Chapter 2

BRIEF HISTORY OF ANDHRADESA WITH BRIEF DESCRIPTION

OF ARTS AND CRAFTS
Andhra Desa mainly comprises the present State of Andhra Pradesh and parts of
bordering neighbor states of Orissa, Karnataka and Maharashtra. As a political division
Andhra Pradesh is known in the contemporary Indian Union as the first linguistic state
formed during 1956 as most of the population - speak Telugu language1. This linguistic
zone has three subdivisions. On the east and north-east can be seen the wider coastal area
with Bay of Bengal and with many a break due to the interspersing Eastern Ghats having
different names at different regions like Veligondalu, Palakondalu,Seshachalam
,Errammalai,and Nallamalai. This area is called as Coastal Andhra comprising the
districts of Srikakulam, Vijayanagaram, Visakhapatnam, West Godavari, East Godavari,
Krishna, Guntur, Prakasam and Nellore.

The present area covering the districts of Khammam, Warangal, Kareemnagar,

Adilabad, Nizamabad, Medak, Ranga Reddy, Hyderabad and Mahaboobnagar which
were mostly under the rule of Nizams of Hyderabad is known as Telengana, The term
Telengana is believed to have been derived from the word Telanganamu, literally
meaning the land of the Telugu speaking people.

The remaining districts of Chittoor,

Cuddapah, Anantapur and Kurnool are known as Rayalaseema after the rulers of four
Vijayanagara dynasties, who had a suffix Raya to their names.

12

On the east one can see the famous Buddhist settlements like Dhanyakataka (Amaravati),
Nagarjunakonda, Chandavaram. Bhattiprolu, Vengi from the Satavahana times onwards.
Such Satavahana settlements can also be seen at the places like Satanikota (Kurnool
district) and Sasanakota (Anantapur district). In the western area one can see the earliest
historical sites like Potana, Bodhan, (Nizamabad district), Kondapur (Medak district).
Recent excavations near Visakhapatnam on the coastal area have also unearthed
evidences of Buddhist settlements like Pavuralakonda, Bavikonda etc. Guntupalli in West
Godavari district also was a famous old Buddhist site with rockcut caves.

The cultural horizon had extended in to prehistoric past with the evidences for
Lower Paleolithic cultures at Giddaluru and Nagarjunakonda of Krishna Valley2, Middle
Paleolithic cultures at Renigunta, Rallakalva and the lower valley of Suvarnamukhi 3. The
Upper Paleolithic cultures at the places like Billasurgam, Mucchatla Chitamanu4 and the
Neolithic settlements at the places like Utnoor (Adilabad district), Palavoyi and
Virapuram (Kurnool district)5 were also discovered. The use of copper and iron is found
simultaneously at Hulikallu (Anatapur district), a solitary example of such nature in
Andhradesa. Many cultural settlements with the use of iron are found at Chinnamaruru
(Mahaboobnagar district), Akiripalli and Tenneru (Krishna district), Aduguppa (Anatapur
district) Virapuram (Kurnool district)6 and at many more places of these regions.

This cultural fabric had extended over a territory generally called Trilingadesa
(the land between the three famous Saivite Lingas i.e. Draksharamam, Srisailam and
Kalesvaram), known in some of the earlier inscriptions as Andhakarattha7. Epigraphically

13

it comprised the three subdivisions of ancient period namely Venginadu8 on the east,
Renadu9 on the South-South-West and Asmaka (Assaka of the Buddhist literature;
mentioned in Satavahana records as Asaka) 10 on the west. During the medieval period
there were the sub-divisions namely Vengi mandala (also known as Vengi vishaya) on
the east, Marjavadi - a variant of Maharajavadi11 on the south-south-west and
Sabbisasiramu12 on the west.

This historical geography has its base on the topographical variants with specific
geometric location. Andhra Pradesh is geometrically located between 12.37 to 19.54 of
Northern latitude and 76.46 to 84.46 of Eastern longitude. Climatologically this area falls
in the sub-tropical zone, on the south of Vindhayas in the peninsula.

It is bound by the Bay of Bengal on the East; Tamilnadu on the south, Karnataka
on the south-west, Maharastra on the West-North west, Madhya Pradesh and
Chattisgarh on the north and Orissa on the North east. This state has an area of 2, 76,254
Sq. Kms.

There is a coastline of 970 KM. except at Visakhapatnam, the coast did not have a
position to provide a natural harbuor. Even though Bhimunipatnam, Uppada, Korangi,
Narsapuram, Machilipatnam, Nizampatnam and Mottupalli were considered as ports
since the ancient period having trade links with different places both in India and abroad.
But all these ports are not having any locational advantage like Visakhapatnam. These
ports induced a spirit in Samudragupta to invade the coastal Andhra. The Chola king

14

Kulttunga occupied Visakhapatnam and renamed the same as Kulottungachoda patnam13.

These ports helped immensely the Cholas to have well established mercantile relations
with China and other South East Asian countries. The periods of Kakatiyas, the Reddis
and the Qutub Shahis had richly made use of these ports and these ports remained the
stations for the Europeans to settle down. It is very much interesting to note that no rulers
of Andhradesa entertained an idea to maintain powerful fleet over the seas. As a result the
entire martial activity remained terrestrial and the political fortunes had divisive
tendencies on the on the Telugu speaking people. They have been succumbed for many a
time by the neighboring groups, resulting in the loss of their political identity too. The
Eastern Ghats formed important loci for the construction of the forts. The famous forts
like Adavani (modern Adoni, Kurnool district), Rayadurgam, Gautamiputra (Gooty,
Anatapur district), Penukonda (Anatapur District), Gandikota (Cuddapah district),
Bellamkonda, Vinukonda and Kondavidu (Guntur district) and Kondapalli (Krishna
district) were built on the Eastern Ghats only. All these forts played a major role in the
latter medieval period.

The lower valleys of Krishna and Godavari promoted the existence of townships
at Dhanyakataka14, Nagarjunakonda and Vengi. During the medieval period there were
eighteen famous townships in this region. The rural-urban continuum was an important
phenomenon that was available only in the coastal area.

