Chapter 4
Chapter 4
Chapter 4
Earths Cultural
Heritage
Principal author:
Sue Feary
Supporting authors:
CONTENTS
Introduction
A brief history of humans on Earth:
The long view of cultural change and diversity
Humans, culture and nature
Defining and understanding cultural heritage:
Ashort history of ideas on cultural heritage
A diversity of cultural heritage
Introducing cultural heritage management
Connections between culture, heritage and
protected areas
References
PRINCIPAL AUTHOR
Sue Feary is an archaeologist and national park manager,
with 25 years experience in management of natural and cultural
heritage and consulting with Aboriginal Australians.
Supporting authors
Steve Brown is a PhD scholar at the University of Sydney,
Australia.
Duncan Marshall is a heritage consultant, Australia.
Ian Lilley is a professor in the Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Studies Unit, University of Queensland, Australia.
Robert McKinnon is Strategic Programs Officer, NSW
National Parks and Wildlife Service, Australia.
Bas Verschuuren is a Researcher, Department of Sociology
and Development Change, Wageningen, Netherlands.
Robert Wild is an independent consultant, specialising in
natural resources and community development, based in the
United Kingdom.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge helpful comments from
Sharon Sullivan on an early draft, and an anonymous reviewer.
CITATION
Feary, S., Brown, S., Marshall, D., Lilley, I., McKinnon,
R.,Verschuuren, B. and Wild, R. (2015) Earths cultural heritage,
in G. L. Worboys, M. Lockwood, A. Kothari, S. Feary and I. Pulsford
(eds) Protected Area Governance and Management, pp. 81116,
ANU Press, Canberra.
Introduction
Earths seven billion people and their forebears have
left, and are continuing to leave, a rich legacy of their
cultural activities, values and beliefs. This collective
cultural heritage goes back hundreds of thousands of
years and takes many forms, from an ancient stone flake
to the remains of a city, to a song. It has resonance at all
scales, from intensely personal, to the crux of a national
identity, to an international icon.
The existence of protected areas is a cultural legacy in
itself. Gazettal of Americas Yellowstone National Park
in 1872 formalised recognition of protected areas, but
for thousands of years before this, humans protected
natural places of high cultural value. Although not
consciously identified for what Western science calls
their biodiversity, these ancient places demonstrate that
protected areas are not just the hallmark of modern
society and complex government schemes.
Protected areas frequently encapsulate cultural heritage,
be it tangible evidence of past human endeavour,
intangible heritage encapsulated within the natural
landscape or the cultural practices of people inhabiting
protected areas. This is hardly surprising given the history
of modern humans is one of a diverse and complex
relationship with the natural environment, ranging
from deep spiritual connection to wholesale destruction.
Itwould be virtually impossible for a protected area not
to include culturally derived phenomena.
The relationship between protected areas, the cultural
heritage within them and the peoples to whom they
belong has had a long and sometimes troubled history,
with early management regimes giving sparse recognition
to cultural heritage and at times disadvantaging or
dispossessing local communities in their quest to save
nature. Global movements to achieve rights and social
justice for indigenous people and local communities
broadened the meaning of cultural heritage by
acknowledging the not always obvious cultural links
between humans and nature.
This chapter aims to guide and inspire a land
manager in his/her quest to professionally manage all
manifestations of cultural heritage within a protected
area context. The chapter begins with human evolution
and a brief history of humans interactions with the
landscape. Thenext section discusses the history of ideas
concerning cultural heritage, followed by exploration
of the diversity of cultural heritage found in protected
areas. Thematerial on nature as cultural heritage
teases out the complexities of intangible heritage as it
relates to place. The concept of entangled landscapes
Out of Africa
From a scientific perspective, the natural environment of
Earth has evolved over almost five billion years, creating
ecosystems devoid of humans for most of their existence.
