4n) would be produced. This
will be bizarre.
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There is therefore a mechanism in nature to maintain the diploid condition (2n) in individuals.
This is done through Meiosis, a type of cell division which tends to divide an initial cell into
halves having half the number of the 23 pairs of chromosomes i.e. 23 (n). These daughter cells,
thus produced, having 23 chromosomes each (instead of 23 pairs of chromosomes 2n) are said to
have the Haploid number (n).
This type of cells with haploid number of chromosomes each are called germ Cells or
Gametes i.e. Eggs (Ova) and Sperms.
n
haploid number
haploid number
2n
diploid
number
MEIOTIC CELL DIVISION

Terms in Genetic Inheritance
Heredity:-
This is the transmission of potentialities or traits of physical, mental and

other characteristics from parents to off-springs.
Chromosomes:-
Chromosomes are structures found in the nucleus of any cell on which

genes. are located
Genes:-
Genes are the bearers of hereditary factors. These factors are the
information for the expression of characteristics which are passed from the
parents through the gametes to the off-springs. Genetic information are
stored on genes of other structures called Deoxyribose Nucleic Acids
(DNA). DNA is the natures code or blueprint for the genetic make up of
each individual.
INHERITANCE OF EYE COLOUR

It has been found out that whenever the gene for brown eyes is present in an individual; the
colour of his/her eyes will be brown even when other genes for eye colour (blue or green) are
present.
The gene for brown eye colour is therefore said to be DOMINANT to the genes for blue or green
eyes which are said to be RECESSIVE.
The gene for brown eyes is represented by B and the gene for either blue or green eyes is
represented by b i.e. Dominant genes are in capital letters and recessive genes in small letters.
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If a man with pure brown eyes (BB) marries a pure blue eyed woman (bb) then their off-springs
will all have brown eyes as shown below:Parents
Brown eyes
BB
Blue eyes
bb
Produce
gametes
all
all
B
gametes fuse during

fertilization
First filial
generation
Bb
Bb
Bb
Bb
All have brown eyes as brown is dominant to blue.

ACTIVITY I
(a)
Distinguish between Mitotic and Meiotic cell divisions
(b)
What is the importance of each in human development?
When an organism contains identical genes i.e. BB or bb, it is said to be HOMOZYGOUS.

When an organism contains two dissimilar genes i.e. Bb, it is said to be HETEROZYGOUS.
Heterozygousity or Homozygousity describes the genetical constitution of an organism (i.e. the
types of genes it carries). The genetical constitution of an organism is known as its GENOTYPE.
The outward appearance of the organism, i.e. the way the genes express themselves in the
structure of the organism (i.e. Brown, blue or green eyes) is known as the PHENOTYPE.
The genotype for brown eyes is BB or Bb and the brown eyes is the Phenotype.
Now supposing a homozygous blue eyed man (bb) marries a heterozygous brown eyed woman
(Bb), what off-springs will they produce?
Parents
Blue eye
Brown eye
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bb
Gametes
Fusion of
Gametes
Bb
b
Bb
bb
Bb
bb
From the above, they will produce two heterozygous brown eyed (Bb, Bb) and two blue eyed,
(bb, bb) off-springs.
ACTIVITY II
(a)
With a specific example, illustrate the mechanism of genetic inheritance in human

development.
SPECIFIC TRAITS DETERMINED BY HEREDITY

1.
Sex Determination
The sex of the child is determined at the time of fertilization.
Chromosomes produced by mature sperms from males differ in character. These different
chromosomes are the sex determinants.
There are usually two types
(1)
the larger one called the X chromosome.
(2)
the smaller one, which is about 1/3 the size of the X-chromosome called Ychromosome.
One half of each sperm carries an X-chromosome and other a Y-chromosome i.e. XY. By
contrast, all matured ova carry only X-chromosomes i.e. XX.
Therefore, a fertilized ovum (zygote) contains at least an X-chromosome and either an Xor a Y-chromosome from the sperm.
If the sperm that unites with the ovum is the X type then we have an XX genotype and
the result is a female child. But if a Y-bearing sperm unites with the Ovum, the result is
an XY genotype. These always produce a male child. The production of a male child
solely lies with the man. That a family produces female children consistently is therefore
not the fault of the wife.
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Diagrammatically, this can be portrayed as followed:

Male
XY
Gametes
Female
XX
XY
Fusion of
XX
XY
Gametes
XX Female
Male
Offspring
2.
Twins Development
A is usually brought about by the development of two babies in the womb during one
pregnancy. There are usually two types of twins, the identical and Non-identical twins.
Non-Identical Twins
The woman normally has two ovaries with the possibility of releasing two eggs (Ova) every
month though usually only one ovary releases one ovum monthly.
However, where the two ovaries release two separate eggs and each egg is fertilized by two
different sperms; the two zygotes formed will develop separately. These two embryos will
eventually lead to the birth of two Non-identical twins. These fraternal twins will look just a little
alike as brothers and may be the same or different sexes. They are never exactly alike.
Often, dizygotic twins remain different in every way till adulthood. These differences may be
magnified by the environment.
Identical Twins
When one egg (Ovum) is fertilized by one sperm, a zygote is formed. This zygote may now
divide into two and each half will develop into a separate embryo. These two embryos
originating from the same zygote will lead to the birth of identical twins or monozygotic
twins. Usually, identical twins are the same sex. Identical twins always have the same hereditary
potentialities which may persist throughout life. Any difference between them is accounted for
by the environment in which they develop. That identical twins have different personalities is
caused by the environmental factors.
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Specific Traits Determined by Heredity

We have already said that it is difficult to determine what traits heredity endows that are not
influenced by environment. However, there are some that must be mentioned.
i.
Physical features
It is easy to see that children are very often like their parents and grand parents. We do
not mean that they can be exactly like their parents because as we have just learnt they
inherit from both father and mother.
ii.
Intelligence
From studies of twins especially identical twins, it has been found that under normal
circumstances both twins are alike intellectually. When they are reared together, the
degree of alikeness also known as correlation is very high .88. Even when they are reared
in different places the correlation is .79, also very high. So we conclude that intelligence
tends to be inherited somehow.
iii.
Disorders
The commonest form of inheritable sickness in our environment is sickle cell anemia.
People should know more about how this condition is inherited. Unfortunately we can not
go into it now. Other forms of disorders and diseases are also inheritable.
iv.
The rate of development

Also seems to be inherited. Generally a child that is fast in crawling will tend to be fast in
walking and in many other aspects of physical development.
v.
Blood type
People normally say blood is thicker than water. Perhaps we should say that a child
always inherits the blood type of his parents. That is why a child or a close relation can
donate blood for a person.
vi.
Sex-related traits
Chromosomal Abnormalities
The chromosomal abnormalities of importance to the educators are those brought about by the
non-separation of the chromosomes into gametes during the process of meiosis. This is called
NON-DISJUCTION. This often results in half the gametes having two of the chromosomes and
the other having none.
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(1)
Downs Syndrome (Mongolism)

This is caused by the presence of an extra chromosome in the cells making it 24
chromosomes as against 23.
Sufferers have slit-eyed appearance, reduced resistance to infection, are always mentally
retarded or deficient and have thick tongues with short stubby fingers.
(2)
Klinefelters Syndrome
This individual has the genetic constitution XXY. It is caused by the failure of the X
chromosomes to separate during gamete formation in the mother. When such an egg is
fertilized by a Y-chromosome, the result is XXY instead of XY.
The individuals are outwardly male but have some female characteristics and fail to
manufacture sperms. Some may have psychopathic traits, criminal tendencies and mental
retardation.
(3)
Turners Syndrome
This results from the absence of an X-chromosome in an egg. When fertilized, such
individuals have the genetic constitution XO. They are usually sterile females with
underdeveloped ovaries.
Sex-linked Traits
The Y-chromosome is usually genetically empty for sex linked traits. Most of the genes for the
traits are carried on the X-chromosome.
Some of the sex-linked traits are Baldness , Colour Blindness and Hemophilia. They are caused
by recessive genes carried on the X-chromosome. Most of these diseases are common in men
than in women who are usually carriers.
ACTIVITY III
Distinguish between chromosome abnormalities and sex-linked traits. Give examples of each.
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
Environment implies all factors influencing the development of an individual right from the time
of conception. It includes such things as diet and health of the mother when the child is in the
womb, home influences, school, church and neighborhood influences, effects of climates,
geographical location and all things that stimulate the senses.
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Identical twins often have similar genetical constitution as they come from the same zygote but
in life they are often different in so many aspects. This difference is due to the effect of
environment.
Evidence abounds of Nigerian athletes or students who perform poorly at home but traveled
abroad to become stars. One can only explain this by saying that they had already possessed the
potentialities but as the environment was not conducive the potentials could not be manifested at
home.
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES
Factors
You will recall that we define environment in terms of all the factors which affect the individual
after the moment of conception. To understand these factors we will try and group them. We can
only list some of them.
(a)
Pre-natal factors
These are factors in the womb which can influence growth and development. The next
unit discusses these factors. They can affect development positively or negatively.
(b)
The family members: The child is born into a family and it is there that he first learns
many things. The family has a very strong and long lasting influence on the developing
child. Every aspect of the child's development is affected. Whether he is fat or thin
depends on how much he is given to eat. His values depend on the family, his
relationship with people outside his home etc.
ii.
(c)
d)
The peers or mates: age mates and friends influence the behaviours and the
development of children.
Institutions
i.
School: The school has tremendous influence on the conduct, learning and other
behaviours of the child, it is here that the child acquires a lot of skills, knowledge,
etc.
ii.
The religious Institutions - church, mosque, influence some aspects of the child's
development.
iii.
The media: radio, television, newspapers. Even in the rural areas, some of these
do have an impact.
The physical environment

i.
The conditions of a place affects the health and subsequently all other aspects of a
child's development. Is there enough and right type of food? Is there clean
drinking water?
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ii.
Facilities for learning exercise and interaction also affect development. Is there
space for exercise and are there play materials?
How Environment Influences Development

Since environment makes it possible for hereditary gifts to grow and bloom we can say that all
aspects of development are influenced by environment. Environment provides food for growth as
well as opportunities for learning. However, there are some which are virtually under the control
of environment.
These are mostly the aspects of development which are learned and only a few examples will be
given.
i.
Language: The child's competences in language depends on the way he is taught

language in the home, in school etc.
ii.
Social relationship: How the child relates with people depends on his experiences and the
skills which he has for interacting with people.
iii.
Motor skills: Although the child does not need to be taught how to crawl, stand, walk,
how he performs many skills depends on the environment. For example, we can all walk
but you will agree that marching which is a kind of walking has to be learnt. If you have
watched the march past during Children's Day or Independence Day celebrations you will
understand what I mean. The same thing applies to many other motor skills - jumping,
throwing etc.
iv.
Intellectual ability: Even though we have said that heredity has a strong influence, the
child has a strong influence, the child has to be stimulated for intellectual development to
progress well.
v.
Physical development: Environment can not change the physical structure except there is
an incident and a limb or other part is completely destroyed. But how well a child grows
depends on the nutrients and generally healthy conditions free from infections and other
debilitating hazards.
vi.
Moral values and judgment are learnt in the family and the home in which the children
live. The way we are attached to our families and kin group here, the way we respect
elders in our communities are not universal. They are important to us in our environment.
EFFECTS OF URBAN AND RURAL SETTINGS ON LEARNING

Whether a learner lives in a rural area or in an urban area has serious implications for his/her
learning ability and achievement. Rural areas suffer from the absence of modern facilities and
government presence which can facilitate learning. The urban areas on the other hand, most
often, have good infrastructural facilities, such as electricity, water supply, good schools, good
road network, amenities and other conditions that promote learning ability and achievement.
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THE RURAL AND URBAN ENVIRONMENT

Environment plays a very important role in the development of the child. It provides food for
growth as well as opportunities for learning. This important role of the environment can be
enhanced or limited by the conditions that exist in the learners immediate environment.
Below are some of the areas in which rural or urban location affects learning.
1.
Socio-economic conditions:
The income earning power tends to be higher in the urban areas than in rural areas. There
seem to be better conditions and opportunities for income generation in the urban areas
than in the rural areas. This is because of wide variety and lucrative jobs and business
that exist in urban centres.
We also have better infrastructural facilities in urban areas than in rural areas. In urban
centres, there are good network of roads, power and water supply, telecommunications,
amenities such as schools, libraries, hospitals, play grounds, sporting and recreational
facilities, etc.
These favourable conditions in urban settings create an enabling environment for
teaching and learning. Urban schools benefit from availability of qualified and well
trained teachers. Their schools are better built and more equipped than rural areas. The
result is that schools in urban centres are more likely to produce higher achievers than
rural schools.
2.
Government Presence
In the urban centres, there is higher government presence than in rural centres. This
nearness to the seat of government means that urban schools are likely to be better
provided for and supervised. The implementation of educational policies are likely to
begin in urban centres before getting to the rural areas. For example, supply of books,
teachers, instructional materials, etc. are likely to be in favour of urban areas.
3.
Background of Parents
The urban parents are likely to be more educated, more enlightened and know the value
of education than their rural counterparts. Their perceptions may also differ. These
differences will have impact on the learning achievement and ability of the pupils.
4.
Cultural Factor
Closely related to the above is the fact that the cultural factors are likely to play a more
important role in the up bringing of the rural child than the urban child. The rural child is
likely to have a different perception, beliefs system, local knowledge and prejudices (e.g.
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Sex roles), than the urban child who is likely to be more cosmopolitan.
implications for learning ability and achievement.
5.
This has
Presence of Mass Media and Information Technology

In the urban centres, there is high presence of mass media and telecommunication
facilities. There is ready access to information and communication technology especially
the radio, television, computer and the internet. The urban child is in a position to
connect to the global village. He has access to a wide variety and plenty of educational
resources. The rural child may lack this access and therefore the ability to benefit from
such opportunities. There is no doubt that his ready access and availability of the mass
media and computer technology places the urban child at learning advantage.
THE CONCEPT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

We have realized from the introduction to this unit that no two persons are exactly the same.
Because no two persons are alike, there is what is called individual differences. This is an
important concept which we should know as educators. Basically this concept means that no two
persons are exactly the same, even identical twins. Children and adults differ in age, even
though they might be regarded as a homogenous group. Children also may differ in their height,
complexion or even intellectual ability. The teacher should have a thorough knowledge of these
individual differences and bear them in mind any time he is dealing with his pupils. We
discovered earlier on that identical twins differ in many ways. Imagine then the number of
differences which are bound to occur among non twins. Because of this concept that no two
persons are the same, modern education is becoming skeptical over the class method of teaching
which apparently ignores this concept.
The class method has to accept that each child is a unique human being, different in rate of
growth and development. Each, therefore , differs in achievement. The concept of individual
differences seems to permeate all aspects of life but many class teachers tend to ignore it. Each
individual comes into the world with a unique inherited capacity. For example, a close
examination of children reveals that children differ in a large variety of ways. Their talent in
creative, writing, musical and dramatic abilities differ. Children's adjustment patterns are
different. There are differences in speech, hearing, vision and physical skills. One may see how
easy it is also to notice among children differences in height, weight, general health and dentition
or teeth formation. All these are individual differences.
AREAS IN WHICH CHILDREN DIFFER AND HOW TO CATER FOR
THEM
1.
Differences in Physique and Sex

There are many differences which are observable in children in terms of their physical
appearance and sex. At the early stages of development, the classroom teacher should
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take note of differences in physique and sex. Some children are boys others are girls. At
the adolescent stage physical differences among children are greater. Some children are
tall others short. Some are fat others are slim. Girls may not be able to perform certain
physical exercises which boys perform. They may not be as strong as boys. Boys and
girls may perform differently in certain subjects. For example, performance of boys and
girls may differ in sewing and cookery, woodwork and blacksmithing. Girls may perform
better in the first two and boys in the last two subjects. It is also argued that boys excel in
mathematics and the sciences while girls excel in arts and languages. On the average,
girls perform better than boys in reading, comprehension, vocabulary and language skills.
To cater for these differences you must pay special attention when teaching girls
mathematics and other science subjects. Also you should make arrangements so that the
smaller children sit where they can see the board. During Physical Education lessons, you
should bear in mind the size, strength and sex of the children when grouping them for
exercises.
2.
Differences in Intelligence
The teacher should bear in mind that intelligence is a factor of heredity and environment
differs among children. Some children are lucky to possess a high level of intelligence.
While some children are of normal or average intelligence, some are bright or have above
average intelligence. The very bright ones are able to learn rapidly and easily. They can
see relationships and are aware of many things children at their age are not aware of.
Above all, very bright children have the capacity for creativity and originality.
Awareness of these differences in the intellectual-ability of your class children should
influence your teaching methods. Exercise a lot of patience for slow learners in the class.
You should also use a variety of methods for teaching which will involve activities,
demonstrations and the use of different senses of the body. Also, try and make use of
different kinds of aids while teaching and as much as possible teach children individually.
Above all, regulate the teaching to suit the slow learners and also move fast on the basis
of individual progress with the bright ones.
3.
Differences in Age and Rate of Maturity

The classroom has children with great differences and there is no way of removing
individual differences. Therefore, even though a number of children may be grouped
together in the same class, there may be differences in their ages. This implies that all
children in a class cannot perform equally all tasks given to them. Some children may not
be mature enough to perform certain physical or mental exercises while some will be
capable of doing both. Educators who emphasize the concept of maturation believe that
all development occurs in definite, internally controlled sequences.
These sequences apply not only to the growth of tissues and organs but also to their
functions and behaviours. Because of this, the rate at which children mature differs. This
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difference in the rate of maturation obeys the law or concept of readiness. This law of
readiness simply states that for the learner to learn successfully, he must be ready to
learn. Readiness is a function of maturation and stimulation. Children should be taught a
task or skill only when they are ready notwithstanding the fact that they are all in the
same class.
To cater for differences in the maturity level of children, you should only introduce
concepts, and skills to the children who are mature enough to learn such. The most
effective way to determine readiness to learn is to give the child the opportunity to learn
and then observe his behaviour. If the child is ready he would respond pleasurably to the
learning experiences before him. If the child is not ready, it becomes a waste of effort
and may result in frustrating the child, to force him to learn. You must not set or expect
the same performance standards for all children in class even if they are of the same age.
Above all make use of teachable moments. This is the optimum time when you can
introduce and stress any skills or attitudes you want to teach your children.
4.
Differences in Health
There is a common saying that "A healthy mind is found in a healthy body". Some
children inherit weak health potentials from their parents, while others are lucky to inherit
very good health potentials. Some are partially deaf or dumb, others have either bad
sight, deformed hands or legs. They sit in the class side by side with children who speak
well, hear well and have no physical deformity. Some children are sickly while others are
sicklers. Others by virtue of luck are very beautiful or handsome with strong health and
this makes people anxious to help them. The concept of individual differences makes it
mandatory for teachers to bear these differences in mind while teaching the pupils.
To cater for these differences a teacher must make sure that tasks assigned to
handicapped pupils are tasks that are feasible given their limitations. It does appear to be
a great injustice to expect that the handicapped children should grasp lessons at the same
rate as their more fortunate counterparts. As the teacher you should display a lot of
understanding, tact and resourcefulness.
Vary the methods of teaching and make a lot of aids for the teaching of the weak pupils.
Sick pupils should move at their pace while extra effort to appeal to their senses should
be exploited. Medical attention should be sought for the sick ones and periodic check-up
for the healthy ones.
5.
Differences in Children's Background

Apart from differences in children as a result of heredity, there exist differences which
result from different types of environment in which children find themselves. A child
who grows in the hands of well-to-do parents is likely to enjoy a good environment. He
will probably have access to some modern gadgets found in the homes such as electricity,
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good water supply, radio sets, television sets. This child is exposed intellectually by the
possession of different types of magazines and children's books. He enjoys good medical
attention.
This child so described will differ significantly from a child who lives in an out-post of
the town such as the village farm. This second child lives in a thatched house with no
modern facilities. Such a child, no matter his intelligence may be handicapped by his
environment. Most of the modern gadgets found in the homes of well- to-do parents are
inaccessible to children in a poor environment. The role of the classroom teacher is to
recognize the fact that children come from different homes, environments and socioeconomic backgrounds. This has to be taken into consideration while teaching and
learning activities go on. The teacher should not take some of the topics slated for
teaching for granted. For example , topics like the Railway Station, the Motor park,
Supermarket and even a Court Scene may be unfamiliar to a child in a poor environment.
Give as many examples as possible while teaching. Visual aids and visits to such places
of interest may help to minimize environmental differences. Before asking your class
pupils to contribute money or real things for class projects like dramatization, make sure
each child can afford to execute his own assignment.
6.
Differences in Character
Some children differ in disposition. This difference is both genetic and environmental. A
child may be a confident child and would grow up as a confident adult. Some children
are emotionally stable and are never withdrawn or dull in appearance. Such children are
exposed to and are surrounded by healthy influences. The result is that the children
appear bright, confident and see the teacher as a friend. They are not afraid of their class
teacher and ask questions and seek help from him. But some children are not stable.
They may come from emotionally unstable homes where parents fight very regularly.
They are never confident of themselves. Because of the unhealthy influences which
surround such children they are generally timid or fearful. Timid children may resort to
withdrawing from social interactions which go on in the class.
As a teacher, it is your duty to remember the differences in disposition and character
among your children when you teach them. A good teacher should check and pilot the
curiosity or inquisitiveness of his emotional stable children. Answer their questions and
give them more challenging tasks. Expose them more to wholesome influences and
problem solving situations. For the children who are not emotionally very mature try to
be patient with them. They need plenty of love, assurance and confidence. Stimulate
them with simple tasks which they can perform and encourage them as they attempt the
tasks. Timid ones should be shown areas where they excel more than their counterparts to
instill confidence.
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1.
List the 6 areas in which children differ.
2.
Explain only 3 of them with examples.
ACTIVITY IV
SUMMARY
In this Unit, we have discussed that all hereditary endowments of an individual are
determined at conception.
The hereditary factors are carried on genes found in chromosomes of the germ cells.
Each cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes called the Diploid number. Half of these pairs
came from the father and the other half from the mother at conception.
The diploid number is reduced to haploid number to produce gametes through meiotic
cell divisions.
Fertilization occurs and a Zygote is formed when two opposite gametes Ovum and
Sperm fused together.
The production of boys and girls and twins are determined by heredity. There are some
abnormalities and diseases caused by aberrations of the chromosomes and others linked
to the gene of the individuals.
Even where an individual has a good genetic make up, it requires a conducive
environment to nurture it to maturity.
The influence of the environment starts from womb till adulthood.
Teachers should therefore provide conducive environment for children to develop well
and for learning to take place.
ASSIGNMENT
1
2.
Discuss with a vivid example, the influence of the environment on the development of an
individual. How can we use this to improve teaching and learning?
Explain the meaning of heredity, environment, and individual differences
3.
Explain the relationships between heredity and environment.
4.
Specify the two broad types of inheritance.
5.
Explain in a few sentences how heredity makes individuals different.