The coastal area is characterized by alluvial soils brought down due to

inundations. It is having an area of 92,886 Square Kms. The two famous lakes of

15

Kolleru15 and Pulicat16 present a perennial hydraulic activity that is found in this region.
The rivers Nagavalli, Sarada, Tandava, Yeleru, and Godavari with seven divisions,
Budameru, Krishna, Gundlakamma and Penna flow in this region. Due to the availability
of water sources the coastal area remained suitable for crops like Rice (Oryza sativa),
sugarcane, tobacco and cotton. In the coastal area one can see the historical geographical
sub-regions like Prolunadu17, Gudrahara vishaya18, Kammanadu19, Pottapinadu20 and
Eruvanadu21.

Dhanyakataka,

Bezawada

(present

Vijayawada),

Niravadyapura

(Nidadavolu), Rajamahendravaram (Rajahmundry), Pithapuram, Visakhapatnam and

Srimukhalingam had played a major role as political centers. During the Qutub Shahi and
the Moghul period the coastal area was divided in to circars namely Chicaole,
Visakhapatnam, Rajahmundry, Machilipatnam, Guntur and Mustafanagar (Kondavidu).
That is why this is popularly known as Circar region.

The religious consciousness is very much traced in the Pancharama22 tradition,

which included Amararama (Amaravathi), Somarama (Bhimavaram), Kshirarama
(Palakollu), Bhimarama (Draksharama) and Chalukya Bhimavaram. The coastal region is
more known for promotion of Mahayana Buddhism, early Vedic Hinduism and Jainism
too. At the same tine some of the Vaishnavite institutions are seen at Srikurmam,
Simhachalam, Pithapuram, Sarpavaram, Ryali, Bapatla and the like. The culture had its
blossoming from the times the Mauryas as borne out by a pillar of Asoka, with its
fragmentary record at Amaravati. This area was invaded for the first time by the nonindigenous groups like Abhiras, in the second half of the third century A.D. This is borne
out by the evidence of the record of Abhira Vasusena at Nagarjunakonda. During the

16

ancient period the hills were not made use for the benefit of the state. Anyhow, copper
mining can be traced during the period of Pallavas, which is attested by the Chandaluru
plates of Kumaravishnu, mentioning Kavachakara bhoga.

The Geography of the present region called Rayalaseema is a peculiar one. This
presents the typical crust of the Deccan plateau. The formation of igneous rocks and
metamorphic rocks is very much found in the famous Cuddapah System23 identified by
the Geologists. The availability of diamondiferous quartz24 in the belt from Bairemkonda
(Banganipalle taluk, Kurnool district) to Guntakantisima (the region in Guntakal in
Anatapur district) widely attracted many political and mercantile groups. It might be one
of the reasons for the promotion of Jaina groups in this region, traced very much at
Rayadurgam, Kondakondla (Konakondla), Penukonda, Kambaduru and Hemavathi. In
the same way the auriferous metals are available at Ramagiri (Ananatapur district) and
Kolar (which is located about 200 km away from Cuddapah in Karnataka).

This had given every opportunity for the mercantile groups of Karnataka to form
a trade route through Arasikera (a place located about 20 km to the border of AndhraKarnataka) to the East coast. It is interesting to note that from Chittor to Kurnool one can
see a wider forest area. It is called on the east as Vedaranya and on the west the
Nallamala forest. This situation with lesser water facilities made agriculture a luxurious
phenomenon, Hunting remained an important vocation. In this area one can see a
tradition of cattle raids extending from Chittor district to Palanadu of Guntur district. The
non availability of cows had provided an opportunity to grant religious sanction for the

17

use of the ghee of she-buffaloes, goats and sheep too in the temples25. In the same way,
the width of the forest is so large that the arable land is very much limited in area, being
only under the rivers like Pulivagu, Pennar (more popularly known as Penneru), Kundu
(popularly known as Kunderu), Cheyyeru (also known Bahuda) and Swarnamukhi. It had
made the rulers of the third dynasty of Vijayanagara to deforest much area and carve of
some palemus26. As result a quasi-feudal group by name Palegallu (spelt in English as
Paleigars) evolved and they remained a major problem to the farmers. It is this
deforestation that had made much of the Rayalaseema area which is already rocky as
desert prone. Culturally an idea of Chennakesava got involved in the wider savannah like
zones more characterized by hunting and rearing the sheep and very much inhabited by
the Kuruba, Boya and Golla communities. At the same time the cult of Narsimha had
gained more popularity, the god himself being christened Katrayadu (Lord of forest) and
Katamarayadu (Husband of forest goddess)27. Both Cenrayadu (a variant form of Lord
Chennakesava) and Katrayudu (a variant name for Lord Narasimha) controlled the faith
of the masses.

In the natural region, i.e. Telangana, can be seen a topographical feature of the
argillaceous soil, which is geologically called as regur28. This has its formation through
the process of the degeneration of the gneissic rocks. Regur is considered to be a variant
of lava. This type of soil is more suitable for cultivation of cotton, hence called as the
black-cotton soil. This edaphic factor is very much a determinant of the character of this
region. It is this factor that had contributed richly for urbanization. Bodhan of Nizamabad
Peddabankur, Kotilingala and Vemulawada of Karimnagar districts, Warangal of

18

Warangal district, Kolanpaka of Nalgonda district, and Rachakonda of Mahabubnagar

district can be considered as important townships. The river Godavari and Manjira are the
important water sources, where as there are other rivulets like Pasuperu, Aleru and
Museru which are flooding Medak, Nalgonda, and Ranga Reddi districts. River Krishna
forms the south-south-eastern boundary to this entire unit. This region of Gondwana and
Kota stages is rich in floral and faunal fossils. The zone of Singareni is rich in the coal
resources extending over Khammam, Warangal, Karimnagar and Adilabad districts. The
iron ore is found and mined at Bayyaram (Khammam district) and Chandupatla hill of
Warangal district. In view of the bio-diversity, Warangal zone has more wildlife to be
protected. The impact of Nallamala hills and forest is considerable in Achchampet and
Kalvakurthy taluks of Mahabubnagar district.

This region also has a historical as well as geographical dimension too.

Manchikondavishaya29 identifiable with the parts of present Khammam and Nalgonda
districts, Kolanupaka 100030 identifiable with the parts of Nalgonda and Warangal
districts, Kandurunadu31 identifiable with the parts Mahabubnagar district, Kaslanadu32
identifiable with parts of Medak district, Sabbi Sasiramu identifiable with parts of
Warangal and Karimnagar districts played a vital role. One can also see Pauravadi
2800033 in the parts of Medak district.
This entire region underwent a socio-geographical metamorphosis during the rule of the
Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas of Kalyan, Kakatiyas, Velmas, the Bahmanis, the Qutub Shahis,
the Moughals and the Asafzahis of Hyderabad. During the Rashtrakutas and the western
Chalukya rule Jainism was very much patronized. During the Kakatiya period the tenets

19

of Vira Saivism were widely brought to the inhabitants of the rural and urban zones alike.
For some time this region was considered to be of the Muslims, for the Muslims and by
the Muslims. It is a very much closed society. This grave change was not found in any
part of Indian Union in general and Andhra Pradesh in particular.

