Synthesizer

For other uses, see Synthesizer (disambiguation).

Contemporary classical music composers from the 20th
Synthredirects here. For other uses, see Synth and 21st century write compositions for synthesizer.
(disambiguation).

1 History
Synthesizers before 19th century

Early
Minimoog by R.A. Moog Inc. (ca. 1970)

Wolfgang von Kempelen's Speaking Machine in 17691791 (replica in

A synthesizer (usually abbreviated as "synth", also 20072009)
spelled "synthesiser") is an electronic musical instrument that generates electric signals that are converted
to sound through instrument ampliers and loudspeakers
or headphones. Synthesizers may either imitate instruments like piano, Hammond organ, ute, vocals; natural sounds like ocean waves, etc.; or generate new electronic timbres. They are often played with a musical keyRudolph
Koenig's
board, but they can be controlled via a variety of other
sound
synthesizer
in
1865:
input devices, including music sequencers, instrument
controllers, ngerboards, guitar synthesizers, wind con- consists of tuning forks, electromagnets, and Helmholtz
trollers, and electronic drums. Synthesizers without built- resonators.
in controllers are often called sound modules, and are con- Further information: Electronic music instruments
trolled via MIDI or CV/Gate using a controller device, See also: Articulatory synthesis Mechanical talking
heads, and Additive synthesis History
often a MIDI keyboard or other controller.
Synthesizers use various methods to generate electronic
signals (sounds). Among the most popular waveform synthesis techniques are subtractive synthesis, additive synthesis, wavetable synthesis, frequency modulation synthesis, phase distortion synthesis, physical modeling synthesis and sample-based synthesis. Other less common synthesis types (see #Types of synthesis) include subharmonic
synthesis, a form of additive synthesis via subharmonics (used by mixture trautonium), and granular synthesis,
sample-based synthesis based on grains of sound, generally resulting in soundscapes or clouds.

The beginnings of the synthesizer are dicult to trace,

as it is dicult to draw a distinction between synthesizers and some early electric or electronic musical instruments.* [1]* [2]

1.1 Early electric instruments

One of the earliest electric musical instruments, the musical telegraph, was invented in 1876 by American electrical engineer Elisha Gray. He accidentally discovered the
sound generation from a self-vibrating electromechanical
circuit, and invented a basic single-note oscillator. This
musical telegraph used steel reeds with oscillations created by electromagnets transmitted over a telegraph line.
Gray also built a simple loudspeaker device into later
models, consisting of a vibrating diaphragm in a magnetic
eld, to make the oscillator audible.* [3]* [4]

Synthesizers were rst used in pop music in the 1960s. In

the 1970s, synths were used in disco, especially in the late
1970s. In the 1980s, the invention of the relatively inexpensive, mass market Yamaha DX7 synth made synthesizers widely available. 1980s pop and dance music often
made heavy use of synthesizers. In the 2010s, synthesizers are used in many genres of pop, rock and dance music.

1 HISTORY

This instrument was a remote electromechanical musical

Trautonium by Friedrich Trautwein in 1929
instrument that used telegraphy and electric buzzers that
generated xed timbre sound. Though it lacked an ar- Most of these early instruments used "heterodyne circuits"
bitrary sound-synthesis function, some have erroneously to produce audio frequencies, and were limited in their
called it the rst synthesizer.* [1]* [2]
synthesis capabilities. Ondes Martenot and Trautonium
were continuously developed for several decades, nally
developing qualities similar to later synthesizers.

1.2

Early additive synthesizer: tonewheel

organs

1.4 Graphical sound

The
Teleharmonium console (1897) and Hammond organ synthesizer and Graphic sonic
(1934).
In 1897, Thaddeus Cahill invented the Teleharmonium
(or Dynamophone), which used dynamos (early electric
generator),* [5] and was capable of additive synthesis
like the Hammond organ, which was invented in 1934.
However, Cahill's business was unsuccessful for various
reasons (size of system, rapid evolutions of electronics,
crosstalk issues on the telephone line etc.), and similar
but more compact instruments were subsequently developed, such as electronic and tonewheel organs.

1.3

ANS

In the 1920s, Arseny Avraamov developed various systems of graphic sonic art,* [9] and similar graphical sound
systems were developed around the world, such as those
as seen on the Holzer 2010.* [10] In 1938, USSR engineer
Yevgeny Murzin designed a compositional tool called
ANS, one of the earliest real-time additive synthesizers
using optoelectronics. Although his idea of reconstructing a sound from its visible image was apparently simple,
the instrument was not realized until 20 years later, in
1958, as Murzin was "an engineer who worked in areas
unrelated to music" (Kreichi 1997).* [11]

Emergence of electronics and early

1.5 Subtractive synthesis & polyphonic
electronic instruments
synthesizer

Left:
Hammond
Theremin (RCA AR-1264; 1930). Middle: Ondes
Martenot (7G model; 1978). Right: Trautonium (Tele- Novachord (1939) and Welte Lichtton orgel (1935)
funken Volkstrautonium Ela T42; 1933).
In 1906, American engineer, Lee De Forest ushered
in the electronics age.* [6] He invented the rst
amplifying vacuum tube, called the Audion tube. This led
to new entertainment technologies, including radio and
sound lms. These new technologies also inuenced the
music industry, and resulted in various early electronic
musical instruments that used vacuum tubes, including:
Audion piano by Lee De Forest in 1915* [7]
Theremin by Lon Theremin in 1920* [8]
Ondes Martenot by Maurice Martenot in 1928

In the 1930s and 1940s, the basic elements required for

the modern analog subtractive synthesizers audio oscillators, audio lters, envelope controllers, and various
eects units had already appeared and were utilized in
several electronic instruments.
The earliest polyphonic synthesizers were developed in
Germany and the United States. The Warbo Formant
Organ developed by Harald Bode in Germany in 1937,
was a four-voice key-assignment keyboard with two formant lters and a dynamic envelope controller* [12]* [13]
and possibly manufactured commercially by a factory in
Dachau, according to the 120 years of Electronic Music.* [14] The Hammond Novachord released in 1939,

1.7

Other innovations

was an electronic keyboard that used twelve sets of top- 1.7

octave oscillators with octave dividers to generate sound,
with vibrato, a resonator lter bank and a dynamic envelope controller. During the three years that Hammond
manufactured this model, 1,069 units were shipped, but
production was discontinued at the start of World War
II.* [15]* [16] Both instruments were the forerunners of
the later electronic organs and polyphonic synthesizers.

