Research

Questions
Q1. What is
the Roman
Army

Q2. Why did

the Roman
Army need
so many
soldiers?

Research

Resource

The Roman Army was an army owned and governed by the Roman
Empire. They would be made up of soldiers all over the world. Many
Soldiers within the army were foreigners from countries such as
Germany, Africa and France. If you were a soldier in the army you
would have to serve for 25 years.
There were units within the Roman Army, Legions, Centuries, Maniples,
Hastatis, Principes and Triarii. Legions were 4000 to 6000 soldiers and
Centuries were 100 soldiers. Maniples were a division of 120 to 160
soldiers. Hastatis, Principes and Triarii were based of age and wealth. If
you were a young soldier you would serve as a spearsmen, if you were
mid-aged and could afford armour you would be a Principes and if you
were wealthy and could afford high quality armour you would be in
Triarii.

www.bbc.co.uk/schools/primaryhis
tory/romans/the_roman_army/

Large amounts of soldiers were needed in the army because Rome

had to attack and defend themselves. Going into war is a guarantee
loss of troops. If Rome were to extend their land and if they were to
hold their ground against enemies such as the Huns, Vandals and
Saxons they need mass within their army. The original policy of Rome
was that to join the army you had to a Plebeian or Roman citizens,
but they changed it because they were in the demand of soldiers.
You could be a slave, non Roman citizen or anything and you were
able to join, through this the Roman army expanded. This suited the
tactics of the Roman army. They gained large cohorts (Groups) that
helped them in warfare. Numerous scholarly histories of the Roman
military machine note the huge numbers of men that could be
mobilized, more than any other Mediterranean power. This bounty of
military resources enabled Rome to apply crushing pressure to its

Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma
n_army

Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma
n_army
Oxfords
Easton, M., Saldais, M., Smith, R.,
Butler, H., & McArthur, K. (2013).
Oxford big ideas Geography /
History. Australian curriculum.
South Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford
University Press. Page 364 - 365

Oxford
Easton, M., Saldais, M., Smith, R.,
Butler, H., & McArthur, K. (2013).
Oxford big ideas Geography / History.
Australian curriculum. South
Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford University
Press. Page 364 - 365

Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma
n_infantry_tactics

enemies, and stay in the field and replace losses, even after suffering
setbacks.

Q3. What
are war
tactics and
how are
they used in
war?
Q4. How did
the battle
tactics
favour the
Romans?

Military tactics are the science and art of organizing a military force, and the techniques for
combining and using weapons and military units to engage and defeat an enemy in battle.
The highest level of planning is strategy: how force is translated into political objectives by bridging
the means and ends of war
any army relies on smart strategies and quick battlefield tactics to overcome their enemy. The
Roman Army possessed incredibly skilled commanders, and their superior tactics won them
countless battles
Military strategy and tactics are essential to the conduct of warfare. Broadly stated, strategy is the
planning, coordination, and general direction of military operations to meet overall political and
military objectives. Tactics implement strategy by short-term decisions on the movement of troops
and employment of weapons on the field of battle
Strategy, for example, literally means "the art of the general"
Strategy is limited by what tactics are possible; given the size, training, and morale of forces, type
and number of weapons available, terrain, weather, and quality and location of enemy forces, the
tactics to be used are dependent on strategic considerations.
The focus below is primarily on Roman tactics - the "how" of their approach to battle, and how it
stacked up against a variety of opponents over time. It does not attempt detailed coverage of
things like army structure or equipment. Various battles are summarized to illustrate Roman
methods with links to detailed articles on individual encounters
Numerous scholarly histories of the Roman military machine note the huge numbers of men that
could be mobilized, more than any other Mediterranean power. This bounty of military resources
enabled Rome to apply crushing pressure to its enemies, and stay in the field and replace losses,
even after suffering setbacks. One historian of the Second Punic War states.
Roman military tactics and strategy evolved from that typical of a small tribal host seeking local
hegemony, to massive operations encompassing a world empire. This advance was affected by
changing trends in Roman political, social and economic life, and that of the larger Mediterranean
world, but it was also undergirded by a distinctive "Roman way" of war
nformation about tactics can be derived from accounts of battles, but the very military manuals
known to have existed and to have been used extensively by commanders, have not survived.
Perhaps the greatest loss is the book of Sextus Julius Frontinus. But parts of his work were
incorporated in the records of the historian Vegetius.
The importance of the choice of ground is pointed out.
There is an advantage of height over the enemy and if you are pitting infantry against cavalry, the
rougher the ground the better. The sun should be behind you to dazzle the enemy. If there is strong
wind it should blow away from you, giving advantage to your missiles and blinding the enemy with
dust.
In the battle line, each man should have three feet of space, while the distance between the ranks
is given as six feet.
Thus 10'000 men can be placed in a rectangle about 1'500 yards by twelve yards, and it was
advised not to extend the line beyond that.
The normal arrangement was to place the infantry in the centre and the cavalry on the wings. The
function of the latter was to prevent the centre from being outflanked and once the battle turned
and the enemy started to retreat the cavalry moved forward and cut them down. - Horsemen were
always a secondary force in ancient warfare, the main fighting being done by the infantry.

Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_ta
ctics
Strategy & Tactics | The Roman
Military
https://romanmilitary.net/strategy/

Military Strategy and Tactics

http://www.molossia.org/milacade
my/strategy.html

Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_inf
antry_tactics
http://www.romanempire.net/army/tactics.html

Q5. Different
types of Roman
Tactics

The Wedge
The saw was opposite tactic to the wedge. This was a detached unit, immediately behind the font
line, capable of fast sideways movement down the length of the line to block any holes which might
appear to develop a thrust where there might be a sign of weakness. In the case of two Roman
armies fighting each other in a civil war, one might say that the 'saw' inevitably was the response
to a 'wedge' by the other side.

Formations of the Legion |

Strategy & Tactics | The Roman
Military
https://romanmilitary.net/strategy/
legform/

Skirmishing Formation
The skirmishing formation was a widely spaced line up of troops, as opposed to the tighter
packed battle ranks so typical of legionary tactics. It allowed for greater mobility and would have
found many uses in the tactical handbooks of Roman generals.
Repel Cavalry
The order to repel cavalry brought about a the following formation. The first rank would form a
firm wall with their shields, only their pila protruding, forming a vicious line of glistening spearheads
ahead of the wall of shields. A horse, however well trained, could hardly be brought to break
through such a barrier. The second rank of the infantry would then use its spears to drive off any
attackers whose horses came to a halt. This formation would no doubt prove very effective,
particularly against ill-disciplined enemy cavalry.
Byzantine Tactics
By the time of the so-called Byzantine era (the surviving eastern Roman empire) true power on the
battle field had long since passed into the hands of the cavalry. If there was any infantry, it was
made up of archers, whose bows had longer range than the smaller bows of the horsemen.
Handbooks were published, most famously by the general and later emperor Maurice
(the strategicon), the emperor Leo VI (the tactica) and Nicephorus Phocas (the updated tactica).
As with the old Roman legion, the infantry still fought at the centre, with the cavalry at the wings.
But often now the lines of the infantry stood further back than the cavalry wings, creating a
'refused' centre. Any enemy who would try and attack the infantry would have to pass between the
two wings of the cavalry.
In hilly ground or in narrow valleys where the cavalry could not be used, the infantry itself had its
lighter archers at the wings, whereas its heavier fighters (scutati) were placed at the centre. The
wings were positioned slightly forward, creating a kind of crescent-shaped line.
In case of an attack on the centre of the infantry the wings of archers would send a storm of arrows
upon the attacker. Though in case the infantry wings themselves were attacked they could retire
behing the heavier scutati.Often though infantry was not part of the conflict at all, with
commanders relying entirely on their cavalry to win the day

http://www.romanempire.net/army/tactics.html

Julius Ceaser
Gaius Julius Caesar[b] (Classical Latin: [a.i. s ju.li.s kaee .sar]; 13 July 100 BC[1] 15 March 44 BC),
[2]

known as Julius Caesar, was a Roman politician, general, and notable author of Latin prose. He played a

critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. In 60
BC, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed a political alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years.