The first hominans appeared a mere six million years ago,
with palaeoanthropological, archaeological and genetic
evidence pointing strongly to Africa as the major centre
for the origins of both ancient and modern humans,
although new technologies and discoveries are constantly
challenging theories of human origins. Various hominid
species successively rose and interbred or were replaced
until anatomically modern humans appeared and began
to move out of eastern Africa from 45 000 to 60 000
years ago (Henn et al. 2012).
From Africa, human populations expanded rapidly,
fanning out to colonise Eurasia, followed by Australasia
and eventually crossing the Bering Strait to the Americas
(Figure 4.1). The islands of the oceanic Pacific were the
last places on Earth to be colonised, during the great sea
voyages of Austronesian-speaking peoples commencing
around 4000 years ago, ending with Polynesian
settlement of New Zealand and the remote, enigmatic
Rapa Nui (Easter Island) (Bellwood 1978; Fischer 2005).
Ancient beginnings
Human history has been largely concerned with food
its production, acquisition, storage, processing and
distribution (Heiser 1973). Humans have been hunters
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Case Study 4.1 The marshlands of Mesopotamia: Iraqs first national4. Earths
parkCultural Heritage
The Mesopotamian Marshlands of southern Iraq were
once the third-largest wetlands in the world, originally
extending between 12 000 and 15 000 square kilometres.
They were a vital resource for regional fisheries, reeds and
other natural resources and the home of the indigenous
Madan Marsh Arabs, who are directly linked to ancient
Sumeria. They are globally important for large numbers of
migrant and wintering birds, and are the native habitat of
endemic birds and other valuable wildlife.
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Culture
Culture denotes an ideational unitya set of shared
meanings, values and representations associated
with any society or a discrete group within a society.
It suggests a unity that serves to structure human
thought and behaviour and put order into sociality
(Helliwell and Hindess 1999). Geographer Carl Sauer
(1952) pronounced culture in simple terms: as a way
of life. As early as 1871 in his influential publication
Primitive Culture, English anthropologist E. D. Tylor
defined culture as that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
society (Seymour-Smith 1986:60).
Heritage
Like culture, the term heritage is complex and multilayered (Davis 2007). It arose from concern over loss
of buildings and monuments during war and natural
disasters (Smith 2006). Original meanings of heritage
were drawn from old ideas of inheritance: the passing
Cultural heritage
What, then, is cultural heritage? Although heritage had
its beginnings in 19th-century Europe (Smith 2006), use
of the past to construct ideas of individual and group
identity has been part of the human condition for much
longer. Harvey (2010) notes that heritage has always
been with us and every society has a relationship with its
past, even those who have chosen to ignore it.
A universal definition of cultural heritage emerged
after World War II in the context of recognising
the need to protect monuments as part of national
identity (Lennon 2006). Since that time, defining a
common terminology and scope of heritage has been
driven by the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO) and the International Council
of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), which arose from
the Venice Charter of 1964 (Ahmad 2006).
Early definitions of cultural heritage were Eurocentric
and, due to the influence of architects in the global
arena, put emphasis on the built environment (Ahmad
2006). Amid the sweeping social changes of the 1960s
and 1970s, indigenous and tribal peoples demands for
rights over their land and heritage led to the realisation
that the definitions excluded and disempowered entire
sections of the global community. In 1992 UNESCOs
definition was expanded to include cultural landscapes,
in recognition of the long history of landscape
modification by humans, and in 2003, it was again
amended to include intangible heritage. The latter is
particularly relevant to societies whose heritage does
not lie in buildings but in connections with the natural
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Archaeological heritage
Box 4.1 Investigating the
archaeological record
Archaeology is the study of the material remains of
human history, from the time of our earliest ancestors
to now. At its most ancient extremities, archaeology
blurs with palaeontology in the study of the fossil
remains of early human progenitors and relatives. At its
most recent end, archaeology blends with fields such
as history, geography and anthropology. The discipline
takes a highly forensic approach to its subject matter
and works with a great many other disciplines in the
natural, physical and social sciences as well as the
humanities to draw the most from its data. It can inform
us about the whole of human history, and provide
detailed information about long-term changes in the
Earths physical and biological environments as well as
shifts in human behaviour.
