CHAPTER II

THE O R I G I N AND DEVELOPMENT

O F H U M A N RIGHTS IN THE
GLOBAL SCENARIO

SI.No.

Contents

Page

2.1

INTRODUCTION

21

2.2

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS

21

2.3

HUMAN RIGHTS UN3ER THE UN CHARTER

26

2.4

UNIVERSAL DECLAliATlON OF HUMAN RIGHTS

AND THE COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS

29

2.5

ADOPTION OF THE 'TWO INTERNATIONAL COVENANTS 33

2.6

INTERNATIONAL JUDICIAL SYSTEM

38

2.7

OFFICE OF THE U.hI. HIGH COMMISSIONER

FOR HUMAN RIGHTS

39

2.8

MONITORING OF HIJMAN RIGHTS

40

2.9

DECLARATION ON 'THE RIGHT TO PROTECT

HUMAN RIGHTS

41

KEY INTERNATIONI~LCONVENTIONS ON
HUMAN RIGHTS

44

2.10

21

2.1

Introduction
The term "Human Right:;" is comparatively of recent origin. But the

idea of human rights is as old as the history of human civilization. Human

rights are deeply rooted in the historical past. The history of mankind has
been firmly associated with the struggle of individuals against injustice,
exploitation and disdain. Just ce V.R. Krishna lyer in his book, Human

Rights and Inhuman Wrongs remarks that, "ultimately humanity has a

commitment to history to make human rights a viable reality."'

2.2

Historical Foundations of Human Rights

The roots for the protection of the rights of man can be traced as far

back as to the Babylonian laws.. The Babylonian King 'Hammurabi' issued

a set of laws to his people called 'Hammurabi's Codes.' It established fair
wages, offered protection of property and required charges to be proved at
trial. The Assyrian Laws, the Hittiti laws and the Dharma of the Vedic
period2 in India also devised different sets of standards by which rights of
one was respected by another. All the major religions of the world have a
humanist perspective that supl,orts human rights despite the differences in
their content.
Human rights are also rooted in ancient thought and in the
philosophical concepts of 'Natl~ralLaw' and 'Natural Rights.' A few Greek
and Roman philosophers rec:ognised the idea of Natural Rights. Plato
(427-348 BC) was one of the earliest thinkers to advocate a universal

standard of ethical conduct. According to the Roman jurist Ulpain, natural

law was that "which nature and the State assures to all human being^."^
This meant that foreigners must be treated in the same way as one deals with
one's compatriots. It also imp1ed conducting of wars in a civilized manner.

22

The Republic (400 BC) proposed the idea of universal truths that should be
recognised by all. Aristotle (384-322 B.C) wrote in Politics that justice,
virtue and rights change in accordance with different kinds of institutions
and circumstances. Cicero (106-43 KC), a Roman statesman, laid down
the foundations of

"natursl law" and "human rights" in his work,

The Laws (52 6.C). Cicero believed that there should be universal human
rights laws that transcend cu:;tomary and civil laws. Sophocles (495-406
B.C) was one of the first to pi-omote the idea of freedom of expression of

opinion against the State. S t ~ i c semployed the ethical concept of natural

law to refer to a higher order of law which corresponded to nature and
which was to serve as a standard for the laws of civil society and
Government. Later, Christianity, especially the writings of St.Thomas
Acquinas (1225-1274), based this 'natural law' in a divine law, which was
s
- given right
revealed to man in part discoverable by him through h ~ God
of reason. The City States of Greece gave freedom of speech, equality
before law, right to vote, right to be elected to public office, right to trade
and right to access to justice to their citizens. Similar rights were secured
by the Romans by the "Jus C:ivile" of the Roman law.4 Thus, the origin of
the concept of human rights can be found in the Greco-Roman natural
law doctrines of "Stoicism" (the school of philosophy founded by Zeno
and Citium), which held that a universal force pervades all creation and
that human conduct should, therefore, be judged according to the laws
of nature
'The Magna Carta,' also called Magna Charta in Latin, consisted
of 70 clauses. Though not a complete catalogue of civil rights and liberties
as we know of today, it could, nonetheless, be described as the starting
point of Constitutional histor) which shifted the focus from the power of the

23

State to human rights since it has enshrined the principles of liberty, justice
and even of equality and fraternity.5 It is a great tribute to the people of the
United Kingdom to have preserved it, to nurse it and to nurture it over
the years to serve as a beacon to humankind. Though the bundle of civil
rights and liberties under 'the Magna Carta' was limited, its impact was
revolutionary as it ushered in the realisation and recognition that
individuals had certain rights and could claim these rights against the State
and that the State was expec:ed to respect and not to interfere with such
rights and liberties of the individuals.
'The Magna Carta' granted by King John of England to the English
barons on June 15, 1215 was in response to the stiff opposition to the
heavy burden of taxation created by the third Crusade and the ransom
of Richard I, captured by the Holy Emperor Henry VI. The English barons
protested against the heavy taxes and were unwilling to let King John
rule again without granting some concessions regarding their rights. The
overreaching theme of "Magma Charta" was the protection against arbitrary
acts by the King. Accordingly land and property could no longer be seized,
judges had to know and respect laws and taxes could not be imposed
without common counsel. There could be no punishment without a trial.
The merchants were granted the right to travel freely within England and
outside.

