1

What is Inheritance?
Inheritance is the process of creating new classes, called derived
classes, from existing or base classes.
The derived class inherits all the capabilities of the base class but
can add more features into itself.
Classes can inherit attributes (data members) and methods
(member functions) from other classes.
What is the purpose of Inheritance?
Specialization: Extending the functionality of an existing class
Generalization: sharing commonality between two or more
classes.
Improved efficiency and greater robustness
2

Terminology
Derived class or subclass or child class.
A class which inherits some of its attributes and methods
from another class
Base class or superclass or parent class.
A class from which another class inherits
Ancestor.
A classs ancestors are those from which its own
super classes inherit
Descendant.
A classs descendants are those which inherit from its
sub classes.
3

Terminology - a classification Hierarchy

Building

Commercial

Office
block

Public

Domestic

Office
block

Factory

Masjid

Apartment
Block

Hospital
4

Terminology - a classification Hierarchy

Generalization
Building

Commercial

Office
block

Public

Domestic

Office
block

Factory

Masjid

Hospital

Apartment
Block
Specialization
5

Terminology - a classification Hierarchy

Generalized
base class

Building

Commercial

Office
block

Public

Domestic

Office
block

Factory

Masjid

Apartment
Block

Hospital
6

Terminology - a classification Hierarchy

Building

Commercial

Office
block

Factory

Public

A kind of Building

Domestic

Office
block

Apartment
Block

(AKO)
Masjid

Hospital
7

Terminology - a classification Hierarchy

A kind of
Commercial building

Building

(AKO)

Commercial

Office
block

Public

Domestic

Office
block

Factory

Masjid

Apartment
Block

Hospital
8

Terminology - a classification Hierarchy

Arrow in diagram
means
Building

Commercial

Office
block

Public

inherits from

Domestic

Office
block

Factory

Masjid

Apartment
Block

Hospital
9

Designing your classification hierarchy:

A kind of or a part of?
Vehicle

Car

Car

Wheel



A car is a kind of vehicle

car class can inherit from
vehicle class

A wheel isnt a kind of car.

A wheel is a part of a car

10

Designing your classification hierarchy:

Different classes or different states?
Need to analyze whether differences between
objects are dependant on type (such as a house
being different to a factory) or state. (different
values of the classs attributes)

Building

Short Building

short building and tall building

might vary only in the value of
the height attribute - dont need
separate classes

Tall
Building
11

What do objects inherit?

Line
Attributes:
start position
end position
Methods:
draw

Coloured Line
Attributes:
colour
Methods:
set colour

A coloured line is a kind of line

the coloured line class inherits all
the attributes and methods of
the line class and adds attributes
and methods of its own

An object of the coloured line

class has all the attributes and
methods of the line base class as
well as the attributes and methods
added by the derived class
12

Specialisation
Extending the functionality of an existing class
eg a coloured line is a specialised kind of line
A class is both
closed in that it has an encapsulated, private part
which cannot be affected by external manipulation
and open in that it allows itself to be used as part of a
larger software unit.

13

Generalization
Sharing commonality between two or more classes
If we were modelling animals in a zoo would we
create a separate class for each animal type?
Cow

Whale

Elephant

Eagle

This would duplicate attributes such as legs and

methods such as getAge()

14

Generalization
Helpful to place common elements (attributes and
methods) in a shared base class and organize problem
into an inheritance hierarchy.

Animal

Mammal

Cow

Whale

Elephant

Bird

Eagle
15

Generalization
Sometimes this leads to the creation of abstract classes
which cant be instantiated directly

Abstract classes

Animal

Mammal

Cow

Whale

Elephant

Bird

Eagle
16

Generalization
concrete classes can be instantiated directly

Animal

Mammal

Bird

Concrete classes

Cow

Whale

Elephant

Eagle
17

Derived Class and Base Class

// inheritance with Counter class
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Counter{
protected:
unsigned int count;
public:
Counter() : count(0)
{ }
Counter(int c) : count(c)
{ }
unsigned int get_count() const
{ return count; }
Counter operator ++ ()
{ return Counter(++count); }
};