1.6

Monophonic electronic keyboards

Other innovations

Hugh
Le Caine's Electronic Sackbut (1948) and an electrostatic
reed organ (Wurlitzer model 44, 1953)

In the late 1940s, Canadian inventor and composer, Hugh

Le Caine invented the Electronic Sackbut, a voltagecontrolled electronic musical instrument that provided
the earliest real-time control of three aspects of sound
(volume, pitch, and timbre) corresponding to today's
touch-sensitive keyboard, pitch and modulation conHarald trollers. The controllers were initially implemented
Bode's Multimonica (1940) and Georges Jenny Ondioline as a multidimensional pressure keyboard in 1945, then
(c.1941)
changed to a group of dedicated controllers operated by
left hand in 1948.* [18]
In the 1940s and 1950s, before the popularization of In Japan, as early as in 1935, Yamaha released Magna orelectronic organs and the introductions of combo organs, gan,* [19] a multi-timbral keyboard instrument based on
manufactures developed and marketed various portable electrically-blown free reeds with pickups.* [20] It may
monophonic electronic instruments with small keyboards. have been similar to the electrostatic reed organs develThese small instruments consisted of an electronic oscil- oped by Frederick Albert Hoschke in 1934 and then manlator, vibrato eect, passive lters etc. Most of these ufactured by Everett and Wurlitzer until 1961.
(except for Clavivox) were designed for conventional
ensembles, rather than as experimental instruments for However, at least one Japanese was not satised the sitelectronic music studiosbut they contributed to the evo- uation at that time. In 1949, Japanese composer Minao
lution of modern synthesizers. These small instruments Shibata discussed the concept of a musical instrument
with very high performancethat can synthesize any
included:
kind of sound wavesand is "...operated very easily,predicting that with such an instrument, "...the music scene
Solovox (1940) by Hammond Organ Company: a
will be changed drastically.* [21]* [22]
monophonic attachment keyboard instrument consisting of a large tone-cabinet and a small keyboardunit, intended to accompany the pianos with
1.8 Electronic music studios as sound synmonophonic lead voice of organ or orchestral sound.

thesizers

Multimonica (1940) designed by Harald Bode, produced by Hohner: dual keyboard instrument consisting of an electrically-blown reed organ (lower) and
a monophonic sawtooth synthesizer (upper).
Ondioline (1941) designed by Georges Jenny in
France.
Clavioline (1947) designed by Constant Martin, produced by Selmer, Gibson, etc. This instrument was
featured on various 1960s popular recordings, including Del Shannon's "Runaway" (1961), and The
Beatles' "Baby, You're a Rich Man" (1967).

Synthesizer
(left) and Audio console at the Studio di fonologia musicale di Radio Milano (of RAI)

After World War II, electronic music including

electroacoustic music and musique concrte was created
by
contemporary composers, and numerous electronic
Univox (1951) by Jennings Musical Instruments
music
studios were established around the world, espe*
(JMI). [17] This instrument was featured on The
cially
in
Bonn, Cologne, Paris and Milan. These studios
Tornados' "Telstar" (1962).
were typically lled with electronic equipment including
Clavivox (1952) by Raymond Scott.
oscillators, lters, tape recorders, audio consoles etc.,

1 HISTORY

and the whole studio functioned as asound synthesizer Vampires, 1965), and a RAI-TV mini-series, Jeckyll
.
.* [30]* [31]* [32]

1.8.1

Origin of the term sound synthesizer

RCA
Mark II Sound Synthesizer (1957) and Siemens Studio
for Electronic Music (1959)
In 19511952, RCA produced a machine called the Electronic Music Synthesizer; however, it was more accurately a composition machine, because it did not produce
sounds in real time.* [23] RCA then developed the rst
programmable sound synthesizer, RCA Mark II Sound
Synthesizer, installing it at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in 1957.* [24] Prominent composers
including Vladimir Ussachevsky, Otto Luening, Milton
Babbitt, Halim El-Dabh, Blent Arel, Charles Wuorinen,
and Mario Davidovsky used the RCA Synthesizer extensively in various compositions.* [25]

The Moog modular synthesizer of 1960s1970s

Robert Moog built his rst prototype between 1963 and

1964, and was then commissioned by the Alwin Nikolais
Dance Theater of NY;* [34]* [35] while Donald Buchla
was commissioned by Morton Subotnick.* [36]* [37] In
the late 1960s to 1970s, the development of miniaturized solid-state components allowed synthesizers to become self-contained, portable instruments, as proposed
by Harald Bode in 1961. By the early 1980s, companies
were selling compact, modestly priced synthesizers to the
1.9 From modular synthesizer to popular public. This, along with the development of Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI), made it easier to inmusic
tegrate and synchronize synthesizers and other electronic
instruments for use in musical composition. In the 1990s,
Main articles: Modular synthesizer, Harald Bode, Robert synthesizer emulations began to appear in computer softMoog, Moog synthesizer, and Doepfer A-100
ware, known as software synthesizers. Later, VST and
other plug-ins were able to emulate classic hardware synIn 19591960, Harald Bode developed a modular syn- thesizers to a moderate degree.
thesizer and sound processor,* [26]* [27] and in 1961, he The synthesizer had a considerable eect on 20th-century
wrote a paper exploring the concept of self-contained music.* [38] Micky Dolenz of The Monkees bought one
portable modular synthesizer using newly emerging tran- of the rst Moog synthesizers. The band was the rst to
sistor technology.* [28] He also served as AES session release an album featuring a Moog with Pisces, Aquarchairman on music and electronic for the fall conventions ius, Capricorn & Jones Ltd. in 1967,* [39] which reached
in 1962 and 1964.* [29] His ideas were adopted by Donald number 1 in the charts. A few months later, both the
Buchla and Robert Moog in the United States, and Paolo Rolling Stones' "2000 Light Years from Home" and the tiKeto et al. in Italy* [30]* [31]* [32] at about the same tle track of the Doors' 1967 album Strange Days featured
time:* [33] among them, Moog is known as the rst syn- a Moog, played by Brian Jones and Paul Beaver, respecthesizer designer to popularize the voltage control tech- tively. In the same year, Bruce Haack built a homemade
nique in analog electronic musical instruments.* [33]
synthesizer that he demonstrated on Mister Rogers' NeighA working group at Roman Electronic Music Center,
composer Gino Marinuzzi, Jr., designer Giuliano Strini,
MSEE, and sound engineer and technician Paolo Keto
in Italy; their vacuum-tube modularFonoSynthslightly
predated (195758) Moog and Buchla's work. Later
the group created a solid-state version, the Synket.
Both devices remained prototypes (except a model made
for John Eaton who wrote a Concert Piece for Synket and Orchestra), owned and used only by Marinuzzi, notably in the original soundtrack of Mario Bava's
sci- lm Terrore nello spazio(a.k.a. Planet of the