The Magna Carta also introduced the concept of jury trial in

its Clause 39, which provided protection against arbitrary arrest and
imprisonment. Thus the Ch,arta set-forth the principle that the power of
the King was not absolute. In 1216-17 during the reign of John's son,
Henry Ill, The Magna Carta was confirmed by Parliament and in 1297
Edward I confirmed it in a modified form. The Carta was reinforced in 1628

24

by the Petition of Rights and in 1689 by the Bill of Rights and thus formed
the platform for Parliamentar!~superiority over the Crown and gave a
documentary authority for the Rule of Law' in England. In addition to the
above, the writings of St.Tho~nasAcquinas and Grotious also reflected
the view that human beings are endowed with certain eternal and
inalienable rights.
The concept 'fundamental rights of man' is found in the declarations
and Constitutional instrumer~ts of many States. For instance, the
'Declaration of Independence' of the thirteen States of America in 1776
(The Virgina Declaration, 1776) and the Constitution of the United States
of America, 1787, with amendments in 1789, 1865, 1869 and 1919
specified a number of rights. The Virginia Declaration of Rights affirmed
that all men are by nature equally free and independent with certain
inherent rights. The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizen of
1789 led other European States to include provisions in their laws for the
protection of human rights. Sweden in 1809, Spain in 1812, Norway in
1814, Belgium in 1831, Denmark in 1849, Prussia in 1850 and Switzerland
in 1874 made provisions for the fundamental rights of man.
The term "Natural Rigits" eventually fell into disfavour, but the
concept of "Universal Rights" took root. The phrase "The rights of man"
was found unsuitable, as it was not universally understood to include the
rights of women. It was Eleanor Roosevelt who suggested in 1947 that the
term 'Rights of Man' be changed to 'Human Rights'.
Though the term 'human right' was first coined by Thomas Paine
and used in his English trans1i;ltion of the French Declaration of the Rights

25

of Man and Citizen (1789). i i ~ n r yDavid Thoreau in his classical treatise Civil Disobedience, expanded 1:his concept.
Till the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century, any
attempt to enforce human rigqts was considered as an attack upon the
concept of State sovereignty. However, there were exceptions to the above
rule like the adoption of the Slavery Convention of 1926 and the
establishment of the 1nterna:ional Labour Organisation in 1919. The
Covenant of the League of Nations adopted at the end of World War I was
silent on the issue of human ric hts.
The realization of the j ~ o r t hof human being led the Institute of
International Law to issue a F'roclamation of the Rights of Man in 1929.
Instead of enumerating the rights of human beings, it laid down six duties
of the State. The Proclamation of 1929 recognised the right of every
individual to life, liberty and prosperity; the rights without any distinction
as to nationality, sex, race, language; the right of every individual to the
free practice in public or in ~lrivateof any faith, religion or belief. The
proclamation may be regarjed as the first attempt towards the
universalisation of human rights,.
The turning point for the traditional approach came in the 1940s, in
the midst of the extreme abuse:; of human rights in war-torn Europe during
World War II. Atrocious crime; were being committed against humanity
and there was a total suppression of fundamental human rights. The Nazi
leaders of Germany had estat~lisheda regime of complete lawlessness
and tyranny. They had barbarously negated all human values and dignity
within the territories under the~roccupation. It was at this time that the
restoration of the freedom and rights of the people was accepted as one of

26

the essential conditions for the! establishment of international peace and

security. The spirit of this principle was well reflected in the Proclamation
issued by the American President Franklin D. Roosevelt on January 6,
1941, which came to be known as 'Four ~ r e e d o m s . ' ~In his message
Roosevelt declared, "Freedorr means the supremacy of human rights
every where."
In the Moscow Declaration of German Atrocities of October 30,
1943, the United States, the Urited Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union
declared that the Germans should be held responsible individually for their
violations of international law. A number of conferences and meetings
were held before the formation of the United Nations as an international
organisation in 1945 (United Nations Declaration, 1942; Moscow Declaration,
1943; Tehran Declaration, 1943; Dumbarton Oaks Conference, 1944 and San
Francisco Conference, 1945). P, joint declaration was issued by President
Franklin D. Roosevelt of the IJnited States. and Prime Minister Winston
Churchill of the United Kingdoni on August 14, 1941 in a document known
as the 'Atlantic Charter.' The declaration of the United Nations signed on
January I,1942 in Washingtcn was the first document, which used the
term human right^.^

In this dsxurnent the signatories who were fighting

against the Axis Powers recognized the need to "preserve human rights
and justice in their own land as well as in other lands."'

2.3

Human Rights under the U.N. Charter

The Charter of the Jnited Nations represents a significant

advancement in the direction of faith in and respect for human rights. The
appalling atrocities perpetrated by the Nazis against the Jews and other
races during World War II led to a strong movement towards international

protection of fundamental hurran

right^.^ The delegates from some of the

States at the San Francisco Conference were in favour of the adoption of

an even stronger provision cclncerning human rights. An attempt, which
proved abortive, was also made to incorporate in the U.N. Charter an
International Bill on Human F:ights. Concern for human rights is woven
into the U.N. Charter like a gclden thread. Human rights have occupied a
significant chapter in any story of the u.N." The Charter contains a
number of provisions for the 3romotion of human rights and fundamental
freedoms in the Preamble and in Articles 1, 13(b), 55, 56, 62(2), 68 and
76(c), which are as follows:
a)

The first paragraph of the Preamble of the Charter lays down that
"we the people' of the United Nations are determined to reaffirm faith
in the fundamental hunan rights, in the dignity and worth of the
human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations
large or small . . ."

b)

Paragraph 3 of Article I of the Charter lays down that the

achievement

of

international co-operation

in

promoting and

encouraging respect fol- human rights and for fundamental freedoms

for all without distincticn as to race, sex, language or religion shall
be one of the purposes of the U.N.
c)

By the terms of Article 13, the General Assembly is empowered

to initiate studies and make recommendations for the purpose of
assisting the realizatiort of human rights and fundamental freedoms
without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion.