Archaeological investigation often involves systematic
and controlled excavation of physical evidence that
exists under the ground, as shown in the popular BBC
series Time Team.
A diversity of cultural
heritage
In this section, recognised experts present a global
picture of cultural heritage. We have categorised cultural
heritage, but recognise that categories are somewhat
artificial, with considerable overlapfor example, a
cultural landscape can also be an archaeological site.
Thetypes of cultural heritage are described in the
following sections.
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Case
Study 4.3 Archaeological heritage in Australias protected areas
Protected Area Governance and Management
Many of Australias protected areas contain pre-European
archaeological sites as well as more recent historical
sites. Some of these sites, such as the Aboriginal sites on
World Heritage-listed Fraser Island or the Great Barrier
Reef, occur in protected areas created on the basis of their
natural values, while others, such as in World Heritage
properties in south-west Tasmania and Kakadu, the
Aboriginal heritage was the major reason for declaration.
Protected as a mixed World Heritage site on the basis
of its archaeological sites and natural geological values
Built heritage
Perhaps the most physically obvious types of cultural
heritage found in protected areas are buildings or other
structures reflecting former or continuing human
activities. The range of buildings and other structures
that might be found in protected areas is very broad.
Itincludes those associated with:
Profile of a gopura (entrance building) on the outer
wall enclosing Ta Prohm, Angkor, Cambodia
Source: S. Palu
Case
Study 4.4 Tikal National Park, Guatemala
Protected Area Governance and Management
This park is one of the most important reserves in
Guatemala because of its archaeological and bioecological interest. Rivers, lakes, swamps and flooding
savannahs are important for biodiversity and for migratory
birds. The reserve contains the largest area of tropical
rainforest in Guatemala and Central America, with a wide
range of unspoilt natural habitats. A large area of the
reserve still comprises dense broadleaved forests with
more than 300 species of commercially useful trees.
In the heart of the jungle lies one of the major sites of
the Mayan civilisation. The ceremonial centre contains
temples and palaces, and public squares accessed by
ramps. Remains of dwellings can also be found scattered
throughout the surrounding countryside. The ruined
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city reflects the evolution of Mayan society from huntergathering to farming and agriculture. They developed an
elaborate religious, artistic and scientific culture which
finally collapsed in the late 9th century, but at its height, AD
700800, the city contained a population of 90 000 Mayan
Indians, with over 3000 separate buildings dating from 600
BC to AD 900, including temples, residences, religious
monuments often highly decorated with hieroglyphic
inscriptions and tombs. Archaeological excavations
have yielded evidence for cotton, tobacco, beans,
pumpkins, peppers and many fruits of pre-Columbian
origin, demonstrating the importance for Mayan culture of
domestication of plants (UNESCO 2014c).
Movable heritage
Movable heritage is a vital component of cultural
heritage at local, national and global scales. Movable
heritage refers to cultural objects that can be taken away
from their original context and, as such, they often exist
as collections in museums or in private hands (Box 4.2).
Movable heritage is often archaeological in nature. Grave
goods associated with a double human burial discovered
in southern New South Wales, Australia, in 1992 and
dated to 7000 years BP included a necklace made from
more than 300 kangaroo teeth, each containing a drilled
hole, presumably originally strung together with string
(Feary 1993). Such items are priceless at all levels.
of
anthropological
and
ethnological
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Case
Study 4.5 Protecting traditional transhumance practices
Protected Area Governance and Management
The Laponian World Heritage Area in Sweden is a vast
Arctic landscape that encompasses four national parks
and two nature reserves. It is the home of the Saami or
Lapp people, the only formally recognised indigenous
people of Scandinavia. It is the largest area in the world
(and one of the last) with an ancestral way of life based
on the seasonal movement of livestock. Every summer,
Underwater heritage
The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the
Underwater Cultural Heritage defines underwater
cultural heritage as all traces of human existence having
a cultural, historical or archaeological character that
have been partially or totally underwater, periodically or
continuously, for at least 100 years (UNESCO 2001).