borhood. The synthesizer included a sampler (musical

instrument) that recorded, stored, played, and looped
sounds controlled by switches, light sensors, and human
skin contact. Wendy Carlos's Switched-On Bach (1968),
recorded using Moog synthesizers, also inuenced numerous musicians of that era and is one of the most popular recordings of classical music ever made,* [40] alongside the records (particularly Snowakes are Dancing in
1974) of Isao Tomita, who in the early 1970s utilized synthesizers to create new articial sounds (rather than simply mimicking real instruments* [41]) and made signi-

1.10

Polyphonic keyboards and the digital revolution

cant advances in analog synthesizer programming.* [42]

5
Jupiter 8 (1978 and 1981).

The sound of the Moog reached the mass market with

Simon and Garfunkel's Bookends in 1968 and The Beatles' Abbey Road the following year; hundreds of other
popular recordings subsequently used synthesizers, most
famously the portable Minimoog. Electronic music albums by Beaver and Krause, Tonto's Expanding Head
Band, The United States of America, and White Noise
reached a sizable cult audience and progressive rock musicians such as Richard Wright of Pink Floyd and Rick
Wakeman of Yes were soon using the new portable synthesizers extensively. Stevie Wonder and Herbie Hancock also contributed strongly to the popularisation of
synthesizers in Black American music.* [43]* [44] Other
early users included Emerson, Lake & Palmer's Keith
Emerson, Todd Rundgren, Pete Townshend, and The
The Fairlight CMI of the late 1970s-early 1980s.
Crazy World of Arthur Brown's Vincent Crane. In Europe, the rst no. 1 single to feature a Moog prominently By the end of the 1970s, digital synthesizers and digiwas Chicory Tip's 1972 hit "Son of My Father".* [45]
tal samplers arrived on the market around the world (and
are still sold today),* [note 1] as the result of preceding
research and development.* [note 1] Compared with ana1.10 Polyphonic keyboards and the digital log synthesizer sounds, the digital sounds produced by
revolution
these new instruments tended to have a number of dierent characteristics: clear attack and sound outlines, carSee also: Polyphony and monophony in instruments, rying sounds, rich overtones with inharmonic contents,
Patch, MIDI, Digital synthesizer, Physical modelling syn- and complex motion of sound textures, amongst others.
thesis, Virtual analog synthesizer, and Software synthe- While these new instruments were expensive, these charsizer
acteristics meant musicians were quick to adopt them,
In 1978, the success of the Prophet 5, a polyphonic and especially in the United Kingdom* [49] and the United
States. This encouraged a trend towards producing music
using digital sounds,* [note 2] and laid the foundations for
the development of the inexpensive digital instruments
popular in the next decade (see below). Relatively successful instruments, with each selling more than several
hundred units per series, included the NED Synclavier
(1977), Fairlight CMI (1979), E-mu Emulator (1981),
and PPG Wave (1981).* [note 1]* [49]* [50]* [51]* [52]
The Prophet-5 synthesizer of the late 1970s-early 1980s.

microprocessor-controlled keyboard synthesizer, strongly

aided the shift of synthesizers towards their familiar modern shape, away from large modular units and towards
smaller keyboard instruments.* [46] This form factor
helped accelerate the integration of synthesizers into popular music, a shift that had been lent powerful momentum
by the Minimoog, and also later the ARP Odyssey.* [47]
Earlier polyphonic electronic instruments of the 1970s,
rooted in string synthesizers before advancing to multisynthesizers incorporating monosynths and more, gradually fell out of fashion in the wake of these newer, noteassigned polyphonic keyboard synthesizers.* [48] These
polyphonic synthesizers were mainly manufactured in the
United States and Japan from the mid-1970s to the early1980s, and included the Yamaha CS-80 (1976), Oberheim's Polyphonic and OBX (1975 and 1979), Sequential Circuits' Prophet-5 (1978), and Roland's Jupiter 4 and

The Yamaha DX7 of 1983.

In 1983, however, Yamaha's revolutionary DX7 digital

synthesizer* [53]* [54] swept through popular music, leading to the adoption and development of digital synthesizers in many varying forms during the 1980s, and the

rapid decline of analog synthesizer technology. In 1987,

Roland's D50 synthesizer was released, which combined
the already existing sample-based synthesis* [note 3] and
the onboard digital eects,* [55] while Korg's even more
popular M1 (1988) now also heralded the era of the
workstation synthesizer, based on ROM sample sounds
for composing and sequencing whole songs, rather than
solely traditional sound synthesis.* [56]

TYPES OF SYNTHESIS

Japan, Men Without Hats, Ultravox,* [59] Spandau Ballet, Culture Club, Eurythmics, Yazoo, Thompson Twins,
A Flock of Seagulls, Heaven 17, Erasure, Soft Cell,
Blancmange, Pet Shop Boys, Bronski Beat, Kajagoogoo,
ABC, Naked Eyes, Devo, and the early work of Tears for
Fears and Talk Talk. Giorgio Moroder, Howard Jones,
Kitaro, Stevie Wonder, Peter Gabriel, Thomas Dolby,
Kate Bush, Dnal Lunny, Deadmau5, Frank Zappa and
Todd Rundgren, and Owl City all made use of synthesizers.
The synthesizer became one of the most important instruments in the music industry.* [59]

3 Types of synthesis
The Clavia Nord Lead series released in 1995.

Throughout the 1990s, the popularity of electronic dance

music employing analog sounds, the appearance of digital
analog modelling synthesizers to recreate these sounds,
and the development of the Eurorack modular synthesiser
system, initially introduced with the Doepfer A-100 and
since adopted by other manufacturers, all contributed to
the resurgence of interest in analog technology. The turn
of the century also saw improvements in technology that
led to the popularity of digital software synthesizers.* [57]
In the 2010s, new analog synthesizers, both in keyboard
instrument and modular form, are released alongside current digital hardware instruments.* [58] In 2016, Korg announced the release of the Korg Minilogue, the rst polyphonic analogue synth to be mass-produced in decades.