Oxford
Easton, M., Saldais, M., Smith, R., Butler,
H., & McArthur, K. (2013). Oxford big
ideas Geography / History. Australian
curriculum. South Melbourne, Victoria:
Oxford University Press. Page 348 - 349

Their attempts to amass power as Populares were opposed by the Optimates within theRoman Senate, among
them Cato the Younger with the frequent support of Cicero. Caesar's victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by

Wikipedia

51 BC, extended Rome's territory to the English Channel and the Rhine. Caesar became the first Roman general
to cross both when he built a bridge across the Rhine and conducted the first invasion of Britain.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Cae
sar

These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey,
who had realigned himself with the Senate after the death of Crassus in 53 BC. With the Gallic Wars concluded,
the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. Caesar refused the
order, and instead marked his defiance in 49 BC by crossing the Rubicon with a legion, leaving his province and
illegally entering Roman Italy under arms.[3] Civil war resulted, and Caesar's victory in the war put him in an
unrivaled position of power and influence.
Julius Caesar was born into a patrician family in 100 BCE. He was a gifted Roman general and
politician. Through various successful military campaigns he increased Romes territories and
power, especially in Western Europe. He played a critical role in the transformations of the Roman
Republic to the Roman Empire.
Caesarss father, Gaius Julius Caesar, was a quaestor (a financial officer) and governor. His mother,
Aurelia Cotta, came from a politically influential Family.
Caesar became the head of his family at 16, on his fathers sudden death. Though still young,
Caesar already knew that in order to succeed in Roman Politics he needed to increase his personal
wealth and know influential people.
In 84 BCE, at the age of 18, he married Cornelia Cinilla, who came from a distinguished family.
Unfortunately, Caesar and his family were considered enemies of Sulla, the dictator of Rome at the
time. Caesar was forced to leave Rome to avoid being prosecuted or killed. While in exile, he joined
the army, and for the next few years distinguished himself as a capable and courageous soldier.
On Sullas death in 78 BCE, Caesar returned to Rome to build his political career. He quickly gained
popularity and powerful positions by using his excellent oratory (public speaking) skills, and also by
bribing the right people. By 68 BCE, he was elected as quaestor. About four years later, he was
made a praetor (an official who ran the law courts) and governor of the province of Spain.

Bio.com
http://www.biography.com/people/ju
lius-caesar-9192504

Caesar was considered a brilliant military commander who was popular with the people and his
troops. As governor of Gaul (most of modern day France), he fought the barbarian Celts. His
victories in Gaul and elsewhere added large amounts of new territory to the Roman Republic.
The senate in Rome was now led by Pompey. Pompey, however, no longer supported Caesar. He
had begun to worry about Caesars rising popularity and his military success in Gaul. Caesar was
also beginning to act without consulting the Senate. In 49 BCE, Caesar was ordered by the Senate
to give up his command in Gaul, but he refused. Instead, he returned to Rome with his strong army
to confront his enemies there.
In February 44 BCE, Caesar was appointed dictator for life. His success and ambition was too
much for some republican senators. On 15 march in 44 BCE, a group of about 60 senators, which
included some of his friends and former allies (such as Brutus), stabbed Caesar 23 times when he
entered the Senate House killing him. Caesars death led to the outbreak of a civil war in Rome
that lasted for about 15 years. His death marked the end of the Roman Empire.