The convention has been ratified by 20 countries.
Case Study 4.6 Excavation and museum display: The Mary Rose
The Mary Rose, Henry VIIIs prestigious battleship, was built
in Portsmouth, England, in 1509. On 19 July 1545, she sank
during battle with a French invasion force in the confined
waters of the Solent. The circumstances of the disaster are
unclear although she heeled over unexpectedly and sank
quickly. Of the 700 men on board, fewer than 40 survived
(McKee 1982). The wreck of the ship quickly settled into
the soft mud of the Solent and silt piled up inside her. The
Mary Roses partly intact hull, with its precious contents,
remained relatively undisturbed until 1971 when the largest
Over the past three decades the site has been excavated
by a team from the University of Haifa and has become one
of the worlds first underwater museums. The submerged
port was declared a national park in 1952 and is a popular
destination for divers. Divers can now tour the signposted
remains of the magnificent harbour, including a Roman
shipwreck, a ruined lighthouse, an ancient breakwater, the
ports original foundations, anchors and pedestals. They are
given a waterproof map that describes in detail each of the
numbered sites along the way. One of the trails is accessible
to snorkellers (Old Caesarea Diving Centre 2014).
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In situ conservation
Underwater cultural heritage is fascinating due to the
mystery of its location underwater and its historical
context. Some recent initiatives have allowed visitors
in situ experiences, while at the same time ensuring the
protection of the original site (Case Study 4.7).
Intangible heritage
Recognition that cultural heritage is not only tangible
but also intangible has come rather late in the world
of heritage protection. Nonetheless, since its adoption
in 2003, the Convention for the Safeguarding of the
Intangible Cultural Heritage has experienced rapid
ratification, by more than 150 state parties in less than
10 years. The convention is now the main international
framework for considering intangible heritage.
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Sacred places
Sacred places can refer to both natural and built
environments, but in this section we focus on sacred
natural places. A sacred natural site is a natural feature
or a large area of land or water having special spiritual
Case
Study 4.8 Mount Kailas: A sacred mountain
Protected Area Governance and Management
Mount Kailas in Tibet is the most sacred mountain in the
world for up to a billion people in Asia. This famed snowshrouded holy peak, situated to the north of the Himalayan
barrier in western Tibet, is one of the most revered
pilgrimage sites for Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Bonpos
(pre-Buddhists) and draws pilgrims from India, Nepal,
physically create their own social places, including nonindigenous communities in settler societies, minority
ethnic groups and transnational groups such as refugees
fleeing to Australia from war-torn countries of the
Middle East.
Protected areas are social places in themselves, either in
their entirety or in relation to places or features within
protected areas. Formal protected areas and the use of
science to determine their location, size and management
regimes are as much part of the cultural heritage of
contemporary society as are the sacred groves and taboo
sites of indigenous and tribal societies; they just come
about by a different pathway. The protected area system,
as well as being a political response to the ongoing and
increasing impacts of humans on the environment, also
reflects societies emotional attachment to the natural
environment (Box 4.3).
Mt Kalias, Tibet
Source: Edwin Bernbaum
Social places
For the purposes of this book, social places are
distinguished from sacred places, although the boundaries
are fuzzy. Whereas knowledge of sacred places is often
privileged and passed on to selected individuals through
ritualised behaviour, social places hold collective meaning
for a community (Case Study 4.9) or a nation: a strong
emotional attachment arising from historical or religious
use or a particular event associated with that location or
natural feature. People across the world intellectually or
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Case Study 4.9 The role of protected areas in the lives of recent migrants
4. Earths Cultural Heritage
While globalisation and air transport give people choices to
move all over the world, citizens of countries experiencing
war may have little choice but to flee to a country that will
accept them as refugees. A recent study of new migrants to
Sydney, Australias largest city, demonstrates the important
role protected areas play in stabilising the lives of displaced
and traumatised peoples.