Impact on popular music

In the 1970s, Jean Michel Jarre, Larry Fast, and Vangelis

released successful synthesizer-led instrumental albums.
Over time, this helped inuence the emergence of
synthpop, a subgenre of new wave, in the late 1970s
and early 80s. The work of German electronic bands
such as Kraftwerk and Tangerine Dream, British acts
Gary Numan and David Bowie and the Japanese Yellow
Magic Orchestra were also inuential in the development of the genre.* [59] Gary Numan's 1979 hits "Are
'Friends' Electric?" and "Cars" made heavy use of synthesizers.* [60]* [61] OMD's "Enola Gay" (1980) used distinctive electronic percussion and a synthesized melody.
Soft Cell used a synthesized melody on their 1981 hit
"Tainted Love".* [59] Nick Rhodes, keyboardist of Duran
Duran, used various synthesizers including the Roland
Jupiter-4 and Jupiter-8.* [62]
Chart hits include Depeche Mode's "Just Can't Get
Enough" (1981),* [59] The Human League's "Don't You
Want Me"* [63] and Giorgio Moroder's "Flashdance...
What a Feeling" (1983) for Irene Cara. Other notable synthpop groups included New Order, Visage,

f1 r1 f2 r2 f3 r3

fK rK

+
y(t)
Additive synthesis was utilized as early as on Teleharmonium in
1900s and Hammond organ in 1930s.

Additive synthesis builds sounds by adding together

waveforms (which are usually harmonically related).
Early analog examples of additive synthesizers are the
Teleharmonium and Hammond organ. To implement
real-time additive synthesis, wavetable synthesis is useful
for reducing required hardware/processing power,* [64]
and is commonly used in low-end MIDI instruments (such
as educational keyboards) and low-end sound cards.
Subtractive synthesis is based on ltering harmonically
rich waveforms. Due to its simplicity, it is the basis of
early synthesizers such as the Moog synthesizer. Subtractive synthesizers use a simple acoustic model that assumes an instrument can be approximated by a simple signal generator (producing sawtooth waves, square waves,
etc.) followed by a lter. The combination of simple
modulation routings (such as pulse width modulation and
oscillator sync), along with the physically unrealistic low-

7
ulating very small sample slices.

Subtractive synthesis is still utilized on various synths, including

virtual analog synth.

Physical modelling synthesis is often implemented as software

synthesizers.

pass lters, is responsible for the classic synthesizer

sound commonly associated with analog synthesis Physical modelling synthesis is the synthesis of sound by
a term often mistakenly used when referring to software using a set of equations and algorithms to simulate a real
instrument, or some other physical source of sound. This
synthesizers using subtractive synthesis.
involves modelling components of musical objects and
creating systems that dene action, lters, envelopes and
other parameters over time. Various models can also be
combined, e.g. the model of a violin with characteristics
fC
fM

of a pedal steel guitar and the action of piano hammer.

When an initial set of parameters is run through the physical simulation, the simulated sound is generated. Although physical modeling was not a new concept in acousModulator
Carrier
tics and synthesis, it was not until the development of the
FM synthesis was hugely successful in earliest digital synthesiz- Karplus-Strong algorithm and the increase in DSP power
in the late 1980s that commercial implementations beers.
came feasible. The quality and speed of physical modelFM synthesis (frequency modulation synthesis) is a pro- ing on computers improves with higher processing power.
cess that usually involves the use of at least two signal
generators (sine-wave oscillators, commonly referred to
as operatorsin FM-only synthesizers) to create and
modify a voice. Often, this is done through the analog
or digital generation of a signal that modulates the tonal
and amplitude characteristics of a base carrier signal. FM
synthesis was pioneered by John Chowning, who patented
the idea and sold it to Yamaha. Unlike the exponential relationship between voltage-in-to-frequency-out and
multiple waveforms in classical 1-volt-per-octave synthesizer oscillators, Chowning-style FM synthesis uses a
linear voltage-in-to-frequency-out relationship and sinewave oscillators. The resulting complex waveform may
have many component frequencies, and there is no requirement that they all bear a harmonic relationship. Sophisticated FM synths such as the Yamaha DX7 series
can have 6 operators per voice; some synths with FM can
also often use lters and variable amplier types to alter
Analysis/resynthesis is typically used on the vocoder.
the signal's characteristics into a sonic voice that either
roughly imitates acoustic instruments or creates sounds Sample-based synthesis involves recording a real instruthat are unique. FM synthesis is especially valuable for ment as a digitized waveform, and then playing back its
metallic or clangorous noises such as bells, cymbals, or recordings at dierent speeds (pitches) to produce difother percussion.
ferent tones. This technique is referred to a sampling
Phase distortion synthesis is a method implemented on
Casio CZ synthesizers. It is quite similar to FM synthesis but avoids infringing on the Chowning FM patent. It
can be categorized as both modulation synthesis (along
with FM synthesis), and distortion synthesis along with
waveshaping synthesis.

. Most samplers designate a part of the sample for each

component of the Attack Decay Sustain Release (ADSR)
envelope, repeating that section while changing the volume according to the envelope. This allows samplers to
vary the envelope while playing the same note. See also
Wavetable synthesis, Vector synthesis.

Granular synthesis is a type of synthesis based on manip- Analysis/resynthesis is a form of synthesis that uses a

4 COMPONENTS
of dierent parts of the instrument, the sounds produced
by the instrument during dierent parts of a performance,
or the behavior of the instrument under dierent playing
conditions (pitch, intensity of playing, ngering, etc.)

4 Components
Basic components of an analogue subtractive synthesizer

Sample-based synthesis may be one of the most popular methods

at the moment.

series of bandpass lters or Fourier transforms to analyze

the harmonic content of a sound. The results are then
used to resynthesize the sound using a band of oscillators.
The vocoder, linear predictive coding, and some forms of
speech synthesis are based on analysis/resynthesis.