28

d)

Article 55 empowers the U.N. to promote universal respect for, and

observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all
without any distinction as to sex, race, language or religion.

e)

Article 56 provides that the members of the United Nations shall

pledge themselves to take joint and separate action in co-operation
with the Organisation for the achievement of the purposes set forth
in Article 55.

f)

Article 62 of the Charter of the U.N. empowers the Economic and

Social Council to make recommendations for the purpose of
promoting respect for and observance of the human rights and
fundamental freedoms of all.

g)

As per Article 68 it shall be the responsibility of the Economic and

Social Council to set up (:ommissions in economic and social fields
for the promotion of hunan rights. The Commission on Human
Rights and the Commission on the Status of Women are the
subsidiary bodies of the Economic and Social Council.

h)

Paragraph (c) of Article 76 stipulates that one of the basic objectives

of the 'Trusteeship Systeri' is to encourage respect for human rights
and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race,
sex, language or religion.
The U.N. Charter did not contain a specific Charter on human rights

and so an attempt was made to fill them out by drawing up the "Universal
Declaration of Human Rights ard Fundamental Freedoms" " in 1948 and
with a view to implement the Universal Declaration, the European Convention
for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, the African

29

Charter on Human and People's Rights, and the American Convention on

Human Rights, and finally the International Covenants on Human Rights
were adopted

2.4

Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Commission

on Human Rights
The idea for the protection of human right and fundamental
freedoms was conceived in the 'Atlantic Charter' in 1941 and the
"Declaration of the United Nations" in 1942. The first documentary use of
the expression "Human Rights" is to be found in the Charter of the United
Nations adopted at San Francisco on 25Ih June 1945. The preamble of the
Charter, setting up an international organisation called the United Nations,
declares that the U.N. shall have in its objects, inter alia, a firm faith in
fundamental human rights.
When the founders of the United Nations met at the San Franciso
Conference in 1945 to draft the Charter of the U.N; the Latin American
States wanted the Conference to discuss an lnternational Bill of Human
Rights. Panama wanted it to b ~incorporated
?
as a part of the Charter. But
the super powers were not interested in precise legal obligations and
international action on human rights. As a result, the Charter contained a
number of provisions, which art? vague and are of a general nature for the
promotion and protection of hurian rights and fundamental freedoms.
To implement the provisions of the U.N. Charter concerning human
rights, the General Assembly of the United Nations decided to prepare an
lnternational Bill on Human Rights. With a view to achieve this, the
General Assembly of the United Nations requested the Economic and
Social Council on January 29, 1946 to get a report on the study conducted

30

by the Commission on Humar~~ i g h t s . 'The

~ Commission as determined
by its terms of reference prepared recommendations and reports on the
following items.I3
1,

lnternational Bill of Rights

2.

International declarations and conventions on civil liberties, the

status of women etc.

3.

The prevention of discrimination on grounds of race, sex, language

or religion

The protection of minorilies

5.

Other matters concerning human rights

The Commission began work

in January

1947, under the

Chairmanship of Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt. In its first session, the

Commission on Human Rights established a sub-commission for the
Prevention of Discrimination a i d Protection of Minorities. The Commission
in the same session appointed a committee known as Drafting Committee
for the preparation of the draf: of an lnternational Bill of Rights. It drafted
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was adopted by the
General Assembly on l o t h December 1948. Using the Declaration as basis,
the Commission prepared an lnternational Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights and an lnternational Ccvenant on Economic and Social and Cultural
Rights in 1966.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted in 1948
and the two lnternational Co~~enants
were adopted in 1966 codifying the
two sets of rights outlined in the Universal Declaration. lnternational
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the lnternational Covenant on
Economic Social and Cultural Rights came into force in 1976. Later the

General Assembly also a d o ~ t e dtwo Optional Protocols on Civil and

Political Rights. The Optional Protocol to the lnternational Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights, 1966 came into force on March 23, 1976 and the
second Optional Protocol to the lnternational Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights aiming at the ~bolitionof Death Penalty in 1989 came into
force on July 11, 1991. The t v ~ olnternational Covenants, together with the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Optional Protocols,
comprise the 'International Bill of Human Rights'. Thus the lnternational
B~llof Human Rights is a collective term applred to five major international
instruments.14
The Preamble of the Lniversal Declaration incorporated a form of
language in tune with the spirit of natural law by inserting, 'whereas
recognition of the inherent dignity and of equal and inalienable rights of all
members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and
peace in the world.' Keeping this declaration always in mind, it shall strive
by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and
freedoms and by progressive measares, national and international, secure
their universal and effective rzcognition and observance, both among the
peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of
territories under their jurisdict on. The Universal Declaration dealt not only
t with social and economic rights.
with civil and political rights, b ~also
2.4.1 Civil and Political Rights in the Universal Declaration

Articles 2 to 21 deal w :h those civil and political rights, which have

been generally recognised throughout the world These are as follows:
1.

Right to life, liberty and security of persons (Article 3)

2.

Freedom from slavery or servitude (Article 4)

Prohibition against torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or

punishment (Pvticle 5)
Recognition as a person before the law (Article 6)
Equality before the law and equal prctection of the law without any
discrimination (Article 7)
Effective remedy before the national tribunals (Article 8)
Freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention or exile (Article 9)
Right to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial
tribunal (Article 10)
Presumption of innocence until proved guilty in a public trial with all
guarantees necessary for defence in criminal cases (Article 11)
Freedom from ex-post f x t o laws (Article 11)
Right to privacy, family, home and correspondence (Article 12)
Right to freedom of movement arld residence within the borders of a
State (Article 13)
Right to leave any coLntry, including his own and to return to his
country (Article 13)
Right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from
persecution (Article 14)
Right to a nationality (Article 15)
Right to marry and to fclund a family (Article 16)
Right to own property (,9rticle 17)
Right to freedom of thought, consctence and religion (Article 18)
Right to freedom of opiqion and expression (Article 19)

33

20.