Historical Background

In the above geographical personality was a continuous momentum between the

land, the man and the time leading to a plethora of human activities, which can be named
as history. This is a political integration of different lingual and ethnic groups who have a
pronounced settlement over the defined part of the land. The land itself being Andhra
Pradesh, it is but inevitable for the state to undergo the influences from the neighboring
regions of the peninsula.

Andhra Pradesh has almost all the known cultures right from Paleolithic to Early
Historic cultures through Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Megalithic cultures. But they form
no History, as they are not recorded in the lingual medium. The stone tools despite their
technocracy and distribution over a scale of time and space cannot provide the record of
human activity in a manner that can be rechecked, but it must be accepted that the human
life continued from the Paleolithic down to the Early Historic age to continue into the
Historical period. The latest examples of Iron Age are found at Elesvaram, Krishna valley
and they are datable to C.500 B.C.34 but it is too late a time for an Iron Age culture to be
designated on the basis of material culture.

20

The Andhras were first referred to in Aitareya Brahmana, which is affiliated to

Rig Veda. If we were to adopt a chronology of Rapson, the Andhra race can be dated
back to C.1400 B.C. Mahabharata, describes that the Andhras fought in the battle of
Mahabharata in favour of the Kuru princes. It is also found recorded in Srimadbhagavata
that Krishna had killed Chanura, Andhra and Mushtika who were in the court of the
Suprasena princes. It is clear that the Andhras were imbued with certain heterodox
sectarianism, being away from the system and ideology of the Vedic tradition. It is not
known whether this point in the epic is an interpolation.

Megasthenese mentioned in his Indica, a race called the Andhras with 30 fortified
towns having an army consisting of one lakh elephants35. It may not be an exaggeration
as the Andhras and Kalingas had control over the elephants in the Gondwana region,
subsequently mentioned as Mahakantara36 in the records of the 4th century AD.

In terms of the Historical developments the first stage can be found with the Mauryas.

The Maurayas

The role of the Mauryas in the present Unit Andhra Pradesh is quite remarkable.
The Mauryan rulers not only established their political supremacy in Peninsular India, but
also remained the torchbearers for the development of the Jaina and Buddhist cults.
Chandragupta Maurya and Samprati promoted Jainism, Bhadrabahu, and the famous

21

Jaina teacher introduced the traditional Jainism. Samprati established one Samprati vihara
at Vardhamanapura37 (presently called Vaddamanu, Guntur district). Whereas Ashoka,
the grand son of Chandragupta Maurya laid foundations for the Buddism. The references
to the region of Asmaka, as Assaka in the Pali texts contemporary to the Buddha might
have helped Asoka to plant the sapling of the Buddhism in this part of the country. It is
clear from Indica that the Andhras had thirty fortified settlements, but it is not known
whether they belonged to a single family or many. It is also not clear from any record that
the Andhras in the regions other than the Krishna valley were subject to the Mauryan
rule. As a matter of practice among the historians, it is taken for granted that the entire
Andhra region was under their rule. No information is available about the rulers, or
chieftains who were conquered by the Mauryas. The 13th Rock edict of Asoka38 is taken
to be one and the only authentic source. But unfortunately the said record is not throwing
any light on the questions mentioned before. Anyhow from the perspective of the cultural
personality, the credit of introducing Jaina and the Buddhist sects must be ascribed only
to the Mauryas.

The Andhra Satavahanas

The Andhras of the Puranas and the Satavahanas of the inscriptions are
considered to be first local dynasty belonging to one of the families of the Andhra race.
The Puranic evidences specify that the Andhras came to power at Magadha by killing
Susarman, the last ruler of the Kanvayana family.all the puranas are uniformly stating
that certain Srimuka(Simuka of the inscriptions)39 killed Kanva Susarman. They are also

22

saying that thirty members of this family ruled for four hundred years. The evidence from
Matsya purana and Vayu Purana are very much discussed by the historians 40, who
consider Srimukha (Simuka) to be the founder of the line but do not attribute to him the
assassination of Susarman. In the same way there are different arguments to state that the
Satavahanas originally belonged to Maharashtra, lower Krishna valley, Karnataka and the
region of Kurnool41 in Andhradesa. There is a consensus to call these rulers of
Satavahanakula of the records as the Andhras. Srimukha was succeeded by his brother
Krishna. The greatest among the earliest rulers was found in certain Satakarni, mentioned
in the Naneghat inscription of Naganika. Satakarni got married to Naganika, the daughter
of Maharathi Tranakayiro and performed Asvamedha Sacrifice, worshipped the lords of
four cardinal directions namely Yama, Varuna, Kubera and Vasava (Catunnam ca
lokapalanam Yama Varuna Kubera Vasavanam) and also the sun and the Moon (Chanda
suranam)42. He had the title Dakshinapathapati (Dakhinapatha patisa of the record). It is
opined by historians that Kharavela killed him in the battle in the neighborhood of the
river Krishnaveni (Kanha benha). But there is no specific statement that Kharavela killed
Satakarni I or Satakarni II. It is a riddle not yet solved. Keeping aside the political
significance, it can be told that the Hindu ritualism as per the Vedic standards was
revived in the Telugu speaking area. Certainly it is a setback both to the trends in
Buddhism and Jainism. But if the excavated evidence from Vaddamanu is considered, it
can be said that Kharavela made lower Krishna valley a strong hold of Jainism with his
Vardhamana vihara and the Sadas had their contributions for the same.

23

Subsequently it was found that the Kshatrapass centralized their power under the
control of Bhumaka and Nahapana. They killed one Satavahana ruler, supposed to be the
father of Gautamiputra Sri Satakarni43.