Synthesizers generate sound through various analogue

and digital techniques. Early synthesizers were analog
hardware based but many modern synthesizers use a combination of DSP software and hardware or else are purely
software-based (see softsynth). Digital synthesizers ofEssynth is a mathematical model for interactive sound ten emulate classic analog designs. Sound is controllable
synthesis based on evolutionary computation and uses by the operator by means of circuits or virtual stages that
genetic operators and tness functions to create sound.
may include:

3.1

Imitative synthesis

Sound synthesis can be used to mimic acoustic sound

sources. Generally, a sound that does not change over
time includes a fundamental partial or harmonic, and any
number of partials. Synthesis may attempt to mimic the
amplitude and pitch of the partials in an acoustic sound
source.
When natural sounds are analyzed in the frequency domain (as on a spectrum analyzer), the spectra of their
sounds exhibits amplitude spikes at each of the fundamental tone's harmonics corresponding to resonant properties of the instruments (spectral peaks that are also referred to as formants). Some harmonics may have higher
amplitudes than others. The specic set of harmonicvs-amplitude pairs is known as a sound's harmonic content. A synthesized sound requires accurate reproduction
of the original sound in both the frequency domain and
the time domain. A sound does not necessarily have the
same harmonic content throughout the duration of the
sound. Typically, high-frequency harmonics die out more
quickly than the lower harmonics.
In most conventional synthesizers, for purposes of resynthesis, recordings of real instruments are composed of
several components representing the acoustic responses

Electronic oscillators create raw sounds with a

timbre that depends upon the waveform generated.
Voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs) and digital
oscillators may be used. Harmonic additive synthesis models sounds directly from pure sine waves,
somewhat in the manner of an organ, while frequency modulation and phase distortion synthesis use one oscillator to modulate another. Subtractive synthesis depends upon ltering a harmonically
rich oscillator waveform. Sample-based and granular synthesis use one or more digitally recorded
sounds in place of an oscillator.
Low frequency oscillator (LFO) an oscillator
of adjustable frequency that can be used to modulate the sound rhythmically, for example to create
tremolo or vibrato or to control a lter's operating
frequency. LFOs are used in most forms of synthesis.
Voltage-controlled lter (VCF) shapethe
sound generated by the oscillators in the frequency
domain, often under the control of an envelope or
LFO. These are essential to subtractive synthesis.
ADSR envelopes provide envelope modulation
to shapethe volume or harmonic content of the
produced note in the time domain with the principal

Attack Decay Sustain Release (ADSR) envelope

parameters being attack, decay, sustain and release.
These are used in most forms of synthesis. ADSR
control is provided by envelope generators.

Ampmax

Amplitude

4.2

Voltage-controlled amplier (VCA) After the

signal generated by one (or a mix of more) VCOs has
been modied by lters and LFOs, and its waveform
has been shaped (contoured) by an ADSR envelope
key
generator, it then passes on to one or more voltagepressed
controlled ampliers (VCAs). A VCA is a preamp
that boosts (amplies) the electronic signal before
passing it on to an external or built-in power ampli- Schematic of ADSR
er, as well as a means to control its amplitude (volume) using an attenuator. The gain of the VCA is
aected by a control voltage (CV), coming from an
Ampmax
envelope generator, an LFO, the keyboard or some
other source.* [65]

R
S

Other sound processing eects such as ring modulators may be encountered.

Amplitude

0
4.1

Filter

key
pressed

key
released

R
S

key
released

Inverted ADSR envelope

Various lter modes.

Main article: Voltage controlled lter
Electronic lters are particularly important in subtractive
synthesis, being designed to pass some frequency regions through unattenuated while signicantly attenuating (subtracting) others. The low-pass lter is most
frequently used, but band-pass lters, band-reject lters
and high-pass lters are also sometimes available.
The lter may be controlled with a second ADSR envelope. An envelope modulation(env mod) parameter on many synthesizers with lter envelopes determines how much the envelope aects the lter. If turned
all the way down, the lter produces a at sound with no
envelope. When turned up the envelope becomes more
noticeable, expanding the minimum and maximum range
of the lter.

4.2

synthesis techniques often employ an envelope generator that controls a sound's parameters at any point in its
duration. Most often this is an (ADSR) envelope, which
may be applied to overall amplitude control, lter frequency, etc. The envelope may be a discrete circuit or
module, or implemented in software. The contour of an
ADSR envelope is specied using four parameters:
Attack time is the time taken for initial run-up of
level from nil to peak, beginning when the key is
rst pressed.
Decay time is the time taken for the subsequent run
down from the attack level to the designated sustain
level.
Sustain level is the level during the main sequence
of the sound's duration, until the key is released.
Release time is the time taken for the level to decay from the sustain level to zero after the key is
released.
An early implementation of ADSR can be found on the

Attack Decay Sustain Release (ADSR) Hammond Novachord in 1938 (which predates the rst
envelope
Moog synthesizer by over 25 years). A seven-position

When an acoustic musical instrument produces sound,

the loudness and spectral content of the sound change
over time in ways that vary from instrument to instrument.
The attackand decayof a sound have a great effect on the instrument's sonic character.* [66]* [67] Sound

rotary knob set preset ADS parameter for all 72 notes; a

pedal controlled release time.* [15] The notion of ADSR
was specied by Vladimir Ussachevsky (then head of the
Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center) in 1965
while suggesting improvements for Bob Moog's pioneering work on synthesizers, although the earlier notations of

10

6 CONTROL INTERFACES

parameter were (T1 , T2 , Esus , T3 ), then these were sim- A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) generates an electronic
plied to current form (Attack time, Decay time, Sustain signal, usually below 20 Hz. LFO signals create a periodic
level, Release time) by ARP.* [68]
control signal or sweep, often used in vibrato, tremolo and
Some electronic musical instruments can invert the other eects. In certain genres of electronic music, the
ADSR envelope, reversing the behavior of the normal LFO signal can control the cuto frequency of a VCF to
ADSR envelope. During the attack phase, the modulated make a rhythmic wah-wah sound, or the signature dubstep
sound parameter fades from the maximum amplitude to wobble bass.
zero then, during the decay phase, rises to the value specied by the sustain parameter. After the key has been released the sound parameter rises from sustain amplitude
back to maximum amplitude.

5 Patch

8-step envelope
on Casio CZ series
A common variation of the ADSR on some synthesizers,
such as the Korg MS-20, was ADSHR (attack, decay, sustain, hold, release). By adding a holdparameter, the
system could hold notes at the sustain level for a xed
length of time before decaying. The General Instruments
AY-3-8912 sound chip included a hold time parameter
onlythe sustain level was not programmable. Another
common variation in the same vein is the AHDSR (attack, hold, decay, sustain, release) envelope, in which the
holdparameter controls how long the envelope stays
at full volume before entering the decay phase. Multiple
attack, decay and release settings may be found on more
sophisticated models.
Certain synthesizers also allow for a delay parameter before the attack. Modern synthesizers like the Dave Smith
Instruments Prophet '08 have DADSR (delay, attack, decay, sustain, release) envelopes. The delay setting determines the length of silence between hitting a note and
the attack. Some software synthesizers, such as ImageLine's 3xOSC (included with their DAW FL Studio) have
DAHDSR (delay, attack, hold, decay, sustain, release)
envelopes.