Byrne and Goodall (2013) have shown that the practice of
place-makingthe way inhabitants of an area work to make
spaces habitable by imprinting them with the patterns of
their own local livesis particularly significant for migrants.
Through their interviews and observations of recent
migrants from Vietnam and the Middle East using Georges
River National Park, in Sydney, the researchers found that
picnicking in the national park close to their suburb enabled
migrants to maintain and extend social ties and contacts
at the same time as they acquainted themselves with the
Australian natural environment. The picnics tended to be
held at specific, chosen locations in the park and as these
areas became more familiar they constituted a foothold for
recent migrants in the park environment. These picnics are
less about ethnicity and more about homesickness, shared
identity and a shared experience of being outsiders in a
new city (Byrne and Goodall 2013).
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Beautiful places
There is more than a passing connection between
beauty or aesthetic appeal and protected areas: aesthetic
experience of nature has been and continues to be a vitally
important factor in the protection and preservation of
natural environments [and] this relationship between
aesthetic appreciation and environmentalism has a long
and interesting history (Carlson 2010:290).
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Case
Study 4.12 Protecting potato varieties
Protected Area Governance and Management
In the Peruvian highlands, six communities of the Quechua
people have established el Parque de la Papa to conserve
1200 potato varieties occurring in more than 8500
hectares of communal land as well as natural ecosystems
of the Andes. This is the pilot project for the Ruta Sagrada
del Condor-Wiracocha network of protected landscapes
CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
Nature + People
Places + Values
Past + Present
Description
Aesthetic value
Historic value
Scientific/research value
Social value
Spiritual value
Protected area
value type
Description
Intrinsic values
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Intrinsic
108
Aesthetic
Historic
Scientific
Social
Spiritual
On-site
Off-site
Community
Individual
Connections between
culture, heritage and
protected areas
The extent to which culture and heritage benefit from the
existence of protected areas is influenced by commonality
and/or compatibility of the goals of cultural heritage and
protected area management. Table 4.2 indicates some
level of synergy in the values of the two systems and this
provides a strong foundation for the managerial and
operational capacity for achieving the goals of cultural
heritage management in a protected area context.
At another level, protected areas have a unique capacity
to protect cultural heritage. For the most part they have
been set aside, as biodiversity and heritage conservation
refuges, from the ravages of major developments or
industrial-scale resource exploitation. These remnants
of past landscapes come with their cultural elements
the intangible and tangible cultural heritagerelatively
intact. The extent to which the cultural heritage is
given priority by managers, however, depends on four
important considerations.
Conclusion
This chapter has looked at cultural heritage through
a lens of the relationship of people with the natural
environment and with each other, in space and over
time. We have shown that the cultural legacies of these
relationships are interesting and diverse phenomena
with both tangible and intangible dimensions. Cultural
heritage is about the past but also connects humans
with the present and envisages a future. It is the crux of
identity; it can be uncomfortable, contested or divisive,
but protected area managers will ignore it at their peril.
The concept and practice of protected area management
are themselves cultural heritage, being the tangible
expressions of societally generated beliefs and values
about the natural world that have existed for thousands
of years. Indigenous peoples spiritual associations with
110
The outstanding Australian Aboriginal art work on public display at the Anbangbang rock shelter gallery,
Kakadu National Park, a natural and cultural World Heritage property. The paintings include Namarrgon
the lightning man (upper far right) who wears his lightning around him and it connects his arms, leg and
head. The stone axes that may be seen on his knees and elbows create the thunder.
Source: Graeme L. Worboys
The Banff Park Museum is located centrally in the historic Banff National Park of Canada, a World
Heritage property. Refurbished in 1985, the museum faithfully retains the products and style of
interpretation displays developed in and around 1914. The building was constructed in 1903, and its
presence and displays reflect the energy and commitment of Norman Bethune Sanson, the Museums
curator from 1896 to 1932.
Source: Graeme L. Worboys
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References
Recommended reading
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