Right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association (Article 20)

21.

Right to participate in the Government of his country (Article 21)

2.4.2 Economic and Social Rights in the Universal Declaration

Articles 22 to 27 of the Declaration guarantee the following

economic and social rights:

1.

Right to social security (Article 22)

2.

Right to work and free cttoice of employment (Artrcle 23)

3.

Right to rest and leisure [Article 24)

4.

Right to a standard of liv ng adequate for the health of himself and of

his family (Article 25)

5.

Right to education (Article 26)

6.

Right to participate in cultural life (Article 27)

7.

Right to good social and international order (Article 28)

The Declaration laid down under Article 29 contains certain

limitations to these rights and freedoms, by providing that everyone has

duties to the community in which alone the final and full development of his
personality is possible. Paragraph 2 of Article 29 provides that these rights
shall be provided to the individuals subject to just iequii-ements of morality,
public order and the general w~zlfarein a democratic society. This condition
made the rights provided in the Declaratior~not absolute.
2.5

Adoption o f the Two International Covenants

The General Assembly on 1 6 ' ~December 1966 adopted the two

Covenants, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural ~ i g h t s .It' ~also
adopted an Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and

34

Political Rights. The General 4ssenibly on 15'h December 1989 adopted

the second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights aiming at the al~olitionof the death penalty.16
2.5.1 The Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

The Covenant on Civil and Political Rights that consists of 53 Articles

is divided into six parts. Article 1 which refers to the right of peoples to selfdetermination states that all people have the right to determine freely their
political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural
development and may, for their own ends, freely dispose of their natural
wealth and resource without prejudice to any obligations arising out of
international economic co-operation, based upon the principles of mutual
benefit and international law. The Article, further states that in no case
may a person be deprived of his own means of subsistence, and that the
'States Parties' shall prom~3te the realization of the right of selfdetermination and shall respect that right. The Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights amlso stipulated the above provisions in toto
under Article I
Part II stipulated the rights and obligations of the 'States Parties' to
the Covenant. It included the obiigations of the States to take necessary
steps to incorporate the provisions of the Covenant in the domestic laws
and to adopt such legislative or other lneasures as may be necessary to
give effect to the rights recognised in the Covenant. The States Parties
ensure equal right of mer: and women to the enjoyrrlent of all civil and
political rights.

35

2.5.2 Substantive Rights

Part Ill deals with the specific rights of the individuals and the
obligations of the States Parties.
1.

The right to life (Article ti)

2.

Freedom from inhumar: or degrading treatment (Article 7)

3.

Freedom from slavery, servitude and forced labour (Article 8)

4.

Right to liberty and security (Article 9)

5.

Right of a detainee to be treated with humanity (Article 10)

6.

Freedom from imprisonment for inability to fulfil a contractual

obligation (Article 11)

7.

Freedom of movement and the right to choose one's residence

(Article 12)

8.

Freedom of aliens from arbitrary expulsion (Article 13)

9.

Right to a fair trial (Article 14)

10.

Non-retroactive applicatim of criminal law (Article 15)

11.

Right to recognition as a person before the law (Article 16)

12.

Right to privacy, family, home or correspondence (Article 17)

13.

Freedom of thought, conscience and religion (Article 18)

14.

Freedom of opinion and expression (Article 19)

15.

Prohibition of propaganda of war (Article 20)

16.

Right to peaceful asseml~ly(Article 21)

17.

Freedom of association (Article 22)

18.

Right to marry and found a family (Article 23)

19.

Rights of the child (Articlt?24)

20.

Right to take part in the conduct of public affair, to vote and to be

elected (Article 25)

21.

Equality before the law (Article 26)

22.

Rights of minorities (Article 27)

36

The above rights set forth in the Covenant are not absolute and are
subject to certain limitations. Wtlile the formulation of the limitations differed in
so far as details are concerned from Article to Article, it could be said that
by and large the Covenant prclvided that rights should not be subjected to
any restrictions except those which were provided by law, and were
necessary to protect national security, public order, public health or morals
or the rights and freedoms of others.
2.5.3 Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

consists of 31 Articles dividec into five parts. Part I deals with rights of
peoples to self-determination as provided in Article I of the Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights. Other rights of the individuals are enumerated in
Part Ill of the Covenant which include the following:
1.

Right to work (Article 6)

2.

Right to just and favour~ibleconditions of work (Article 7)

3.

Right to form and join trade unlons (Article 8)

4.

Right to social security (Article 9)

5.

Right relating to motherliood and childhood, marriage and the family

(Article 10)

6.

Right to adequate food, clothing, hous~ngand standard of living and

freedom from hunger (Article 11)

7.

Right to physical and mental health (Article 12)

8.

Right to education including a plan for implementing compulsory

primary education (Article 13)

9.