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6.
What traits are inherited or strongly influenced by heredity?
7.
List 4 environmental factors that affect growth and development.
8.
What aspects of development are greatly influenced by environment?
9.
What role does rural and urban settings play in learning?
10.
Give any five areas in which individuals differ
11.
State any six ways that teachers can use to cater for individual differences.
12.
What important role does environment play in the development of the child?
13.
Discuss any five important rural-urban factors that influence learning
REFERENCE
Durojaiye, M.O.A., (1976) A New Introduction to Educational Psychology, London : Evans.
Eke , E. & Esuman,J.K., Child Development in a Changing
Heinemann (In Press).
Cultural Context, Ibadan:
Stones, E., (1966) An Introduction to Educational Psychology New York: Spectrum Books.
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UNIT THREE:
STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT I:

CONCEPTION TO CHILDHOOD
INTRODUCTION
Modern school tends to point out that as teachers, we are supposed not only to know our subject
matter but also the child we teach. The knowledge of the child should include the child's growth
and development. But one may ask us why do we have to bother ourselves knowing or studying
the child? Perhaps one or all of the following reasons may justify our effort to study the growth
and development of the child we teach.
1.
A knowledge of the child as he is presently will assist the teacher in guiding his future.
2.
To understand a child as he is presently, we must try to understand what had gone before.
3.
There is the need to study what happened during the child's early development in case the
teacher comes across some who had encountered problems earlier on. The teacher can
then give adequate help to these children and even help them overcome their difficulties.
Because of the above mentioned reasons, this unit will examine the concepts and
principles of Growth and Development.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(i)
describe the process of conception and its significances to child development;
(ii)
describe the stages of pre-natal development;
(iii)
discuss the development of the human organism from unit to unit;
(iv)
state the stages of childhood development;
(v)
describe the physical and motion development at each of the stages and give their
educational implications; and
(vi)
give the implications of the childhood development for educators.
CONCEPTION
The genetic make up of a child is determined at conception. Conception takes place when a
sperm from the man fuses with the egg (ovum) from a female to form a zygote in a process
called fertilization. This is the beginning of human development. This stage is called pre-natal
stage and usually lasts for nine (9) months. The development at this stage is rapid and the body
structures are formed. The environment of the growing human organism is of extreme
importance at this stage.
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The zygote divides repeatedly through the process of mitosis until the cells are differentiated into
tissues and organs. By the second week of conception, the human embryo has been formed with
some human characteristics.
The Embryo
By now, the embryo is firmly held in place by the umbilical cord attached to the uterus through
the placenta. This is also a period of rapid cell divisions during which cell differentiation and
specialization take place.
The various body tissues and organs develop and by the 8th to 9th week (2 months), the embryo
has fully developed with functional organs and systems i.e. the heart, sex organs, other internal
organs for specific functions and nervous system. This develops into the foetus.
The Foetus
The foetal stage is the period between the 2nd months (9th weeks) to birth. This is the period of
ossification, and for their differentiation and specialization of cells and tissues. The
specialization of functional organs is completed during this stage.
Monthly Development at the Pre-Natal Stage
First Month:
Second
Month
Third Month
Fourth
Month
Fifth Month
Sixth Month
Seventh
Month
Eight Month
Ninth Month
The embryo is fixed to the uterus through the placenta. It is nourished and get
rid of wastes through the placenta. Heart, Liver, and the digestive system are
formed.
Limbs begin to form and the facial features become defined. Other external
organs are visible.
All features of the baby are now very distinct. First toes and eyelids begin to
form. Most women now notice the physical signs of pregnancy.
All organs are now formed and the foetus becomes active. Movements of the
limbs are now noticed.
The sucking and swallowing reflexes are developed. The heartbeat is audible
to the stethoscope. Movement becomes more pronounced and stronger.
The foetus has grown bigger with the mothers Tommy now protruding, kicks
more vigorously. The skin is now reddish and wrinkle.
The physical development at this stage is almost completed and the foetus can
survive the harsh conditions of the outer world should it be born prematurely.
The foetus is almost fully grown as much as it could be and now in an headdown position.
The foetus, now with functional organs settles down towards the abdomen.
Now, a miniature adult, it can be safely delivered. The average weight is
between 2.5 to 3.5kg.
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ACTIVITY I
1.
Briefly discuss the stages of development of the foetus from 0 to 9 months.
2.
What is conception? Explain the various factors that affect the foetus in the uterus?
FACTORS AFFECTING PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT

As earlier mentioned, the genetic make up of the child has been determined at conception. Some
of these genetic factors include intellectual potential, characteristic traits, chromosomal
abnormalities, gender, hormones and certain diseases. However, how these potentials will be
developed is a function of the environment. The environment in the uterus is delicate and crucial
to the survival and development of the foetus.
Some of the uterine environmental factors are:
Age of the Mother,
Maternal Nutrition
Maternal Diseases
Emotions, Anxiety, Tension and Stress
Use of Drugs.
Cigarette and Alcohol.
ENVIRONMENT IN UTERO-FACTORS AFFECTING PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
i.
Nutrition: We want to emphasize the importance of nutrition or good food in our African
environment. Through poverty, economic difficulties and ignorance the pregnant woman
may not be well fed. Rather, the husband saves money to prepare for the ceremonies after
birth! Good nutrition, provided by a balanced diet, helps the unborn baby to develop
optimally. A balanced diet contains proteins, carbohydrates, fats and minerals. Nutrients
help to provide the building materials and energy to support rapid cell growth and
development throughout pregnancy. The faster the growth, the greater the demand for
nutrients. Where the mother is malnourished, that is not eating balanced diet, the baby
who relies on the mother for its nutrient requirements can not grow properly. The organ
which has most rapid growth, i.e. the brain, is usually the worst hit.
Research results show that prolonged malnutrition has many effects. The brain does not
have its full number of cells. Sometimes a condition known as MED, Minimal Brain
Dysfunction occurs. The child appears normal in every respect except that there are slight
defects or damage in the brain. Learning of certain types of materials can be affected in
later years. Other effects associated with malnutrition are still births (a baby dying before
birth) miscarriage, difficult labour and low birth weight.
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ii.
Health: Closely associated with nutrition is health. Good health is very important in our
environment. When the pregnant mother is healthy, the unborn baby develops normally.
But, poor health of the mother can affect her ability to nourish and protect the unborn
baby. There are certain infectious diseases which can affect the growth of the baby.
German measles or _Rubella_ can have very serious consequences. An attack of German
measles in the first trimester of pregnancy may result in defective eyesight and mental
deficiency. Some forms of sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea, syphilis and
the much dreaded AIDS can be passed on to the unborn child. Mumps could also have
bad effect. Even continuous attacks of malaria can make the mother anemic and therefore
unable to furnish the baby with the normal oxygen supply and perhaps nutrients too. So
the baby may be born small.
iii.
Drugs: Drugs have to be used carefully during pregnancy because they too can have
serious consequences. In our environment, young unmarried girls may try to get rid of
unwanted pregnancy by taking "strong" or potent herbs. Also, some pregnant women
including those who can not afford to pay for medical antenatal care, engage in self
medication. Although the effects of these practices have not been specially documented,
there is evidence that potent drugs affect the unborn babies. A German drug, thalidomide,
which was prepared to help pregnant women cope with "morning sickness" resulted in
the birth of babies with physical defects. The drug apparently affected the process of cell
differentiation and growth since it was taken in the first trimester of pregnancy. So many
of the babies were born without arms and legs.
On the other hand, certain drugs which were medically prescribed for mothers whose
pregnancies were threatened helped to make their children grow well. Research results
show that generally they performed better than other primary school children in school
work.
iv.
Age of the mother: Another factor which can affect the well being of an unborn baby is
the age of the mother. Very young mothers and old mothers tend to have complications.
Research has found that young adolescent before the age of 18 years and first time
mothers after 35 years tend to have problems and difficult labour. In some part of Nigeria
where child marriage is still practised, the mothers and babies suffer because all the
organs associated with birth are not adequately mature. As we will soon see difficult
labour can be dangerous. The older mothers tend to have more multiple births - twins and
triplets. Although many older mothers have normal babies, there is greater likelihood of
their giving birth to "mongoloid" children. _Mongolism_ is a condition where the
children are mentally retarded and do not have normal facial features. Their eyes are
small, and narrow. The children have great difficulty looking after themselves and
learning.
v.
Accident: A light fall may not affect a pregnant woman and her unborn child adversely.
But if she falls from a bicycle or is involved in an accident or a fight where she
experiences heavy impacts, the baby may be affected. The placenta may be partly
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detached or completely cut. This means that the baby may not have the usual nutrients.
Bleeding may occur, there may be miscarriage or other complications. Certainly the
development of the baby will be affected if the placenta becomes inefficient so that brain
damage, small size or premature birth may result.
vi.
Irradiation (the use of x-ray): The use of x-ray and "burning effect of similar materials
is to be discouraged. Only the medical doctor should order an x-ray to be taken when
necessary. If for some reason the x-ray is taken in the first trimester of pregnancy, some
cells might be destroyed. Without replacements, the baby could be deformed. The eyes
and the brain are usually the badly affected organs. The heart and respiratory system too
can be affected.
vii.
Alcohol, Tobacco and Smoke: For some years now, the W.H.O. (World Health
Organisation) has been warning people in developing countries about possible harmful
effects of drinking alcohol and tobacco smoking. Also, recently, the toxic effect of
inhaling smoke constantly from cooking with firewood, cow dung, etc. on pregnant and
other women has been discussed. The effect is particularly bad when the fire is in
enclosed places. Generally, the babies of women who drink and smoke heavily are
smaller. Small babies stand a higher risk of infections after birth than bigger babies.
Alcohol, tobacco (chewed or smoked) and smoke may affect appetite and reduce nutrient
intake. This, in turn affects how much nutrition the fetus obtains from the mother.
viii.
Blood Incompatibility: Sometimes certain blood factors of the father and mother of a
baby do not agree. They are said to be incompatible, they cannot work together even for
the sake of the baby. One such factor is known as Rh factor (Rhesus factor). If there is
such disagreement or incompatibility, some complications result in such a way that
miscarriage may occur or the baby may experience health problems.
ix.
Emotional stress: Generally in our country, pregnant women are happy. The husband,
in-laws, the woman herself have a very positive attitude toward pregnancy. Everyone
prays for the safe arrival of the baby. However in some circumstances this may not be the
case. Death in the family, unwanted pregnancy, ill treatment from husbands and in-laws
and other bad news may depress the pregnant woman. Emotional shock and stress may
reduce her appetite and so the quality and quantity of nutrients also become reduced.
Even if she eats well, her body may refuse to utilize the food well. There is evidence to
show that certain deformities may occur, the baby will be small. There could be mental
retardation and some other nervous system disorders such as epilepsy. There could also
be other physical defects.
x.
Difficult labour: Because of the fact that medical facilities are not sufficient, also with
ignorance, and poverty many babies are born outside hospitals and medical clinics. It is
only when labour becomes very prolonged and difficult that some pregnant women are
rushed to the hospital. Sometimes the babies die before birth - still birth. Sometimes the
supply of oxygen to the brain cells is poor so some brain cells die off. The child then
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suffers from MBD (Minimal Brain Damage) or even mental retardation which is more
severe. Later in class the child is unable to learn certain subjects. Sometimes, physical
defects such as disfigured limbs, occur. These defects can last throughout life.
As you can see, even after conception there is need to protect the unborn baby. Many of
the factors can leave a permanent damage if the tissues of organs are destroyed. We have
seen that the brain, eyesight can be permanently damaged. If this is so, the children in our
classes can not learn well. Even when we can not see the damage, learning problems do
occur.
Sometimes we can see the damage and they show up as physical handicap. Directly and
indirectly, such handicaps influence the way the children see themselves - their self
concept - and the way they relate to other children. The teacher has a big responsibility
not only in helping to educate people but in helping children who could have suffered
from ill effects of pre-natal factors.
These are summarized in the table below :
1.
Age of the Mother
- Underage or overage both have implications for the

development of the child.
2.
Maternal Diet
- Type of food and malnutrition affects child development

negatively
3.
Irradiation
- X-rays and Radiation
4.
Maternal Health
(a) Endocrine disorders
- Cretinism
(b) Infectious diseases
- Smallpox, measles, chickenpox could be transmitted by the

mother to baby
(c) Venereal diseases
- AIDS; Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Rubella all can cause

auditory and visual impairment; mental deficiencies,
physical deformities and deaths
5.
Rhesus Factor
- Incompatibility of the blood of the mother and child often

leads to miscarriages
6.
Maternal Stress
- Physical and mental defects in the baby
7.
Maternal Attitudes
- Emotional disposition of the child will be affected
8.
Drug use
- Thalidomide
tranquilizer
(malformation of the limbs)
9.
Smoking
- Infant death, miscarriage through placenta separations
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can
cause
Phocomelia

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
We had asked why the teachers need to know about an unborn child if their job is in the
classroom. The major reason is that later behaviour and development are usually affected by
events in the pre-natal period. We will now consider in greater detail what the teacher can do.
1.
A teacher can try to gather more information from parents about children with learning
problems, physical handicaps and other forms of behavioural problems. Such questions
should go back to the period of pregnancy. The information should improve the teachers'
understanding of individual differences.
2.
The teacher can make allowances for children with learning problems by slowing down,
repeating, and using different techniques to teach them.
3.
The teacher should make seating arrangements which accommodate those who have
defects. The children should be made to feel wanted and accepted in the class.
4.
The teacher can train children to make up for the areas of deficiencies. There are certain
skills and crafts which slow and mentally retarded children can do.
5.
It is very important to enlighten the parents and other members of the public about prenatal influences. When they know what to avoid, the babies will be protected and the
children we teach will have fewer problems. The students can also begin to learn about
some of the factors such as the importance of good nutrition, health, effects of drugs,
alcohol and smoking.
6.
Female teachers of child bearing age can practice what they have learnt. The male
teachers can help to protect their wives and babies during the pre-natal stage by making
sure that they avoid the ill effects of the factors we have discussed.
ACTIVITY II
1.
Show how the following affect growth and development.

(a)
Heredity
(b)
Environment.
2.
List the six stages of child development which may take us to the end of primary school.
3.
Give 2 reasons why a teacher should study pre-natal development.
4.
State how any 4 pre-natal factors influence development and three implications of prenatal developments for the teacher in classroom.
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DEVELOPMENT DURING CHILDHOOD

This period of child development forms the formative years. The events of the childhood period
and its developmental trends cast long shadows into the future. The study of this period is
therefore important to the educator for:
(i)
An understanding of this period will aid him in his important task in shaping future
development.
(ii)
He can only understand the person as he is now by knowing what has gone before.
(iii)
He will have to work with children whose early development has been impaired and who
will need skillful help and guidance to overcome their difficulties.
Stages of Childhood Development

This period can be divided into 5 namely:
(a)
Neonatal
Birth to four weeks
(b)
Infancy
4 weeks to 2 years.
(c)
Pre-School Period
2 to 6 years.
(d)
Middle Childhood Period
6 to 9 years.
(e)
Pre-Adolescence Period
9 years to puberty. (this stage ushers in

adolescence period)
The Neonate
Legally, life begins at birth but biologically it begins at conception. The newly born baby is
referred to as the neonate during the first 4 weeks. The study of the neonate reveals children of
abnormal behaviour who can be given any remedial treatment. Birth complications and damages
do hamper post natal development and at times alter it altogether.
Some of the effects of birth damage and development are the
following:
(i)
Neurological Injuries
Damages may be done to the brain or nervous system and the brain cells when the brain
is compressed while foetus is passing through the birth canal. When birth is prolonged,
the pressure on the brain may be hazardous and the immediate cause may be bleeding. If
damages occur at the left side of the brain, speech may be affected and if near the nervous
centre, it could affect the sense organs of the child i.e. eyes, ear etc.
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(ii)
The Anoxia
This is the interruption of the oxygen supplied to the brain. The damage done to the brain
cells depend upon the severity of the oxygen deprivation. Anoxia may be caused by
premature separation of the placenta from the foetus.
(iii)
Breach Birth
The coming out of the baby with the buttocks first. This cuts off oxygen supply in the
foetus blood stream. This also leads to anoxia. When, the foetus is cut off from the
oxygen supply before the hand emerges, brain cells may be deadened and epilepsy is
most common amongst such children.
Generally, nervousness and anxiety are more common among children born with difficulty.
During infancy, it is difficult to discover symptoms of birth damages. This is more so when
mental and physical developments take place more slowly. However, later in life, when the child
is older the deficiencies begin to reveal themselves. Such symptoms are:
(a)
Mental deficiency
(b)
Motor disabilities
(c)
Cerebral palsy
(d)
Inactivity
(e)
Epilepsy
(f)
Sensory defects of hearing
(g)
Malformation of muscular and skeletal systems.
MOTOR RESPONSE OF THE NEONATE

At birth, the baby can make a large number of motor responses which depends on the maturation
of the muscular development. The responses which have survival value for the baby, help him to
adjust conveniently in his environment and also to protect the child from dangerous stimuli. The
most striking motor responses are the reflexes.
(1)
Blinking Reflex
This is the constriction of the pupils of the eyes in reaction to bright light. This reflex has
a protective value from eye damage.
(2)
Sucking Reflex:
This occurs when the infant is hungry.
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(3)
Palmal Reflex (Grip)

It is the tight gripping of the hand of the neonate when gently stimulated by any pressure.
The reflex can be so strong as to maintain the neonates weight when lifted on its grip.
(4)
Babinski Reflex
It refers to the extension of the big toe and the fanning of the others when the toe of the
foot is gently struck. It shows activity.
(5)
Moro or Startle Reflect

This is the reaction to the stimulation such as applying hot or cold substance on the
neonates body, a sudden loss of support, loud voice starting from sleep, the baby throws
arms apart, legs extended and hair grown black.
(6)
Gremasteric Reflex
This reflex is found only in male neonate. It refers to the direction of the penis when the
upper thigh of the neonate is touched. The movement is not sexual arousal but a reflex.
All the neonatal activities whether general or specific are random and un-coordinated e.g.
rhythmic mouthing, turning of head, legs, hands and arms movement, kicking, turning, stretching
legs and feet. They are very important as they are the basis from which the highly coordinated
physical activities of the adolescence develop.
SENSE ORGAN DEVELOPMENT OF THE INFANT
1i)
Smell: The cells for smell at birth are well developed and this is shown by crying, head
turning and attempts to withdraw from any unpleasant stimuli.
(2)
Taste: The cells for taste are as well developed at birth as they do in later life, because
the sense of smell is developed. Hence, the infant can differentiate between pleasant and
unpleasant stimuli. Reacts positively to sweet taste and negatively to sour taste.
(3)
Organic Sensitivity: Hunger and thirst are well developed at birth and hunger
constructions at birth in the stomach will produce painful sensation in the abdomen.
(4)
Skin Sensitivity: Organs of touch, temperature and pressure are well developed and may
be close to the surface of the skin. Sensitivity of touch and pressure is greater in the face
region i.e. the lips. The sensitivity here is greater than the trunk or other parts of the
body. All skin sensitivity are more highly developed in females than males.
(5)
Vision: Neonate are colour blinded until the cones in the retina are well developed.
Their field of vision is limited to a small area around them, this is because the muscles
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that control the eyes are very weak. They can not focus both eyes simultaneously on an
object.
(6)
Hearing: Hearing is the least developed of all the senses at birth as a result of :
(a)
The stoppage of the middle ear with Amitotic fluid. Sound waves can not
penetrate to the sense cells in the inner ear. The neonate is therefore unable to
hear for several hours and even days after birth.
(b)
The sense cells in the inner ear are yet to develop as at this stage. However,
infants can discriminate the location of sounds within the 1st four days.
CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical development refers to series of orderly changes that occur in body size i.e. weight and
height; body proportions i.e. shapes as a result of changes in body size.
Importance
Physical development determines what the child can do at a particular stage of life. It influences
the childs attitude towards himself and others i.e. if the child develops normally for his age, he
will be able to compete on equal terms with his peers in sports and games.
On the other hand, if he feels that he cannot cope with the pace set by his mates, he will develop
feelings of personal inadequacy, insecurity, shame and at times feelings of martyrdom - wanting
to kill himself. The child when fatigued may be irritable, the child who is malnourished may
lack energy required by the school tasks.
AREAS OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
(1)
The Nervous System

The development of the nervous system and the brain leads to new pattern of behaviour.
The emotional behaviour of the child points to the ability to perceive in different
dealings/situations. The extent of the social acceptance will determine his ability to
understand, talk and feel the emotion of others around him.
(2)
The Growth of Muscles

Physical development gives rise to growth of muscles which brings labour changes in
physical capabilities and other kinds of activities which the child can partake in e.g.
sports. The size and number of bones in the body increase and they become harder.
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(3)
The Growth of Endocrine Gland

Changes in function of the endocrine glands result in a new pattern of behaviour i.e. at
puberty, the child shows likeness for a number of his opposite sex and he becomes
conscious of what he wears and how he looks.
(4)
Body Homeostasis
The behaviour of the child is influenced by his general physical conditions which is
dependant upon the balance functioning of the different parts of the body. The
maintenance of this balance is called body Homeostasis.
DETERMINANTS OF PHYSICAL GROWTH

(1)
Heredity
This factor is best seen in the physical appearance of the child e.g. the tendency is for the
child to be more like his parents than to differ from them.
(2)
Environment
Environmental factors include nutrition and balanced diet. Opportunity offered to the
child in his community also matters i.e. bicycles, good diet, games etc helps in
developing good physical fitness. Balanced diet is very important during the period of
fast growth.
(3)
Emotional Factor
The separation of the baby from his parents during infancy and early childhood can result
to retardation of growth.
PATTERNS OF PHYSICAL GROWTH

There are 3 broad patterns viz
(a)
Somatic Pattern
This refers to body growth. It includes the growth of weight, height, body proportions
and growth of various internal organs like respiratory system, digestive and the muscular
systems. Growth rate varies from child to child. Some grow at rapid rate, some slow and
others normal. Researchers have identified 2 period of rapid growth and 2 of slow
growth in children generally;
0 - 2 years
rapid growth
2 - Puberty
slow growth
Puberty - 16 years rapid growth
16 - maturity
growth is gradual.
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Between 9 14 years the girls are taller and heavier than boys. This is because they attain
puberty earlier than the boys. The boys usually overtake them after puberty during the
adolescence.
Since growth is energy consuming, the child is easily fatigued and irritable. Nutritional
requirements of the child are greatest during periods of rapid growth especially puberty. If the
child is undernourished, he becomes weak and irritable and will show no interest in school work.
During rapid growth, constant new adjustments are made and the body hardly maintains
homeostasis. The child thus becomes awkward and his motor coordination clumsy.
NEURAL GROWTH PATTERN
This refers to the nervous systems e.g. the brain. The brain is divided into two parts:
(i)
The lower brain or cerebellum
(ii)
The upper brain or cerebrum
The growth of the nervous system is extremely fast before birth and the first 4 years of life. For
the 1st two years, the growth attains 75%. The lower brain triples its growth and weight at this
period. The lower brain is responsible for the childs balance and postural control.
The upper brain controls the mental functions and the skilled movements of the child. The rapid
growth of the cerebrum brings about the changes in the childs mental abilities until the upper
brain is developed, the child is incapable of voluntary coordinated activities.
SEXUAL PATTERN OF DEVELOPMENT
This refers to primary and secondary sex characteristics. The primary sex characteristic means
the growth of penis, testis, virgina and ovary. The secondary characteristics refer to the
development of the breast, facial and pubic hair and the breaking of voice. These are not usually
developed until the time of procreation. Nature delays the ability to give birth to children till the
young people are physically, socially and psychologically ready for it. When the stage of
maturity is attained, the characteristics develop very rapidly.
Sexual maturity is marked by puberty. Puberty is marked by Menarche for girls and
spermatozoa for boys. The average age is between 14 and 18 in Nigeria and the range between
10 and 20. This period ushers in adolescence.
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
At all ages many school activities are posited on the assumption that practice and growth have
yielded sufficient development to allow for active participation by all pupils. Everything from
the early use of scissors and crayons to the fine hand eye coordination demanded by
mechanical drawing requires a certain degree of motor development. Therefore, teachers should
be aware of normal development sequences.
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Motor developments at this stage often refer to:

(a)
Growth in Motor Skills - Skills involved in the movement of the whole body i.e.
jumping, running, climbing, balancing, pushing, pulling etc.
(b)
Finer Motor Growth: - This refers to smaller skills involving the handling of tools etc.
DEVELOPMENT OF PREHENSION
This refers to the using of hands to hold objects. There are various stages involved in the
development of prehension::
(i)
A child first attempts to grip the object placed before him.
(ii)
He tries to go beyond the object in order to draw it to himself.
(iii)
The child tries to use his palm to hold the object as he can not coordinate the fingers.
This action is referred to as Primetime Skill
(iv)
He grasps the object between the thumb and the index fingers this is called Palmer
scoop.
(v)
The child holds the object between its fingers and thumb This is pincer grasp.
DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING AND DRAWING

This development follows a sequential order.
(a)
At 7 months a child can hold a large crayon but not a pencil as it is easier to hold bigger
objects.
(b)
At 18 months he can draw lines across or on papers with a crayon.
(c)
Between 2 and 3 years he can scribble meaningless words or letters on the paper.
(d)
Between 4 5 years, he can manipulate pencil i.e. can draw on a paper and constantly
calls it Mummy or Daddy.
(e)
At 6 years, he can control his fingers and can now write.
(f)
At age nine, handwriting of reasonable quality has developed.
(g)
At twelve, he has developed a skill of writing style. Here further changes can be made.
DEVELOPMENT OF LATERALITY
Laterality refers to the preferential use of one side of the body especially in assignments
requiring the use of an eye, one hand or one leg i.e. vision inside a bottle, throwing of a stone or
kicking a ball. Thus, we have Eyededness, Handedness and Leggedness.
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Handedness
This is the preferential use of the right or left hand. There are three types:
(a)
Dextrality
- The use of the right hand.
(b)
Sinistrality:
- The use of the left hand.
(c)
Ambidextrality - The use of both hands.
The theories of heredity, cerebral dominance and that of physical size had been rejected because
there is no preference for either hand at birth and that the observations of accident victims do not
support them. However, the social development theory that preference for right hand was as a
result of imitation, training and exercise was more acceptable.
EFFECTS OF HANDEDNESS
Our world is dextrally minded. Consequently, machines, tools, home appliances, sporting
equipments, desk; chairs and drawers are designed for the right handers. Left handers will have
to try to adapt these for use. In the school, guidance and demonstrations are often with right
hand making, they are more meaningful to the right hander.
They therefore develop skills and greater speed than the left handers. Left handers often become
fatigued easily and at times frustrated when they cannot cope with the speed of the right handers.
Left handers are often conspicuous in their group and appear maladjusted. Thus, they have
negative self concept. However, handedness should not be forced. A forced change after 6 years
may lead to stuttering and other forms of nervousness. These are symptoms of the tension
resulting from the attempt to force a change on the child.
GENERALIZATIONS ABOUT MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
(1)
Children, especially boys, place a high premium on physical strength, vigor and
coordination. There is a close relationship between popularity and strength.
(2)
There is only a slight relationship between a childs mental ability and his motor skill.
(3)
Growth of muscle mass precedes its functional development, hence, it is not uncommon
to find children who look big enough to be well coordinated but who are immature. This
is one of lifes hazards for the larger child for whom the world has unreasonable
expectations.
(4)
Motor skills in one area (such as running, jumping, etc) do not correlate highly with those
in other areas, such as manual dexterity.
(5)
Lack of self-confidence may preclude a child from receiving sufficient opportunities for
the necessary practice in developing motor skills e.g. as over protected child often shrinks
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from contact games, thus, losing the opportunity for learning the physical skills involved
and importance of social contacts.
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the following aspects of human development from conception to
childhood:
Development of the embryo and factors at the pre-natal stage and factors affecting it such
as nutrition, health, drugs, mothers age, etc. as well as their educational implications;
Development during childhood from birth to adolescence in terms of physical, neural

sexual and motor aspects.
ASSIGNMENT
(1)
(2)
(3)
4.
Should secondary school teachers as well as elementary school teachers be concerned

with a study of child development? Why?
The physically handicapped child is often not able to compete with other children at the
very time when acceptance by peers may depend more on physical than personality traits
(a)
What problems does this pose for the teacher?
(b)
What can the teacher do to alleviate these problems?
List school activities that are likely to demand a level of motor development not yet
achieved by many pupils of a given age.
(a)
Define the concept of Growth
(b)
5.
Define the concept of development
Show how the following affect growth and development.