(1/2)

// base class
// NOTE: not private
// count

// no-arg constructor
// 1-arg constructor
// return count
// incr count (prefix)

18

Derived Class and Base Class

class CountDn: public Counter{
public:
Counter operator -- ()
{ return Counter(--count); }
};
int main(){
CountDn c1;
// CountDn c2(100);
cout << "\nc1=" << c1.get_count();
++c1; ++c1; ++c1;
cout << "\nc1=" << c1.get_count();
--c1; --c1;
cout << "\nc1=" << c1.get_count();
cout << endl;
return 0;
}

(2/2)
// derived class
// decr count (prefix)

// c1 of class CountDn
// Error
// display c1
// increment c1,3times
// display it
//decrement c1, twice
// display it

19

Derived Class and Base Class

CountDn class inherits all the features of the Counter
class. CountDn doesnt need a constructor or the
get_count() or operator++() functions, because these
already exist in Counter.
The first line of CountDn specifies that it is derived from
Counter: class CountDn : public Counter
Here we use a single colon, followed by the keyword
public and the name of the base class Counter.
This sets up the relationship between the classes. This
line says that CountDn is derived from the base class
Counter.
20

Generalization in UML Class Diagrams

In the UML, inheritance is called
generalization, because the parent
class is a more general form of the
child class.
The child is more specific version of
the parent.
In figure, the direction of the arrow
emphasizes that the derived class
refers to functions and data in the
base class, while the base class has
no access to the derived class.
21

Counter C1;
C1.count = 5;
// Error

C1.get_count();
// OK

22

CountDn C2;
--C2 ;
// OK
C2.count = 10; // Error

23

24

Derived Class Constructors

// constructors in derived class
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Counter{
protected:
unsigned int count;
public:
Counter() : count() {}
Counter(int c) : count(c) {}
unsigned int get_count() const
{ return count; }
Counter operator ++ ()
{ return Counter(++count); }
};
class CountDn : public Counter{
public: CountDn() : Counter() {}

(1/2)

// NOTE: not private

// count
// constructor, no args
// constructor, one arg
// return count
// incr count (prefix)

// constructor, no args
25

Derived Class Constructors

CountDn(int c) : Counter(c) {}
CountDn operator -- ()
{ return CountDn(--count); }

(2/2)
// constructor, 1 arg
// decr count (prefix)

};
int main(){
CountDn c1; CountDn c2(100);
cout << "\nc1=" << c1.get_count();
// display
cout << "\nc2=" << c2.get_count();
// display
++c1; ++c1; ++c1;
// increment c1
cout << "\nc1=" << c1.get_count();
// display it
--c2; --c2;
// decrement c2
cout << "\nc2=" << c2.get_count();
// display it
CountDn c3 = --c2;
// = calls 1 arg constructor
cout << "\nc3=" << c3.get_count();
// display c3
cout << endl;
return 0;
26
}

Overriding Member Functions

(1/3)

// overriding functions in base and derived classes

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#include <process.h>
// for exit()
class Stack
{
protected:
// NOTE: cant be private
enum { MAX = 3 };
// size of stack array
int st[MAX];
// stack: array of integers
int top;
// index to top of stack
public:
// constructor
Stack() { top = -1; }
void push(int var)
{ st[++top] = var;
int pop()
{ return st[top--];
};

// put number on stack

}
// take number off stack
}
27

Overriding Member Functions

(2/3)

class Stack2 : public Stack{

public:
void push(int var)
// put number on stack
{
if(top >= MAX-1)
// error if stack full
{
cout << "\nError: stack is full";
exit(1);
}
Stack::push(var);
// call push() in Stack class
}
int pop()
// take number off stack
{
if(top < 0)
// error if stack empty
{ cout << "\nError: stack is empty\n"; exit(1); }
return Stack::pop();
// call pop() in Stack class
}
28
};

Overriding Member Functions

int main()
{
Stack2 s1;
s1.push(11);
s1.push(22);
s1.push(33);
cout << endl <<
cout << endl <<
cout << endl <<
cout << endl <<
cout << endl;
return 0;
}

(3/3)

// push some values onto stack

s1.pop(); // pop some values from stack

s1.pop();
s1.pop();
s1.pop(); // oops, popped one too many...