Right relating to science and culture

37

2.5.4 Optional Protocol to the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights:

16 December, 1966

The lnternational Coveriant cjn Civil and Political Rights and the
Optional Protocol are separate instruments. But they are related to each
other inasmuch as only the State Parties to the Covenant can become
parties to the Protocol. Both the Covenant and Protocol that came into
force simultaneously on 23, March 1976 provide the individuals the right to
make petitions before the Human Rights Committee. The Protocol
provides a right to the State Parties to denounce it at any time by sending
a notification to the Secretary General of the United Nations. Articles 1,

2 and 3 refer to the sources, subject matter and admissibility of

communications. The Human Rights Committee is competent to receive
communications from individuals.
2.5.5 Second Optional Protoc:ol to the lnternational Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights Aiming at the Abolition of Death Penalty

On 25th November 1981, the General Assembly decided to consider

the idea of elaborating a draft of a second Optional Protocol to the
lnternational Covenant on Civil and Political ~ i g h t s . " With the efforts of
the General Assembly and the Commission on Human Rights, a second
Optional Protocol to the lnternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
was concluded in 1987 by which the State Parties to the Covenant, if they
so desired, could take on the additional obligation of abolishing the death
penalty. Death penalty involvc?~an inevitable element of suffering and
humiliation. It is a violation of human rights

- the right to life and the right

not to be subjected to cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment. Further, the

execution of death sentence is again an act of torture. The Protocol came
into force on 1lth
JUIY 1991. 13y 2"' November 2003 the Protocol had as

38

many as 50 State Parties. Article 6 of the Covenant on Civil and Political

Rights had referred to the desirability of the abolition of death penalty, as it
is one of the measures for thz enjoyment of the right to life. In order to
abolish death penalty at the? international level, the second Optional
Protocol to the lnternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights was
adopted by the General Asserr~blyor) 15IhDecember 1 9 8 9 . ' ~
2.5.6 Draft Optional Protocol to the Covenant on Economic, Social and

Cultural Rights
The Economic and Social Council by a resolution 1711985
established a committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in 1985.
The committee since 1990 has devoted attention to the possibility of
elaborating such an Optional Protocol and has discussed the issue at
length on several occasions. At its sixth session in 1991, the committee
supported the drafting of an Optional Protocol in order to ensure the
practical implementation of t i e Covenant. The Vienna Conference on
Human Rights gave added ~mpetusto this initiative by asserting the
declaration and programme c ~ faction that the Committee should follow.
The Committee prepared a (draft Optional Protocol in 1996 at its 15Ih
session, but it has not been ofiicially adopted oy the General Assembly.
2.6

lnternational Judicial System (International Criminal Court)

The lnternational Court of Justice has jurisdiction to the extent of

deciding the cases of States only.

Article 34(1) of the statute of the

lnternational Court stipulates that only States may be parties in cases

before the Court. It means individuals have no access to the court. Neither
the statute nor the rule of the court permits individuals to file a petition
before the court unless the State spcrlsors it
The Statute of the 1ntt:rnational Criminal Court, which came into
force on July ? , 2002 and ina~guratedon March II.2003 is likely to serve

39

the useful purpose of curbing :,erious human rights violations. The Statute

5 lays downs
of the court is commonly called "Rome ~ t a t u t e . " ' Article
~
that the court shall have jurisdiction to decide on the most serious crimes
i.e. (a) the crime of genocide (b) crimes against humanity (c) war crimes
(d) the crime of aggression. A~ticle7 of the Statute lays down that "crimes
against humanity" means murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation
or forcible transfer of populaticn, imprisonment or other severe deprivation
of physical liberty in violation c~fthe fundamental rules of international law,
torture, rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy,
enforced sterilization or any 3ther form of sexual violence, persecution
against any identifiable groLp, or gender enforced disappearance of
persons, the crime of apartlieid, or other inhuman acts of a similar
character intentionally causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or
to mental or physical health.

2.7

Office of the U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights

(OHCHR)
In connection with the programme for reform of the United Nations,

the office of the UN High :ommissioner

for Human Rights and the

Centre for Human Rights were consolidated into a single office of the
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) on 1 5 ' ~
September 1997. It is located in Geneva. The High Commissioner advises
the Secretary General on tht? policies of tine UN in the area of human
rights.
Functions

a)

The OHCHR promotes ~niversalenjoyment of all human rights

b)

The office plays a leading role in human rights issues

c)

The office promotes intc?rnationalco-operation for human rights

40

d)

The office stimulates anc co-ordinates action for human rlghts

e)

The office promotes universal ratification and impementation of

international standards

f)

The office assists in the development of new norms

g)

The off~cesupports human rights 'Organ and Treaty' monitoring

bodies

h)

The office responds to s'?rious violations of human rights

1)

The office undertakes preventive human rights actions

j)

The office promotes the establishment of national human rights

infrastructures

k)

The office provides ed~cation,information, advisory services and

technical assistance in the field of human rights.

2.8

Monitoring of Human Rights

There are at least six core human rights treaties, which have set up

committees to perform the task of mor~iloringStates Parties in compliance

with their obligation, which are:
1.

Human Rights Commit':ee (HRC) by the lnternational Covenant on

Civil and Political Rights; (ICCPR)

2.

Committee on Econorr~ic,Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) by

the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR)

3.

Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women

(CEDAW) by the Cor~ventionon the Elimination of all forms of
Discrimination Against Women.

4.

Committee Against Torture (CAT) by the Convention Against Torture

and other Cruel, Inhuman arid Degrad~ngTreatment or Punishment

41

5.

Committee on the Rights of Child (CRC) by the Convention on the

Rights of the Child

6.