Q6. Why were

the Roman so
successful?

www.bbc.co.uk/schools/primaryhistory/romans/
the_roman_army/
The Roman Army was considered the most advanced of its time. The Roman Army created the Roman Empire a huge part of Western Europe and Rome itself
greatly benefited from the riches that the army brought back from its conquered territories.The Roman Army developed fighting techniques that were linked to a
ferocious training regime. All new recruits to the army became very fit and disciplined. Training was harsh, as were punishments for failure. In a battle, new recruits
were always placed at the front of the more experienced soldiers in the army. There were three reasons for this. The first was to give them confidence as behind them
were experienced soldiers who had fought in battles before. Secondly, it stopped the new soldiers running away if their courage deserted them. Finally, those who
were more likely to be killed in the initial phase of a battle were at the front. The hardened and experienced legionnaires were at the rear. The Roman Army could ill
afford to lose experienced legionnaires whereas if a new legionnaire came through a battle alive, he would be blooded and experienced and a valuable addition to the
army. If he was killed, then the loss of his inexperience would not be too great.The most important fighting unit of the Roman Army was the legion commanded by a

Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_army
Oxford
Easton, M., Saldais, M., Smith, R., Butler, H., &
McArthur, K. (2013). Oxford big ideas
Geography / History. Australian curriculum.
South Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford University
Press.
Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_infantry_ta
ctics

legatus. This consisted of between 5000 to 6000 legionnaires. 500 to 600 legionnaires made up a cohort while between 80 to 100 soldiers were a century

http://www.roman-empire.net/army/tactics.html
commanded by a centurion.The Romans used a tried and tested attacking technique. Legionnaires would run forward at the enemy and throw their pila at them.
While this caused disarray among the enemy, the legionnaires would move in for close quarter fighting using their swords (gladius). Each attack was the result of
meticulous planning and practice hence why they were usually so successful.To support the legionnaires, the Romans also used cavalry. The primary task of the
cavalry was to support the legionnaires by attacking an enemy line at the flanks. Cavalry was also used to chase after a retreating enemy.To assist the legionnaires,
who were professional soldiers, part-time soldiers were used called auxiliaries. These men were often recruited from an area that the Romans were trying to conquer
and occupy. They were not fully trained soldiers and their usual task was not to fight when the legionnaires attacked, but to assist them by acting as scouts or archers

Formations of the Legion | Strategy & Tactics |

The Roman Military
https://romanmilitary.net/strategy/legform/
Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_tactics
Strategy & Tactics | The Roman Military
https://romanmilitary.net/strategy/

who would fire at the enemy while the legionnaires attacked. Those auxiliaries who fought on foot would be used to attack an enemy position before the legionnaires
did in this way, an enemy position would be softened up before the main assault.Fortifications presented other challenges. When confronted with a fort or the like, a

Ancient History Encyclopedia

@ahencyclopedia -

http://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Warfare/
frontal assault by legionnaires would have resulted in large casualties, though the use of a tortoise would have helped reduce casualties.The Romans designed
weaponry that both gave some protection to their men but also were designed to smash into fortifications. Battering rams and siege towers were used for this the
latter allowed the Romans to gain access to a fort by effectively removing the problem of a high wall. Battering rams had a cover to them made of wood and animal
hide. This combination was enough to stop arrows etc but was still flammable.The Romans also developed an early form of large attack catapults called onagers.

Military Strategy and Tactics

http://www.molossia.org/milacademy/strategy.h
tml
Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_infantry_ta
ctics

These hurled large stone boulders at a wall to smash it down. The Romans also used catapults to fire iron bolts at the lines of the enemy facing them.All of this
required meticulous training and one of the most important people involved here were the centurions. Each centurion was required to ensure that his century was a
capable and effective fighting force. Any century that did not perform well in battle might pay the price and be decimated.

Bio.com
http://www.biography.com/people/julius-caesar9192504
Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar
History Learning Site
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ancientrome/the-roman-army-and-warfare/

Q7. What impact

did Caesars
Death have on
the Roman
Empire?