(a)
Heredity
(b)
Environment.
6.
State and explain the principle which governs the direction of growth and development.
7.
List the six stages of child development which may take us to the end of primary school.
8.
Write a short note on (a) Infancy (b) Early Childhood.
REFERENCES
Durojaiye, M.O.A., (1976) A New Introduction to Educational Psychology; London: Evans.
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UNIT FOUR:
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
The study of human development from conception to adulthood is no doubt a complete one. It
thus, requires theories to guide it. A theory is a set of interrelated constructs, concepts,
definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations
among variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena (Kerlinger, 1986).
Theories therefore provide the necessary framework which guide psychologists in making
observations and discoveries through empirical research. The findings of these investigations
provide the basis for intellectual discourse of human personality.
There are different theories which attempt to explain the four dimensions of development
Physical, Cognitive, Moral, Social and Emotional. At times movetion are theory describes the
process of the development of a particular dimension of personality. These we have:
(i)
The Psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud.
(ii)
The Cognitive theories of:
(iii)
(a)
Jean Piaget;
(b)
Lev Vygotsky; and
(c)
Jerome Bruner.
The Psychosocial theories of:

(a)
Erik Erikson;
(b)
Robert J. Havighurst; and
(c)
Urie Bromfenbremer
(iv)
The Social Learning theory of Albert Bandura
(v)
The Moral development theory of Lawrence Kohlberg.
(vi)
The Learning theories.
This Unit will focus on these theories bringing out the psychological issues pertaining to
personality development in each of them as they relate to the classroom situation.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
(i)
define personality
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(ii)
explain the various dimensions of personality
(iii)
describe the stages of development of each personality dimension.
(iv)
identify and describe the educational implications of personality development.
(v)
describe how you can make use of the knowledge of the stages of personality
developments to promote healthy personality development of the child in the classroom.
(vi)
describe briefly each personality development theory and its educational implications.
PERSONALITY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

There has not been any significant difference in the definitions of personality among
psychologists.
Lovell, K. (1973) defines it as the whole persons outstanding characteristics, his abilities, his
emotional and social traits, his interests and attitudes.
Barnes, & et-al (1984) tried explaining the concept in his quest to understand answers to the
question Am I me or am I the situation, pointing out the inescapable interaction between
personal disposition and the situation.
Both definitions attempt to point at the significance of inherent biological qualities of human
beings and the environment and their effect on human personality.
FACTORS AFFECTING PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Even though we are going to discuss the various theories of personality development, it is
necessary for us to examine those forces that influence personality development on a general
basis.
1.
The Home : The child inherits some behavioural traits from his parents. Apart from
this, the parents are the first teachers of the child and he learns a lot from them. The care
and affection either materially or psychologically which the child enjoys helps him to
have a sense of security, trust, respect for authority and so on. A child who enjoys no love
from his parents is bound to develop hatred for others in his later life.
2.
The School: The influence of the school in the personality development of the child is
tremendous. The teacher's behaviour, attitude and reaction to his colleagues and pupils
go a long way to influence the children's personality. Teachers should note that whatever
they say or do are in most cases emulated by the pupils. If the teacher is friendly, warm,
considerate, cooperative and well adjusted, his pupils will grow up to produce similar
personality characteristics.
3.
Personal Experiences: Every child has his unique past experiences which might be
pleasurable or unpleasurable. If a child does not experience crises in the family like loss
of beloved ones, failures, frustrations, serious illness, he will grow up to be happy and
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this will enhance a wealthy personality development. But for others who are less
fortunate, their personality development will be the negative side.
4.
Cultural Influence: The moral and social values of a society also have strong influence
on the personality development of the child. A child who grows in a society which lays
emphasis on personal achievement tends to work hard without necessarily relying on
others.
5.
The Peer Group: The influence of the peer group becomes more dominant on the child
during the adolescent period. At that stage, parents' influence becomes very insignificant.
Each peer group has its own code of conduct which every member must respect. This is
why many parents become alarmed at the sudden changes in the behaviour of their
children during the adolescent stage. What is responsible in most cases is the influence
of the peer group.
6.
The Child's needs and motives: Every child has his own unique needs and motives and
efforts are usually made to meet such needs. A child who takes interest in the game of
football might later become a professional footballer. Our needs and motives which often
direct our behaviour also influence our personality either in the positive or negative way.
It is, therefore, the duty of teachers to assist his children develop positive goals and work
vigorously towards their achievement. Through an understanding of the physical, social,
and psychological needs of their children, teachers are in a position to assist in promoting
healthy personality development of their pupils.
However, based on the general assumption that personality refers to the peculiar thinking of the
individual, his emotions and behaviours in adapting to the world, some psychologists proposed
five major factors that make it up. These include emotional stability, extraversion and openness
to experience. The other two are agreeableness and conscientiousness.. Apart from these major
factors, however, there are other equally important ones such as how positive or negative and
how self assertive a student can be. By positive and negative, they mean how joyous or happy
and how angry or sad a student is respectively.
EMOTIONAL STABILITY
The emotional stability of an individual affects his personality by determining whether he is calm
or anxious in his approaches. It also tells whether he considers himself as secure to perform or
insecure to participate in activities. And whether he is self satisfied with his tasks or is self
pitying is also indicated by his emotional stability.
EXTRAVERSION
This factor is responsible for indicating whether the student is sociable or retiring and whether he
is fun-loving or usually somber. It also shows how affectionate or reserved one is in his
association with others or during events.
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OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE
The students imaginative power or his practicability is known by his openness to the relevant
experience. It indicates whether he is more interested in variety or in routine and whether he is
more independent in his dealings or simply conforming to others instructions and suggestions.
AGREABLENESS
It matters a lot to determine whether the student is softhearted or ruthless in his dealings with
others. Is he a trusting type or generally a suspicious person? We need to know his position
when it comes to whether he is helpful or uncooperative in his behaviour.
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
Lastly, the factor of conscientiousness affects the personality of an individual by helping to
determine whether he is usually organized or disorganized, careful or careless. It also suggests
whether he is a disciplined individual or is normally given to impulsive behaviour.
PERSON SITUATION INTERACTION
In relation to factors that affect the personality of our students, it is noteworthy however that the
description of the personality of each of them is not strictly speaking a straight jacket affair. The
situation in which the subjects find themselves must be put into consideration before conclusion
is drawn to label them according to the traits enumerated in the factors that affect their
personality. This is because their interactions may vary from one situation to another.
Therefore, it is for the teacher to observe the situations that are more comfortable to their
respective students, to provide cognate learning activities for them.
ACTIVITY I
1.
List and explain the factors affecting personality development among children.
2.
Suggest ways teachers will contribute to the healthy development of personality among
children; visa vis, factors affecting personality.
DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Sigmund Freud (1856 1939) was a Psychiatrist who used Psychoanalysis to treat his patients.
Psychoanalysis is the method of interviewing a person with the purpose of retracing and reliving
his emotional life from early infancy.
Freud distinguished three levels of consciousness the conscious, the preconscious and the
unconscious mind. We are aware presently of the content of the conscious mind, only
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temporarily aware of the contents of the pre-conscious mind but permanently unaware of the
contents of the unconscious mind.
You may not be thinking now of the name of your class captain but you can easily bring it to the
conscious mind from the pre-conscious mind. The contents of the preconscious mind were once
conscious and can be returned to consciousness easily when needed.
The unconscious mind stores primitive instinctual motives plus memories and emotions that are
so threatening to the conscious mind that they have been unconsciously pushed into the
unconscious mind through the process of Regression. The contents of the unconscious mind are
not normally accessible to consciousness though, they can rarely be made fully conscious with
great difficulty.
THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
Psychoanalytic theory asserts that the mind is composed of three parts, each with a different
function: the id, the ego, and the Superego.
ID The Selfish Boast
Id refers to the biological component of the personality. The id is composed primarily of two
sets of instincts, Life Instincts (Eros-love and self-preservation) and Death Instincts (Thenatosdeath, hate, aggression or destruction).
The life instincts, termed Libido, give rise to motives that sustain and promote life such as
hunger, self-protection and sexual desire. The id which is the oldest of the personality systems is
primitive, raw, animalistic, unorganized, obey no rules, shameless, knows no laws and remain
basic to the individual throughout life. It operates on the pleasure principle. The id wants to
obtain immediate pleasure and avoid pain, regardless of how harmful it might be to others.
The id has no conception of reality and attempts to satisfy its needs using Primary process thinking i.e. by simply forming a wish-fulfilling mental image of the desired image. Primary
process is used when day-dreaming about having sex, becoming rich or planning a revenge on
one that offends us. Primary process satisfies motives through imagination rather than in reality.
However, interactions with parents and the real world assist in converting the id into two other
parts of the mind the ego and superego in order to cope effectively with the world.
Ego: The Executive of Personality
The Ego develops from the id under the influence of the external environment. The ego operates
on the Reality Principle. It holds the id in check until a safe and realistic way has been found to
satisfy its motives. The ego always helps the id to fulfill its needs through realistic ways. Thus,
the ego is the executive of the personality in that it uses cognitive abilities to manage and control
the id and balance its desire against the restriction of reality and the superego.
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The Superego
The id and ego have no morals. Restrictions are placed on the actions of id and ego when
superego develops. The superego performs the judicial function of the personality through the
Ideal Principle. Parents are the main agents for creating superego as the system of values,
norms, ethics and attitudes are transferred to the children through them. Parental punishment
creates the set of moral inhibitions known as the Conscience whereas their rewards set up a
standard of perfect conduct in the superego called the Ego Ideal.
Most of us do not steal, murder and rape not because we do not want to or because our egos
could not find relatively safe ways to do so but because our superegos hold these desires in
check.
Often ego may not find a way to satisfy the motive of id and so a substitute is found. A child
that can not kick his father may kick his brother or Teddy Bear. The process of substituting is
called Displacement. A socially harmful goal may be substituted with a socially desirable goal
i.e. aggressiveness with sporting activities.
Another process that allows individuals operate in socially acceptable ways without friction is
Identification. Individuals identify role models in the society and pattern their behaviours after
these models. Identification is a key step in developing the superego.
STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
Discussion on personality and how it develops is not a new exercise. The issue has been
severally discussed right from the pre-Freudian era during which the early years of a child were
assumed to be insignificant and of no effect in his personality. He was assumed to be only a
human in the making, beginning to interact only at the age of six and seven. Based on this early
conception of the child, attention of different societies and cultures shifted to satisfying adult
needs only, ignoring that of the child. This has left the most vital parts of his life unattended to
and with entirely no psychological significance in the study of his growth and development.
A shift in this perception of the child however, started with the work of Sigmund Freud, who
believed that adult personality can only be understood viewing from the early childhood
experiences (before entering school). These experiences, according to him, have everlasting
implications on the kind of his personality later in life. He identified five important stages of
development, namely, the oral stage (0 to 18 months), the anal stage ( 1 to 3 years), the
phallic stage (3 to 7 years),the latency stage( 6 to 11 years ) and the genital stage(11 to 14+
years). These years are very incredible in the development of adults personality.
Excessive punishment or reward from parents or traumatically stressful events experienced
during a period of development can leave a persons personality Stuck or Fixated, at that stage.
This fixation of personality development will leave a lifelong mark on the personality. Fixation,
according to Freud, is an emotional attachment to an early stage of development which makes it
difficult for a developing child to form new attachments, develop new instincts or establish new
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adaptations. Fixation reveals inadequately resolved problems in the developmental stage during
which it occurs.
Regression, a special type of fixation may occur in later life of an individual. Regression is the
return or reversion to an earlier stage of Psychosexual development. The individual will
actually display the childish behaviour appropriate to the period in question i.e. bursting into
tears and sucking of fingers. The weaker the resolution of psychosexual conflicts, the more
vulnerable the individual is to the forces of regression under conditions of emotional or physical
stress later in life.
The developmental stages of development result from a shifting of the primary outlet of libidinal
energy of the id from one part of the body to another. These parts are called the Erogenous
Zones.
Oral Stage (0 to 18 Months)
At the oral stage, the infant child is heavily dependent upon its parents for the satisfaction of his
basic needs, and unless these needs are catered for the child will experience serious
developmental problems with an everlasting consequence on his personality. Such an individual
with problems at this stage is characterized by argumentative, pessimistic, caustic and sarcastic
behaviour. They may also develop anxiety, ,and insecurity. These basic needs are that of food,
security, love and affection to mention but just a few. Freud therefore suggested good child
rearing habits such as breast feeding, personal care, love and affection etc. This stage is called
dependency stage.
Anal Stage (11/2 to 3 Years)
The anal stage is described in the biological sense of the word. The child would need to be
controlled and guided in the satisfaction of anal desires. This will teach him self control and
independent tendencies. The two combines are very important in the emotional growth and
development of children. Excessive punishment for or failure for toilet training may create a
fixated personality that is either stingy, obstinate, stubborn, and compulsive or cruel, pushy,
messy and disorderly.
Phallic Stage (3 to 7 Years)
The phallic stage is referred to as the stage of identity. It covers a period between the ages of 3 to
7 years. At this stage the genitals become the primary source of pleasure .The child enjoys
touching his or her genitals and develops a sexual attraction for the parent of the opposite sex
Oedipal or Electra complexes for boys and girls respectively. Failure to resolve the phallic stage
results in phallic personalities characterized by egocentric, selfishness, impulsiveness,and lack of
genuine feelings for others. This kind of individuals are said to be narcisstic. During these years,
the oral and the anal dimensions integrate and no new elements are added thereafter. The
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interplay of these elements determines the personality of adolescents and beyond and their
character. The more positive the elements, the more propounding characters are achieved.
The implications of this discovery by Freud are that parents should care very much on the kind
of nurturing they provide to their children. They must affectionately interact and train their
children towards the objectives of each of the identified stages of emotional development.
Latency ( 6 11 Years)
During this period, sexual interest is relatively inactive. Sexual desire has been strongly
repressed through the resolution of the oedipal or electral complex. Sexual energy is now
sublimated and converted into sports, doing school work, riding bicycle etc. Children should
therefore be assisted to develop a degree of competence in these areas. The opportunity should
also be adequately provided.
The Genital Stage: (11 14 + Years)
This period is characterized by obvious sexual maturation manifested in the onset of puberty at
adolescence. There is renewed interest in obtaining sexual pleasure through the genitals..
Masturbation becomes frequent. Sexual and romantic interest in others also becomes a central
motive.
Though, relationships are usually for selfish genital pleasures, individuals at this stage often have
genuine care for the loved ones as much as or more than self. Sublimation continued to be
important during this period as sexual and aggressive id motives become transformed into energy
for marriage, occupation and child rearing.
ERIK ERIKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT
Following the psychoanalytic theory, Erikson developed the theory of Psychosocial personality
development. The theory stresses that any psychological phenomenon must be understood in
terms of the interplay of biological, behavioural, experimental and social factors. The core of
human functioning is based on the quality of interpersonal relationships. According to Erikson,
the individuals personality is always under the influence of social forces from early childhood to
adulthood. Every behaviour is therefore a product of the individuals genetic make-up and social
history. He based personality development on epigenetic principle, which postulates personality
of an individual to be ego driven. He pointed that personality form as ego progresses through
series of interrelated stages.
Based on this epigenetic principle, he proposed eight stages that are sequential, interrelated and
universal.
As no individual develops in isolation of his or her social environment, the manifestation of the
problems of each stage is culturally determined. These stages are:
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Trust versus Mistrust (Birth 1 year)

Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt ( 1 3 years )
Initiative versus Shame and Guilt ( 3 5 years )
Industry versus Inferiority ( 6 11 years )
Identity versus Confusion(12 to 18 Years )
Intimacy versus Isolation ( Young Adulthood )
Generativety versus Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)
Integrity versus Despair ( Old age)
(i)
Birth to 1 year (trust vs Mistrust): The experience here is in terms of childcare,

maternal relationship and genuine affection, etc. The child at this stage needs to be
gratified these basic needs consistently and continually. He needs to have some kind of
experience to think of the world as a dependable and safe place for existence. If on the
other way round, inadequate and inconsistent care is shown to the child, there would be a
growing mistrust, fear and suspicion in the perception of the world by the child. Thus,
parents, especially mothers with whom the child first identifies , should develop close
intimacy with their children. They must provide the protection, affection and gratify those
basic needs of the child so that the child perceives the world as a dependable and safe
place for existence.
(ii)
2 to 3 years (years of autonomy versus shame and doubt): Coming next in experience
after trust or mistrust is autonomy versus shame and doubt. This stage coincides with the
pre-school age. According to Erickson, children should be encouraged and allowed to
do what they are capable of doing at their own pace and in their own way but with
judicious supervision by parents and teachers, pointing that this will aid their sense of
autonomy. Shame and doubt would inadvertently erode the childs life if there is a failure
in the gratification of these needs.
It is therefore expedient to stress that not all children at this stage are placed under the
care of school teachers. The working mothers would rather employ the services of
nannies that are ill-informed about childrens needs at this particular age. The mothers
themselves are supposed to know the importance of this stage of childrens life in the
development of their personality.
In the kindergarten school, considerable level of autonomy is achieved by pre-school age
children, especially if they are allowed to do what they are capable of doing by
themselves. The feeling of shame and doubt comes in only if they are restricted.
(iii)
4 to 5 years (Initiatives versus guilt): This stage is very crucial in the development of
childrens initiatives. The most important activities that children would like to be
involved at this stage are physical activities and using language to set their initiatives.
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Children are too playful at this stage and can mimic words that they even do not
necessarily understand. They should not be rebuked or reproached for taking part in these
activities. If in school, teachers must answer their questions. Learning materials that
children will play with are essentially required to aid the development of childrens
initiative.
Teachers must make concerted effort at using activity centered approach in their
teaching. The feelings of guilt must be minimized through de-emphasizing jealous
tendencies by not comparing children activities.
(iv)
6 to 11 years (Industry versus Inferiority): This stage represents the elementary and
primary age in the life of children. It is characterized by childrens intellectual curiosity
and performance. Children would like to be recognized for producing things, which will
make them achieve some sense of industry. They need encouragement to do things and
be praised for achieving results. If their efforts are unsuccessful, or if they are derided or
treated as bothersome, inferiority results and this will have an everlasting consequence on
their personality. Teachers must develop the industrious tendencies among their pupils by
giving them enough opportunities and encouragement to experience pleasure of their
work. They should be challenged with variety of assignment and projects that are
described in terms of specific objectives. The children must be giving tasks
commensurate to their levels to be undertaken at their own rate with remedial
instructions at the realization of any difficulty. They must not be forced to compete with
their mates so as not to create a sense of inadequacy and inferiority in them.
(v)
12 to 18 years (Identity versus Confusion)

This corresponds to the puberty and adolescence periods of life. It is the most delicate
and presents itself with variety of developmental tasks. It is characterized by children
seeking for the attainment of independence and becoming more concerned about what
they would become in future. It is a period of intense biological, physical, emotional and
intellectual transformation among adolescents. Their main goal in life is the development
of identity occurring from confidence of sameness and continuity.
The major threats are the confusion of roles, particularly about sexual and occupational
identity. More details about adolescence psychology will be discussed in Unit 3.
Teachers should help adolescents integrate their roles in different situations so as to
experience continuity in their perception of themselves. This will invariably develop their
identity, which is the main goal of their lives. Failing this, there would be depression,
frustration and self withdrawal. Children at this age must be encouraged to subordinate
their childhood behaviour to a new kind of self identification, which is only achieved
through competitive apprenticeship. They should be cheered to face the challenges of life
more seriously devoid of playfulness and youthful exuberances. Teachers should
encourage and help them make rational decisions with increasing immediacy and
commitment. The adolescents should be counseled on career options that would lead
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them to develop their self identity as the biggest commitment of persons life rather than
the gratification of other subordinate childhood desires. Any delay in taking rational
decisions and following it up with commitment would lead to what Erickson calls
Psychosocial moratorium, leading to the loss of sense of identity, the acid of self
disdain.
(vi)
Intimacy versus Isolation (young adulthood): Adulthood starts from the years
following adolescence period. It is characterized by continuous insistence on identity and
eagerness to use it with others. The young adult seeks to be intimate with others in the
same age group. If they achieve the goals of this stage, they fare successfully, otherwise
they become isolated.
Teachers have the duty of encouraging students to accept their personal appearances and
urging them to select short term goals in the face of threatening career choices. The worth
of students should be recognized and their inconsistent behaviours tolerated and
constructively refined.
(vii)
Generativity versus Stagnation (Middle age): This stage is essentially poised at

establishing and guiding the next generation. None realization of the goals of this age
results in stagnation and self absorption. Teachers have little or no role to play in this as
most middle age people have either accomplished their developmental tasks successfully
or failed to achieve the goals of this stage. Those that have failed can hardly remediate
the loss, but to reluctantly accept their fate.
(viii) Integrity versus Despair (Old age): This is the end of Ericksons hierarchy of
personality development. The stage is particularly concerned with integrity seeking. In
other words, it is the stage of self actualization. Despair is the resultant consequence of
failing to realize the goals of the stage.
ACTIVITY II
1.
Examine carefully, the personality issues both before and during the Freudian era
pointing out their educational implications.
2.
Identify and explain the roles of teachers in aiding the development of childrens
personality at the various stages of development
HAVIGHURSTS THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Another Psychologist that further elaborated on Erikssons view on personality development was
Robert. J Havighurst. He asserted that Ericksons analysis of stages of development could be
applied in a different way to shed light on other facets of development. He suggested some
developmental tasks for different age levels, starting from the pre-school and kindergarten age.
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1.
Pre-school/kindergarten age: According to Havighurst, this age ushers in an era of

formation of simple concepts of societal and physical reality. It is a familiarity seeking
stage with the social surroundings including every day objects. Children are curious at
this stage asking questions. The questions if answered expose them to experiences they
hitherto do not have. The child would want to relate emotionally with his parents, siblings
and other people around mostly through imitation. He would like to distinguish right
from wrong and develop a conscience.
The tasks appear to be incompatible with the age whose accomplishment would be
difficult. The personality of children at this age is just beginning to take shape, and
assuming that children are in a position to undertake these developmental tasks will
amount to impossibilities.
However, teachers are expected to serve as desirable role models and expose children to
many objects and experiences. They should patiently answer their curious questions.
2.
Elementary Grade: Nine (9) developmental tasks have been identified for this age
grade. They include learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games; building
wholesome attitudes towards oneself as a growing organism; learning to get along with
age mates; learning appropriate masculine or feminine roles; development of fundamental
skills in reading, writing and calculations. Others are developing concepts necessary for
everyday living; developing conscience, morality and scale of values; achieving personal
independence and developing attitudes towards social group and institutions.
Teachers have a stake in ensuring that children emerge from these Herculean
developmental tasks successfully. They must bring to bear all the teaching principles and
methods in the teaching/learning situations. They should emphasize socially acceptable
behaviours, health and eating values to their students. They should make effort at seeping
and integrating curriculum materials and experiences that would lead to the
accomplishment of masculine and feminine tasks.
3.
Secondary grades: At the secondary grade, nine (9) developmental tasks have been
similarly identified by Havighurst, which are related mostly to adolescents and adult
behaviours. The list comprises of:
Achieving new and mature relations with age mates of both sexes;
Achieving a masculine or feminine social role;
Accepting ones physique and using the body effectively;
Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults;
Achieving assurance of economic independence and selecting and preparing for

occupation;
Preparing for marriage and family life;