29

Inheritance in the English Distance Class

(1/3)

// inheritance using English Distances

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
enum posneg { pos, neg }; // for sign in DistSign
class Distance{
// English Distance class
protected:
// NOTE: cant be private
int feet; float inches;
public:
Distance() : feet(0), inches(0.0) { } // no-arg constructor
Distance(int ft, float in) : feet(ft), inches(in) { }
void getdist(){
// get length from user
cout << "\nEnter feet: " ; cin >> feet;
cout << "Enter inches: " ; cin >> inches;
}
void showdist() const
// display distance
{ cout << feet << "\'-" << inches << '\"'; }
30
};

Inheritance in the English Distance Class

(2/3)

class DistSign : public Distance{

private: posneg sign;
public:
DistSign() : Distance()
{ sign = pos; }

// adds sign to Distance

// sign is pos or neg
// no-arg constructor
// call base constructor
// set the sign to +
// 2- or 3-arg constructor
DistSign(int ft, float in, posneg sg=pos) :
Distance(ft, in)
// call base constructor
{ sign = sg; }
// set the sign
void getdist(){
// get length from user
Distance::getdist();
// call base getdist()
char ch;
// get sign from user
cout << "Enter sign (+ or -): "; cin >> ch;
sign = (ch=='+') ? pos : neg;}
void showdist() const{
// display distance
cout << ( (sign==pos) ? "(+)" : "(-)" );
// show sign
31

Inheritance in the English Distance Class

Distance::showdist();

(3/3)

// ft and in

}
};
int main()
{
DistSign alpha;
alpha.getdist();
DistSign beta(11, 6.25);
DistSign gamma(100, 5.5, neg);

// no-arg constructor
// get alpha from user
// 2-arg constructor
// 3-arg constructor
// display all distances
cout << "\nalpha = "; alpha.showdist();
cout << "\nbeta = "; beta.showdist();
cout << "\ngamma = "; gamma.showdist();
cout << endl;
return 0;

}
32

Class Hierarchies (UML Diagram)

33

Class Hierarchies ( Employee Database )

(1/4)

// models employee database using inheritance

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
const int LEN = 80;
// maximum length of names
class employee {
// employee class
private:
char name[LEN];
// employee name
unsigned long number;
// employee number
public:
void getdata(){
cout << "\n Enter last name: "; cin >> name;
cin >> number;
cout << " Enter number: ";
}
void putdata() const{
cout << "\n Name:
" << name;
cout << "\n Number: " << number;
34
} };

Class Hierarchies ( Employee Database )

(2/4)

class manager : public employee{

// management class
private:
char title[LEN];
// "vice-president" etc.
double dues;
// golf club dues
public:
void getdata(){
employee::getdata();
cout << " Enter title: "; cin >> title;
cout << " Enter golf club dues: "; cin >> dues;
}
void putdata() const{
employee::putdata();
cout << "\n Title: " << title;
cout << "\n Golf club dues: " << dues;
}
};
35

Class Hierarchies ( Employee Database )

(3/4)

class scientist : public employee{

// scientist class
private:
int pubs;
// number of publications
public:
void getdata()
{
employee::getdata();
cout << " Enter number of pubs: "; cin >> pubs;
}
void putdata() const
{
employee::putdata();
cout << "\n Number of publications: " << pubs;
}
};
class laborer : public employee
// laborer class
36
{ };

Class Hierarchies ( Employee Database )

int main(){
manager m1, m2;
cout
cout
cout
cout
cout

<<
<<
<<
<<
<<

endl;
"\nEnter
"\nEnter
"\nEnter
"\nEnter

scientist s1;

data
data
data
data

//display data for

cout << "\nData on
cout << "\nData on
cout << "\nData on
cout << "\nData on
cout << endl;
return 0;
}

(4/4)

laborer l1;