The Committee on the Racial Discrimination (CRD) by the

Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination.
Resolution 1503 (XLL'III) adopted by the Economic and Social

Council in 1970 allows indi,~idualsand non-governmental agencies to

make petitions to the Human Rights Commission and its sub Commission
on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities and on
situations which appear to reveal a consistent pattern of gross and reliably
attested violations of human rights" and fundamental

2.9

freedom^.'^

Declaration on the Right to Protect Human Rights

The Universal Declaraton of Human Rights laid down the rights of

human beings. It did not stip~~late

the means by which these rights can be
promoted and protected. Protection of the universally recognised human
rights itself requires certain ric hts to be given to the individual, groups and
organs of the States despite the fact that the prime responsibility and duty
to promote and protect human rights lie with the State. The right to
promote and protect human rights is essential for the prevention of
violations of human rights. In order to provide this right to individuals and
other groups in the States, the General Assembly on the recommendation
of the Economic and Soci(3l Council adopted a resolution entitled
'Declaration on the Right ant1 Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and
Organs of Society' to promotc! and protect universally recognised human
rights and fundamental freedoms often referred to as the Declaration of the
Human Rights Defenders on 9Ih December, 1998.'' Some of the rights laid
down in the Declaration are:

42

1.

Everyone has the right to promote and to strive for the protection of
human rights (Attlcle 1)

2.

Each State has a prime responsibility and duty to protect, promote

and Implement all human rights by adopting necessary measures
(Article 2)

3.

Each State shall adopt necessary legislative, administrative and

other steps to ensure that the right to protect human rights is
effectively guaranteed (Article 2)

4.

Everyone has the right to meet or assemble peacefully, to form, join

and participate in non-governmental organisations, associations or
groups and to comm~~nicatewith non-governmental or intergovernmental organisations for the purpose of promoting and
protecting human rights (Article 5).

5.

Everyone has the right to know, seek, obtain, receive and hold
information about all human rights including the access to
information as to how :hose rights are given effect in domestic,
legislative, judicial and administrative systems (Article 6)

6.

Everyone has the right to submit to Governmental bodies and

agencies and organizations concerned with public affairs, criticism
and proposal for improving their functioning (Article 8)

7.

Everyone has the right to benefit from an effective remedy and to be

protected in the event c~fthe violation of the right to promote and
protect human rights (Arlicle 9)

43

8.

Individuals, non-governnlental organizations and relevant institutions

have an important role to play in making the public more aware of
questions relating to human rights through activities such as
education, training and research in these areas and to strengthen
further, inter alia, und'srstanding, tolerance, peace and friendly
relations among nations and among all racial and religious groups,
bearing in mind the various backgrounds of the societies and
communities in which they carry out their activities (Article 16).

9.

Individuals, groups, institutions and non-governmental organizations

have an important role to play in promoting human rights and
contributing, as approl~riate, to the promotion of the right of
everyone (Article 18).

10.

The State has responsibility to promote and facilitate the teaching

of human rights at all lelrels of education and to ensure that all those
responsible for training lawyers, law enforcement officers, the
personnel of the armed forces

and public officials include

appropriate elements of human rights teachings in their training

programme (Article 15).
11.

No one shall participate by act or by failure to act in activities

violating human rights and no one shall be subjected to punishment
or adverse action of any kind for refusing to do so (Article 10).

12.

Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to

participate in peaceful activities against violations of human rights
(Article 12).

2.10

Key

lnternational Conventions on Human Rights

2.10.1 Genocide

The term 'Genocide' is derived from the Greek term 'genos' (race)
and the Latin verb caedere meaning to kill or to cut down. The General
Assembly of the U.N. adopted the Convention of the Prevention and
, ~December
~
1948. It came into force on January
Punishment of ~ e n o c i d ein
12, 1951. As on October 10, 2001, the Convention had 133 State Parties.
2.10.2 Apartheid

"Apartheid" was cond~,mnedby the United Nations as "a crime

against humanity" in 1966. AI lnternational Convention on the Suppression
and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid was concluded on 301h
November 1973.'~The Convention came into force on 1 8 ' ~
July 1976.
2.10.3 Apartheid in sports

The General Assemt~ly adopted the lnternational Declaration

Against Apartheid in Sports Jn 1 4 ' ~December 1977. On

loth December

1985, the General Assembly adopted the lnternational Convention Against

Apartheid in ~ ~ o r t s . ' ~
2.10.4Torture and other Cruel, lnhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment

The General Assembly on 9" December 1975 adopted a Declaration

on the protection of all perscns from belng subjected to torture and other
cruel, Inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. On

loth ~ e c e m b e r

1984 a Convention, known as the Convention Against Torture and Other

Cruel or Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment was adopted by
the General Assembly

45

2.10.5 Slavery and Slave Trade

Under the auspices of the League of Nations, the lnternational

Slavery Convention was adopted on 2sth September 1926. In 1953, the
Protocol amending the Slaver3/Convention on 25'h September 1926 was
adopted which transferred to the United Nations, the functions and powers
that had been undertaken by the League of Nations.
2.10.6 Forced Labour

In order to suppress fclrced labour, a Convention was conducted

for the abolition of forced labour, which was adopted by the General
Conference of the International Labour Organisation on 25'h ~ u n e1957.
It came into force on 17'h ~ a n ary
u 1959.
2.10.7 Traffic i n Persons and Prostitution

In order to curb traffic on persons, a Convention for the Suppression

of the Traffic on Persons and the Exploitation of Women was concluded on
2ndDecember 1949, under the auspices of the United ~ a t i o n s . ~ ~
2.10.8 Elimination of Racial Discrimination

To make the provisior~son racial discrimination binding on the

States a Convention was adopted by the General Assembly on 21%'
December 1965, known as lnternational Convention or: the Elimination of
all forms of Racial ~ i s c r i m i n a t i ~ n . ~ ~
2.10.9 Elimination of Discrimination Against Women

As early as 1946 the Commiss~onon the Status of Women was

established to deal with women's issues. The General Assembly on 7'h
November 1967 adopted a declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination
Against Women and in order to implement the principles set forth in the