One of the
earliest patch memory (bottom left) on Oberheim
Four-voice (1975/1976)
A synthesizer patch (some manufacturers chose the term
program) is a sound setting. Modular synthesizers used
cables ("patch cords") to connect the dierent sound
modules together. Since these machines had no memory
to save settings, musicians wrote down the locations of the
patch cables and knob positions on apatch sheet(which
usually showed a diagram of the synthesizer). Ever since,
an overall sound setting for any type of synthesizer has
been referred to as a patch.
In midlate 1970s, patch memory (allowing storage and
loading of 'patches' or 'programs') began to appear in
synths like the Oberheim Four-voice (1975/1976)* [69]
and Sequential Circuits Prophet-5 (1977/1978). After
MIDI was introduced in 1983, more and more synthesizers could import or export patches via MIDI SYSEX commands. When a synthesizer patch is uploaded to a personal computer that has patch editing software installed,
the user can alter the parameters of the patch and download it back to the synthesizer. Because there is no standard patch language, it is rare that a patch generated on
one synthesizer can be used on a dierent model. However, sometimes manufacturers design a family of synthesizers to be compatible.

LFO section
of Access Virus C

4.3

6 Control interfaces

LFO

Main article: Low-frequency oscillation

Non-contact interface (AirFX)

6.1

Fingerboard controller

11

Tangible interface (Reactable)

Pitch & mod.

wheels and

touchpad

Drum pad

Left: Ondes Martenot (6G in 1960)

Right: Mixture Trautonium (replica of 1952)

6.1 Fingerboard controller

Guitar-style interface (SynthAxe)

Fingerboard
on Korg monotron

Modern synthesizers often look like small pianos, though

with many additional knob and button controls. These
are integrated controllers, where the sound synthesis electronics are integrated into the same package as the conRibbon controller
troller. However, many early synthesizers were modular
on Moog 3P (1972)
and keyboardless, while most modern synthesizers may
be controlled via MIDI, allowing other means of playing
A ribbon controller or other violin-like user intersuch as:
face may be used to control synthesizer parameters.
The idea dates to Lon Theremin's 1922 rst con Fingerboards (ribbon controllers) and touchpads
cept* [70] and his 1932 Fingerboard Theremin and Keyboard Theremin,* [71]* [72] Maurice Martenot's 1928
Ondes Martenot (sliding a metal ring),* [73] Friedrich
Wind controllers
Trautwein's 1929 Trautonium (nger pressure), and was
also later utilized by Robert Moog.* [74]* [75]* [76] The
Guitar-style interfaces
ribbon controller has no moving parts. Instead, a nger pressed down and moved along it creates an electrical
Drum pads
contact at some point along a pair of thin, exible longitudinal strips whose electric potential varies from one end
to the other. Older ngerboards used a long wire pressed
Music sequencers
to a resistive plate. A ribbon controller is similar to a
touchpad, but a ribbon controller only registers linear mo Non-contact interfaces akin to theremins
tion. Although it may be used to operate any parameter
that is aected by control voltages, a ribbon controller is
most commonly associated with pitch bending.
Tangible interfaces like a Reactable, AudioCubes
Various auxiliary input device including: wheels
for pitch bend and modulation, footpedals for
expression and sustain, breath controllers, beam
controllers, etc.

Fingerboard-controlled instruments include the

Trautonium (1929), Hellertion (1929) and Heliophon
(1936),* [77]* [78]* [79] Electro-Theremin (Tannerin,
late 1950s), Persephone (2004), and the Swarmatron
(2004). A ribbon controller is used as an additional

12

6 CONTROL INTERFACES

controller in the Yamaha CS-80 and CS-60, the lows for articulation.
Korg Prophecy and Korg Trinity series, the Kurzweil
synthesizers, Moog synthesizers, and others.
Rock musician Keith Emerson used it with the Moog 6.3
modular synthesizer from 1970 onward. In the late
1980s, keyboards in the synth lab at Berklee College of
Music were equipped with membrane thin ribbon style
controllers that output MIDI. They functioned as MIDI
managers, with their programming language printed on
their surface, and as expression/performance tools. Designed by Je Tripp of Perfect Fretworks Co., they were
known as Tripp Strips. Such ribbon controllers can serve
as a main MIDI controller instead of a keyboard, as with
the Continuum instrument.

Others

Ondes Martenot

Theremin

6.2

Wind controllers

Vocoder
Wind controller

Accordion synthesizer
Main article: Wind controller
Wind controllers (and wind synthesizers) are convenient
for woodwind and brass players, being designed to imitate those instruments. These are usually either analog or
MIDI controllers, and sometimes include their own builtin sound modules (synthesizers). In addition to the follow
of key arrangements and ngering, the controllers have
breath-operated pressure transducers, and may have gate
extractors, velocity sensors, and bite sensors. Saxophonestyle controllers have included the Lyricon, and products
by Yamaha, Akai, and Casio. The mouthpieces range
from alto clarinet to alto saxophone sizes. The Eigenharp,
a controller similar in style to a bassoon, was released
by Eigenlabs in 2009. Melodica and recorder-style controllers have included the Martinetta (1975)* [80] and
Variophon (1980),* [81] and Joseph Zawinul's custom
Korg Pepe.* [82] A harmonica-style interface was the Millionizer 2000 (c. 1983).* [83]
Trumpet-style controllers have included products by
Steiner/Crumar/Akai, Yamaha, and Morrison. Breath
controllers can also be used to control conventional synthesizers, e.g. the Crumar Steiner Masters Touch,* [84]
Yamaha Breath Controller and compatible products.* [85] Several controllers also provide breath-like
articulation capabilities.

Other controllers include: Theremin, lightbeam controllers, touch buttons (touche d intensit) on the Ondes
Martenot, and various types of foot pedals. Envelope following systems, the most sophisticated being the vocoder,
are controlled by the power or amplitude of input audio signal. A musician uses the Talk box to manipulated
sound using the vocal tract, though it is rarely categorized
as a synthesizer.