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Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence;
Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour; and
Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behaviour.
Havighurst emphasized the importance of timing and teachable moments in addressing issues
related to the achievement of the developmental tasks, failing which there would be an adverse
repercussion in later aspects of development. These issues have also been discussed under
psychology of adolescence.
ACTIVITY III
1.
Identify the similarities and differences (if any ) in the Piaget and Havighurst theories
of personality development.
2.
Examine the educational significance of Havighurst theory and suggest appropriate

roles teachers would play in addressing the developmental issues of the theory.
BRONFENBRENNERS ECOLOGICAL THEORY

The third theory that addresses childrens socio-emotional development is the ecological theory
developed by Bronfenbrenner. It focuses primarily on the social contexts in which children live
and the people who influence their development. The theory consists of five environmental
systems that range from close interpersonal interactions to broad-based influences of culture.
Micro-System:
This is a setting in which the individual spends considerable time. Some of these contexts are
the students family, peers, school and neighborhood. The child reciprocally interacts with
others and helps to construct these settings.
The Meso-system
This involves linkages between Microsystems. The connections between the family and the
school experiences, between the family and peers etc. Experiences from one micro-system may
impinge on experiences from another micro system e.g. a rejected child from a broken home may
not relate well with the teacher in the school.
The ExoSystem:
This is at work when experiences in another setting, in which the student does not have an active
role influence what students and teachers experience in the immediate context. The role of
education supervisors and school Boards may be part of such experiences.
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The Macro-System:
This involves the broader culture in which the students and teachers live including the societal
values, custums and norms e.g. some cultural practices are known to promote gender disparity
and stereotyping while others do not. The roles of ethnicity, religion and socioeconomic
factors in children personality development are also significant.
The ChronoSystem:
This refers to socio historical conditions of students development e.g. children today are living
in the information age in which the word is now a global village. Their development will be
different from that of say children of some 30 years ago. The information super highway will
affect the present childrens personality development.
Bronfenbrenners theory is one of the few systematic analyses that includes both micro and
macro environments. Critics of the theory say it lacks attention to biological and cognitive
factors. They also point out that it does not address steps by step developmental changes of
children.
DIAGRAM
THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

PIAGETS THEORY
Piaget believed that moral development is advanced through the mutual give and take of peer
relations. Parents play a less important role in childrens moral development because they have
so much more power than children and hand down rules in an authoritarian manner. He
proposed a two staged moral development theory.
Heterogonous Morality Stage:
This stage lasts from approximately 4 to 7 years of age. Justice and rules are conceived of as
unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people. The heteronomous
thinker believes in Immanent Justice. Immanent justice is the concept that if a rule is broken,
punishment will be meted out immediately. Children of this age believe that a violation is in
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some way automatically connected to punishment. When the child reports an older sibling he or
she expects you to punish the person immediately.
Autonomous Morality
This is Piagets second stage of moral development reached at about 10 years of age or older. At
this point, the child becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people and that in judging
an action, the actors intentions as well as the consequences should be considered.
Children of 7 to 10 years of age are in a transition between the two stages, showing some
features of both.
KOHLBERGS THEORY
Lawrence Kohlberg stressed that moral development primarily involves moral reasoning and
unfolds in stages. He constructed a theory of moral development that has three main levels with
two stages each. The key concept in understanding this theory is Internalization.
Internalization refers to the developmental change from behaviour that is externally controlled to
behaviour that is internally controlled.
PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
This is the lowest level of moral development. At this level, the child shows no internalization
of moral values. Moral reasoning is controlled by external reward and punishment. This is the
stage called Punishment and Obedience Orientation.
At stage two called Individualism and Purpose, moral thinking is based on rewards and selfinterest. Children obey when it is in their best interest to obey. What is right is what feels good
and what is rewarding to them.
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
This is the intermediate level. At this level, the childs internalization is intermediate. The child
abides internally by certain standards, but they are essentially the standards imposed by other
people, such as parents, or by societys laws.
At the stage of Interpersonal Norms, the child values, trust, caring and loyalty to others as the
basis of moral judgments. Children often adopt their parents moral standards at this stage,
seeking to be thought of as a good girl or a good boy. At the stage of social system
morality, moral judgments are based on understanding of the social order, law, justice and duty.
POST-CONVENTIONAL REASONING LEVEL
This is the highest level. At this level, morality is completely internalized and not based on
external standards. The child recognized alternative moral courses, explores options and then
decides on the moral code that is best for him or her. The two stages here are:
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Community Rights versus Individual Rights Stage

The child understands that values and laws are relative and that standards can vary from one
person to another. Students at this stage recognize that laws are important for society but know
that laws can be changed. The student believes that some values, such as freedom, are more
important than the law.
Universal Ethical Principles Stage
The person here has developed moral judgments that are based on universal human rights. When
faced with a dilemma between law and conscience, individualized conscience is followed.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT:
ALBERT BANDURA
To the social learning theorists, personality is simply something that is learned, its the sum total
of all the ways we have learned to act, think and feel. Since we learn from other people in the
society, the theory is termed Social Learning.
This theory has its root in cognitive view of learning. The cognitivists argued that personality is
no more than learned behaviour and that if you understand the processes of learning, you can
understand how personality is developed ( Pavlov, J. B. Wartson, B. F. Skinner etc). The key
concepts in the study of personality from view point of social learning theory are classical
conditioning, operant conditioning, and modeling. These concepts will be adequately discussed
later under Learning Theories.
Social cognitive theory states that social and cognitive factors, as well as behaviour, play
important roles in learning. Cognitive factors might include students beliefs, attitudes,
strategies, thinking and intelligence. Social factors might include students observing their
parents achievement behaviour.
Person factors include personality traits and temperament introvertion or extrovertion, active or
inactive, calm or anxious, friendly or hostile etc. Thus, from this theory, a person will develop
an adequate personality only if he or she is exposed to good models and is reinforced for
appropriated behaviour. On the other hand, an inadequate environment will result in inadequate
personality development. Bandura is also a behaviourist but differ from traditional behaviourist
by:
(i)
Seeing people as playing an active role in determining their own actions, rather than
being passively acted upon by the learning environment.
(ii)
Emphasizing the importance of cognition in personality development.
He asserted that social learning is Reciprocal Determinism: Not only is a persons behaviour
learned, but the social learning environment is altered by the persons behaviour.
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The reciprocal determinism model consists of three main factors, Behaviour, Person (cognitive)
and Environment. These factors interact to influence learning.
BEHAVIOUR
Person/Cognitive
Factors
Environment
According to Bandura, our learned cognitions are the prime determinant of our behaviour. A
student who think others find him or her boring will act quiet and shy.
ACTIVITY IV
Give an example to illustrate reciprocal determinism in action in your school.
In his theory, SELF-EFFICACY, is the perception that one is capable of doing what is
necessary to reach ones goals both in the sense of knowing what to do and being emotionally
able to do it. Students who perceive themselves as self-efficacious accept greater challenges
expend more effort, and may be more successful in reaching their goals as a result. Others with a
poor sense of efficacy may not even study as they believe they wont make it and as a result will
always fail.
However, it is noteworthy that our perceptions of self-efficacy are learned from what others say
about us, from our direct experiences of success and failure, and from other sources, these
cognitions continue to influence our behaviour from the inside out.
Bandura also emphasizes the learning of personal standards of reward and punishment by which
you judge your own behaviour. This he termed SELF-REGULATION. You learn your
personal standards from observing the personal standards that other people model. Also, from
the standards that others use when rewarding or punishing you. These, you put together to
govern your own behaviour in a self-regulatory manner. Thus, when you behave in ways that
meet personal standards, you reinforce yourself through a sense of pride and happiness. On the
other hand, you punish yourself when you fail to meet personal standards through feelings of
guilt, disappointment etc.
A number of programmes such as modeling, or observational learning, self-monitoring
techniques and self-regulatory programmes have seen developed from the social learning theory
approach.
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Critics of social learning theory say it places too much emphasis on behaviour and external
factors and not enough on the details of cognitive processes. They are also criticized for not
showing developmental stages and giving inadequate attention to self-esteem.
ACTIVITY V
Describe Bauduras Social Learning Theory.
SUMMARY
A brief theoretical development of personality is given in this unit. Discussion on issues

bordering on the subject started as early as pre-Freudian era when it was assumed that
personality development starts only at the ages 6 & 7.
In their researches, Sigmund Freud and Piaget found that the experiences of the child at
birth affect his personality and went further to suggest certain developmental stages
during which personality develops. They suggested certain development tasks that must
be accomplished that would enhance healthy personality development.
The unit also discussed factors affecting personality development, which have great
application for parents and the school.
REFERENCES
Bcehler, R.F. (1976), Psychology Applied to Teaching, Houghton Mifflin Company, U.S.A.
Lovell, K (1973), Educational psychology and Children. Hodder & Stoughton, U.K.
Sprint hall, R.C. & Sprint hall N.A. (1981), Educational Psychology: A development Approach.
Addison Wesley Publishing company, U.S.A.
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UNIT FIVE:
THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
In educational circles, intellect is the ability to think, reason and solve problems. In adolescence,
intellectual development is at its peak. The students in our secondary schools are in this stage of
development. It is vital for you as a teacher to appreciate this fact and endeavours to organize
learning and teaching in such a way as to optimize learning.
In this unit, we shall study intellectual development from childhood through to adolescence
showing the process and steps of growth as one step leads to the next. We shall at the end
highlight the intellectual development in the adolescence years and their educational implication.
We shall examine the theories of cognitive development of Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
i.
describe the main features in Piagets and Bruners theories of cognitive development;
ii.
describe the changes in cognitive ability that occur in adolescence;
iii.
discuss the educational implications of the changes in cognitive ability that occur during
adolescence.
ARNOLD GESSEL IS THEORY OF GROWTH

The cognitive development theory by Jean Piaget was preceded by discussions on the inborn
characteristics of children as the main providers of childrens educational experiences. It was
generally believed that childrens learning abilities were determined prior to their birth and that
the child must be accepted based on this assumption.
The implication of this assumption was less emphasis on environmental effects on the childs
mental development. For reasons of de-alienation of other factors affecting the cognitive growth
of children, curriculum contents were either enriched or watered down for school children based
on their categorization as fast or slow learners, which they were expected to study at their own
pace.
The first attempt at countering this assumption was made by Arnold Gessel. He stated that
growth and development occur in varying sequence, meaning that even as it is believed that
human beings are composed of inborn or innate qualities, which to some extent, determine their
personality. They are nevertheless non static. They grow and develop in unvarying degrees.
Growth and development in this manner happens in stages and go through periods of major
reorganization, integration and assimilation. It follows therefore that cognitive development can
be better understood by understanding the growth process of individuals. This understanding will
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afford one to know at what age major break through is recorded and their consolidation periods.
By understanding how and when cognitive systems develop, you will be in a position to
ascertain the readiness of your pupils and give them exactly what they are ready for.
JEAN PIAGET
Jean Piaget viewed personality from cognitive perspective. He opined that human being inherit
two basic organizational and adaptation tendencies, which are processed and kept in a state of
balance(homeostasis) necessary for intellectual processing. He calls this equilibration. More of
this will be discussed under theories of Intelligence.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT BY JEAN PIAGET
Talking about cognitive development theory, Jean Piaget (1896-1980) appeared to be the most
outstanding. Originally trained as a biologist and philosopher, he developed a deep concern for
the biological influences of how people think. He believed that human beings are distinctively
different from animals because of their ability in abstract reasoning. His findings in IQ tests
conducted in Paris instigated further interest in knowing how organisms adapt to their
environment. This, Piaget regarded as Intelligence. He therefore construed that human behaviour
is basically a reaction of humans to their environment, i.e. their adaptation to the environment,
which is controlled through a mental organization called schema. According to him, this
adaptation is driven by a biological drive to attain equilibrium. He came up with stages of the
growth of cognition (thinking) in children as follows:Stages 1
The sensory-motor (from birth 2/3 years of age)
Stages 2
Preoperational (2 7 years of age)
Stages 3
Concrete operation (7 11 years of age)
Stages 4
Formal operation (12 adulthood)
Sensory-motor Stage (Birth 2/3 years)

Piaget believed that cognitive activity at this period is based mainly on the childs immediate
experiences through the interaction of the senses and the environment. During the interaction of
the first few months the child is able to control his/her environment by making physical
movements. When the child kicks the legs, the parent plays with the child. So the child
continues to kick its legs in order to make the parent play with it. This is called circular
reaction.
Using in-built influences however, he developed patterns of behaviour, which we know as
schema (and plural schemata). Through such schema, the child integrates fresh experiences into
what he already knows. This process is known as assimilation and with further contact
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the child modifies his or her experiences enabling him or her to understand that objects in the
environment have independent existence out of the human body. The process of constant
modification and adjustment is known as accommodation.
Later at this stage (around 18 months) the child learns that an object does not cease to exist
merely because it is out of sight. This is known as object permanence. The child learns to
imitate individuals. Towards the end of the period, real language begins to develop, and by
imitating others, the child makes rapid progress in language use.
Osarenren (2001) enumerated the six distinct stage boundaries associated with this period. As
follows:
a)
Modification of reflexes (0-1 month):

Most of the behaviours exhibited by the child at this level are primarily reflexive and also
assimilative e.g. sucking the thumb
b)
Primary circular Reactions (1-4 months)

During this period, manifestation of acquired behaviour is noticeable in a child. There is
better coordination of the earlier activities e.g. thumb to mouth. The child may follow an
object presented to him with his eyes but once it is out of sight, he losses interest in the
object.
c)
Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months)

The child is able to extend his ability at coordination of other objects in his environment.
He will be able to identify objects based on some clues e.g. the arrival of mother or father
in the evening by the sound of the doorbell or car. These secondary circular reactions
make room for occurrence of viability and provision of the basis for awareness of ones
abilities through reality testing.
d)
Coordination of secondary circular reactions. (8-12 months)

A child will show a more definite coordination of two schemata i.e. the child had the
mental skills to understand new varying skills. At this stage, he is able to search for an
object that has disappeared which he could not achieve before this age. This only happens
when the child has had a considerable interaction with his environment.
e)
Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)

During this phase, a child exhibits some degree of inventiveness in his ability at
coordination. For instance, if a toy is taken away from him and kept in a place beyond his
reach, he will seriously search for it until he is able to locate it.
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f)
Beginning of Representational thought (18-24 months)

This phase marks the eventual completion of the previous phases. He could imitate
someone very well even when the person is not around. He is able to store a proper
mental picture of behaviour which he will imitate later. Therefore, at the end of this
sensori-motor stage, a child has the ability to use symbolic behaviour.
Preoperational Period (2 7 years)

The sensory environment no longer binds the quality of thinking at this stage. Vocabulary
increases rapidly including the ability to understand and use words. It is believed that, an
average 2 year old child understands between 200 300 words. By the end of 5 years he or she
understands about 2,000 words.
Childrens language development at this stage develops faster if adults communicate with them a
great deal. This can be done through talks, reading stories, singing songs, or nursery rhymes.
Learning at this stage is intuitive with the child relying a lot on internal impulses, which are
revealed in monologues child talking to self and performing acts. They pretend a lot and play
with imaginary friends and tell wild stories out of imagination. Intuition fires them to
experiment with language. Children talk at and not with others. Their speech pattern remains
egocentric directed at themselves.
Later during this stage (four) the child learns to group objects into classes on the bases of size,
shape or colour. The children can now make comparison such as tall versus short.
Nevertheless, children are unable at this stage to handle abstract concepts. They can only reason
on things that physically exist or which are before their eyes. They believe in adults rules for
moral guidance.
The childs thinking is not reversible at this stage. For example, he cannot move from 3 + 5 = 8
to 8 3 = 5. So he cannot form concepts or understand subtraction or multiplication.
The Concrete Operations Period (7 12 Years)
The concrete operational stage marks the overcoming of the deficiencies of the earlier period and
maturing. Two important abilities become prominent at this stage. First is the concept of
conservation. This is the ability of the child to realize that the quantity of an object does not
change even when its shape changes. So the quantity of water remains the same no matter the
shape of the container.
The second important manifestation shown by children during this stage is an understanding of
the concept of reversibility. According to Piaget, unlike the child in the previous period, they are
now able to think logically. So having attained the ability to think backwards from point A to
point B, and then back to point B, the child can now do subtraction and multiplication. However,
there is difference between this stage and the next, in that the child cannot think in abstract
logical terms.
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Formal Operational Stage (from 12 through Adulthood)

At this stage the child begins to think logically not just with reference to concrete problems, but
also in the abstract form. The child can now think of things that do not really exist. For example
he can understand the concept of God, religion and morality. This period coincides more or less
with adolescence years. Children are now able to attain logical, rational, abstract reasoning.
They appreciate that some problems can be solved (hypothetically) in the head by applying the
same rules as would be applied for concrete problems. Whereas the younger child deals with the
present mainly, the children at this stage are concerned with the future and far away.
The adolescents are therefore capable of solving verbal problems better than the children in the
concrete stage. They are now capable of idealizing and imagining possibilities by extending their
speculations about the ideal qualities that they desire in themselves and in others.. Their thinking
becomes more logical, enabling them to approach problems in a scientific-like manner in order
to solve them systematically. This further makes it possible for them to develop their own
hypothesis or guesses regarding the ways to solve the problems in question.
The key patterns of reasoning at this stage are:
(1)
Combinational Reasoning
(2)
Proportional Reasoning
(3)
Probabilistic Reasoning
(4)
Co relational Reasoning
Combinational Reasoning: There is proper consideration of all possible relation of

experimental or theoretical condition in a very systematic and orderly manner.
Proportional Reasoning: A child recognizes and at the same time interprets relationships that
exist in any given situation that is described in observable or abstract terms.
Probabilistic Reasoning: The child recognizes the fact that natural phenomena are probabilistic.
Therefore, before any conclusion or explanatory models are made, the probabilistic dimension
has to be considered.
Co relational Reasoning: A child is able to decide whether events are related and can go
together. They also understand that there might be some differences and the relationships may
not always turn out to be so.
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ACTIVITY: I
1.
2.
Explain in details any of the following:

a)
physical development
b)
cognitive development
Discuss Piagets theory of development
VYGOTSKYS THEORY
Like Piaget, Vygotskys theory is constructivist, emphasizing that children actively construct
knowledge and understanding rather then being passive receptacles. However, Vygotskys theory
is a social constructivist approach which emphasizes the social contexts of learing and that
knowledge is mutually built and constructed. This theory profers that knowledge is situated and
collaborative. That is, knowledge is distributed among people and environments, which include
objects, artifacts, tools, books and communities in which people live.
There are three claims central to this theory:
(i)
The childs cognitive skills can be understood only when they are developmentally
analyzed and interpreted. To understand any aspect of the childs cognitive functioning,
one must examine its origins and transformation from earlier to later forms.
(ii)
Cognitive skills are mediated by words, language and forms of discourse, which serve as
psychological tools for facilitating and transforming mental activity. To him, language is
the most important of these tools. He argued that in early childhood, language begins to
be used as a tool that helps the child plan activities and solve problems.
(iii)
Cognitive skills have their origins in social relations and are embedded in a socio-cultural
backdrop. This portrays that the childs development is inseparable from social and
cultural activities. He believed that the development of memory, attention and reasoning
involves learning to use the inventions of the society such as language, mathematical
system and memory strategies.
Two of the Vygotskys unique ideas were his concepts of the Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) and Scaffolding.
THE ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)

The zone of Proximal Development is Vygotskys term for the range of tasks that are too
difficult for children to master alone but that can be learned with guidance and assistance from
adults or more-skilled children.
The lower limit of the ZPD is the level of problem solving by the child working independently
alone. The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with the
assistance of an able instructor. Thus, the ZPD involves the childs cognitive skills that are in the
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process of maturing and their performance level with the assistance of a more skilled person. He
called these the buds or flowers of development to distinguish them from the fruits of
development, which the child already can accomplish independently.
SCAFFOLDING
Scaffolding is a technique of changing the level of support. Over the course of a teaching
session, a more skilled person (teacher or a more advanced peer of the child) adjusts the amount
of guidance to fit the students current performance level. Instruction is given when introducing
new knowledge but guidance is reduced as the child gains competence.
Vygotsky viewed children as having rich but unsystematic, disorganized and spontaneous
concepts whereas the skilled helper has more systematic, logical and rational concepts. As a
result of the meeting and dialogue between the child and the skilled helper, the childs concepts
become more systematic, logical and rational.
Vygotskys view of the importance of socio-cultural influences on childrens development fits
with the current belief that it is important to evaluate the contextual factors in learning.
However, this theory has been criticized for over emphasizing the role of language in thinking.
COMPARING VYGOTSKYS AND PIAGETS THEORIES
Topic
Vygotsky
Piaget
Constructivism
Social constructivism
Cognitive Constructivism
Stages
No general stages of development Strong emphasis on stagesproposed

sensorimotos,
preoperational,
concrete operational and formal
operational
Key Processes
Zone of Proximal development, Schema, assimilation, accommolanguage, dialogue, tools of the dation, operations, conservation,
culture.
classification,
hypotheticaldedica-tive reasoning.
Role of Language
Major. Language plays a powerful Minimal. Cognition

role in shaping thought
directs language
View on
Education
Education plays a central role, Education merely refines the

helping children learn the tools of childs cognitive skills that
the culture
already have emerged.
Conceptual Shift
Focus on
interaction
activity
primarily
collaborating, social Attention is on the individual

and
socio-cultural child
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Topic
Vygotsky
Piaget
Knowledge
Construction
Children
construct
knowledge Knowledge is constructed by
through social interaction with transforming, organizing, and reothers
organizing previous knowledge
Teaching
Implications
The teacher is a facilitator and

guide, not a director, establish many
opportunities for students to learn
with the teacher and more-skilled
peers.
Also views the teacher as a

facilitator and guide, not a
director, provide support for
children to explore their world
and discover knowledge
INCORPORATING VYGOTSKYS THEORY IN THE CLASSROOM

1.
Use the students Zone of Proximal development in teaching.
2.
Use scaffolding to help students move to higher level of skill and knowledge.
3.
Use more-skilled peers as teachers.
4.
Monitor and encourage childrens use of private speech.
5.
Assess the students ZPD and not IQ to determine the level at which instruction should
begin.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY OF JEROME BRUNER

Bruner, another psychologist, regards the human brain as having three modes of representations,
enactive mode, iconic mode, and the symbolic mode.
Enactive Mode
This refers to event being represented in terms of action. Very young children can often
understand things best in terms of action. Children, for example, can best understand the concept
of balances by referring to their experience on a balance. For example, if the child on one end of
the bar is heavier than the child at the other side, it will tilt. That is enactive thinking.
Iconic Mode
Iconic mode of thinking is indicated in images of the world formed in concrete terms. Objects
are conceivable without action. An object is known by means of a picture or image. Children
now know and understand concept by means of schematic picture in the mind. The world is
formed in concrete terms, but these are not related. One aspect of a situation tends to dominate
the childs judgment than the rest.
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Symbolic Mode
Children are able to develop abstract images at this stage because they can now translate their
experiences into language. They can also use language as an instrument of thinking. Three
methods of representation are:
The wordless messages of enactive level of communication;
A picture often tells a thousand words: the iconic level; and
Language the symbolic level.
Cognitive Changes in Adolescence
1.
Changes in Reasoning
There is a growing capacity for reasoning, so that the adolescents are capable of solving
complex mathematical and scientific problems. They are also capable of formally testing
hypotheses. This is known as prepositional thinking. They can imagine solutions in
problem and test the solutions in imagination before putting them into practice.
2.
Increasing Objectivity of Thought

Adolescents like adults can use fantasy as an escape for something depressing, unwilling
to face realities of life. Unlike children, however, they are aware of the differences
between their fantasy and reality.
Adolescents think of the reaction of imaginary audience. Younger adolescents take into account
the reactions of their peer group; they continually try to project an image to their friends. This
explains some of their attention-getting manoeuvres, such as eccentrics dressing and behaviour,
but towards the end of adolescence, this type of thinking becomes introspective. They no longer
think about themselves in the egocentric ways. They are capable of empathy. They can look at
their situation in terms of other cultures.
Older adolescents are aware of political and social realities; they think about issues objectively
and consider such issues independently of their particular needs.
Sex Difference in Adolescents Cognition
In adolescence, young people become very conscious of their sexuality and become cautious of
the fact that they are expected to get married. The adolescents become aware of sex
differentiation in academics. Boys tend to study technical and science subjects, though more and
more girls nowadays study medicine, law, architecture etc. In terms of reasoning and the ability
to solve problems, where differences between the sexes exist, they can be traced to differences in
upbringing and training.
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Educational Implications
As teachers we must take into account the relevance of Piagets and Bruners theories and apply
them for effective teaching and learning.
Activity and Cognitive Growth