46

Declaration, a Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination

Against Women was adopted by the General Assembly on 1 8 ' ~~ e c e m b e r
1979.27In addition to the above Conventions three Conferences were held
during the U.N. sponsored International Women's Decade (1976-1985), in
Mexico City in 1975, in Copentiagan in 1980, and in Nairobi in 1985. The
fourth World Conference on n o m e n held in 1995 (4-15 September 1995)
in Beijing commonly called Beijing Conference stated that women's rights
are human rights.
2.10.10

Rights of the Child

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights stipulated under

paragraph 2 of Article 25 thai chiidhood is entitled to special care and
assistance. The above principle along with other principles of the Universal
Declaration concerning the child were incorporated in the Declaration
of the Rights of the Child adopted by the General Assembly on 2oth
November 1959. The Conventon on the Rights of the Child was adopted
by the General Assembly by consensus on the 3oth Anniversary of the
Declaration on 2oth Novembet. 1989,'~ j ~ h i c hcame in to force on 2nd
September 1990.
2.10.11

Right of the Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious

and Linguistic Minorities

The Covenant on Civil a r d Political Rights under Article 27 provided

that persons belonging to ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities shall not
be denied the right to enjoy ther own culture, to profess and practise their
own religion, or to use their own language. Inspired by the above, the
General Assembly on 1 8 ' ~~ e c e m b e r1992 adopted the Declaration on the
Rights of Persons belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious or Linguistic
~inorities.~'

47

2.1 1 Conclusion
The analysis of various human rights provisions of the United
Nations with special reference to the composition, function and procedure
followed by the organs of the United Nations for the implementation of
human rights, reveals the legal character of these provisions and the
actual work done by all the principal organs of the U.N. The Economic and
Social Council has contributed much to the protection of human rights
through its various Commissions. The International Court of Justice, the
International Criminal Court and the National Courts repeatedly quote
the human rights provisions of the U.N. Charter. The U.D.H.R., the
I.C.C.C.P.R. and the I.C.E.S.C.R. constitute a triad, often referred to as the
'Magna Carta of Humanity'.
Despite the numerous activities of the U.N. for the promotion and
observance of human rights, many violations and denials of human rights
still obtain all over the worlcl. The concept of "National Sovereignty"
continues to be a formidable obstacle in the observance of human rights.
If the international community has a future, the United Nations will have to
adjust itself to new circumstiances. Though the United Nations have
contributed much to the promc~tion,protection and observance of human
rights yet their remains much more to be done. It has "sown for days
ahead;" it has achieved more lhan what might have been expected, less
than what might have been hoped 30

48

Kofi Annan, Secretary General of the United Nations in his message

to the world on the 5oth ~nniversaryof the Universal Declaration told
humanity what its message is lor the generation ahead?'
It is the universality of human rights that glves them their
strength. It endow!; them with the power to cross any border,
climb any wall, defy any force.
The struggle for universal human rights has always and
everywhere been the struggle against all forms of tyranny and
injustice - against slavery, against

colonialism,

against

apartheid. It is nothing less and nothing different today.

Young friends all over the world,
You are the ones who must realize these rights, now and for all
time. Their fate and future is in your hands. Human rights are
your rights. Seize them. Defend them. Promote them.
Understand them and insist on them. Nourish and enrich them.
They are the best in us. Give them life.

References and Notes

1

V.R. Krishna lyer, Hun'an Rights and Inhuman Wrongs (New Delhi:
B.R Publishing Co., 1990) 36.
P.N. Bhagwati, Supreme Court of India, Inaugural Address in the Seminar
on Human Rights Organised by lr~ternationalLaw Association (Allahabad Centre,
1980): 7. (Laws Promulgated in the Reigns of Urukagina of Lagash (3260 B.C),
Sargon of Akkad (2300 B.C) and Hammurabi of Babylon (1750 B.C) cited in the
Inaugural Address of Bhagwati.
3

H.O. Agarwal, Human Ricfhts, 7thed. (Allahabad: Central Law Publications,

2004) 8.
4

P.N. Bhagwati, Seminar cln Human Rights 7.

Justice A.M. Ahamadi, naugural Address on Fakhruddin Ali Ahamed

Memorial Lecture on Democracy. Liberty and Changing Political Scenario, Dated
2gthJuly 2000, (New Delhi: GHAL B Institute Publication, 2000) 9.
Document of the American Foreign Relations, Vol. 111, 1941): 26.
Declaration by the American Presdent, Franklin D. Roosevelt on January 6, 1941
came to be known as 'Four Frec?doms' (Roosevelt Listed Freedom of Speech,
Freedom of Religion, Freedom from Want and Freedom from Fear.
7

H.O. Agarwal, lnternatioffal Law and Human Rights, 8'h ed. (Allahabad:
Central Law publications, 2002) 656.
Declaration of the United Flations signed on January 1, 1942 at Washington,
signed by 26 states, including US/\, UK, USSR and China.
9

J.L. Briely, The Law o f Nations: An Introduction to the Law of Peace

edited by Sir. Humphrey Waldoc:k, 6Ih ed. (London: Clarendon Press Oxford,
1963) 292.
10

Louis Henkin, "The United Nations and Human Rights," Inf. Org. London:
Summer, Vol.1, XXI, No.3, (1965) 504.
"

J.L. Briely 293,

l2United

Nations General I\ssembly Resolution 7(1), January 29, 1946.

l 3 G.S. Bajwa, Human rights in lndia implementation and Violation, lst

ed.
(New Delhi: Anmol Publications. 1395) 74.
14

H.O. Agarwal, Humai? Rights, 7'h ed. (Allahabad: Central Law

Publications, 2004) 30.