As per the evidence found in the commemorative inscription at Nasik, which was
considered to be a prasasti, Gautamiputra destroyed the family of the Kshatrapas without
a heir44. He had re-struck the coins of Nahapana and it is attested through the coins hoard
found at Jogaithembi. He had also destroyed the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahalvas45. He
extended the Satavahana power down into the lower Krishna valley. His inscription from
Amaravathi attests this fact. The important aspects to be found in the Nasik record are :
Gautamiputra acclaimed the concept of Brahmana caste: removed the intermingling of
the castes and thirdly a Buddhist sect called Bhadrayaniyas could get the royal patronage.
This situation apparently speaks of some attempt to have peace but the most important
concept is that the Satavahana rulers favored both the orthodox and the heterodox
traditions. The Satavahans had the pinching effect of the invasions of Saka Rudradaman
of Kardamaka family more known through his Girnar inscription46 dated 150 A.D. In this
inscription it is clear that Rudradaman defeated Vasisthiputra Pulomavi, the son of
Gautamiputra Sri Satakarni. At the same time it speaks of some matrimony of the Sakas
with the Satavahana prince, Vasishtiputra Satakarni, the cousin of Pulomavi. This
situation aggravated the political insecurity. Yajnasri Satakarni, the last great ruler of the
line had shifted himself to the Krishna valley around Dhanyakataka in Andhradesa. He
was followed by three rulers of the line namely Chandasri Satakarni, Vijaya Satakarni
and Pulomavi. The record of Chandasri is available in East Godavari District. The record

24

of Pulomavi was found in Myakadoni inscription of Bellary District47. This record speaks
of some administrative divisions like Satavahani hara, Satavahani ratta and the like. It
indicates that from the time of Yajnasri much attention was paid to reorganize the
Satavahana kingdom. In the entire history of Satavahanas, the place of Hala is significant.
He was said to have conquered Ceylon (Srilanka)48. At the same time his period
demarcates the emergence of Sanskrit literature overtaking the Prakrit traditions. This is a
development carried out during the period of the Ikshvakus.

To be brief, in the period of four centuries rule, the Satavahanas could provide an
unbiased position for both the orthodox and heterodox cults and also Prakrit and Sanskrit
languages. It is certainly a great achievement, at the same time the excavation of Rock
Cut Caves, as at Naneghat, Karle, Bhedsa and Kanheri is another appreciable
development, which is very much related to the history of Indian Architecture
particularly in the art of Stone Sculpture.

Ikshvakus
Ikshvakus succeeded the Andhra Satavahanas. This dynasty was mentioned in the
puranas as Andhras, Andhra Bhrityas and Sriparvateyas too49. Bhritya means servant.
The Puranas identify their rule for hundred years (dvi pancasatam samah). There are four
kings of this line namely Sri Chantamula, Vira Purushadatta, Ehuvula Chantamula and
Rudrapurushadatta. These rulers had a recorded rule of 72 years. They ruled in the area
between Kolleru Lake and Gundlakamma River. The Ikshvakus were great patrons of
Hindu religious cults as well as the Buddhist. Nagarjunakonda, which is also known as

25

Sriparvata along with Srisaila, was their main center of activity. One can see the Stupas,
viharas and temples, all made up of brick, at Nagarjunakonda. There are examples like
Pushpabhadrasvami temple, Kartikeya temple and temple for Ashtabhuja Narayana
Swami. Impact of the Abhiras, who invaded the kingdom of the Ikshvakus cannot be
ignored. The Ikshvakus had relations with the rulers of Ujjain50, might be the Sakas,
Chutus of Banavasi and other families. Ikshvakus donated lakhs of pieces of gold, cows
and ploughs (aneka hiramnyakoti gosata sahasa hala sata sahasa) 51. It might have been
an attempt to promote agriculture in the foothill areas of the Nallamalais and in the rocky
Palanadu. The Ikshvakus issued their records in both Prakrit and Sanskrit languages. As
potentates the Ikshvakus are of little importance. But their patronage to the Hindu and
Buddhist cults is very much praiseworthy. Women also came from Simhala (Srilanka)
both as the teachers and learners and taught of sacred knowledge of the Buddhists52. The
Invasions of the Abhiras, the claims of Salankayanas and the Pallavas for political
supremacy led to the decay and downfall of the Ikshvaku power.

Salankayanas and Others

The Salankayanas ruled with Vengi as their capital. They were considered to be
the devotees of Chitraratha Swami53, the Sun God. Allahabad inscription of
Samudragupta mentions this family as Vaingeyakas54, one Hastivarman was defeated by
Samudragupta, along with different other rulers. During this period the entire coastal
Andhra was divided among different potentates, whose dynastic affiliations are not
known fully. The Southern part of the coast was under the control of the Pallavas,

26

Samudragupta in his exploits defeated one Vishnugopa of Kanchi. The rulers of this
dynasty had borne the names like Kumaravishnu, Vishnugopa indicating that they were a
group of Vishnu devotees. The Southwestern region during this period was ruled by the
Vaidumbas in Chitoor district, the Banas in Kolar and Anatapur districts and the Gangas
in the Kurnool and the neighboring regions of Karnataka. The Telingana region was
influenced gradually by the impact of the Vakatakas and their allies. The Period from 340
A.D. to 500 A.D. did not have any specific political amalgamation.

Vishnukundins

This dynasty was in power during C.500 to 614 A.D. There were famous rulers
like Govindavarman II, Madhavavarman II and Vikramendravarman. These famous
rulers were offshoots of the matrimony between the Vishnukundins and the Vakatakas
(Vishnukundi Vakata vamsadvayalamkara janmanah)

55

. The original home of

Vishnukundins was a widely discussed issue. Some scholars place them in Tripura. But
Sankara Narayana identified them from Tiruvuru of Krishna district. On the basis of the
Tummalagudem plates Parabrahma Sastry traces them from Nalgonda District. On the
basis of the terms like Trivaranagara, Bhavanagata, Yuvatijana Nandanasya and Sri
Parvata Svami Padanudhyatasya, Satyamurthy assigned them to Tripurantakam 56.
However, the place of their origin is still a puzzle among the historians.

Madhavavarman II was described as the performer of eleven Asvamedhas and

1000 Agnishtomas (Ekadasasvamedha sahasragnishtomayajino). This clearly indicates

27

that these rulers were after the Advent of Vedic ritualism. At the same time the
Vishnukundins were also considered to be the followers of the feet of the lord of Sri
Parvata (Sriparvata svami padanu dhyatanam).
The rule of the Vishnukundins extended from the region of Yadagirigutta in Nalgonda
District to the parts of Srikakulam District. One of the rulers of this line namely;
Vikramendravarma IV was credited as Paramasaugata. This indicates that the
Vishnukundins were not religiously biased and promoted the Hindu as well as the
Buddhist religions alike. The structural examples like the caves of Undavalli present the
development of art and religion during their period.