6.4 MIDI control

Main article: Musical Instrument Digital Interface
Synthesizers became easier to integrate and synchronize with other electronic instruments and controllers
with the introduction of Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) in 1983.* [86] First proposed in 1981 by
engineer Dave Smith of Sequential Circuits, the MIDI
standard was developed by a consortium now known as
the MIDI Manufacturers Association.* [87] MIDI is an
opto-isolated serial interface and communication protocol.* [87] It provides for the transmission from one device or instrument to another of real-time performance
data. This data includes note events, commands for the
selection of instrument presets (i.e. sounds, or programs
or patches, previously stored in the instrument's memory), the control of performance-related parameters such
as volume, eects levels and the like, as well as synchronization, transport control and other types of data. MIDI
interfaces are now almost ubiquitous on music equipment and are commonly available on personal computers
(PCs).* [87]

Accordion controllers use pressure transducers on bel- The General MIDI (GM) software standard was devised

7.2

Synth pad

13

in 1991 to serve as a consistent way of describing a set

of over 200 sounds (including percussion) available to
a PC for playback of musical scores.* [88] For the rst
time, a given MIDI preset consistently produced a specic instrumental sound on any GM-compatible device.
The Standard MIDI File (SMF) format (extension .mid)
combined MIDI events with delta times a form of timestamping and became a popular standard for exchanging music scores between computers. In the case of SMF
playback using integrated synthesizers (as in computers
and cell phones), the hardware component of the MIDI
interface design is often unneeded.

7.2 Synth pad

Open Sound Control (OSC) is another music data specication designed for online networking. In contrast with
MIDI, OSC allows thousands of synthesizers or computers to share music performance data over the Internet in
realtime.

A synth pad is a sustained chord or tone generated by a

synthesizer, often employed for background harmony and
atmosphere in much the same fashion that a string section
is often used in orchestral music and lm scores. Typically, a synth pad is performed using whole notes, which
are often tied over bar lines. A synth pad sometimes holds
the same note while a lead voice sings or plays an entire
musical phrase or section. Often, the sounds used for
synth pads have a vaguely organ, string, or vocal timbre.
Much popular music in the 1980s employed synth pads,
this being the time of polyphonic synthesizers, as did the
then-new styles of smooth jazz and new-age music. One
of many well-known songs from the era to incorporate a
synth pad is "West End Girls" by the Pet Shop Boys, who
were noted users of the technique.

The main feature of a synth pad is very long attack and decay time with extended sustains. In some instances pulsewidth modulation (PWM) using a square wave oscillator
can be added to create a vibratingsound.

Typical roles

Synth lead

7.3 Synth bass

See also: Keyboard bass

George Duke

Jordan Rudess

7.1

Synth lead

In popular music, a synth lead is generally used for playing the main melody of a song, but it is also often used for
creating rhythmic or bass eects. Although most commonly heard in electronic dance music, synth leads have
been used extensively in hip-hop music since the 1980s
and some types of rock songs since the 1970s. Many
post-1980s pop music songs use a synth lead to provide a
musical hook to sustain the listener's interest throughout
a song.

The bass synthesizer (orbass synth) is used to create

sounds in the bass range, from simulations of the electric
bass or double bass to distorted, buzz-saw-like articial
bass sounds, by generating and combining signals of different frequencies. Bass synth patches may incorporate
a range of sounds and tones, including wavetable-style,
analog, and FM-style bass sounds, delay eects, distortion eects, envelope lters. A modern digital synthesizer uses a frequency synthesizer microprocessor component to generate signals of dierent frequencies. While
most bass synths are controlled by electronic keyboards or
pedalboards, some performers use an electric bass with
MIDI pickups to trigger a bass synthesizer.
In the 1970s miniaturized solid-state components allowed
self-contained, portable instruments such as the Moog
Taurus, a 13-note pedal keyboard played by the feet.
The Moog Taurus was used in live performances by a
range of pop, rock, and blues-rock bands. An early use
of bass synthesizer was in 1972, on a solo album by
John Entwistle (the bassist for The Who), entitled Whistle
Rymes. Genesis bass player Mike Rutherford used a
Dewtron Mister Bassmanfor the recording of their
album Nursery Cryme in August 1971. Stevie Wonder introduced synth bass to a pop audience in the early 1970s,
notably on "Superstition" (1972) and "Boogie On Reggae
Woman" (1974). In 1977 Parliament's funk single "Flash
Light" used the bass synthesizer. Lou Reed, widely considered a pioneer of electric guitar textures, played bass
synthesizer on the songFamilies, from his 1979 album
The Bells.

14

9 NOTES

1970s,* [91] and possibly hardware sequencers of the

mid-1960s, such as the 8/16 step analog sequencer on
modular synthesizers (Buchla Series 100 (1964/1966)).
Also they were commonly tted to keyboard instruments
through the late 1970s and early 1980s. Notable examples are the RMI Harmonic Synthesizer (1974),* [92]
Roland Jupiter-8, Oberheim OB-8, Roland SH-101,
Sequential Circuits Six-Trak and Korg Polysix. A famous
example can be heard on Duran Duran's song "Rio", in
which the arpeggiator on a Roland Jupiter-4 plays a C
minor chord in random mode. They fell out of favor by
the latter part of the 1980s and early 1990s and were absent from the most popular synthesizers of the period but
In the 2000s, several equipment manufacturers such as a resurgence of interest in analog synthesizers during the
Boss and Akai produced bass synthesizer eect pedals 1990s, and the use of rapid-re arpeggios in several popfor electric bass guitar players, which simulate the sound ular dance hits, brought with it a resurgence.
of an analog or digital bass synth. With these devices,
a bass guitar is used to generate synth bass sounds. The
BOSS SYB-3 was one of the early bass synthesizer ped- 8 See also
als. The SYB-3 reproduces sounds of analog synthesizers with Digital Signal Processing saw, square, and
pulse synth waves and user-adjustable lter cuto. The 9 Notes
Akai bass synth pedal contains a four-oscillator synthesizer with user selectable parameters (attack, decay, en- [1] List of commercially successful early digital synthesizers
velope depth, dynamics, cuto, resonance). Bass synand digital samplers introduced during the late-1970s and
thesizer software allows performers to use MIDI to inearly-1980s, each sold over several hundred of units per
series:
tegrate the bass sounds with other synthesizers or drum
machines. Bass synthesizers often provide samples from
NED Synclavier (1977-1992) by New England Digvintage 1970s and 1980s bass synths. Some bass synths
ital, based on the research of Dartmouth Digital
are built into an organ style pedalboard or button board.
When the programmable music sequencer became widely
available in the 1980s (e.g., the Synclavier), bass synths
were used to create highly syncopated rhythms and complex, rapid basslines. Bass synth patches incorporate
a range of sounds and tones, including wavetable-style,
analog, and FM-style bass sounds, delay eects, distortion eects, envelope lters. A particularly inuential bass synthesizer was the Roland TB-303 following
Firstman SQ-01. Released in late 1981, it featured a
built-in sequencer and later became strongly associated
with acid house music. This method gained wide popularity after Phuture used it for the single "Acid Tracks"
in 1987.* [90]

Synthesizer since 1973.