United Nations Genera Assembly Resolution 2200 A (XXI), December

l5

United Nations General Assembly Resolution 441128. December 15,

l6

1989.
17

United Nations General Assembly Resolution 36/59, November 25, 1981

United Nations General P,ssernbly Resolution 441128, December 15, 1989

''

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court was adopted by

the United Nations Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an
International Criminal Court, Final Act of July 17. 1998.
Resolution No. 1503 (XLVIII) adopted by the Economic and Social
Council in 1970.
20

United Nations Economic and Social Council Resolution, 1998133 of

July 30, 1998.
22

United Nations Genera Assembly Resolution, December 9, 1948.

23

United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3068 (XXVIII), November 30,

24

United Nations General Assembly Resolution, December 10, 1985

25

United Nations General 14ssembly Resolution 317 (IV), December 2, 1949

1973.

United Nations G e n e ~ aAssembly

l
Resolution 2106 (XX), December
21, 1965.
26

27

United Nations General Assembly Resolution 341180, December 18,

1979.
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 44/25, November 20. 1989
29 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 471135, Dated December
18, 1992.

30 Louis Henkin, "The Ur~itedNations and Human Rights,"

XXI, No.3, (Summer, 1965): 504

12.Org. Vol.1,

3' Kofi Annan, message of 5oth~ n n i v e r s a of

r ~the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights in 1997, December 13, 1997, cited by V.R. Krishna lyer, "The
Dialectics and Dynamics of Human Rights in India, Yesterday, Today and
Tomorrow," Tagore Law Lectures, (Calcutta: Eastern Law House, 1999) 26.

CHAPTER Ill

HUMAN RIGHTS IN INDIA

A N OVERVIEW
SI.No. Contents

Page

3.1

INTRODUCTION

52

3.2

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN

RIGHTS IN INDIA

52

3.3

HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION 61

3.4

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND HUMAN RIGHTS

64

3.5

DIRECTIVE PRIPICIPLES OF STATE POLICY

AND HUMAN RIGHTS

75

3.6

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES AND HUMAN RIGHTS

76

3.7

POLITICAL RIGHTS AND HUMAN RIGHTS

77

3.8

INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK AND

HUMAN RIGHTS

78

3.9

JUDICIARY AND HUMAN RIGHTS

80

3.10

MEDIA AND HUMAN RIGHTS

88

3 11

SOME OTHER NEASURES OF PROTECTION

OF HUMAN RIGtiTS UNDER INDIAN LAW

90

CONCLUSION

91

3.12

52

3.1

Introduction
Since the days of the lndus Valley Civilization, lndian culture has

been the product of a synthesis of diverse cultures and religions that

came into contact with the enormous lndian sub continent over a very
long stretch of time. As Jawaharlal Nehru rrotes, there is "an unbroken
continuity between the mosi: modern and the most ancient phases of
Hindu thought extending ove- three thousand years."' The rights of man
have been the concern of all civilizations from time immemorial. "The
concept of the rights of man and other fundamental rights was not
unknown to the people of earlier periods."' The Babylonian Laws and the
Assyrian laws in the Middle East, the "Dharma" of the Vedic period in
lndia and the jurisprudence of Lao-Tze and Confucius in China, have
championed human rights thr~~ughoui
the history of human civilization.
The lndian concept perceives the individual, the society and the
universe as an organic whole,. Everyone is a child of God and all fellow
beings are related to one ano:her and belong to a universal family. In this
context, Mahatma Gandhi remarks, "I do not want to think in terms of the
whole world. My patriotism ncludes the good of mankind in general.
Therefore my service to lndia includes the services of humanity."3

3.2

Origin and Development of Human Rights in lndia

The Buddhist doctrine of non-violence in deed and thought says

Nagendra Singh, "is a humanitarian doctrine par excellence, dating back

to the third century B . c . " ~Jainism too contained similar doctrines.
According to the Gita, "he who has no ill will to any being, who is friendly
and compassionate, who is free from egoism and self sense and who is
even-minded in pain and pleiasure and patient" is dear to God. It also
says that divinity in hurnans is represented by the virtues of non-violence,

53

truth, freedom from anger, renunciation, aversion to fault-finding,

compassion to living being:;, freedom from covetousness, gentleness,
modesty and steadiness -the qualities that a good human being ought to
have.5 The historical account of ancient Bharat proves beyond doubt that
human rights were as muck manifest in the ancient Hindu and Islamic
civilizations as in the European Christian civilizations. Ashoka, the
prophet Mohammed and Akt~arcannot be excluded from the geneology
of human rights.6
3.2.1 Ancient Hindu Law of Human Rights

Scholars who have spent long time in lucubration on the Hindu

"Dharmasastras" and the "Arthasastras" and other legal treatises of the
past have discovered an amazing system, which, interalia, regulates the
duties of Kings, judges, subjects and judicial as well as legal procedures.
The central concept is Dharrna, the functional focus of which is social
order.

The message is "Dharma" as the supreme value, which binds

kings and citizens, men and momen.

Hurnan rights gain meaning only

when there is an independent judiciary to enforce rights. Here, the

Dharmasastras are clear and categoric.

'

The independence of the judiciary was one of the outstanding

features of the Hindu judicial system. Even during the days of Hindu
monarchy, the administration of justice always remained separate from
the executive. It was, as a rille, independent both in form and spirit. It
was the Hindu judicial system that first realized and recognized the
importance of the separation c~fthe judiciary from the executive and gave
this fundamental principle a practical shape and form. The case of

Ananthapindika v. Jeta reported in the vinaya-pitaka,' is a shining

illustration of this principle. According to it, a Prince and a private citizen