The end of the Vishnukundins was not clear like their beginning. When Pulakesin
II invaded the coastal Andhra, during 608 A.D. the evidence of Visnukundin rulers is
practically absent. Scholars who worked on the Vishnukundin political history could not
trace their extinction. Certain Ranadurjayas were identified around Kakinada and
Pithapuram, but nowhere the Vishnukundin vestiges were traced. The evidence of the
Aihole inscription is also a poor source for Vishnukundins, through rich for the
Chalukyas.

Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi

The history of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi is found in the East Coast from
624 A.D. to 1076 A.D. During this period the South Western parts of Rayalaseema and

28

Telangana were under the rule of Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas of Kalyani. Parts of
Anantapur District were under the rule of the Nolambas.

The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi had their beginning with Kubja Vishnuvardhana,
the uterine brother of Pulakesin II. He was appointed as Viceroy to all the coastal regions
and subsequently he was declared as a ruler in his own right. This declaration could
gradually develop into a political problem between the Chalukyas of Vengi and
Chalukyas of Kalyani. They had changed their capital thrice. In the beginning they were
based in Guntur District as per Kopparam plates. Subsequently they developed Bezawada
(present Vijayawada of Krishna District) as a military out post on the north of river
Krishna. The Rashtrakuta invasions during the periods of Nrupatunga, Krishna II
Amoghavarsha and Dhruvadharavarsha forced the Chalukyas to shift to Bezawada.
Subsequently the invasions of the Chalukyas of Kalyani forced them to shift their capital
to Rajamahendravaram (present Rajahmundry of East Godavari District).

Vijayaditya I, Vijayaditya II, Narendramrigaraja and Vijayaditya III, Gunaga

were the most famous rulers of this line. Narendramrigaraja fought a hundred battles with
the Rashtrakutas and installed one hundred Narendresvara Lingas in the Krishna valley.
The Chalukyas defeated the Boya Kottams and made Kandulkuru a famous political
center. The eastern Chalukya rulers like Gunaga III Vijayaditya, Bhima I and Bhima II
intervened in the problems of the Nolambas57 and Gangas. The Eastern Chalukyan forces
entered into the regions of Kiranapuramu, Dahalamu, Nirutamu and Darenadu58.

29

The Chalukyan period found internecine political problems due to their relation
with the Telugu Cholas and the Gangas of Kalinga. As a result, the hostilities grew very
much resulting in the assassination of Danarnava alias Rajanarayana by the Telugu Chola
ruler Jatachoda Bhima. His Kanchipuram inscription details all his exploits. The Vengi
kingdom under went anarchy for a period of 24 years59. The relations with the Telugu
Cholas resulted in the promotion of Jainism and also the fanatic Saivaite tendencies
prevailed as identified in the Bezawada inscriptions of Yuddhamalla. They could
construct temples to Siva and Kumarasvami and monasteries for the Saivaites and
Basadis for the Jains.

Saktivarman and Vimaladitya, the two sons of Danarva took asylum in the Chola
territory. Evidence from Chittoor district is attesting their migration60. Rajaraja gave his
daughter Kundavvai in marriage to Vimaladitya and restored Saktivarman at
Rajamahendravaram. Vimaladitya had two sons namely Rajaraja Vishnuvardhana and
Vijayaditya VII. Rajaraja Vishnuvardhana more popularly known as Rajaraja Narendra
married Ammangadevi the daughter of the Chola king Rajendra. Subsequently the throne
had passed to Rajendra, more popularly known as Kulottunga Choda. The Chola
matrimony reduced the political personality of the Chalukyas of Vengi and they had to
face the invasions of the Chalukyas of Kalyani under the leadership of the generals like
Anantapala Dandanayaka, whose records were found at Draksharamam and Chalukya
Bhimavaram (Bhimavaram). Nannaya, by translating Mhabharata into Telugi,
immortalized the Easter Chalukyan rule.

30

In the history of Andhradesa the rule of the Chalukyas of Vemulavada must not
be forgotten. The famous ruler of this line Arikesari patronized not only the Jaina
scholars like Somadeva Suri, who had written the famous Yasastilaka Champu but also
the Kannada poet Pampa. The Kurkyala inscription from Karimnagar district details the
activities of the Chalukyas of Vemulavada61.

The post-Chalukyan period had led to the emergence of many dynasties of Sudra
sect like the Chodas of Velanada, Haihayas of Natavadi and Haihaya of Palanadu62, the
Ayyas of Divi area63. The Chodas of Kanduru nadu, the Recherlas, the Viriyala chiefs
and the Kakatiyas. Of all these potentates the Kakatiyas emerged successful. The
standards of political life and polity underwent major changes. Jainism dealt a deathblow
at the invading spirit of the Vira Saivas. Buddhism lingered as a personal sect, but was
condemned by the saints like Mallikarjuna Panditaradhya. Palanadu remained a
battlefield between the horrifying sectarian tendencies among the Saivaites and the
followers of Vaishnavism. The Pasupata School had a royal patronage with its
monasteries like Golakimatha and teachers like Visvesvara Sambhuvu.

Kakatiyas

The Kakatiyas were acclaimed to be family, which had provided for the first time
a scope to view the present day Andhra Pradesh. The Kakatiyas remained the last great
dynasty before the Muslim invasions over South India. Basically the Kakatiyas were
feudatories under the Chalukyas of Kalyani. Viriyala Kamasani played a vital role in the

31

acquisition of a military fief for the Kakatiyas64. Kakartya Gundyana, mentioned in the
Katlaparru grant of Vijayaditya III65 was considered to be one of the earliest members of
the line. It is from the time of Beta II that the Kakatiyas could gain a political identity.
Kakati Rudra I could conquer the regions like Sabbinadu, Kanduru nadu, Manchikonda
vishaya and Kolanupaka 1000 and could amalgamate a power between the rivers
Godavari and Krishna. The present region of Telingana was totally brought under the
control of the Kakatiyas.

During the period of Rudra can be seen the commencement of hostilities with the
Yadavas of Devagiri. Yadava Singhana was a powerful empire builder. He extended his
power from the Narmada valley to the Upper Pennar valley. Singhana defeated Kakatiya
Mahadeva and took his son Ganapathi as a hostage. For a long time Ganapati was under
imprisonment by the Yadavas.