A major educational implication of cognitive development is that growth in any stage
depends on activity. That development of brainpower is not fixed at birth, but is a
function of appropriate activity during any particular stage which produces cognitive
growth.
It is advisable however for you as a teacher of students at this stage, to realize that not all
children actually reach the cognitive development level at the same time as others. This is
because the thinking of some 12-15 year old children is more or less still like that of the
children of 7-10 who are at the concrete operational stage. Therefore, your teaching
methods must be varied to incorporate both concrete representations and abstract ideas in
your lessons.
Games, such as monopoly could be used in teaching such students to stimulate abstract
thinking among them. This can be achieved by asking the right questions relating to the
general concept being taught. In a like manner, viewing films and movies and
participating in art forms like painting, drama, dance and music, could also greatly
stimulate the young adolescents to think in more abstract terms.
Curriculum and Cognitive Development

Curriculum should not take cognitive development for granted but should provide
specific educational experiences based on childrens developmental levels and ability.
This is particularly important at the formal operational stage. Simply because they have
reached formal logical thought processes does not necessarily mean they can
automatically think logically. Problem solving should be encouraged based on logical
scientific methodology, and where possible with models that will help to conceptualize
the problem.
Learning Materials
Piagets theory tells us that since children have developed full formal pattern of thinking,
they are able to attain logical, rational abstract strategies, symbolic meaning and
metaphors. Stories with morals can be generalized, simulations and games can be
presented and understood, e.g. in monopoly game.
We should at all times examine curriculum materials. If they are clearly above their
ability, we should revise the lessons and use material that they can understand rather than
assume that all our students are capable of understanding them. Failure day by day will
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make them lose interest completely in the subject e.g. in mathematics. We should provide
experiences and activities that stimulate thinking.
ACTIVITY II
1.
Define cognitive development.
2.
Outline the stages of cognitive growth by Piaget.
3.
Mention two educational implications of Piagets theory of cognitive development.
RESULT OF STUDIES OF AFRICAN CHILDREN

Many studies of children in Nigeria and other African countries using Piaget's theory and tasks
have been carried out. The majority of studies were of children in the concrete operations stage.
The results of the African studies show:
i.
That children do pass through the first three stages.
ii.
That very many of the children except the children of educated middle class parents
are slow in reaching the stages.
iii.
That training can improve the pace of attaining the stages.
iv.
That acquiring particular concepts in the concrete operations stage depends on the
background experiences of the children. Those in a hunting environment are faster in
spatial concepts, those in farming and pottery making communities are faster in
quantitative concepts.
IMPLICATIONS
Lessons from the Study of Intellectual Development.
We will draw a few lessons for the teacher at this stage of our study of intellectual development.
These points will be needed in the next unit so note them well.
i
We have learnt that intelligence increases with greater stimulation. This means that the
teacher has the responsibility of training, teaching and stimulating the children to higher
levels of intellectual functioning.
ii.
We have learnt that intelligence has many components. Children also study many
subjects in primary school. Therefore we can use these subjects to stimulate intellectual
development.
iii.
We have learnt that our children are somewhat slow in their intellectual development.
Therefore teachers have to try to make all our children who are capable to move at their
best pace.
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iv.
We have learnt from Piaget that the children's progress depends on their own
activities. Our children should be allowed greater freedom for activities.
v.
We now know the various attributes of higher intellectual functioning so we can

identify, assess and promote them.
vi.
We have been told that one stage of cognitive development leads to another, so there
can be no skips in certain aspects of knowledge.
vi
.Piaget emphasizes play in his studies. The implication of this is that we should employ
the play way method particularly in the nursery and early primary classes. The method
will be more meaningful with the use of symbols or concrete objects. It is even advisable
to use the informal more than the formal approach for the young primary school children
to give them the much needed freedom for effective learning.
viii.
Children often like to imitate others. The implication of this is that teachers should
lay good examples worth emulating.
WAYS OF STIMULATING INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

1.
Facilitating Intellectual Performance

The teacher should make intellectual functioning easy for the children. This can be done
by setting up situations that provoke thinking. The way the teacher arranges things could
make the children point out what should not be included.
Also a good relaxed atmosphere free of tension enables children to think. To make the
atmosphere even better, the teacher can show interest in the children's ideas and invite the
ideas. If the teacher gives notes all the time, insist that children do things his way i.e the
teacher's way, then they will believe that he does not value their ideas. He should allow
them to ask questions.
The teacher should remember that intelligence have dimensions. Examples should not
only be academic. Opportunities should be given to children to use their social,
mechanical, verbal, and numerical gifts.
Providing Practice in Grouping and Organization

There are very many opportunities daily for children to group and organize objects, ideas,
events and people. The teacher and the children could bring a collection of objects for
grouping - any objects at all. When they are grouped, the children tell the basis for the
grouping. The objects could be grouped on the basis of number if it is a mathematics
class or on the basis of shape - circular, triangular, etc. Words could be grouped. Those
that rhyme could be grouped separately. If the teacher writes the words on separate sheets
of paper, the children can sort them out. It depends on what the lesson is about. At the
upper primary level, it is still necessary to classify. If the children are learning how to
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write composition, they can put forward their ideas and then group them. If the topic is 'A
Visit to the Market', the children can list as many points as they like. Then the teacher
helps to guide the children in grouping which ideas go together. Such ideas can be
organized and written into paragraphs.
3.
Finding and Establishing Relationships

This is an extension of grouping and takes the practice in grouping to a higher level. A
game which we often play with children is to make systems in science. We start with
very simple ideas. Ì want to make a system in science. It has the sun and the leaf. The
sun shines on the leaf' - a primary four child made that system. The idea is that we should
look for relationships of all kinds.
Give them practice in arranging objects according to graduated size, number, colour.
Arrange events in time sequence.
Another important relationship is in the form of a hierarchy. Things get built up into
larger wholes. For instance ant, fly, bee can be put into a group as insects. Then insects
put into a larger group of animals. So the relationship is from specific to general. A
different type of relationship involves part and whole. Our children have difficulty in
what Piaget calls `class inclusion'-being able to see the relationship of part and whole and
compare a part and the whole. An example of this is comparing girls and children in your
class. The class is made up of girls and boys. The children may compare the number of
girls and boys. But there is also another level of comparison which involves the number
of girls and the number of children in the whole class. Children find it difficult to
separate the girls mentally and also have them in the total group mentally. Try it. They
need practice. In upper primary you can ask them a simple quiz of this nature:
Àll children in this class are bright
The girls in this class are bright
Therefore all the boys in this class will be ---------,
Let them develop such types of riddles or quizzes. Give practice also in reversible
relationships.
Problem Solving.
Children need lots of experience in solving problems. De Bono asked children to write
essays or draw how to keep a cat and a dog in the same place. The essays and drawings
were very interesting. They showed the same type of solutions that adults normally give.
Children can solve problems but they need practice with familiar problems.
You can help in many ways. Let them know that there are many ways of solving
problems. Help them to spot problems in the class, the school and the environment.
Have you ever tried to open the door when both hands are carrying things? Is that a
145
problem? Let the children find some more everyday problems. How can they stand in
class without dragging the desk or the chair?
Then help children in focusing on and trying out possible solutions. In the example about
carrying things and opening the door, we could try (a) freeing one hand (b) opening the
door with our foot (c) asking someone to open the door for us, etc. Which of the possible
solutions really works? Let the children decide.
Although we have used an everyday example you can use your subject areas to locate
problems. In Agricultural Science or Health Science there are very many problems that
come readily to mind. You think of them.
5.
Training to Hasten Conservation Ability

Do you know that just setting up situations and allowing children to play with objects can
help their ability to conserve? Of course, you can help in definite ways. Remember the
assignment you performed on conservation in the last unit (Unit 1 of Module 4). Check it.
Try it again and if the child does not conserve, confront him with the fact that you did
not add or take away any of the seeds. Let his classmates who conserve also try it and
argue along the same lines. Use other objects. (Your course tutor will give you other
tasks that you can use to train children to hasten conservation ability in quantity, volume,
e.t.c.)
6.
Practice in being Flexible

Here, the attitude that things can be done in different ways is important. Try and establish
that attitude. Always ask and reward anyone who can use a different method to obtain
results.
Demonstrate by using more than one method yourself. You can say the same thing,
convey the same meaning in different ways. Problems can be solved by different
methods. Counting, addition, subtraction e.t.c. can all be done in different ways.
One of the very useful ways of training children and even adults in flexibility is by asking
them to use different modes of expression. For instance a story could be told in words, by
drawing, by moulding a model. These different modes of expression can be used by
everybody. One does not need to be an artist.
Let us consider an example of keeping the dog and cat in the same place. We can say for
example tie the dog and the cat to different trees. We can say the same thing by sketching
or drawing it. A third mode of expressing the same thing is by acting or miming. Try it,
your class will be very lively and the children will think. If some children mime, others
can guess what they have tried to communicate. In this way you will teach the children to
change thoughts into verbal and action modes.
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7.
Give Children Opportunity to Do Things Independently

Small group projects and individual work help children to plan and put many of the
things they have learnt into practice. Also, they learn how to look for information and use
their memory.
In order not to forget, children have to be taught to jot things down, to rehearse what they
have to do.
8.
Monitoring Own Thinking

The kinds of errors that our children sometimes make is unbelieveable. Let me give you
an example from our work with teachers in primary school. Children in primary school
make addition mistakes of this nature 25 + 14 = 12.
Why? The teachers usually mark this wrong and stop there. What did the child do? He
added 2 + 5 + 1 + 4 = 12. So the child knew how to add. If the child had been able to
estimate that when he adds, the sum will be bigger than both 25 and 14, he would not
have made this mistake. Estimation is important in monitoring the way we think.
THE WAY LANGUAGE DEVELOPS

Since our emphasis is on the primary school child's language, we will not discuss language
development before age six years in great detail. We wish to emphasize, however that the major
task of learning the first language or mother tongue is virtually done at that age. There are a few
phases which we need to consider since all children, regardless of the language they are learning,
pass through them.
i
Pre-language Phase. (0 - 1 year). At birth and for about two months later, the only
means of oral communication between the baby and those around is crying and grunting.
Soon, however, the child begins to make other sounds. He makes only vowel sounds at
first ù-u-u-u-u-u-u'. Later, as his physical structures mature, he can produce consonant
and vowel sounds which he repeats 'gi-gi-gi'. We say that he is babbling. When the baby
is awake, he lies down and seems to enjoy producing these sounds. Children whose
parents and care givers talk to them a lot produce more of these sounds. After some time,
the babbling sounds which are usually common to all children everywhere, begin to
change. They begin to sound more like the sounds that are heard in the language of the
area.
During this phase too, the child also learns to use the sounds to communicate. He cries in
particular ways to make requests and give information. When he is fed and contented, the
sounds produced are different in tone and quality from those made when he is in pain or
needs something like food. No one tells a parent the cry or `speech sounds' of hunger,
pain, or of falling asleep. So, we can say that the baby is learning about the function of
language.
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ii
First Words Phase.(2 - 4 years). The average child's first word is usually spoken in the
second year. Later, the child makes two - word and three - word sentences. The child
shows by action that he knows what is meant by food, water, goat, daddy etc. This
knowledge is gained through conditioning because the child hears the word repeatedly in
conjunction with the presence of the object in question. However the interesting thing
about these first sentences is that each one can mean different things. So if the child says
`jeje' or `dia' (meaning eat in Yoruba and Efik/Ibibio), the child may actually mean Ì
have eaten' or Ì want to eat 'or `You have eaten my food' etc. The exact meaning can
only be gotten from the context in which it was said. The underlying meaning is complex
and far ahead of the means of expression.
Sometimes, the child's speech in this phase is described as telegraphic. This is so because
he omits certain words as we do when we are sending telegrams. During this phase, too,
the child does not only learn to make longer sentences from one to two, three and four
words, he also begins to observe some rules of grammar. He begins to use correct word
order. He also learns to use different tenses and to indicate plurals, etc.
The child's speech also sounds improved in quality. His pronunciation becomes more
distinct. He begins to use intonation to express himself. For instance, he raises his voice
at the end of the sentence to indicate that he is asking a question.
iii.
Early Adult - like Speech: By about 5 or 6 years, the child communicates quite well
almost like an adult. However, there are a few problems. He may have some problems in
pronouncing certain sounds e.g. `gb', `kp' and `L' sound if these occur in your language.
Although he speaks well there are also some areas of grammar where he still makes
mistakes. These are particularly noticeable when he brings messages and has to use
reported speech. There are others too; so look out for them if you teach in the junior
primary classes.
The children understand meaning quite well. But, here too, much depends on the type of
experiences they have had. Sometimes, the meaning they attach to words may be too
restricted or too vague. For instance, they may use the words àja' or `nkita' or èwa'
correctlyto mean dog (in yoruba, Ibo, Ibibio) but this refers only to the type of small dog
they see in the village. If they see the picture of or a real live police dog, they may not
identify and call it a dog. You have to be careful in teaching to ensure that you help
children to develop correct concepts or meanings.
These are just a few indications of the kinds of language deficiencies with which
children come to school. But, they make such remarkable progress on their own that we
cannot but wonder how they can learn language so quickly and so competently.
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FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

From studies carried out by psychologists, the following factors are generally believed to affect
language development.
i.
Sex: Girls are in most cases superior to boys in vocabulary, pronunciation as well as
the amount of speech produced up to about age 10.
ii.
Family Size and Structure: If the family size is too large, parents and elders might not
have sufficient time to talk with the children. In such a case, the language development
of the children might be retarded.
iii.
Social Class: Due to such things as feeding, facilities, and the general environment,
children from the lower class are likely to have poorer vocabularies, more difficulties in
reading, and poorer articulation than middle class children.
iv.
Deprivation of Opportunity to Talk with Adults: It has been emphasized in this

course that the early years are very critical for the overall development of the child. A
child who is deprived of communicating with adults either due to being hospitalized or
put in an orphanage is likely to develop language skills relatively slower than his
counterparts that do not experience such handicap.
v.
Bilingualism.: As you will see later in this unit, bilingualism can affect language
development. Children who are brought up in homes where two languages are spoken at
the same time stand the risk of getting one language interfering in the other. For instance,
if the mother tongue is dominant, ability to speak say English will be adversely affected.
NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION AND LANGUAGE IN THE

PRIMARY SCHOOL
In this section, we will discuss what the National Policy on Education says about the use of
language in primary schools.
THE NATIONAL POLICY
i.
Which language should be used?

This document clearly states that in the primary school years every Nigerian child will
learn his mother tongue and English. It is possible that if his mother tongue, that is the
first language used in his home is not the language spoken in the area, he will also learn
the language spoken in the area. So, clearly every Nigerian child is expected to be, at
least, bilingual. He should speak more than one language. If he speaks and understands
two languages he is bilingual. If he speaks and understands many, he is multilingual. (Bi refers to two, multi - refers to many).
149
ii.
At what level and in which classes should the different languages be taught?
The National Policy on Education states that every child should start his education in
primary one every subject should be taught in the child's mother tongue or is
introduced as the language of instruction. In some states, the children learn in their
mother tongue or their local language until primary three or four and then they make
the change to English.
iii.
Why does the National Policy allow two languages, English and the other tongue to
be used?
The idea is that since English is the official language, every child who has gone to
school should be able to use it. When children speak English, they can communicate
with more of their country men and women especially those who do not speak the
child's mother tongue. As you know, when you speak someone's language a special
bond tends to be created between the two of you. Also the mother tongue is taught as
a way of preserving and promoting our culture.
ISSUES FROM THE POLICY

Out of these policies, there are four issues which concern us and tend to affect the child's
language behaviour.
i.
Attitude to the languages. We normally teach English in upper primary; examinations

such as the Primary School Leaving Certificate and Common Entrance Examinations are
taken in English. Therefore we tend to behave as if English is better than the mother
tongue. When we adopt this attitude, it affects the way we teach the children in the
mother tongue.
ii.
Issue of when to change from mother tongue to English Do you know that some
children in the staff school of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife, learnt all their subjects
in the primary school in Yoruba? They did just as well as those who learnt in English and
even showed better leadership qualities in secondary school.
We should aim at teaching the children very well in the mother tongue for three or four
years or even more years. If we teach them well in the mother tongue when they switch
over to English, they will do well.
iii.
Starting the child in the mother tongue. Many of us teachers are not very willing to
teach the children in the mother tongue. We use both English and the mother tongue! One
of the reasons is that the books are not available. So, we write 'Addition' or 'Subtraction'
and other English words on the board and start teaching in the mother tongue! The point
is that with a little more effort we can really teach well in the mother tongue. We may
even be able to develop some of our teaching materials.
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iv.
The issue of bilingualism or multilingualism. What does it really mean to expect a

child to learn and speak two or more than two languages. We will take up this discussion
a little later.
ASSIGNMENT
1.
What is intelligence? List the different components of intelligence.
2.
List the four stages of cognitive development according to Piagets theory. (Arrange
them in order and give their ages).
3.
List the different ways the teacher can help in promoting intellectual development.
4.
Describe how you will apply any three techniques in your class to improve your
childrens intellectual functioning.
5.
List the different phases of language development.
6.
Give any five factors that affect language development.
7.
Outline the issue raised by the National Policy on Education with regards to the use of
Language in Primary Schools and in Primary School Teaching.
SUMMARY
The cognitive development theory of Jean Piaget has far reaching implications for the
learning of children. His four stages of cognitive (intellectual) growth are sensory motor
(from birth to 2/3 years), preoperational stage (2 7 years), concrete operation from (7
11 years), and formal operation (12 adulthood). The concrete operational stage is
divided into two, i. e. preconception (2 5 years) and intuitive stage (5 7 years).
Jerome Bruner, another psychologist believed that childrens cognitive growth passes
through three stages. They are the enactive mode, iconic mode and symbolic mode. That
the school should take into account the stages of cognitive development and adapt the
curricula accordingly to make teaching and learning effective.
REFERENCES
NTI, (2000), NCE/DLS Course Book on Education, Cycle I, National Teachers' Institute,
Kaduna.
Santrock John, W. (2001), Educational Psychology, The McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.
Siann, Gerda and Ugwuegbu, (1980) Educational Psychology in a Changing World, George
Allen and Unwin.
151
Sprinthall, Richard, C. and Sprinthall, Norman A. (1981) Educational Psychology: A

Developmental Approach, Third Edition, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,
London.
Sternberg, Robert, J. (Ed), (1982) Handbook of Human Intelligence, Cambridge University
Press, U.S.A.
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UNIT SIX:
SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
THEORIES: THEIR IMPORTANCE IN THE
SCHOOL YEARS
INTRODUCTION
Our relationship with people, things or situations result to feeling of love, fear, anger or laughter.
We call these end-products of our social encounter emotions . We shall attempt in this unit to
explain the meaning of emotion. We would also try to examine the theories of emotion and the
important emotions of primary school years.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1.
give a clear definition of emotion in your own words;
2.
explain at least two theories of emotions;
3.
list and explain at least three emotional patterns commonly associated with primary
school pupils;
4.
enumerate any 4 steps that the teacher can take to ensure the emotional stability of his
pupils
MEANING AND CAUSES OF EMOTION

MEANING:
The word emotion was derived from the Latin word emovere `to move out'. Some psychologists
have held that emotions are disruptive states of organisms resulting from a loss of cortical
dominance. Others assert that emotions are organising states that make the individual ready for
action in emergency situations. Emotional states can also be seen as activating or energizing
process.
We may also see emotion as the stirred up condition of the organism involving internal and
external changes in the body. In fact, we use the word emotion to describe such feelings as
love, anger, joy or laughter, sorrow, fear, hope, curiosity, pity and so on. It is an outward
expression of an individual's inner feeling which are aroused by events in the environment or by
the behaviour of others. These feelings or emotions tend to control our behaviour, and they play
vital roles in our lives. Apart from making us to be happy or sad, they affect our health, our
memories as well as the ways we reason or see situations or other people. In fact, they influence
most of our decisions and actions. From what we have said so far, you can see the importance of
emotions in our lives. This implies that the way we handle our pupils will affect their emotions
which will in turn affect their attitude to the school's programmes.
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CAUSES OF EMOTION
We might ask ourselves, what causes emotions? The following factors are responsible for the
development of emotions.
1.
Adjustment in home, school and society: As soon as the child enters the primary
school, his social roles and responsibility change. He no longer relies heavily on the
parents. These changes to new pattern of habits create emotional tensions in many pupils.
2.
Social expectations: When the child reaches school age, society and parents expect him
to think and act like an adolescent, a stage which he has not reached. His failures to meet
social expectations result in emotional disturbance.
3.
Unfavourable relations at home: Every child needs some basic requirements like
pocket money, writing materials, clothes and so on to make him comfortable in school.
When a child lacks all these and sees his mates have all their requirements, he is bound to
develop emotional problems.
4.
Lack of love by parents and mates: If a child is the result of an unwanted pregnancy, he
is likely to miss the necessary parental care and love. You must have heard cases of
unfortunate babies picked up in dustbins or gutters who are eventually taken to foster
homes. Research findings have shown that children who miss the early mother
attachment grow up to develop emotional problems. Similarly a child born to maladjusted
parents or who are inconsistent in their discipline like using harsh corporal punishment
or argue hotly with each other is very likely to develop emotional problems by becoming
aggressive or violent.
5.
Physical defects: Some physical disabilities like blindness, speech defects, lameness can
cause a child to be irritating. This is particularly possible when the society shows little or
no sympathy for such unfortunate children.
THEORIES OF EMOTION
Emotional development involves a persons awareness and the expression of an affective
experience. This affective experience might be pleasurable or not. If not pleasurable, it may be
mild or intense. Every individual has emotions and the kinds of emotion we feel play a great role
in how we relate with others as well as how we get along with ourselves. When a person
experiences unpleasant emotions, most of the time, he becomes an unhappy person. On the other
hand, an individual who experiences pleasant emotions often will lead a relatively happy life.
Human beings differ in the ways they experience and handle emotions.
Different psychologists have different concepts about emotions or emotional development.
These views have been articulated by these psychologists as theories. The following are some of
these theories:.
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One of the major studies on development of emotional pattern in infants was carried out by
Bridges (1932). Her findings and evaluation are still accepted today. The approximation ages
when emotions develop during a childs first two years of life are as follows:
Birth
General state of excitement
3 months
Distress and Delight
6 months
Fear, disgust and anger
12 months
Elation and affection
18 months
Jealousy, affection for other children and adults
24 months
All the emotions mentioned above become permanent in addition to joy
Emotional development is directly related to cognitive development; therefore, further emotional

development is linked with perceptual maturation. At the age of three, the child has completed
the sensori motor stage of cognitive development. Therefore, he can experience emotions but
unfortunately he does not have the capability of conceptualizing his emotional experience or
those of other people. Crying and anger decrease while laughter increases. Instead of such
physical expressions of rage as yelling, biting or even hitting and kicking; verbalization of these
emotions is expressed. They also tend to make use of aggression in their bid to achieve a desired
goal. For boys there is more reliance on physical combat in expressing emotional displeasure
whereas in the case of the girls, they tend to contend with verbal charges. An interesting aspect
of this expression of displeasure by both boys and girls is that seconds after the expression of
aggressive behaviour, friendship amongst them resumes. This should be a lesson to parents who
sometimes support their children when they fight with other children. Such children soon come
together again while their parents may not forgive themselves.
It is also natural for a child to like some individuals in the home or community in this case the
child wants to associate with the person. On the other hand, if the child does not like somebody,
he does not take interest in whatever the person is doing. This has a far reaching effect on the
teacher-pupil relationship which will in turn contribute to the childs interest in the teacher and
the subject he teaches.
ACTIVITY I
1.
Define emotion and list 5 courses of it.
2.
Explain Bridges of emotional pattern in infants.
WUNDT'S TRI-DIMENSIONAL THEORY

