History of Mathematics

Mathematics is the science that deals with the logic of shape, quantity and
arrangement. Math is all around us, in everything we do. It is the building

block for everything in our daily lives, including mobile devices, architecture
(ancient and modern), art, money, engineering, and even sports.
Since the beginning of recorded history, mathematic discovery has been at
the forefront of every civilized society, and in use in even the most primitive
of cultures. The needs of math arose based on the wants of society. The more
complex a society, the more complex the mathematical needs. Primitive
tribes needed little more than the ability to count, but also relied on math to
calculate the position of the sun and the physics of hunting.
History of mathematics
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Several civilizations in China, India, Egypt, Central America and

Mesopotamia contributed to mathematics as we know it today. The
Sumerians were the first people to develop a counting system.
Mathematicians developed arithmetic, which includes basic operations,
multiplication, fractions and square roots. The Sumerians system passed
through the Akkadian Empire to the Babylonians around 300 B.C. Six
hundred years later, in America, the Mayans developed elaborate calendar
systems and were skilled astronomers. About this time, theconcept of
zero was developed.
As civilizations developed, mathematicians began to work with geometry,
which computes areas and volumes to make angular measurements and has
many practical applications. Geometry is used in everything from home
construction to fashion and interior design.
Geometry went hand in hand with algebra, invented in the ninth century by a
Persian mathematician, Mohammed ibn-Musa al-Khowarizmi. He also
developed quick methods for multiplying and diving numbers, which are
known as algorithms a corruption of his name.
Algebra offered civilizations a way to divide inheritances and allocate
resources. The study of algebra meant mathematicians were solving linear
equations and systems, as well as quadratics, and delving into positive and
negative solutions. Mathematicians in ancient times also began to look at
number theory. With origins in the construction of shape, number theory
looks at figurate numbers, the characterization of numbers, and theorems.
Math and the Greeks

The study of math within early civilizations was the building blocks for the
math of the Greeks, who developed the model of abstract mathematics
through geometry. Greece, with its incredible architecture and complex
system of government, was the model of mathematic achievement until
modern times. Greek mathematicians were divided into several schools:
The Ionian School, founded by Thales, who is often credited for having
given the first deductive proofs and developing five basic theorems in plane
geometry.
The Pythagorean School, founded by Pythagoras, who studied proportion,

plane and solid geometry, and number theory.
The Eleatic School, which included Zeno of Elea, famous for his four
paradoxes.
The Sophist School, which is credited for offering higher education in the
advanced Greek cities. Sophists provided instruction on public debate using
abstract reasoning.
The Platonic School, founded by Plato, who encouraged research in

mathematics in a setting much like a modern university.
The School of Eudoxus, founded by Eudoxus, who developed the theory of

proportion and magnitude and produced many theorems in plane geometry
The School of Aristotle, also known as the Lyceum, was founded by

Aristotle and followed the Platonic school.
In addition to the Greek mathematicians listed above, a number of Greeks

made an indelible mark on the history of mathematics. Archimedes,
Apollonius, Diophantus, Pappus, and Euclid all came from this era. To better
understand the sequence and how these mathematicians influenced each
other, visit this timeline.
During this time, mathematicians began working with trigonometry.
Computational in nature, trigonometry requires the measurement of angles
and the computation of trigonometric functions, which include sine, cosine,
tangent, and their reciprocals. Trigonometry relies on the synthetic geometry
developed by Greek mathematicians like Euclid. For example, Ptolemy's
theorem gives rules for the chords of the sum and difference of angles, which
correspond to the sum and difference formulas for sines and cosines. In past
cultures, trigonometry was applied to astronomy and the computation of
angles in the celestial sphere.
After the fall of Rome, the development of mathematics was taken on by the
Arabs, then the Europeans. Fibonacci was one of the first European
mathematicians, and was famous for his theories on arithmetic, algebra, and
geometry. The Renaissance led to advances that included decimal fractions,
logarithms, and projective geometry. Number theory was greatly expanded
upon, and theories like probability and analytic geometry ushered in a new
age of mathematics, with calculus at the forefront.
Development of calculus
In the 17th century, Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz independently
developed the foundations for calculus. Calculus development went through
three periods: anticipation, development and rigorization. In the anticipation
stage, mathematicians were attempting to use techniques that involved
infinite processes to find areas under curves or maximize certain qualities. In
the development stage, Newton and Leibniz brought these techniques
together through the derivative and integral. Though their methods were not
always logically sound, mathematicians in the 18th century took on the
rigorization stage, and were able to justify them and create the final stage of
calculus. Today, we define the derivative and integral in terms of limits.
In contrast to calculus, which is a type of continuous mathematics, other
mathematicians have taken a more theoretical approach. Discrete
mathematics is the branch of math that deals with objects that can assume
only distinct, separated value. Discrete objects can be characterized by
integers, whereas continuous objects require real numbers. Discrete
mathematics is the mathematical language of computer science, as it
includes the study of algorithms. Fields of discrete mathematics include
combinatorics, graph theory, and the theory of computation.
People often wonder what relevance mathematicians serve today. In a
modern world, math such as applied mathematics is not only relevant, it's
crucial. Applied mathematics is the branches of mathematics that are
involved in the study of the physical, biological, or sociological world. The
idea of applied math is to create a group of methods that solve problems in
science. Modern areas of applied math include mathematical physics,
mathematical biology, control theory, aerospace engineering, and math
finance. Not only does applied math solve problems, but it also discovers
new problems or develops new engineering disciplines. Applied
mathematicians require expertise in many areas of math and science,

physical intuition, common sense, and collaboration. The common approach
in applied math is to build a mathematical model of a phenomenon, solve
the model, and develop recommendations for performance improvement.
While not necessarily an opposite to applied mathematics, pure mathematics
is driven by abstract problems, rather than real world problems. Much of
what's pursued by pure mathematicians can have their roots in concrete
physical problems, but a deeper understanding of these phenomena brings
about problems and technicalities. These abstract problems and
technicalities are what pure mathematics attempts to solve, and these
attempts have led to major discoveries for mankind, including the Universal
Turing Machine, theorized by Alan Turing in 1937. The Universal Turing
Machine, which began as an abstract idea, later laid the groundwork for the
development of the modern computer. Pure mathematics is abstract and
based in theory, and is thus not constrained by the limitations of the physical
world.
According to one pure mathematician, pure mathematicians prove theorems,
and applied mathematicians construct theories. Pure and applied are not
mutually exclusive, but they are rooted in different areas of math and
problem solving. Though the complex math involved in pure and applied
mathematics is beyond the understanding of most average Americans, the
solutions developed from the processes have affected and improved the lives
of all.
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Mathematics is the science that deals with the logic of shape, quantity and

arrangement. Math is all around us, in everything we do. It is the building

Several civilizations in China, India, Egypt, Central America and

Math and the Greeks

The Pythagorean School, founded by Pythagoras, who studied proportion,

The Platonic School, founded by Plato, who encouraged research in

The School of Eudoxus, founded by Eudoxus, who developed the theory of

The School of Aristotle, also known as the Lyceum, was founded by

In addition to the Greek mathematicians listed above, a number of Greeks

mathematicians require expertise in many areas of math and science,

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