Once Ganapati could gain freedom, he developed his power more potentially. He
followed the three methods of war, friendship and matrimony. He used war as a medium
to control and curb the antagonists in the vicinity of his capital Orugallu (present
Warangal of Warangal District)). He made friendship with the rulers of distant places like
the Chodas of Nellore. He established matrimony with the Haihayas of Natavadi, the
Ayya family of Divi area, the chiefs of Kolanu and the Chalukyas of Nidadavolu. He was
the first famous empire builder of this dynasty. He took fancy in calling himself as of
Solar (Surya) origin, but at the same time deliberately told that he was a Sudra. The
tradition of claiming origin from either the Lunar (Chandra) family or the Solar family

32

lost its need and significance. There was a need for the ideal of ritual incorporation,
which was adopted by the Jaina groups like the Chalukyas. The social structure of the
medieval period was identified and formed. It is from this period that the importance of
war and the rule of bureaucracy were established on firm grounds. A unit called
Bahattara niyogadhipatis66 came into existence from this period onwords. Jayapa, his
brother in- law, who was appointed as the chief of the elephant army, helped Kakati
Ganapati to a larger extent. Ganapati had to face the bitterness from the Kayastha Chiefs
of Pakanadu, but he could maintain his own cool. Ganapati protected the over-seas
mercantile activity and his Motupalli inscription attests the same. Visvesvarasambhuvu of
Golakimatha, for whom a donation was recorded in Malkapuram inscription of
Rudramadevi67, guided Ganapati.

The Kakatiya period had found more significant phase during the rule of
Rudramadevi and Prataparudra. Rudramadevi is the second daughter of Kakati Ganapati
and was the wife of Chalukya Virabhadra of Nidadavolu. Rudramadevi succeeded to the
Kakatiya throne at the will of Ganapati. During her rule Kayastha Ambadeva caused
problems to the integration of the Kakatiya kingdom. As such there was some questions
of political insecurity to the survival of the kingdom. But that insecurity was not very
much drastic and devastating as it was during the invasion of the Muslims. Rudramadevi
adopted her grandson through Mummadamma namely Prataparudra. Generally some
historians mention him as Prataprudra II. During his period in peninsular India witnessed
the invasion of Malik Kafur, the general of Allah-ud-din-Khalji and Mohammed-binTughlak. Prataparudra could successfully resist Malik Kafur. But as a result the weakness

33

of the Kakatiya kingdom immensely increased. The factions between the Reddis,
Kammanayakas and Velmanayakas are very much evident and also significant in the
Kakatiya state. The social instability could reduce the power of Kakatiyas. With the
invasion of Mohammed-bin-Tughlak, the kakatiya kingdom collapsed.

At the same time there was a socio-cultural crisis. According to the Vilasa grant
of Musunuri Prolaya Nayaka, the Muslim invaders destroyed the temples, molested
women, killed and insulted the Brahmanas, killed the cows, which were all held in high
esteem and respect by the Hindu society. Such exigency is to be faced and the concerted
effort was the need of the hour. The concerted effort against the Muslim invasions has the
following results.

The Musunuri chiefs Kapaya Nayaka and Prolaya Nayaka tried to revive the
political integrity of the Kakatiya polity. This attempt could not survive for a longer time
and the very role of Musunuri dynasty remained a forgotten chapter.

The Velmas of Rachakonda and Devarakonda started their attempt under the
leadership of the Recherla Damanakaya on the west of the river Krishna, whereas on east
of river Krishna Prolaya Vemareddi started in 1325 A.D., a kingdom as Addanki his head
quarters. At the same time on the South of the river Tungabhadra in Pampa Kshetra was
founded a kingdom, at the instance of Madhava Vidyaranya. The founders of this
Kingdom were Harihararaya and Bukkaraya said to be the sons of Sangama. Thus
emerged the famous Vijayanagara kingdom. The History of Vijayanagara is identified

34

from C.1336 A.D to C.1610 A.D. During this period four dynasties had ruled. They were
Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu.

During the period of the Sangamas, Kumara Kamparaya reduced the Sultanate at
Madurai to his benefit and one potentate of order of the Nayakas was placed there. It is
the genesis for the history of the Tamil Nayakas. They had also measured arms with the
Reddis of Kondavidu. As per the treaty of Srisailam, river Krishna was considered to be
the boundary between the Reddis and Vijayanagara kingdoms. The Sangama period
allowed for the first time the Mala community to enter in to a Vaishnavaite temple at
Kadiri68. The Sangama rule witnessed the gradual fall of the Reddi and Velama
Kingdoms.

The Reddi kingdom was trampled down under the feet of the Gajapatis of Orissa,
who invaded into the Godavari-Krishna valleys under the leadership of Kapilesvara
Gajapati. The invasions of the Bahmanis were the main reason for the fall the Velama
kingdom. After the downfall of both these kingdoms, the Gajapatis and the Bahmanis
emerged as the powerful neighbors to the Vijayanagara kingdom. The Raichur doab,
consisting of Raichur and Mudgal, became an area of contention between these two
dynasties. The practice of Amaranayakas had its beginning during the Sangama period as
traced for the first time at Patnam69.

The Saluva period was a continuation of the Vijayanagara power. But it could not
uplift the glory of the Sangama period. The significance of this period is that Chandragiri

35

and Penukonda had emerged as powerful political centers, the political drive was from
the east to west. The Saluva rule appears more like an interregnum, though actually it is
not of that sort.

The Tuluva dynasty was in power from C.1508 to C.1565 A.D. But the
inscriptions of Sadasivaraya, the last ruler of this line, are available at Nandyal up to
1576 A.D. this dynasty witnessed the fall of the Bahmani Kingdom through degeneration.
It got divided in to five principalities of Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar Bidar and
Berar. During C.1509 Krishnnadevaraya of this line protected the last Bahmani ruler and
got glorified as Yavana rajya sthapanacarya. Krishnadevaraya and Achyutadevaraya
are the two famous rulers of this line. Krishnadevaraya conquered the region occupied by
the Gajapatis and extended his power upto Potnur. Acyutadevaraya continued the
position as status quo. Aliyaramaraya was with Sadasivaraya. His activities bore fruit in
the hostilities with the Sultans. It resulted in the famous battle of Rakshasa Tangadi in
C.1565 A.D. This battle is also called the battle of Tallikota.

The fourth dynasty of Aravidus is a forgotten dynasty according to Robert Swell.