Reference
Julius Caesar was a great military general who, after having been removed from his governorship of Gaul by the Roman senate, staged a
coup and took control of Rome by force. He then defeated Pompey, the person with whom he was once aligned to take control of the

https://www.reference.com/history/d

empire. Although he is often portrayed as a tyrannical dictator, Julius Caesar was somewhat of a champion of the people. He eliminated the

id-julius-caesar-affect-roman-

heavy taxes levied on farmers and granted any Roman citizen with three or more sons land. He also made the dealings of the Roman

empire-2b1c0a3de3a3e58#

senate public by posting an account of them for the public to read and realigned the Roman calendar to coincide with the seasons. He also
declared himself ruler for life.

Since his lineage could be traced to the founding of Rome, the role of the Caesars came to be associated with the role of the gods, who had
more power than senators in the eyes of Romans. All of these actions infuriated the senate, which felt that he had compromised its power.
This ultimately led to the senate attack on Julius Caesar that killed him.
The biggest effect Julius Caesar had on Rome was his transform Rome from a republic to an empire. He also updated the Roman calendar,
was undefeated as a general, alleviated the taxes of the working class, significantly expanded Roman territory and invented the newspaper.
He also instituted the reign of Caesars
During his reign as dictator from 49-44 BC, Julius Caesar had a number of notable impacts on the city of Rome.
One of the initial crises with which Caesar had to deal was widespread debt in Rome, especially after the outbreak of

civil war when lenders demanded repayment of loans and real estate values collapsed. The result was a serious shortage
of coinage in circulation as people hoarded whatever they had. Realizing the seriousness of the situation, Caesar ordered
that property must be accepted for repayment at its pre-war value. He also reinstated a previous law which forbade the
holding of more than 60,000 sesterces in cash by any one person. Caesar later cancelled all interest payments due since
the beginning of 49 BC and permitted tenants to pay no rent for one year. While these measures still did not eliminate
Romes debt, Caesars creative reaction to the problem helped to alleviate the debt in a way that satisfied both lenders
and borrowers.
In addition to debt, Caesar had to deal with widespread unemployment in Rome. As a way to reduce the unemployment,
the poor were offered a new life in Romes overseas colonies. Those who stayed behind and depended on a monthly
supply of free grain suffered when Caesar cut the grain rations in half, limiting the number of receivers to 150,000 when
320,000 had been collecting them. Caesar did, however, arrange for better supervision of the citys grain supply, and he
also helped to improve access to grain from overseas by constructing a new harbour at Ostia and a new canal from
Tarracina.
The construction of new public buildings also served as a method of reducing unemployment in the city, but there was
another motivation for building major projects in Rome: Caesar wanted to enhance the citys appearance after he realized
how unimpressive Rome seemed in comparison to Alexandria, which was considered the greatest city of the
Mediterranean. As a result, the Forum Julium was built to provide more space for lawcourts, and the Saepta Julia, situated
on the Campus Martius, provided a large enclosure for voting. Caesar also ordered the construction of a new senate house
after the previous one was used as Clodiuss funeral pyre in 52 BC. Additionally, he sought to divert the Tiber River away
from Rome to prevent flooding and to add to the citys area. He had also planned to build a grand temple of Mars, a
theatre that would rival Pompeys, and a library that would rival Alexandrias. Caesar never saw any of the latter projects
completed, however, as he was killed in 44 BC before any of them were finished.
Caesars impact on the city of Rome continued even after his death when, in his will, he stipulated that his villa, the
gardens surrounding it, and his art gallery all be made public. He also distributed his wealth to the people of Rome,

leaving 300,000 sesterces to each citizen. Overall, Caesar sought to make Rome a cultural and educational centre of the
Mediterranean world by attracting intellectuals, doctors, and lawyers to the city. Indeed, the actions that he took over his
time in power showed his devotion to Rome and his wish to bring stability and prosperity to the city.