7.4

Arpeggiator

See also: Home organ and Music sequencer

An arpeggiator (arp) is a feature available on several synthesizers that automatically steps through a sequence of notes based on an input chord, thus creating an
arpeggio. The notes can often be transmitted to a MIDI
sequencer for recording and further editing. An arpeggiator may have controls for speed, range, and order in which
the notes play; upwards, downwards, or in a random order. More advanced arpeggiators allow the user to step
through a pre-programmed complex sequence of notes,
or play several arpeggios at once. Some allow a pattern
sustained after releasing keys: in this way, sequence of
arpeggio patterns may be built up over time by pressing
several keys one after the other. Arpeggiators are also
commonly found in software sequencers. Some arpeggiators/sequencers expand features into a full phrase sequencer, which allows the user to trigger complex, multitrack blocks of sequenced data from a keyboard or input
device, typically synchronized with the tempo of the master clock.
Arpeggiators seem to have grown from the accompaniment system of electronic organs in mid-1960s mid-

Fairlight CMI (1979-1988, over 300 units) in

Sydney, based on the early developments of Qasar
M8 by Tony Furse in Canberra since 1972.
Yamaha GS-1, GS-2 (1980, around 100 units) and
CE20, CE25 (1982) in Hamamatsu, based on research into frequency modulation synthesis by John
Chowning between 1967-1973, and early developments of TRX-100 and Programmable Algorithm
Music Synthesizer (PAMS) by Yamaha between
1973-1979.(Yamaha 2014)
E-mu Emulator (1981-2000s) in California,
roughly based on a notion of table-lookup oscillator
seen on the MUSIC language in 1960s
PPG Wave (1981-1987, around 1,000 units) in
Hamburg, based on wavetable synthesis previously
implemented on PPG Wavecomputer 360, 340 and
380 circa 1978.
etc. Most products listed above are still sold in the 21st
century, e.g. Yamaha DX200 in 2001, E-mu Emulator
X in 2009, Fairlight CMI 30A in 2011, and Waldorf's
wavetable synthesis products as the reincarnations of PPG
Wave.
In addition, the long history of additive synthesis is notable for providing fundamental research that underlies
the technology used in various forms of digital synthesis,
but is not listed above due to the lack of commercially successful products. Additive synthesis has inuenced most

15

products in list above, and even the Yamaha Vocaloid released in 2003 (Excitation plus Resonance (EpR), which
is based on Spectral modeling synthesis (SMS)).
[2] For the details of the new trend of music inuenced by
early digital instruments, see FairlightArtists who used
the Fairlight CMI, SynclavierNotable users and E-mu
EmulatorNotable users.
[3] Sample-based synthesis was previously introduced by the
E-mu Emulator II in 1984, Ensoniq Mirage in 1985,
Ensoniq ESQ-1 and Korg DSS-1 in 1986, etc.

[14] The 'Warbo Formant Orgel' (1937), The 'Melodium'

(1938), The 'Melochord' (1947-9), and 'Bode Sound Co'
(1963-)", 120 years of Electronic Music (Note: the original URL is still active, however the original title and content have been changed)
[15] Cirocco, Phil (2006). The Novachord Restoration
Project. Cirocco Modular Synthesizers.
[16] Steve Howell; Dan Wilson. Novachord. Hollow Sun.
(see also 'History' page)

[17] Vox. Combo Organ Heaven (combo-organ.com). Contrary to popular belief, the Univox is NOT a Clavioline. I'll
let Derek Underdown tell it in his own words: The Clavioline keyboard was on the UK market before the Univox.
... Tom Jennings saw the market potential ... Tom found a
[1] The Palatin Project-The life and work of Elisha Gray
local electronic engineer, Les. Hills, who studied the Clavi. Palatin Project.
oline and designed another circuit dierent to the existing
French patent. ... The mechanics having been cobbled to[2] Brown, Jeremy K. (2010). Stevie Wonder: Musician. Ingether by the accordion service men at the time. I was head
fobase Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-4381-3422-2.
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about 1951/1952 the Univox took o in a big way ... The
[3] Elisha Gray andThe Musical Telegraph"(1876)", 120
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[4] Chadabe, Joel (February 1, 2001), The Electronic Century
[18] Gayle Young (1999).Electronic Sackbut (19451973)".
Part I: Beginnings, Electronic Musician, pp. 7490
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issued 1897-04-06
a young engineer Mr. Yamashita in Hamamatsu]. Hochi
Shimbun (in Japanese). 1935-06-08.
[6] Millard, Max (October 1993). Lee de Forest, Class of
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[7] The Audion Piano (1915)". 120 Years of Electronic Mu(in Japanese). Hamamatsu:
sic.
(Yamaha). October 1935.

,

[8] Glinsky, Albert (2000), Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage, Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, p. [21] Fujii, Koichi (2004).
Chronology of early
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electroacoustic music in Japan:
What types of
source materials are available?". Organised Sound.
[9] Edmunds, Neil (2004), Soviet Music and Society Under
Cambridge University Press. 9 (1): 63-77 [64-6].
Lenin and Stalin, London: Routledge Curzon
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Borthwick, Stuart (2004), Popular Music Genres:

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Vail, Mark (2000), Vintage Synthesizers: Groundbreaking Instruments and Pioneering Designers of
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68342, ISBN 0-87930-603-3

12

Further reading

Gorges, Peter (2005). Programming Synthesizers.

Germany, Bremen: Wizoobooks. ISBN 978-3934903-48-7.
Schmitz, Reinhard (2005). Analog Synthesis. Germany, Bremen: Wizoobooks. ISBN 978-3-93490301-2.
Shapiro, Peter (2000). Modulations: A History of
Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound. ISBN
1-891024-06-X.

13

External links

Sound Synthesis Theory wikibook

Principles of Sound Synthesis at Salford University

EXTERNAL LINKS

19

14
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