Tirumalaya was the founder of this line. Venkatapatiraya I and Venkatapatiraya II were
the two important rulers of this dynasty. The successful battle of the Penukonda was
fought during C.1590 A.D. against the Qutub Shahis of Golkonda70. This dynasty
received the help of the Nayaka kings of Tanjavur.

36

The Vijayanagara history is well known for its architectural development with the
style of their own. The examples in Rayalasima from Srisailam in Krishna valley to
Tirumalai on the east attest the impact of Vijayanagara style.During this period the
Vaishnavaite deities received the attention of the Vaishnava and Madhava philosophers.
Venkatesvara, Narasimha Cennakesava and Krishna were very much accepted, liked and
followed by all groups of people.

Generally the Vijayanagara phase is considered to be the last great period for the
cultural glory of the Hindus. During this period Telugu literature underwent many
changes beginning with Nachana Somana, who received Penchukaladinne in Pennar
valley as an agrahara from the Sangama rulers.

Golkonda was the center of political power of the Qutb Shahis from C.1509C.1687 A.D. Quli Qutb Shah carved out a kingdom from the Bahamani occupations with
Golkonda as his headquarters. Ibrahim Qutb Shah was a patron of letters. Mohammed
Qutb Shah and Mohammed Quli Qutb Shah extended their power up to Udayagiri. Abul
Hasan Qutb Shah, more popularly known as Tanisha still remains in the memory of the
people as the key person for the construction of the temple of Sri Rama at Bhadrachalam.

From C.1687 A.D. onwards, the kingdom was under the Moghul rule and
Golkonda was identified as Suba, having its Circars at Chicacole (Srikakulam),
Vizagapatam, Rajamundri, Ellore, Bandar, Guntur, Mustafanagar and Nellore. After the
death of in C.1707A.D, Aurangajeb the Golkonda Suba was taken over by

37

Chinkilichkhan, who came to power as Asafja Nizam Ul Mulk. During the rule of the
Asafjahis the Northern Circars and Ceded districts were handed over to the English East
India Company. The Qutb Shahi period did not have bias for religious beliefs. They
treated the Muslms and the Hindus alike and extended all types of services of the state.
This historical evolution had resulted in its own cultural background, having religion as
the nucleus. With the downfall of Vijayanagara Empire we can say that the traditional
Indian Art has come to an end as further art that prevailed in India was that of Moghul
and European nature.

Artistic Trends

Coming to the artistic trends in Andhradesa, a variety of arts and crafts have been
developed with the changing rulers, regions and patronization. For that matter the arts
and crafts are there right from the period of Cave dwelling of man. Nobody has
patronized the rock paintings of the cave dweller. It was the creation of man for his
happiness. This art of cave paintings in the later days transformed into the religious art as
seen in the Ajanta and Ellora Caves. After the paintings in the caves it is the carving and
constructional activity of man that prevailed uninterrupted. Carving the sculptures of
nature, religious themes etc. took an active course as early as 2nd century BC. In
Andhradesa. In the north-western part of India the art and architectural activity was much
earlier and much precise as seen from the remains of Indus civilization which goes back
to 3000BC. The highest degree of artistic ability can be recognized in the engraved
seals, sculptured figures in the round, finely wrought jewellery, silver and bronze vessels

38

and painted pottery71. As we discussing in the foregoing pages, most of the arts and
crafts which involve painting on walls and cloth, carving and sculpting in different media
like metal, stone wood etc. must have had their beginning around early centuries of the
Christian era if not earlier in the Andhradesa. From Rigveda datable to 1000 BC we learn
a lot about the arts of the carpenter, weaver and jeweler. In Andhradesa, we find the
remnant and intact pieces stone sculptures right from the 2nd C.B.C onwards. It does not
mean that stone was the only medium used for the purpose of art. Certainly there must
have existed the art works of other media like wood, metal, paintings etc. Why we see
only the stone art pieces like sculptures on temple walls or as loose sculpture is that of all
the media stone is the only stable material, extensively available at almost for a song. The
other art material like wood carvings, paintings etc. must have vanished with time as they
are not stable like stone.

Regarding metal ware even today one can find them in excavations in a partly
preserved manner. However the use of metal for art sake was not extensive during the
early historic period. The naturally preserved paintings and drawings inside caves are
well preserved as they were not subjected to the natures wrath or human vandalism. The
tradition of Paintings has continued throughout the centuries unlike Sculptural art. The
Hindu sculptural art has come to an end almost with the down fall of Vijayanagara
Empire. Till that time from the period of Satavahanas (200 BC) this art has seen several
phases in Andhradesa depending on the ruling dynasty. Every dynasty had made an
impact with their own style and specializations. They include Ikshvakus, Chalukyas,
Rastrakutas, Kakatiyas and Vijayanagara rulers. Each dynasty not only in the carvings of

39

sculptures but also in the construction of temples left their own marks and styles which
are different from others. The neighboring areas influences are also common. Normally
an artist of a particular region follows a particular trend which is broadly named as style
or school. If an artist of a neighboring region is invited by the ruler to patronize, his
original skills and styles are always there even though he is in a new place; in such
situations, a new style may be created. Same is the case with the textiles also. South
Indian styles and designs of textiles for every purpose are different from the North Indian
ones.

40

NOTES AND REFERENCES

01. The states reorganization act of Government of India 1956, declares Andhra
Pradesh as Linguistic state.
02. MurthyM.L.K (Ed.) 2003: Pre and Proto Historic Andhra Pradesh up to 500
B.C.Pp, 28-37: Orient Longman, Hyderabad
03. Ibid.Pp.39-49
04. Ibid.Pp.50-63
05. Ibid.P.90
06. Ibid.Pp.107-136
07. Isvaradutt. K: 1979 (1963): Prachinandhra charitraka bhugolamu: P.02
08. Ibid. Pp. 300-301
09. Ibid. Pp.283-285
10. Ibid. Pp.17
11. This is a variant of word Maharajavadi, a sanskritised form of Renadu
12. Isvaradutt Op.cit.Pp.318-320
13. Ibid. Pp.95-96
14. According to I.K.Sarma Dhanyakataka is nothing but the sanskritised form of
Dhamnakada.
15. As per Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II, this was called Kunala. This was also
called kolanuvidu or padminipura.Isvaradutt, Op.cit.Pp. 112-114
16. Some Scholars like to identify Palakkaka of Allahabad pillar inscription with the
lake Pulicat, where in certain Ugarasena was ruling.