Psychologist Wundt argues that feeling cannot be described solely in terms of their pleasantness
and unpleasantness but require three dimensions for a valid description.
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1.
Pleasantness - Unpleasantness
2.
Tension - Relaxation
3.
Excitement - Depression
Each feeling moves first between the poles (pleasantness - unpleasantness, tension - relaxation,
excitement - depression) and then within the poles. For example the feeling associated with
laughter would move rapidly along the dimension of pleasantness, while at the same time
excitement and tension would be added. The tendency is for the individual to be relaxed though
in the process he may feel a little bit depressed.
Wundt's theory gained many supporters but some believe that this theory is not infallible. The
opponents do not agree that the dimension of tension - relaxation and excitement - depression are
merely elemental mental processes as Wundt would believe. These dimensions are muscular
attitudes. It is also argued that tension and relaxation are not true opposites. Relaxation is the
zero point of tension not its opposite. Similarly, excitement and depression are not true
opposites. Calm is more logical for excitement than depression.
CARR'S FUNCTIONALISM THEORY
Carr defines emotions as organic readjustments that occur automatically in the face of
appropriate behavioural situations. Thus the emotion of anger arises when the person is faced
with a serious obstacle to freedom of movement. In this instance, the person readjusts by making
efforts to overcome such obstacle. The quickened pulse, the withdrawal of blood from the
viscera, the more rapid respiration and other bodily changes enable the organism to react more
energetically and vigorously. Carr states that various emotions can be readily identified when
we observe the situations under which the behaviour occurs . He believes that the reaction in
emotional states is highly similar to that found when we are involved in any vigorous exercise or
activity. Once the individual begins to react to the situation, the emotional response dies down.
In support of this view, we may remind ourselves to the well - known fact that the emotions tend
to disappear with action. Our anger soon cools and wanes when we begin to fight, and terror no
longer holds us in its grip when we indulge in strenuous flight. The disappearance of the
emotions with overt action is due to a change in the character of the organic reaction.
JAMES - LANGE THEORY
Lange was a Danish physiologist who postulated a theory of emotion similar to James theory.
They hold that common - sense says when we lose our fortune, we are sorry and weep; when we
meet a lion, we are frightened and run; when we are insulted by a rival, we are angry and strike.
However others argue that this order of sequence is incorrect. The one mental state is not
immediately induced by the other. The more rational statement is that we feel sorry because we
cry; angry because we strike; afraid because we fear. It is not that we cry because we are sorry,
strike because we are angry, or tremble because we are fearful. The fact is that without the bodily
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states following perception, the latter would be purely cognitive activities, pale, colourless and
therefore lack emotional warmth.
IMPORTANT EMOTIONS OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
The following are some of the emotions that are found in our children.
1.
Fear: Emotional states are very important elements in the life of an organism. Many
features of behaviour seem to be directly opposite to fear. Some of our marked
aggressiveness and tendencies to show superiority over others, often originate from fear
and uneasiness. Fear may be regarded as the first line of defence for an organism. On the
human level, during the early years, it is manifested in such an exaggerated way that it
may appear as a threat to integrity and emotional well - being. It is not enough to see fear
as an emotional condition appearing when danger threatens an organism. Fear may be
aroused by stimuli that only hint at the possibility of danger. We may differentiate
between fear and anxiety by saying that when fear is present, there usually exists a clear
idea of what the threat is, while an anxious person is often quite unable to explain to
himself and others just what it is that makes him uneasy. Children are often subject to
such emotional conditions, which are not easily understood. Studies have shown how
causes of fear change with age. Fear of snakes, for example, is hardly present before a
child is in its second year. Fear however, increases in frequency to become practically
general after four to five years of age.
Some objects which may cause fear include the following:
2.
i.
Fear of material objects - snakes, dogs, strange noise, lions, elephants, aeroplanes
etc.
ii.
Social relationships - meeting with strange people or strange animals or things,

alone in a big or dark room, finding someone in a large crowd. Fears
generally decrease with the advancing age of the child in number and
intensity.
Anger : Anger is a learned response to environmental stimuli. It is social in nature. The

fundamental source of anger is the disruption of co-ordinated cerebral activity. Fight and
aggression are two different modes of reaction to anger. They tend to maintain a balance.
The following may arouse the emotion of anger.
3.
i.
Teasing by teachers, parents, elders and peers; insulting remarks.
ii.
Being unfairly treated.
iii
.Frustration of one's plan.
Love And Affection: The emotion of love is a very important emotion to all human
beings. It is the result of consequences of physiological disturbances. The emotion of
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love and affection develop from the very infancy in the life of the organism. In infancy,
love and affection develop for concrete objects of the environment, whether animate or
inanimate. In adolescence emotion of love and affection is associated with people.
Childhood loves are not sexual in nature but in adolescence love becomes a source of
pleasure.
4.
Happiness: Primary school children are basically happy. One can see this at break time
when they are playing, laughing and jumping for joy. A little present, praise or
recognition can make children very happy.
5.
Sympathy: Many children like to be helpful to others. When children hear stories of
suffering, when they see someone in pain or if a school mate is ill, or involved in an
accident, children are usually moved to tears.
6.
Jealousy: Children experience jealousy. When a new baby is born, the older ones tend to
be a little jealous even though they love the baby, brothers and sisters. Jealousy then is
their reaction to lack of recognition. This same type of feeling occurs in the primary
school.
7.
Sadness or Unhappiness: Sometimes when children fail to achieve or are abused, they
become unhappy. Lack or loss of parental affection makes children very unhappy. The
teacher can easily tell when a child is unhappy and can find ways of lessening this
negative emotion.
EMOTIONAL MATURITY
Ability to govern and control one's emotions increases with age. Hence emotions can be used for
various purposes to make life worth living. Emotional maturity, at any stage of growth, reflects
the results of development of all parts of a child's personality that can affect each other. The
concept of emotional development must therefore be considered in relation to the pupils' age
level and perhaps cognitive ability. The following are some of the characteristics of emotional
maturity.
i.
A change from the state of being helpless to a greatly increased capacity for self help.
ii.
A shift from absolute dependence on others to increasingly balanced independence. This

enables the individual to be able to stay on his own both psychologically and physically.
iii.
When the individual does not only appreciate present situation but is now capable of
relating the present to the past and future; that is, he is not erratic but tries to think about
the consequences of his actions.
iv.
Increasing intellectual capacity, including increased capacity for dealing with aspects of
life in various situations. Increased ability to plan, increased ability to pay attention as
well as increased ability not to be easily frustrated.
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v.
Development of capacity to identify oneself with a larger social group, and the ability to
participate emotionally within the larger group.
IMPLICATIONS OF EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT FOR THE TEACHER

We have seen that the experiences at home are transferred to the school and these tend to affect
the emotional development of children. Due to the various demands on the child either by the
parents, teachers or mates, the school becomes a potentially emotion generating centre. It is,
therefore, the duty of the teacher to make his pupils emotionally disposed to learning.
To promote effective learning, a certain amount of tension and emotional involvement is
necessary but this must be moderate since an excess will do more harm than good. In other
words, we are saying that with proper handling, emotion can make learning to take place if the
teacher follows these principles.
i.
Children should be highly motivated. This can be done by giving them new tasks to
perform but they must be related to the pupil's level of maturity.
ii.
The children must be emotionally involved in the classroom activities by making them to
appreciate the need for learning new tasks.
iii.
The use of appropriate incentives like verbal praises - 'Fine' Good' and sometimes
rewards like sweets are capable of arousing the pupil's self esteem and prestige.
iv.
Any new learning task must be related to the cultural background of the pupils.
v.
The teacher's treatment of a particular child might spread to other members of the class.
For instance, if a teacher scolds or gives corporal punishment to a child, others might be
afraid not to say something out of fear that they might equally be punished. This will
definitely affect the other children's desire to learn.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
As children change physically and develop their cognitive skills, they also become more aware
of whom they are. They get socialized through their family members and significant others into
the societal values, norms and morals. The process of socialization begins early in life and it is a
life long process (Osarenren 2001). There are two broad theoretical bases to socialization. The
first one supports psychoanalytic and social learning theories. The ideas that the end product of
adulthood is a direct function of parental child rearing practices and the environment as
envisioned by the child and as they affect him.
The viewpoint opined by Rogas (1951), Maslow (1954) and Gesell (1954) signaled that the
forces of growth and development within an individual are essentially creative but with some
variations. They asserted that given moderately constructive circumstances, an individual is selfdirecting and that self-direction is intrinsically constructive. The main condition in a childs
environment is acceptance and if this is met everything will work out well.
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Bonding occurs in children and their mother and later extends to other members of the family.
This is strengthening when the childs basic needs like food etc are met. If babies are not
securely attached and they lack social bond, it affects the childs social behaviour. The parents
play a fundamental role in the socialization and discipline of their children. Friends are also seen
as momentary physical play mates. They make friends with other children of their age in their
neighbourhood, which are called peers. The influence of peers on child development is very
crucial and has far reaching effect on the personality development of the child.
Apart from parents and peers, children also get socialized into societal norms and values by
teachers. When the child gets to school, he does not attach importance to the sex of his play
mates but from age 8-10 sex becomes an important issue and boys choose to play with boys
while girls will play with themselves.
CONCEPTS IN SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
The key concepts which we have selected for our study of social development are
(i)
socialization;
(ii)
roles;
(iii)
sex identity;
(iv)
social co-operation and
(v)
competition. Let us now consider them.
i.
Socialization
When a baby is born, the baby does not know what is expected of him. In time, however,
he becomes aware of these expectations and becomes a full member of his society. The
process of this biological infant being made to adopt the way of life of his people is
socialization.
Socialization is a process which lasts for the greater part of one's life because even as
adults we can still learn about our traditions and customs. Many different agencies help in
the socialization of children. Some of these are the family, the school, the peer group and
age grades, traditional rulers and other keepers of our customs, the media and religious
institutions. Socialization makes us alike as citizens of one country but also different as
members from different ethnic groups and families. But as we had seen, if the school
does its work well, we should be socialized to have a Nigerian outlook on life even if we
are Ibibio, Egbas, Fulanis, Edos and so on.
When socialization is weak, individuals do not feel committed to the group. When
children feel that their basic need of belonging (to the family or country etc.) is
threatened, we have problems. Children fail to be adequately socialized when different
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agencies of socialization make conflicting demands on and expect different things from
the child.
ii.
Roles
Every one of us plays many parts as is demanded by the situation. As a teacher in charge
of classes, we attend staff meetings, we teach and so on. As parents, we take care of
children and the home. As sons and daughters, we respect and look after our parents
especially if they are old. As members of associations, we pay dues, attend meetings,
contribute ideas, etc. These are different roles. Roles are patterns of behaviour which we
learn to perform because of our status or the fact that we belong to specific groups.
Within the family we have to play the roles of a child, possibly a father or mother,
husband or wife, aunt or uncle, brother or sister, etc. As you well know, the demands for
each are different.
iii.
Sex Identity
We learn sex differences in social interaction. We want to emphasize these differences
for in our country, there is:
a.
so much prejudice surrounding being male or female
b.
currently much talk and activity on educating women for development
c.
imbalance in school enrolment on the basis of sex. In some areas, males do not
want to go to school, they want to make money.In others, girls are not allowed to
go to school.
Sex role refers to behaviour which we perform in accordance with being a male or
female. When children learn that they are males or females and learn the behaviour
which is expected of their sex we say that they have acquired sex identity. Children learn
as early as the pre-school stage that boys and girls are different. They learn what
behaviours are appropriate for their sex within the family. 'Don't cry, boys don't cry,'
people often say to a little boy. 'Sit properly, you are a girl,' they say to a little girl. In
some homes in this country girls are expected to perform the house work while their
brothers only play football and other games and study. Gradually, certain stereotypes
(simple and biased expectations) of how boys and girls should behave become learnt. For
instance, girls are expected to be obedient and boys rebellious. Boys are expected to be
more brilliant than girls especially in mathematics. But many changes are occurring and
teachers should observe their effect carefully so that children do not get confused.
iv.
Social co-operation and competition

In human relationships people sometimes work together. They do things with others.
They share and use the strong points of others to achieve results. We refer to such
behaviours of working together as cooperation. Cooperation strengthens social
161
relationships. Cooperation does not mean that one must always do what others do.
Rather, it enables the person to satisfy his own needs and the needs of others in the group.
Competition is striving to win in a situation. There is healthy competition when no one
gets destroyed or hurt. This is the type of competition that makes people want to do their
best. A child could compete with himself, to improve on his past performance. One group
of children can compete with another as in the case where there is a debate. Once the
competition is healthy the teacher should encourage it. Sometimes too a child competes
with authority. The child tries to outsmart the school authorities . This may lead to
breaking of rules. Teachers should encourage but regulate cooperation and competition
among children.
THEORIES OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Psychologists have tried to explain the beginnings of social interaction and how they change with
time. We will discuss two of these groups of theories, namely, social learning theory and
biologically based theories. We have selected these two sets of theories because they are relevant
to your work and they can be very simply and briefly explained.
Social Learning Theories
Basically, these theories state that we relate to people because we have been `reinforced' or
rewarded to do so. In other words, we find out that those we relate to and the way we relate to
them are rewarding. Bandura, who strongly proposes this theory bases his theory on three
principles of learning.
i.
Children learn new behaviours mainly by observing and imitating what others do, i.e,
by modelling.
ii.
Behaviour is strengthened by reinforcement. So a child who relates to the father in a

particular way and is rewarded either by a gift, a comment such as `thank you' or `well
done,' or freedom from punishment is likely to continue behaving in the same way.
iii.
When behaviour is reinforced on an irregualr basis, it tends to persist. The point is that
for several reasons we fail to reward good or punish bad behaviour all the time. Often,
when children help us to carry the books, we forget to say `thank you'. But, the day they
forget to offer to carry our books, we make a big fuss.
So, briefly, social learning theories tell us that children relate to others by observing and
imitating what people normally do. When the behaviour pleases adults and the adults reward
them, they learn to repeat such behaviours in many situations. In that way, for example, they
learn to respect elders because the parents and elders are pleased. But, because we do not always
take the trouble to correct, reward or punish, some of the newly acquired way of relating to
others may be ineffective.
We learn from the social learning theories that:
162
a.
we should reinforce behaviour which we want to strengthen.
b.
children learn from us and others since they look on us as models.
c.
we should be alert in encouraging those behaviours which we want repeated.
We can definitely model and promote certain desirable aspects of social interaction.
ACTIVITY II
1)
What is social development;
2)
What are the factors that influence the social development of a child
BIOLOGICAL (TEMPERAMENT) THEORIES:

Some psychologists believe that children are born with certain types of temperaments. These
temperaments affect the way they relate to people and the way people react to them. Thomas and
Chess, for instance, say that children are born with easy, difficult and slow - to - warm up
temperaments. The child with easy temperament approaches new experiences positively. He
adjusts easily to change. So, parents are happy that he is no bother and relationship with him is
easy. The filter of this easy relationship is used for further interactions with people. Similarly, the
difficult child who cries more and is irritated by changes, tends to start with parent - child
relationship that is not too easy. So his experience of this initial problematic relationship colours
how he relates to people later in life. The slow - to - warm up child is in between. Although
Thomas and Chess started by studying infants, they have followed the children for several years.
They have discovered that those babies who started life with easy relationships tend to have
easier and more successful social relationships with people in their primary school years.
Later social relationships, therefore, are built on previous experience regarding how other people
reacted to them. Adjustment to school is also affected. Children born with difficult temperaments
are likely to be the ones who have problems in school. The basic points of note for those who
help to guide children's social development are:i.
That we ought to organise our help around the children's temperament. We should be
more patient with those who appear to be difficult.
ii.
That the children are not just helpless people dependent on us to lead them. They bring
to the social situation their own individual differences.
ACTIVITY III
1.
Describe the role of emotion in child development
2.
Discuss the effect of emotion on learning.
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SUMMARY
The development of a child from infant to adulthood has been discussed. The importance
of each stage of development to the teacher cannot be over emphasized. The areas of
development include the physical, cognitive, social and emotional. The theories of
development have a great role to play in the teaching and learning process of children.
ASSIGNMENT
1.
What do you understand by social development?
2.
Give three reasons why social development is important.
3.
Briefly discuss the child's relationship with peers.
4.
Outline the social learning theory. State why it is important for the work of the
teacher.
5.
Briefly describe the meaning of emotion. List any four causes of emotion.
6.
Describe the following emotions that are associated with school children:
(i)
Worry
(ii)
Love
(iii)
Anger.
7.
Describe four characteristics of emotional maturity.
8.
Briefly explain four things a teacher can do to make his pupils to be emotionally stable.
REFERENCES
Chauhan, S.S.,Advanced (1981) Educational Psychology. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.
Sandstrom, C.I., (1972) The Psychology of Childhood and Adolescence London: Penguin books,
Blair, G.M. et al., (1981) Educational Psychology, London: Macmillan Coy. Ltd.,
Durojaiye, M.O.A., (1976) A New Introduction to Educational Psychology, London: Evans,
Eke, E., and Esuman, J. K. Child development in a Changing Cultural Context
Ibadan:Heinemann (Nig) Educational Publishers (In Press).
164
REFERENCES
Adams J.E. (ED) 1976 Understanding Adolescence, Current Development in Adolescence
Psychology (3rd Ed) Boston Allyn & Bacon Inc.
Cant wright C.A & Peters D.C. (1982) Early Childhood Development in H.E. Mitzel J.H.
Best & W.Rabinowitz (Eds) Encyclrpeedia of Educational Research (5th ed) Vol 3
New York Freeman Press
Harighurst R.J (1972) Adolescent Character and Personality. New York John Welly & Son
Osarenren N. (2001) Child Development and Personality Lagos: Hiwits
Wayne W. (2001) Psychology. Themes and Variation (5th ed) Belmont Nadswrith Thomson
Learning.
165
UNIT SEVEN:
ADOLESCENCE PSYCHOLOGY 1: MEANING

AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF
ADOLESCENCE
INTRODUCTION
The preceding pages have already given you a prelude on what to expect in this unit. You will be
studying the meaning of the term adolescence from the point of view of the authorities in the
field. Later on, you will be required to define the concept in your own words. You will similarly
study the physical and emotional challenges that occur among adolescents in this period and the
implications of these to both the community and the school. The unit will enable you fashion out
best ways the various stakeholders in education, including you as a classroom teacher, would
assist the adolescents in tackling their peculiar problems and at the same time realizing their
aspirations.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of your study of this unit, you should be able to do the following:
(i)
define adolescence in your own words;
(ii)
describe the general nature of adolescence;
(iii)
enumerate and explain the traditional practices cherished by some communities in

addressing the peculiarities of adolescents;
(iv)
point out the implications of the general nature of adolescents to the classroom teacher;
(v)
fashion out the best practices the various organs of the society would come in to address
the problems of adolescents.
HOW TO STUDY THIS UNIT

(a)
Carefully read the introduction and summary sections of this unit.
(b)
Then read through the entire unit, section by section.
(c)
Note the unfamiliar words and look them up in the dictionary.
(d)
Attempt all the activities given and the assignment as well.
MEANING OF ADOLESCENCE
Authorities in Educational Psychology have attempted defining adolescence. Some of these
definitions include that of Blair, et al (1975), who see it as that period in every persons life that
166
lies between the end of childhood and the beginning of adulthood. The authors construed
adolescents to the making of both biological and social process.
Ozigi, et al (1978), on the other hand define adolescence as a physical, emotional and mental
process, which manifests in late childhood to the beginning of adulthood. According to them,
the growth and development of adolescents is influenced by a number of factors among which
are nutrition and environment.
Richard Lansdown and Marjorie Walker, (1996), on their part distinguished between
adolescence and puberty. The two concepts, they argued are erroneously used synonymously.
They maintained that puberty comprises a series of physical and physiological changes which
convert children into adults, capable of reproduction. Adolescence on the other hand they
defined as the process of growing up both physically and psychologically which starts with
puberty and ends up with adulthood. It is the period when the maturing of the sexual organs
(puberty) begins and continues to adulthood; (12 or 13 years of age until 18 years).
Going by the above definitions and others, given by sociologists, it may be safe to conclude that
adolescence is a period in human development which is both biological and social which is
influenced by factors as varied as environment, culture and social set-up of the community.
Initiation Ceremonies Marking the Onset of Adolescence
Some societies mark the onset of adolescence with initiation ceremonies of some sort. Some of
these ceremonies are for boys alone and some for girls. For example, the fattening room,
initiation ceremony of Efik in Cross River State of Nigeria, is for girls. In these fattening
rooms, girls are secluded and taught about family life how to look after their homes and
families. In the societies who mark initiation ceremony the beginning of the adolescence period
is extremely significant, because once the ceremonies have been completed, there is a rapid life
switch from childhood to adulthood.
In the traditional Hausa societies, the young adolescents, boys and girls are introduced into the
family life through marriages. This does not however indicate that they are left on their own. The
parents continue to fend for them and provide for their necessities. The male is taken through
some rigorous training through which he acquires some trade skills, mostly farming, that he will
depend on after weaning from the bondage of the super ordinate family two or three years later.
The female will also continue to be taken care of, only offering assistance of some sort in the
household activities. This continues until she puts to bed at least twice before she will be
considered fit to handle the affairs of her family with minimum assistance.
Margaret Mead, (1962), corroborated these traditions. She recorded several initiation rites,
claimed that the ceremonies served as a time when the young persons are educated in the kind of
behaviour or attitudes expected of adult members of the communities. It is a method of
socializing boys and girls who are taught rules, values and role differentiation etc. For instance,
in most cases, the older women give instructions to girls on appropriate sexual behaviour,
marriage, childbirth, and food production activities. Some of the initiates Mead interviewed after
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the ceremonies, confessed they gained self-respect from other members of the society, both older
and younger. Some of the boys, for instance, claimed that they stopped cursing, fighting and
playing childish games after the event.
With the realization of the importance of education, coupled with economic difficulties in the
country, the traditions are rapidly dying down. Parents now attach more importance to their
childrens education. They now prefer their children to get educated, which is a stepping stone
towards economic independence before marriage.
The control of the adolescents excesses provided for by these kinds of initiation ceremonies and
training is now left to the school to handle. The school can only instill family management and
childcare practices by emphasizing on such courses as Home Management, Counseling and
training for skills acquisition, in addition to the normal academic activities of the school.
School heads and teachers must encourage and ensure participation of the adolescent students,
boys and girls in these activities. Ministries of education and Human Resource Development in
the country must be seen to provide all the basic infrastructure, personnel and funds required for
the implementation of this strategy. This is needless to say that the youth are still left in a
dilemma looking for ways to satisfy their sexual urge. If left unattended, the adult behaviour that
is expected to be imbibed by the adolescents would be shattered. Parents, religious institutions
and the school need to open up for counseling the adolescents, boys and girls. Every available
data that will enhance the significance of sex abstinence must be brought to bear in the
counseling sessions so that an involuntary desire of self control is instilled in the minds of the
young adolescents.
ACTIVITY I
1.
Reflect on the time when you were an adolescent, make a list of the things that you
would have liked explanations about at that time. Ask whether the present
adolescents are passing through this phase of lack of information. Make notes on
their responses and explain how you would take care of this lack of information.
2.
Write about any initiation ceremony in your community or anywhere in Nigeria, for
example, the fattening room initiation ceremony in Cross River State etc. Include
what the ceremony is supposed to teach the initiates. Discuss your findings with
adolescents in your area.
OR
3.
Give your class an assignment to write about any initiation ceremony they know,
(they can ask questions and write down what they are told.). Collect and staple the
corrected papers for class reading.
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GENERAL HINTS
Generally speaking, adolescence period is transcendental. Its spanning period is longer for some
and shorter for others depending on culture and nutrition. The period is marked by some violent
changes in the physiques, psychics and personality of the adolescents, boys and girls, and brings
along with it a lot of upheavals and demands that must be satisfied for smooth transition to
adulthood life. Most psychologists see the period as the time of conflict, stress, defiance and
emotionality. A lot more psychologists regard it as a cascade of passions and the reawakening of
instinctual drives that must be met failing which conflict and other emotionality tendencies
would pervade the entire conscience and actions of the adolescents.
The adolescent has the physical capabilities of the adult but is treated like a child since he/she
has to depend on parents and other adults for economic support. At a time the adolescent cannot
get license to drive, nor vote in elections. In other circumstances that same person is told not to
behave like a child but be a man.
Such confusion of roles may result in general unhappiness, leading to drug addiction, suicide and
other socially maladjusted behaviours. Understanding the situation of the adolescents by
teachers, parents and other adults, can help the adolescents successfully overcome their
frustrations.
Myriads of other issues pertaining to adolescents that are consequential upon the school shirking
in its responsibilities include depression, frustration and the collapse of the societal social
systems.
The challenges posed by the period to the school are very great. It has the stake of making things
normal for adolescents. The shackles bedeviling their entire lives must be overcome by the
school.
From the hints above, you will realize the need to expand the meaning of the concept to include
the delicacies of the period and the resultant effect on the personality and development of the
adolescents and the society. Thus, it will be safe to opine that adolescence is a spanning period of
transition between the ages of 12 to 21 years from childhood to adulthood characterized by
myriads of complexities resulting from the physical changes that could lead to maladjustment
among adolescent if not properly handled by the school and the society at large.
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF ADOLESCENTS
To be able to eventually transit into adult roles with minimum problems, the adolescents must go
through some developmental tasks. Robert J. Harvighurst (1952) did a comprehensive study on
specific development tasks, which should be accomplished from infancy to old age. The infant,
for instance, must learn to walk, to talk and eliminate waste products from the body. At middle
childhood, the child must learn the skills of playing games, reading and writing.
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Harvinghust, set out the vital tasks that the adolescents must deal with before successfully
transiting from adolescence to adulthood. These eight development tasks are presented below:
1.
Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes
They must be allowed to mix freely in the classroom to be able to develop understanding
between both sexes. Young adolescents, male and female, in secondary and higher
secondary institutions lean to one another in their attempt to satisfy this need. If
unchecked, this tendency will escalate to unimaginable proportions leading to sexual
abuse and promiscuities, which as it is presently, poses great threats to the life of the
entire society. No wonder, Institutions of higher learning are struggling to introduce
dress codes in their various institutions in their effort to control the preliminaries
attracting sexes to one another. Beyond this, governments, both federal and states, have
segregated some institutions where male and female exclusively study in order to avoid
physical contact between the sexes. In co-education institutions, male and female
students mingle only during lecture during the day time and retire to their separate
dormitories after studies in the evening. In addition, eagle eye is kept on both sexes to
control pre-marital relationship among young adolescents.
The school will need to do more than this. Students need to be sensitized to voluntarily
develop an intrinsic desire to behave in a manner expected of a full grown adult. They
should be assisted through counseling to face the most challenging threats in their lives
rather than the desire to actualize this instinctual desire.
2.
Achieving masculine and feminine roles