41

17. Isvaradutt Op. cit.Pp.234-236

18. Ibid. Pp.129-133
19. Ibid.Pp.63-69
20. Ibid.Pp.228-231
21. Ibid.Pp.39-40
22. The pancarama tradition was considered to be the result of some ayaka pillars
converted in to Siva lingas. All these five aramas-Amaravathi, Gunupudi,
Bhimavaram, Palakollu, Draksharamam and Kumaram were considered to be the
Buddhist sites.
23. Wadia D.N. 1978 (1919): Geology of India Pp.113-119
24. Ibid .P.124
25. Lal Rosem (Ed.) 1999: Itihas- Vol.XXV No.1&2. Satyamurthy.K. Biotic
currents in select lateriete zones in Andhra Pradesh .Pp. 87-102

26

.Reddy

M.P.R.(Ed)

1981

Atthavana

vyavaharatantramu-A

Mackenzie

manuscript
27. Satyamurthy.K.2003: Amritavalli sameta Sri Khadri Laksmhi Narasimhasvami
Vaibhavamu-P.31
28. Wadia Op .Cit. P.48.This is called lateritic regolith.
29. Isvaradutt.K.Op. Cit. Pp.248-249
30. Ibid .Pp.114-115
31. Ibid. Pp. 56-57
32. Ibid .Pp. 82-83

42

33. This was mentioned in one of the inscriptions of Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha in

Medak District.
34. Murthy M.L.K. (Ed.) Op. Cit.P.135.
35 Hanumantha Rao B.S.L: Andhrula charitra.Pp. 39-40
36. Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta mentions that in his southern conquest he
had defeated one Vyaghraraja of Mahakantara and Mahakantra was identify with
the forest zone between the rivers Chambal and Mahanadi.
37. Sastri.T.V.G. Excavacations at Vaddamanu
38. The thirteenth rock edict of Asoka identifies the Andhras and Kalingas as the
important powers.
39. Gopalachari. K. 1976 (1941) Early history of the Andhra country Pp.33-35.
40. Ibid .Pp.25-26.
41. Satyamurthy.K. 1995 Survey of Andhra Pradesh P.50
42. Naneghat inscription is glorifying the sacrificial paramount position of Satakarni,
which is the best example for the ecclesiastical sanction.
43. Gopalachari .K. Op. Cit. Pp.56-59.
44. Nasik prasasti mentions this success as, Khakha rata vamsaniravasesakarasa.
45. The same inscription mentions as, Saka Yavana Pahlava nishudanasa.
46. Girnar inscription mentions is an out standing record not only in identifying the
Kardamaka supremacy, but it clearly speaks of their relationship with the
Satavahanas. See Gopalachari Op. Cit. P.59ff.
47. Gopalachari .Ibid. P.28.

43

48. Any epigraphic evidence did not attest the conquest of Hala over Ceylon. While
discussing about Hala, Gopalachari did not explain the reasons for its absence. He
simply took the entire thing for granted.
49. Andhranam samsthite rajye tesham bhrimyanvaya nripah saptai vandhra
bhavishyanti, was mentioned in Matsya Purana.
50. One ayaka pillar inscription of the 6th regional year of Vira Purishadatta speaks of
Ujenika Maharaja Balika, Mahadevi Rudradharabhattarika. The suffix battarika
speaks of certain ritual incorporation.
51. This epithet was not considered to be a mere ritual glorification.
52. Hanumantharao B.S.L. Op. Cit. P.90
53. Chitrathasvami padanudhyatanam. Clearly indicates that even though they
claimed some respects to one Bappa bhattaraka, they did not give up the religious
dictum to worship Lord Sun.
54. Samudragupta mentioned the ruler whom he defeated at Vengi as Vaingeyaka
Hastivarman. He did not specify any dynastic identity Fleet.J. Corpus
Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol.III:1 Allahabad Inscription of Samudragupta.
55. Sastri .P.V.P. (Ed.) 1992: Inscriptions of Andhra Pradesh. Nalgonda District
Vol.I.pp XV-XXI
56. Satyamurthy .K.1995 op.cit. P.69
57. Satyamurthy .K 1994 Urbanization in Anatapur district P.
58. Dharmavaram inscription of Chalukya Bhima mentions: Kiranapuramu, Dahala.
Nirutambu,

Darenandu,

Nacahlapuramu

socce

Nachalitundu:

Radhakrishna.B.1971: Early Telugu Inscriptions: A.P.Sahitya Academy

44

59. Nandamapundi Grant: Kielhorn F. Epigraphia Indica Vol.IV pp.300-09 mentions

Chaturvimsati varshani vengimahi ranayakam
60

Citttoor

records

are

Vengipuravaradhiswara.

speaking
The

of

same

some
rulers

kings
were

with
also

the

epithet

glorified

as

Venkatagiripuradheeswaras and Tirukkalattriya pada padmaradhakas

61 Sastri, PVP (Ed) 1974: Inscriptions of A.P. Karimnagar District. No.3 pp.10-11
62. The famous battle of Palanadu is ascribed to this family only
63. Kakati Ganapati married Narama and Perama of this family
64. Sastri P.V.P: 1978: The Kakatiyas,:P.43
65. Ibid.P.38
66. Ibid. P.117
67. Ibid. Pp.276-77
68. Kadiri Inscription of Veera Harihararaya dated S.1339 (1417AD) mentions,
Malalunnu, Madugulunnu, Raitulununnu paramarsinchi
69. Patnam inscription refers to one of Mahanayankaracarya jamminayani
Papinayanimgaru during the period of BukkarayaI and this is the first example of
Amaranayaka systems.
70. Satyamurty K, 1995. Op.cit.p.119.
71. Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Introduction to Indian Art, 1969, Madras, p.80
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The first direct reference to silpa occurs in the samhitas and brahmanas. In fact in
its first appearance, in the Brahmanas, it stands for works of arts. In the Kausitaki

45

Brahmana the term is extended even further to cover dance, drama and music.
(Indias Craft Tradition, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, p.7, Delhi, 1990).

According to Jasleen Dhamija, three distinct types of crafts have been evolved
over the years. Firstly there arethe folk craft objects created by the people for their
personal use or by the village craftsmen for a limited clientele with whom they are in
touch. Secondly there are the crafts which have been developed around the religious
centres, thirdly there are commercial crafts which are made in specialized centers for
which complete mastery over technique is necessary.

(Indian Folk Arts and Crafts,

pp.3-4 New Delhi, 1970).

46