They must know how to dress and behave like male and female and adults and be able to
perform masculine and feminine roles respectively. The school should thus encourage
participation in related educational fields that emphasize these roles differentiations, e.g.
Agriculture, Home Management, Health Science, Sports, etc.
3.
Accepting ones physique and using the body effectively

They must come to accept their physical features otherwise they cannot have a smooth
transition to adulthood. Adolescents should be made to understand that their physical
stature does not matter but how one uses it effectively to excel. Teachers should help
them develop positive self image among themselves. They should try as much as possible
to bring out in them their inherent potentialities by providing a lot of learning experiences
to them. They should develop their creative capacities and mental faculties and encourage
them to optimize their usage. They should discuss with them their worries and remove
all the barriers that would impede on their success in life.
4.
Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults

They need to achieve emotional independence from parents and other adults in order to
have a sense of self worth and maturity. Teachers should give self-directed assignments
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and tasks to the adolescents. Give them the opportunity to take part in running the school
or community affairs. The adolescent should be challenged to lead certain affairs of the
school, society and the family. Formations of clubs and associations with the young
adolescents as leaders would significantly help. They need to be supervised however by
the adult members of the society.
5.
Prepare for marriage and family life

The most important institution for preparing the young adolescents for family life is the
family. Family heads must ensure stability within the family with absolute peace and
tranquility. They must set the standards they would expect the young adolescents to copy
if eventually they establish theirs. They must see to it that every member within the
family enjoys comfortable living, where ideas are shared for the collective welfare of all
members. Every member of the family must perform their duties credibly and bad
behaviours met with stiff sanctions. There must be love and compassion within the family
members. Having a stable home is essential in preparing adolescents, who are transiting
to adulthood, for setting up a family. Teachers should build on this edifice set by the
family members by providing training and arranging family life counseling for both
sexes. Guidance on Home Management and Childcare to girls, if not to both, can be very
rewarding.
6.
Prepare for economic life

The adolescents need to find and adopt an economic activity on which he/she will depend
for sustenance and maintaining the family. Should he/she fail to secure one, there is the
fear that they can go to every extent to satisfy this need lawfully or otherwise. The family
and the school must act swiftly to encourage satisfaction of this need lawfully through
effective counseling programme. Teachers should give guidance and counseling on
selection of jobs and career. Collect sufficient information on different vocations and
skills development programmes.
7.
Acquiring set of values and an ethical system as to guide behaviour for developing
an ideology
Here the adolescent needs to have a set of beliefs and values, which will guide his/her
behaviour in life. This is sometimes referred to as a acquiring an ego-identity. This
understanding will afford him to realize the reason why he/she is in this world and his/her
mission in life. Without this, one will be aimless in life. Teachers should act as role
models and encourage development of set values, which guide behaviours. Religious
leaders and community members are not left out in this crucial task. All must insist from
the youth the right type of values expected of the young adults.
8.
Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour

To transit into adulthood, the adolescent needs to make the effort to behave in responsible
ways and take on responsibility as required by the society. In turn, the society accepts
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him/her as someone to rely on and who is responsible. The big challenge is not on the
school alone. The society at large is not left out of this. Every segment of the society
must contribute to the successful transition of adolescents to adulthood by providing
training and guidance to its young members. The school, being the most important agent
can only build on the successes of the right type of social behaviours instilled into the
minds of the young adolescents by the members of the society. Contradictions must be
avoided where realities do not match gospels of responsible behaviours.
Most of these developmental tasks are handled within a space of about ten years or less. No
wonder that some of the adolescents experience intense conflicts. Every member of the society
has a stake in seeing to it that adolescentsdevelopmental tasks are sufficiently guided to enable
them achieve self worth during this trying period. For example, in as much as the adolescents
would like to achieve more mature relations with mates of both sexes, the society in general
should not be quite and blind to tendencies that would destroy the ethics of mutual relationships
between sexes. This should be controlled within the norms accepted by the members of the
society. The religious institutions that are supposed to be the custodians and guardians of good
moral standards must make positive effort to guide the young adolescents on the correct pattern
of behaviours required of the young adults. The school on the other hand, working cooperatively
with the organs of the society, must strive to inculcate the right type of training through proper
articulation of the right learning experiences into the school programmes through which the
problems of adolescents would be addressed. The minds of the adolescents should be more
occupied with curricular and extra curricular activities than less important egocentric desires of
the young teenagers. If lacking in these tasks can cause problems for the adolescents, schools
should include them into curriculum. The school should not only concentrate on intellectual
development, or in providing support in helping the adolescents to make a successful transition
to adulthood.
NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS
The Physical needs
The physical needs include food, water, health, security, exercise, rest, sex, temperature
regulation and evacuation of waste from the body, etc. These physical needs are very important.
Without satisfying these needs, one cannot think of other needs. Our hunger has to be satisfied
before thinking of learning or other achievements.
This is a commitment of the home to the entire family members. Every young adolescent must
be guaranteed these basic necessities of life. Most maladjustment cases are partly because these
needs are not satisfied. The school should address this by organizing local seminars during PTAs
to sensitize parents on the need to provide for all these and the repercussions for failing to do so.
Where boarding facilities are provided by the school, care must be taken to guarantee these basic
necessities of life by the school, failing which crisis looms in the schools. Already, a lot of crises
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have taken place because of the failure of school managements to address this important need of
the adolescents.
Personality need of the adolescents
After the physical needs, the personality needs come next. These are the needs for status,
independence, achievement, and a satisfying philosophy in life. Status is very important,
especially among their peers. They do not want to be recognized as children any more. The
secondary teachers who want to catch the attention of students should realize this need by
treating the students as young men and women and not children. In turn, they should also be
encouraged to behave as responsible young adults.
Need for independence
Teenagers want to be free from parental restrictions. They would want their space at home, they
would want to keep their own things, plan their activities and to a good extent take their own
decisions.
Generally speaking, adolescents would like to run their lives. They would resent parents coming
to school to inquire about their progress. These adolescents will think the inquiry means they are
not able to take care of their own affairs. They will not want to be overprotected. Adolescents
that are treated as young adults tend to display some adult responsible behaviour.
Need for achievement
Everybody at times does something worth commending. That particular act should be
recognized. Slow learners and those not interested in school, should be praised when they do
something good. Reward instead of punishment is a great motivating device in producing
learning and disciplined behavior. Remedial assistance should be provided by the school to both
the slow and past learners. Individual attention by the teachers should be given to each and every
student to enable them realize their worth and work towards achieving greater heights. Every
effort must be made by the school to eliminate redundancy among students as this would be a
barrier against achievement.
Need for a satisfying philosophy of life
It is during the adolescence period that children develop interest in the meaning of life. They are
interested in the truth, ideals and religion. The adolescents will not want gaps about the purposes
of life. A satisfying philosophy or set of beliefs tends to provide ease of mind and psychological
security. Religious conversions and radical political activities at this time are very common.
Knowing this, teachers should be able to guide the adolescents to make rational decisions
affecting their lives.
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ACTIVITY II
1.
Define adolescence and explain the importance of the study of adolescence to the
teacher.
2.
Mention four (4) adolescents needs and outline their implications for schooling.
3.
Mention four (4) developmental tasks of adolescents and explain the role of the
teacher in guiding students on how to cope with the tasks.
SUMMARY
Adolescence period is a transition between childhood and adulthood. Several

psychologists have given various definitions. All indicated that the period begins with
puberty and ends when the adolescent has attained economic independence and is
recognized as an adult.
Some societies mark this period with initiation ceremonies. Development tasks and
needs of the adolescents must be supported by the school curriculum to reduce confusion
and conflicts that the adolescents go through. This will also guide adolescents
successful transition into adulthood.
Adolescence developmental stages pose serious challenges to the various segment of the
society (home, school, religious institutions and the entire community), that must be
cooperatively faced otherwise life would be most unpleasant. The school, especially, will
have to address adolescents problems from various angles like carrier counseling,
community counseling, diversifying teaching strategies and developing personal relation
with their students etc.
ASSIGNMENT
1.
List the developmental tacks according to Robert S. Havighurst and describe any 3 of
them.
2.
What do you understand by the needs of adolescents? Explain any 3 of them.
REFERENCES
Blair J. S., (1975), Education Psychology, Fourth Edition, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. 806
Third Avenue, New York, N. Y. 10022.
Chambers Encyclopedia (1969), Vol. 1, A-Autotomy, New Revised Edition, International
Learning System Corporation Limited, London.
174
Durojaiye, M. O. A., (1983), A New Introduction to Educational Psychology, Evans Brothers

(Nigeria Publishers) Ltd., Ibadan.
Siann, Gerda and Ugwuebu, Denis, (1980) Educational Psychology in a Changing World,
George Allen and Unwin (Publishers) Ltd., London.
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UNIT EIGHT: ADOLESCENCE PSYCHOLOGY II: PHYSICAL

CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENTS
INTRODUCTION
As you have seen already, the adolescence period is a time when major qualitative changes occur
in a short period (mainly between 11 and 18 years). These changes create intense psychological
problems which, when solved successfully, the individual enters adulthood. This period is
usually referred to as a period of storm and stress, harder to cope with and accomplish the
developmental tasks, which you saw in the last unit. Adolescents need help and support. That is
why our role as teachers is very important at this stage.
In this unit, you will be presented with the physical changes that occur during adolescence and
their implications for education.
OBJECTIVES
i.
differentiate between the terms puberty and adolescence;
ii.
explain the physical changes that occur in boys and girls during adolescence;
iii.
explain the meaning of early and late developers;
iv.
explain the effects of early and late development on the behaviour of adolescents;
v.
mention ways teachers can assist adolescents in coping with the changes occurring in the
adolescence period.
THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The physical development of adolescents starts with the onset of puberty when the girl starts
menstruating and the boy, the production of reproductive sperm.
Adolescence and Puberty
Although the terms adolescence and puberty are used interchangeably, they are really not the
same thing.
Adolescence
Adolescence is the process of growing up, both physically and psychologically ending in
adulthood. Landsdown, et al, (1991) and Chambers Encyclopedia describe adolescence as a
period of life between childhood and adulthood during which, rapid development occurs in the
reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics e.g. development of deep voice and beard
in boys and hair in the private parts of boys and girls.
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Puberty
Puberty on the other hand refers to the onset of adolescence, which generally occurs around the
age of 11 12 years for girls and at around 13 14 years for boys. Puberty comprises a series of
physical and physiological changes, which convert children into adults, capable of reproduction.
These include `growth spurts alteration in body proportions and development of sex organs.
The onset of puberty is not an abrupt event. During the years leading to puberty, there is a
gradual increase in the release of hormones (chemicals) from pituitary gland at the base of the
brain in sufficient concentration, making the sex organs to develop. This is what is referred to as
onset of puberty.
These developments may vary depending on heredity and the environment in which the
adolescents live, especially what they eat, medical care, hygiene etc.
Growth Spurt
This is a sudden and rapid shooting up in height. There is variation in age as well as in the order
of events in puberty.
Girls generally start growth spurt earlier than boys. For a brief period, girls may be taller than
boys of the same age. Girls may start their growth spurt at about 11 years but grow fastest
between 12 and 13 years and may slow down by the age of 14.
Boys growth spurt at this time is slower by 2 to 3 years. They usually grow faster at about 13
years and fastest at 14 years and slow down by age 16. During the growth spurts a child may put
on about 10cm or 4 inches in a year. There are, of course, exceptions to this rule.
Growth of Bones
There is a rapid growth of bones at the early and middle years of puberty, which later slows
down. At this stage, muscles grow up and stretch covering the growing bones. In the early stage
of puberty, the legs and arms grow un-proportionately, almost twice as fast as those of the trunk.
That is why the adolescents look leggy.
The bones in the head continue to grow during adolescence, the overall shape of the face changes
altering its width; particularly in boys. Their lower jaws become bigger.
Puberty in girls
In girls, puberty begins with the enlargement of breasts, maturation of ovaries, fallopian tubes,
uterus and vagina. Generally, there is an increase in weight, since the height increases. Hips
broaden and thin layer of fat develops under the skin. That is what gives girls a feminine shape.
However, with the enlargement of the breasts, sometimes-uneven development occurs, which
later corrects itself.
Menstruation starts between the ages of 12 and 14 years but sometimes earlier. This may be due
to nutrition, as food is essential for growth. Malnutrition affects growth causing low weight and
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may affect bodily function like the start of menstruation. Adolescents therefore, need a good
balanced diet for normal growth and development.
The first menstruation tends to be irregular, sometimes accompanied by headaches, irritability
and cramps. Once ovulation has begun, sexual intercourse can lead to pregnancy. Girls need to
be told and be prepared for this; otherwise, they may find menstruation very upsetting especially
for the early developers.
Puberty in Boys
The first sign of puberty in boys is the enlargement and maturation of the testicles, penis,
scrotum, seminal vesicles and prostrate gland, which generally occur around the age of 12 years.
There is however, as in the case of girls, a wide variation in the age of onset of puberty. Pubic
hair appears at the same time with underarm and facial hairs following later.
At around 13 or 14 years, boys also begin to put on weight, height and muscles as mentioned
above in growth spurts. The shoulders start to broaden and testicles begin to produce sperm. The
ejaculation associated with wet dreams occurs at night. Their voices also change and crack
around this time causing a lot of embarrassment to them. Some who have wished for a career in
singing may have to drop out until adult voice is achieved.
Early and Late Development
Developing earlier or later than friends may lead to some complexities. For example, developing
early can result in great pressure on the children because emotionally they may not have reached
that stage in development. The late developers also have problems, and may feel inferior to their
contemporaries, if they do not show the bodily changes expected of them.
Developing earlier or late, therefore may lead to complex or emotional confusion. Early
developers of both sexes tend to be given more responsibilities and are expected to take more
responsible decisions. They may find that they are in conflict with parents especially girls who
try dressing and making up as adult. This may make the girls feel self-conscious and less
confident.
Late maturing boys on the other hand, may be less distracted from schoolwork and therefore tend
to do better academically. They may be less successful in sport and feel left out socially. On the
positive side, it is found that late developers of both sexes tend to have stronger sense of
knowing who they are.
PHYSICAL CHANGES IN ADOLESCENCE AND THEIR EFFECTS
The Rapid Physical Changes and Nutritional Needs
Observe how some adolescents around you eat. You will notice that they eat much more than
others that are not adolescents like fully-grown adults or children. The reason attributed to this is
that adolescents need extra nutrition to sustain their rapid growth rate. According to Siam, et al,
(1986), 13 to 16 years old boys need 200 more calories of energy per day than the average adult
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and the older teenagers need 800 more. Therefore, nutritional needs of adolescents should be
adequate and balanced, if we expect good academic performance from them.
Most adolescent late developers also need nutritional therapy to achieve their normal height and
catch up with their colleagues. Children tend to reach the average height of their parents or even
grow taller, provided their nutrition is adequate and balanced.
Furthermore, rapid physical growth that accompanies adolescence means that certain strains may
be imposed on the young persons resulting in restlessness and fatigued if adequate rest is not
allowed.
Effect of Changes in Primary and Secondary Sexual Growth
If a girl begins menstruating early and is unprepared, it will come as a nasty surprise and
upsetting. A girl should be prepared in advance for the event, and be assured. She should know
that it is entirely a natural happening. Moreover, an early developer should have prior
knowledge, about human reproduction and that she is capable of becoming pregnant, since a
well-matured adolescent girl can be attracted to the opposite sex.
Adolescent girls must be made to know the expectations of the society on them. For example, in
most societies, and cultures permissive sexual behaviour by adolescents is not tolerated. Some
form of sexual education is usually considered necessary. This may take place in traditional or
religious institutions, schools, at home or any other arrangement acceptable to the society. In this
way, the adolescent can learn to reconcile her own growing sexual awareness with socially
acceptable sexual behaviour.
Educational Implications
-
School must support the attainment of developmental tasks of adolescents if the

adolescents are to completely adjust and become successful in their adult life. For
example, it is important for schools to incorporate things like preparation for family life
and career counseling in school curricula.
Respect adolescents desire for independence from parents and other adults by giving
them less command and encouraging them to follow rules on their own initiatives.
Students should be allowed more opportunities to participate in organizing their own
learning activities. Teachers should make students realize that while physical appearance
is important, it is not the only quality that should be emphasized. Responsible behaviour
is also very important.
The importance of adolescent nutrition should be emphasized in school and at home.
School curriculum should allow time for resting, relaxation and recreation for their fast
growing bodies to recoup.
School has great responsibility to help the adolescents know how to handle their sexual
needs and understand the changing development of their sexuality. The school can
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organize sex education, which could incorporate courses from biology, health science,
health education, religious, moral education and guidance counseling.
Durojaiye (1976) made suggestions as to why sex education is very necessary in school. The
objectives are as follows:
-
To give correct and adequate factual information and understanding of sex.
To cultivate correct functions to sexual experience.
To teach children continuously socially acceptable ways of expressing sexual behaviour.
To cultivate in children self-respect and self-control and consideration for others.
To introduce children to the role of parents.
In addition, sex education programme in Nigerian schools should include learning about Genital
Mutilation (GM), harmful delivery consequences including Vesico Vaginal Fistula (VVF),
teenage pregnancies, which UNICEF/Nigeria indicated are wide spread. HIV/AIDS prevention
should also be included with emphasis on abstinence.
ACTIVITY I
1.
Describe the changes that occur in girls during puberty.
2.
Explain as accurately as you can the meaning of:

Growth spurts;
Early developers.
Late developers.
Adolescence.
Puberty.
3.
Discuss with a group of adolescents what is meant by initiation ceremonies, and the
advantages and disadvantages of such.
ADOLESCENCE: INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERISTICS

Piaget's theory of cognitive development states that the period of formal operations fall between
ages 11 and 16. This is the adolescent period. Piaget says that at this stage the adolescent is
capable of formal thinking which he was not capable of as a child. The following represent the
intellectual characteristics of adolescence:
1.
Ability to Generalize Facts: Children usually generalize when faced with concrete
objects. But in adolescence the ability to generalize on conceptual level develops. For
example: "if the old man is sick and his only son who has money is not around, then he is
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likely to die". The adolescent can also manage abstract concepts. Adolescents can
understand and communicate with concepts like justice, rule of law, democracy,
capitalism, etc.
2.
Increased ability in Understanding: Unlike the childhood stage, the adolescent can
reason better and deeper. With his increased ability in understanding, the adolescent can
attempt the solution of difficult problems. They engage in critical discussion of national
and international problems. Sometimes , the adolescent thinks he has the answer to all
problems. This may explain why university undergraduates very often clash with
authorities.
3.
Ability to make Decisions: The adolescent, with time, becomes capable of making
decisions based on logical and systematic considerations. He is able to survey several
alternatives. The adolescent after explaining and weighing these alternatives makes a
decision and abides by it. For example "Would I prefer going to a university to taking a
good job offered to me in a commercial bank?" Children who are not adolescents may
not be capable of taking independent decisions.
The mental characteristics of adolescence have some educational implications for the classroom
teacher.
1.
Teachers, as much as possible, should expose adolescents to rich experiences. This

enables them to see challenging situations. For example adolescents would like to watch
a court proceeding instead of a lecture on the concept of justice.
2.
Teach adolescents through the problem solving approach. You might ask, for example, ìf
you become a Commissioner for Finance in your state, suggest ways of generating new
revenue for your State'. They will enjoy such assignments.
3.
Guided discovery method should be used for teaching the adolescent classes. For
example the teacher could guide an adolescent class through a project aimed at solving
community water problem. Most of the thinking could be done by the adolescents.
4.
Finally, provide for adolescents libraries and other opportunities for free discussion and
independent work.
ADOLESCENCE: SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS

The social adjustment of the child starts from infancy and the foundation of social development
is laid in the family. The success in future relationship of the adolescent depends on this early
socialization. Very often society places upon the adolescent a set of new social demands he was
not used to. For example, the society would want the adolescent to join other adults in such
activities as public works or village square meetings. When the adolescent fails to conform
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problems are likely to emerge. This is why we shall spend some time to look at the social
characteristics of adolescence.
1.
The major social task of the adolescent is the development of personal identity. During
childhood, the parent assumed a dominant role in the child's personality but the
adolescent requires more independence. Questions like `Who am I? How will I fit into
this plan?' begin to come from the adolescent.
2.
Another characteristic of the adolescent's social development is the increased influence of

peer groups. Adolescents, as we know, remain most of the time with their peer groups.
The peer group to a great extent determines the adolescent's social relationships. His
interests, attitudes and values are all influenced by his peers. He does anything for the
sake of pleasing his peers.
3.
Social relationship in adolescence is heterosexual in nature. In late childhood, boys play

with boys while girls tend to play with girls. But in adolescence, boys and girls become
friends based on their common interests.
4.
The structure of social relationship takes different forms.

(a)
Chums or Friends - Friendship with opposite sex could be fairly permanent.
(b)
Cliques - small exclusive groups made up of few friends.
(c)
Crowds - made up of several cliques with identical interest.
(d)
Organized Groups - Boys Scout, Girls Guide, Christian Fellowship. Open to all
who wish to join.
(e)
Gang - made up of delinquent adolescents with similar sinister objectives.
The social relationships of adolescents have educational implications.
1.
The teacher should provide opportunities for effective use of the social groups for
classroom work. A group could be asked to supervise for the teacher the class manual
labour.
2.
Peer teaching and group assignments should be exploited to the full.
3.
As teachers, we should provide enough lectures on moral and sex education. This should
be functionally taught to guide the adolescents in their heterosexual relations.
4.
The schools should have guidance and counselling experts to guide these adolescents.
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ACTIVITY II
1.
2.
What are the intellectual characteristics of adolescence? Explain their educational

implications.
Describe the social characteristics of adolescence and this educational implication.
SUMMARY
The onset of adolescence starts with puberty. Puberty is a period of rapid development,
mainly physical especially in the sexual organs. This is called growth spurt. Other rapid
physical growth includes the growth of bones.
The effect of this rapid growth results into extra nutritional needs to sustain the growth.
The adolescents also need information and guidance to overcome the confusion they
experience because of the sexual changes happening in their bodies. School should
arrange guidance and counseling sessions for them and incorporate sex education into the
curricula.
ASSIGNMENT
1.
Compare the development of girls and boys at puberty.
2.
What are the educational implications of the adolescence changes?
REFERENCES
Durojaiye, M. O. A. (1976), A New Introduction to Educational Psychology, Evans Brothers
(Nigeria Publishers) Limited, Ibadan.
Lansdown, Richard and Walker, Marjorie, (1996), Your Childs Development; from Birth to
Adolescence, Frances Lincoln Ltd., London.
Mussen, Pankh, (1963), The Psychological Development of the Child, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N. J., United States of America.
NTI (2000) NCE/DLS Course Book on Education, Cycle I, NTI, Kaduna.
Siann, Gerda, and Ugwuegbu Denis, (1980), Educational Psychology in a Changing World,
George Allen and Unwin, London.
UNICEF, (2001), Childrens and Womens Rights in Nigeria: A Wake Up Call, Situation
Assessment and Analysis, Lagos.
183
GLOSSARY
Cognition
- the process whereby the mind comes to understand facts

concepts, principles etc. In general, it refers to thinking.
Cognitive Development
- the process, whereby the individuals acquire more complex and

adaptive ways of thinking and problem solving from birth
through adulthood.
Enactive
Representation
- Jerome Bruner introduces this stage in cognitive development

and method of communication. During this first stage of
development, the child thinks and communicates with
wordless messages. Young children understand things best
at the action level. A chair is to sit on and a spoon is to eat
with.
Iconic Representation
- Bruners second stage of cognitive growth and mode of

communication. At this level, the child visualizes objects or
concepts. The child processes an image (icon) that represents
objects.
Symbolic
Representation
- This is Jerome Bruners third stage of cognitive development

and method of communication. At the symbolic level, the child
is able to translate experiences into languages; words can be
used for communication and for representing ideas. Symbolic
representation allows children to make logical connections
between ideas and to think more effectively.
Intelligence
- The ability of an individual to solve mental problems with

accuracy and speed. More intelligent people are able to think
more quickly and more accurately compared to other people of
same age and background.
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UNIT NINE:
ADOLESCENCE PSYCHOLOGY III:

EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
ADOLESCENTS
INTRODUCTION
In this section, we shall examine the emotional characteristics of adolescence by going over the
emotional development of childhood first as adolescent behaviours do not come out of the
blues but grow out of childhood experiences.
OBJECTIVES
(i)
explain the meaning of emotions;
(ii)
describe how emotions are acquired by children;
(iii)
describe the emotional characteristics of adolescents;
(iv)
discuss the educational implications of adolescent emotions.
FREUDS STAGES OF EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

The renowned Psychologist, Sigmund Freud, named three stages of emotional development in
the human child. The first stage is called the oral stage and begins from birth to 18 months while
the second stage is known as anal stage. It covers the period from 11/2 to 3 years of the childs
life. The last stage is referred to as the phallic stage, taking place from 3 years.
According to Freud, the sequence of major conditional transformations during these periods
leaves an indelible imprint on the adult personality. He described certain dimensions of
personality as being affected at each of the stages respectively. In this regard, at the oral stage,
the quality of nurturing affects the future feeling of dependence and trust in the world. Likewise,
independence and control are found at the fore front of development at the anal stage, while
sexual identity becomes the major aspect of personality formation at the phallic stage.
Further, the periods 7-12 years and the rest of adolescence are characterized by extreme stress
and strain. During the years 7-12, all the elements in the early 3 stages are integrated and no new
elements are added. The adolescence period is described as the genital stage during which all the
elements are however back to prepare for a fully functional adulthood, to live and work
productively.
EMOTIONAL REACTIONS OF AFRICAN CHILDREN
Durojaiye, (1976), who studied Nigerian and Ugandan children came out with the result that
Africans grow up to be openly emotional in their behaviour compared to their counterparts in
185
Europe. This is because of the pattern of our emotions. Children all over the world are
emotional, but African children, grow up in homes bound by emotional relationship within the
extended family system. Our kinsmen and members of our clan can drift in and out of our lives
at any time. In daily life, in our homes, emotions are openly displayed, including sadness, love,
hatred, jealousy, affection etc. The baby is warmly, fondly, carried about and played with by
everyone. All these emotions are learnt from the home.
Emotional behaviour of the first two years of the child is the result of learning and maturation.
Learning starts with excitement at first week of life to affection for other children by the age of
16 months.
18 Months 4 Years
Once emotions appear there is a gradual emotional growth, the child is able to smile at six weeks
and laugh at six months. He or she can also scream if displeased before 1 year. By the time a
child is able to walk and verbalize his or her wishes, the child becomes less emotionally
frustrated, but could still show temper tantrums.
As the child grows older the emotional reactions become more frequent but short-lived.
Emotional reactions of fear of strange things and people appear with increasing familiarity, and
widening of experiences. By the age of 4 years, foundations of emotional control have been laid
by the home, through disapproval shown for some emotional displays.
4 11 Years (Primary School Years)
Increase in demands being made on the primary school child, produces frustrations and increased
fears. As a child learns new motives, new needs and goals, he or she learns to get his or her own
way, through developing new emotional techniques, and hiding his or her real emotions by being
moody and withdrawn for instance.
Examples of some common emotions of children are: anger, love, affection, happiness,
sympathy, jealousy and sadness.
Fear
In babies, fear is caused by unexpected and strange sounds, objects, people or animals. As the
child grows, through experiences or listening to lurid and disturbing stories, told by adults, his or
her fear grows. Fears, including fear of darkness, water (or non swimmers), snakes, ghosts etc,
appear. When the child grows older, he learns to understand his environment and overcome most
of his fears. Some cultural beliefs of adults in the community in which the child lives, reinforce
some of these fears. The fear of witchcraft may persist up to adolescence, if there is constant
warning about such by members of the society. Talking about repercussions for going against
some superstition will condition the child and increase fear. Listening to fearful stories about
thieves, murderers, or social humiliations may suggest danger and infuse fear. Most children
outgrow unreasonable fears though some persist up to adulthood.
186
Verbal abuses and humiliation are harmful to a fearful child or even adolescent; rather, children
must be reassured and guided to overcome their fear. Children must be told that everyone is
afraid of something or the other at one time or another and they often get over it.
Nature of Fear
Fear is a universal protective response, which is essential for our survival, since it alerts us of
danger, and gets us prepared to avoid it or deal with it. Fear is both psychological (subjective
feeling of fear) and physical (e.g. increase in heart beat). Fear always involves our sensing
danger to ourselves, either against our physical well-being or psychological safety.
Mentally we have to develop to a certain level to be able to be alert to handle fears. Sometimes
we have to teach children a certain degree of fear, e.g. beware of strangers, be careful of the
traffic, do not climb trees, as this is good for us.
Learning of Fear
We all know that fear is learnt. A burnt child dreads fire, is a saying we often use showing that
a child learns from his or her experiences.
Fear also is contagious, as children learn fears from observing others show fear. Even adults,
meeting new situations ask around to see if it is dangerous or not. When children meet new
situations they often look first at their parents faces for verbal or non-verbal reactions.
Children also learn fear from their contemporaries. They may learn from conditioning such as,
irrational fear of vampires, ghosts and so on. Conditioning means associating an object or
situation with another. Fear of death and the world beyond is associated with ghosts and hence
children fear ghosts.
Phobias
This is a clinical or pathologically intense fear, often irrational, leading to a compulsive need to
avoid that thing or event. The term phobias in everyday life can be used to refer to fears,
which have a rational origin. When fear reaches an extreme pitch it becomes a phobia. If, for
instance, a dog bites a child, he is justified to fear dogs, but if the fear becomes obsessive, it is
characterized as a phobia.
Anger
Frustration is said to be the main cause of anger. Frustrations due to such thing as discomfort,
lack of attention, and failure in an activity makes infants angry. Major causes of anger in
adolescents include social frustrations and disappointments. For most adolescents, anger is
expressed in a controlled way e.g. withdrawal or moodiness, though adolescent boys may seek
more attention from their peers, by being aggressive. It is not expected of an adolescent or even
an adult, to show anger by shouting. But in communities where open display of aggression is
tolerated, people display such behaviour.
187
ACTIVITY 1
1.
Do you agree with the fact that Nigerian (African) homes are full of emotion? Use
observations of homes in your area to support your argument.
2.
What is fear? How do we acquire it? How can we minimize childrens fear?
EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ADOLESCENCE

Emotional feelings in the adolescence years are deeper and longer lasting than during childhood
or even adulthood. Because of wider and greater understanding of the situation involved, love,
anger, hatred and jealousy are deeply felt by adolescents.
They can, however, control their feelings and sometimes hide emotions by substituting them
with others, e.g. fear becomes shyness and anger.
The need for independence and social approval are other influences on adolescents life. Unlike
adults who have greater control over their emotions, among adolescents small annoyances
produce major emotional outburst, because at this stage, the adolescent is going through other
major changes, physically and psychologically.
Psychological Needs in Adolescence: Need for Love and Security
Conger, (1977), reported that adolescents continue to need parental love and acceptance even
when they show tendencies of moving towards independence.
The findings of his study also indicate that in homes where adolescents are given appropriate
autonomy, they are likely to become more active, outgoing, socially assertive, and friendlier and
have more positive self-image.
The need for self-esteem during adolescence is also paramount. The need to belong and identify
with a group is very strong. The groups friendship is vital for self-image. This sometimes
compensates for lack of love and security from the home. Children whose home reinforced selfconcept will find it easier to make and keep friends. A degree of autonomy and independence
should be balanced by parental love and security.
The need for new experiences is also vital. New experiences help children to structure their lives
and form a more meaningful understanding of the world. Those of them that are engaged in
activities that are interesting and rewarding are not likely to engage in destructive or anti-social
behaviour.
Praise and recognition are also other needs adolescents aspire for. They need to feel that they can
cope and master the tasks they are given. Recognising their effort is therefore very important.
Adolescents who can successfully complete academic, social and physical tasks are bound to feel
that they are worthy of peoples respect, consequently their levels of self-esteem increase.
188
Physical Aspect of Emotional Development Adolescents

The major physical factor in adolescence is quite simply: sex. Rapid growth during adolescence
takes place in the sexual organs as mentioned in the previous unit.
All these new sexual experiences are disturbing. Things are happening to their bodies, which the
adolescents are worried about. Girls find that their breasts are growing, they begin to menstruate.
The boys sexual organs begin to grow too; their voice cracks. They begin to pass semen
during the night, sometimes called wet dreams. The adolescents need explanations and
guidance about all these. From the community in which the adolescents live like the parents, the
family, the peer groups, the teachers, the neighbours and the religious groups, the adolescents are
bombarded with their own views and advice on sexual experiences. The newspapers, the
magazine, films, radio and television may also give different messages.
Moreover, adolescents have to cope with the strong emotions they do not understand and can
hardly control. Girls and boys become attracted to each other and move in groups. They need
sympathetic and knowledgeable adults to guide them through the confusing explanations and
advice from different sources. As a teacher, you have a role to play in this.
Cultural Implications of Adolescence
It would appear, however, that culture modifies and influences the way information is passed to
adolescents. For instance, in African cultures (Nigeria inclusive), the practice is that no
individual exists by himself or herself as part and parcel of the community, the membership of
which includes younger children, mates, elders, the departed souls and generations to come.
Educational Implications of Emotions
-
As a teacher, you should understand the body changes taking place in adolescents and
how they affect their emotional reactions. You should make allowances for occasional
outbursts and guide them to understand and overcome the effect of these changes.
Know that an emotional behaviour can be generalized from one situation to another, the
school should be a pleasant place to work and play in.
If the ensuing emotional experience is pleasant, it will lead the student to love learning. If
failure is greeted with scolding, and corporal punishment, with little attention to
motivation, clarity, and relevance, students will dislike schooling. When experience of
learning becomes so unpleasant, it creates the emotion of fear and boredom. In such
situations, even the bright pupils will fail to profit from learning.
Emotional reactions such as fear, anxiety, guilt, jealousy and anger can inhibit bodily
functions growth and even learning, therefore teachers must learn to satisfy the emotional
needs of children.
Teachers must promote the emotions of love, tenderness rest, joy, pleasure humour and
laughter to facilitate mental health among learners.
189
Moods created by emotional experiences last for a long time in many adolescents. The
moods inhibit their disposition to learn.
ACTIVITY II
1.
How can the school and the home facilitate emotional well being among adolescents?
2.
Discuss fear or anger as an adolescent emotional reaction. Show how the teacher can
help the adolescent overcome any of these emotions.
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have satisfied the emotional characteristics of adolescents on the basis of
Freuds stages of development;
Durojayes study of coactions of African childrens,
The five aspects of emotive in children including fear, phobia and anger
Adolescence needs for love and security;
Physical aspect of emotional development in adolescents; and
The educational implications emotional development in adolescent.
ASSIGNMENT
1.
How does Durojayes research on African children relate to Freuds stages of emotional
development?
2.
Describe the need for love and security of the adolescence and its educational
implication.
REFERENCES
Blair J. S., (1975), Education Psychology, Fourth Edition, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 806
Third Avenue, New York, N.Y., 10022.
Conger, J. J., (1977), Adolescent and Youth: Psychological Development in a Changed
World, Harper and Row, New York.
Durojaiye, M. O. A. (1976), A New Introduction to Educational Psychology, Evans Brothers
(Nigeria Publishers) Limited, Ibadan.
Lansdown, Richard and Walker, Marjorie, (1996), Your Childs Development; from Birth to
Adolescence, Frances Lincoln Ltd., London.
190
National Teachers Institute, (2000), NCE/DLS Course Book on Education, Cycle I, N.T.I.,
Kaduna.
Ozigi, Albert, and Canham, (1978), Learning and Teaching: Principles and Practice of
Education for Nigeria: Teachers Training Colleges, Oxford University Press, London.
Siann, Gerda and Ugwuebu, (1980) Educational Psychology in a Changing World, George
Allenal Unwin.
Sprinthall Richard, C & Sprinthall Norman, A (1981), Educational Psychology: A Development
Approach. Addiben-Wesley Publishing Company. Inc.
GLOSSARY:
Needs:
What an individual requires, subjectively, for physical or psychological well

being.
Self-Concept:
A persons conception of his or her worth in general and in specific contexts

(e.g. inability to do Mathematics, Courtship, Hockey).
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UNIT TEN:
STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

ADULTHOOD DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
The stage of adulthood is the last phase of human development. Although there is no clear point
when adulthood begins it is universally agreed that adolescence gradually fades into young
adulthood and at a later point, full adulthood begins.
Though the study of adulthood had not being considered as serious to the education of teachers
but the changing emphasis on learning like education for all, life-long learning, distance
education, adult education etc and the fact that we spend the greater part of our lives as adults
(during which we are faced with the challenges of adult love, work, play, marriage, parenting,
etc) makes it mandatory for us to study adulthood psychology. The study of adulthood involves
the study of the developmental sequences and characteristics of the individual and his capacity
for learning.
In this Unit, we will have a look at the physical, cognitive, emotional and social development
and the process of aging as they affect adult learning.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:(1)
define who an adult is.
(2)
explain what adult education is
(3)
describe the processes of maturation and aging in adulthood.
(4)
Give the physiological, psychological and social changes in adulthood and their
implications for learning.
(5)
Describe the developmental tasks in adulthood.
DEFINITION OF ADULT
The definition of who an adult is varies from culture to culture. Adulthood can be explained from
biological, psychological, chronological age, social responsibility and perceived maturity
perspectives.
An adult may be seen as an individual who has attained the age of maturity with full capacity to
produce off-springs.
Biologically, adulthood commences from the onset of puberty when the individual can produce
off-springs. This may be accompanied by changes in skin texture, hair, body size and sight.
192
Psychologically, adulthood is defined by maturity and the way the individual perceives
himself/herself. This will include the chronological age, level of confidence in certain tasks,
emotional stability and social responsibilities.
Chronologically, adulthood is defined by the number of years the person has lived on earth. This
is the most controversial because there is no consistency in age for determining adulthood. While
some claim 18 years, others suggest 20 or 21 years yet in some African countries anybody below
age 25 years may not be considered as adult.
Legal, political and economic adulthood in Nigeria begins at age of 18 years.
Socially, adulthood is defined by the level of social responsibilities the person assumes. This
may be inherited, acquired or externally imposed. However, exceptional situations where young
children take on the responsibilities of their parents or other adults owing to accidents, deaths etc
can not be used to determine adulthood. An adult should therefore to able to assume the roles of
husband or wife, father or mother, full-time worker etc in the society.
MATURATION AND AGING
Maturation refers to progress towards maturity or adulthood. It is the process of gradually
bringing the various physiological and psychological features to full development in readiness
for adult social participation (Ibeh, 1990).
In order for the individual to survive, the biological features of human beings mature first and
start functioning adequately. These are followed by psychological capabilities such as attitude,
interest, personality, and self-concept. The last sets of features are the social features of an
individual which make him to cope with others and the society. Maturation thus comes with age.
Growing old is considered as aging. Ageing is a continuous process that begins at conception
through birth, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and ends with death. Aging is also
described as a decline in physiological competence that inevitably increases the incidence and
intensifies the effects of accidents, disease and other forms of environmental stress (Timiras,
1972).
A number of approaches had been used to explain the process of aging. Some of the theories use
to explain aging include:
(a)
The physiological theory of aging which states that the human organism undergoes wear
and tear as it advances in age. Thus, as a man grows, he simply wears out and the
structures and organs of his body decline both in function and appearance.
(b)
The homeostatic imbalance theory holds that aging is characteristically an increase in

homeostatic faults i.e. PH and sugar levels. Some diseases are associated with this.
(c)
The hereditary theory which states that people with grand-parents who live long also
tend to live even longer than their grand-parents.
193
(d)
The environmental factor theory states that aging may be due to external factors such
as diseases, viruses, rural living and radiation. The theory asserts that there are some
factors operating in the environment which initiate and sustain the process of aging.
Ten stages of human development have been identified by the psychologists Pre-natal, Neonatal, early-infancy, late-infancy, childhood, middle childhood, late childhood, adolescence,
adulthood and senescence. From Pre-natal stage to adulthood, all the systems of the body are
progressively growing and man is active. However, from adulthood stage to senescence, all the
systems in the body begin to decline both in function and structure. This is characterised by
weight lost, decline in intelligence, level of hearing and sight, wearing off of teeth, inability to
walk without stick etc.
All these changes have implications for adults learning and should be well understood by
teachers of the adult learners.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADULTHOOD
Naturally, growth ceases at 18 and human beings mature physically between the age of 25-30
years when the body reaches its maximum size and strength. From this period, wearing down of
the tissues commences. The living processes then starts slowing down and aging sets in.
Physical, speed and endurance also decline.
VISUAL ACUITY
Though a number of other factors may account for visual impairment at adulthood (refractive
errors, accident, muscle, impairment, diseases, cataract, glaucoma etc.) aging is the most critical
factor. More and more of adults need reading glasses for near vision with increasing age and
have difficulty seeing in weak light and in the periphery of vision due to loss of red cells in the
retina after middle age.
HEARING ACUITY
Our ability to hear high-pitched tones declines after 20 years, with loss of ability to hear lowpitched sounds beginning in the 60s. Rapid decline in hearing often starts at the age of 20 when
the Central Nervous System begins to decline in function.
SENSE OF TASTE
Our sense of taste remains much intact into late life though many adults often report that food
tastes more bland. This is because the sense of smell declines with aging.
REACTION TIME
Reaction time measures the time interval between receiving a stimulus and reacting to it.
Reaction time increases from early childhood, reaches its maximum at about 18 and then
significantly declines beyond 40s.
194
OTHER PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES

A substantial number of older adults show marked declines due to cerebral arteriosclerosis
(hardening of the arteries) which results in serious loss of intellectual ability. The rate and extent
of these declines differ markedly from individual to individual depending partly on the level of
healthy exercise and activity that the individual maintains during adulthood. Between 42 and 50,
there is a decline in the strength and speed of movement in the heart. Oxygen supply to the brain
also diminishes with increasing age. All these will affect the capacity of an adult to learn.
ACTIVITY I
(i)
Who is an adult?
(ii)
Explain the term maturation.
(iii) Describe the physical adulthood. What are the educational implications of these changes?
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive development continues to take place during adulthood. Small but steady improvement
occurs from 20s to 70s in the components of crystallized intelligence such as knowledge of facts
and word meanings. No declines occur before about age 75 in such fundamental aspects of
intelligence as the ability to reason about everyday problems, and understand mathematical
concepts, or to learn and remember meaningful information.
However, declines do occur in fluid intelligence and short term memory during later adulthood.
Older adults tend to perform slightly less well than younger adults in abstract problem solving,
divergent thinking and cognitive tasks that must be performed quickly. The cognitive
performance of older adults is generally slow than younger adults. Older adults, however, do
better than younger adults on tasks of word meaning and decision making and perform equally
on learning and reasoning about every day concepts.
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Erikson proposed stages of adulthood development which are clearly different from those of the
childhood in that
(a)
not every adult goes through the stages.
(b)
the order of the changes can vary for some individuals.
(c)
the timing of the changes is not controlled by biological maturation.
EARLY ADULTHOOD: INTIMACY Vs ISOLATION (17-45)

The challenge of this stage is to enter into committed, loving relationships with others that
partially replace the bunds with parents. If the individual succeeds in this task, there is the
intimacy needed to progress in adult life. If not, he/she becomes isolated and less capable of full
195
emotional development. This is a period of vigorous health and sexuality, rich family rewards
and the potential `for occupational advancement is high.
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD: GENERATIVITY AND STAGNATION (40-65 YEARS)
The challenge here is to find meaning in our generative activities work, family life, religion,
community activities. The focus is now more on others rather than self. This could be the most
productive and creative period in ones live. Generativity is a matter of reaching out rather than
being self-centered. A person who is self-absorbed in this period will stagnate and find that life
loses much of its meaning during middle adulthood.
CLIMACTERIC
The early adult years is the time of increased sexual activity. This tempo is maintained till
middle thirties from when the vigour decreases till late adulthood. Though most of the
developments in human beings are timed more by the `social-clock than by biological aging.
The climacteric. is one biological event that has impact on many.
Climacteric refers to the biological and psychic changes that accompany the termination of the
reproductive period in female and normal diminution of sexual activity in male.
The manifestations of the climacteric are different in male and female.
The changes that accompany the male climacteric are generally less notable than in women.
There is a decline in number of sperm cells produced and slight changes in the pattern of sexual
arousal, but the decrease in sex hormones that occurs during the climactic appears to have few
psychological or sexual effects on men.
Masters and Johnson (1966) contend that there are some factors responsible for this. These are:-
monotony associated with a long-standing sexual relationship that may lead to lack of
interest on the part of the male, loss of attractiveness of the female, and failure of the
relationship to develop.
Male pre-occupation with careers.
Physical or mental fatigue.
Excessive alcohol consumption.
Physical and mental dysfunction of either partner.
Fear of failure to perform.
In female, the decrease in the level of sex hormones eventually leads to the end of menstruation
or MENOPAUSE. This event usually takes place between 36 and 60 but on the average of 45
48 and could be uncomfortable for some women. During menopause, the reproductive organs
atrophy, the virginal wall thickens, and there is a decrease in virginal lubrication during sexual
stimulation. It is sometimes accompanied by hot flashes, anxiety, depression and insomnia.
196
But for most women the period passes without any difficulty. In fact many women do have
increased interest in sex at this period because the risk of pregnancy has passed.
ACTIVITY II
(i)
Describe vividly Eriksons stages of personality development in adulthood.
(ii)
Why is it important for the teacher of adult learners to study this?
LATER ADULTHOOD: INTEGRITY AND DESPAIR (65 YEARS ON)

The older adult who sees meaning in his or her life when considered as a whole continues to live
a satisfying existence instead of merely staying alive. However, the person who sees life as a
collection of unmet goals, unanswered riddles and disappointment, may despair of ever
achieving a meaningful life and will then withdraw and live out the remaining years like a prison
sentence.
Most adults live beyond the traditional retirement age of 65. Many often plan second careers, get
involved in politics, writing and other engaging activities in their sixties, seventies and eighties.
Older people are often anxious about death and this is a frightening realization for some but for
many it is accompanied by a positive focusing on the meaningful emotional priorities of life.
DEATH AND DYING
The life cycle begins with the life of a single cell and ends with the death of the being that
unfolded from the cell. Everything has an end, including each of our lives. Contemplating and
planning for ones death is a normal part of age. Older adults often come to accept its
inevitability with little anguish. Highly religious individuals experience the least fear of death
while those that do not consistently practice their faith experience the greatest fear of dying.
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF ADULTHOOD
Robert Havighurst (1972) postulated three levels of developmental tasks which an individual
faces in his development from early adulthood to late adulthood
These are as given below:Age
Status
18 30
Early Childhood
Behavioural Pattern (Roles)
Selecting a mate
Learning to live with marriage partner
Starting a family
Rearing children
Managing a home
Taking on civic responsibility
197
Age
Status
30 55
Middle Age
Behavioural Pattern (Roles)
Finding a suitable social group
Achieving adult civic and social responsibility

Establishing and maintaining an economic standard of
living
Assisting teenage children to become responsible and
happy adults
Developing adult leisure time activities
Accepting and adjusting to physiological changes
Adjusting to aging parents
Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health

Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
Adjusting to death of spouse
Establishing an explicit association with age group
Meeting social and civic obligations
Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangement
55+
Later Maturity
The teacher is a facilitator.
Learners are seen as individuals not group.
Illumination in the classroom should be adequate.
Ensure circular seating to ensure that all learners can hear the facilitator and see
demonstrations clearly.
Use the informal, friendly approach in greeting and working with adults.
Outline specific objectives and both short and long term benefits of programmes.
Use positive reinforcement frequently.
Provide regular feedback.
Encourage the sharing of ideas and collaborative learning.
SUMMARY
There is no clear cut point at which adulthood, the last phase of human development
begins but adolescence gradually fades in adulthood.
198
There are various definitions of an adult depending on the perspective which could be
social, psychological, chronological, environmental, political, legal or economic.
Maturation which could be physical, psychological, or social is the process of bringing

the physiological, social and psychological factors to maturity for optimal social
functioning as an adult.
There are various manifestations of physiological, psychological and social development

in adulthood. All these have implications for learning.
Erikson has described the various stages of adulthood development while Harighurst
delineated the development tasks.
ASSIGNMENT
1.
Briefly discuss the physiological and psychological changes that take place in adulthood
and their implications for adult learning.
REFERENCES
Mastus, W.H. and Johnson, V.E. (1966). Human Sexual Response. Boston. Liale Brown
Kerlinger, F.N. (1986). Foundations of Education Research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston
Havighurst, R.J. (1972). Developmental Tasks and Education. New York. Mckay.
199

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What are the basic processes of growth and development discussed in the text?

What are the basic processes of growth and development discussed in the text?

What are Erikson's stages of adulthood development?

What are Erikson's stages of adulthood development?

Developmental Psychology (PDE 102)

PDE 102: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Define correctly, the basic concepts of growth and development.

Describe the factors that affect growth and development.

Explain the principles of growth and development.

Describe the theories of development.

Describe the stages of human development

Explain the educational implications of the various stages of human development.