// get data for several employees

for manager 1";
m1.getdata();
for manager 2";
m2.getdata();
for scientist 1"; s1.getdata();
for laborer 1";
l1.getdata();

several employees
manager 1";
manager 2";
scientist 1";
laborer 1";

m1.putdata();
m2.putdata();
s1.putdata();
l1.putdata();

37

Abstract Base Class

Notice that we dont define any objects of the base class
employee. We use this as a general class whose purpose is to
act as a base from which other classes are derived.
The laborer class operates identically to the employee class,
since it contains no additional data or functions.
It may seem that the laborer class is unnecessary, but by
making it a separate class we emphasize that all classes are
descended from the same source, employee.
Also, if in the future we decided to modify the laborer class,
we would not need to change the declaration for employee.
Classes used only for deriving other classes, as employee is in
EMPLOY, are sometimes loosely called abstract classes,
meaning that no actual instances (objects) of this class are
created.
38

Class Hierarchies (UML Diagram)

shape
xCo
yCo
fillcolor
fillstyle
shape ( )
shape (int
draw ( )

Msoftcon.h Msoftcon.cpp Main.cpp

rectangle

circle

triangle

width
height

radius

height

rectangle ( )
draw ( )

circle ( )
draw ( )

triangle ( )
draw ( )
39

Inheritance and Graphics Shapes

(1/5)

// multshap.cpp balls, rects, and polygons

#include "msoftcon.h"
// for graphics functions
class shape{
// base class
protected:
int xCo, yCo;
// coordinates of shape
color fillcolor;
// color
fstyle fillstyle;
// fill pattern
public:
// no-arg constructor
shape() : xCo(0), yCo(0), fillcolor(cWHITE),
fillstyle(SOLID_FILL) { }
shape(int x, int y, color fc, fstyle fs) :
xCo(x), yCo(y), fillcolor(fc), fillstyle(fs) { }
void draw() const{
// set color and fill style
set_color(fillcolor);
set_fill_style(fillstyle);
}
40
};

Inheritance and Graphics Shapes

class circle : public shape
{
private:
int radius;
public:
circle() : shape()
{ }

(2/5)

// (xCo, yCo) is center

// no-arg constr

// 5-arg constructor
circle(int x, int y, int r, color fc, fstyle fs)
: shape(x, y, fc, fs), radius(r)
{ }
void draw() const
// draw the circle
{
shape::draw();
draw_circle(xCo, yCo, radius);
}
};

41

Inheritance and Graphics Shapes

(3/5)

class rect : public shape

{
private:
int width, height;
// (xCo, yCo) is upper-left corner
public:
rect() : shape(), height(0), width(0)
// no-arg ctor
{ }
// 6-arg ctor
rect(int x, int y, int h, int w, color fc, fstyle fs) :
shape(x, y, fc, fs), height(h), width(w)
{ }
void draw() const
// draw the rectangle
{
shape::draw();
draw_rectangle(xCo, yCo, xCo+width, yCo+height);
set_color(cWHITE);
// draw diagonal
draw_line(xCo, yCo, xCo+width, yCo+height);
42
} };

Inheritance and Graphics Shapes

(4/5)

class tria : public shape

{
private:
int height;
// (xCo, yCo) is tip of pyramid
public:
tria() : shape(), height(0)
// no-arg constructor
{ }
// 5-arg constructor
tria(int x, int y, int h, color fc, fstyle fs) :
shape(x, y, fc, fs), height(h)
{ }
void draw() const
// draw the triangle
{
shape::draw();
draw_pyramid(xCo, yCo, height);
}
};
43

Inheritance and Graphics Shapes

(5/5)

int main()
{
init_graphics();
// initialize graphics system
circle cir(40, 12, 5, cBLUE, X_FILL);
// create circle
rect rec(12, 7, 10, 15, cRED, SOLID_FILL);
// create rectangle
tria tri(60, 7, 11, cGREEN, MEDIUM_FILL); //create triangle
cir.draw();
// draw all shapes
rec.draw();
tri.draw();
set_cursor_pos(1, 25);
// lower-left corner
return 0;
}

44

Access Combinations

(1/2)

// tests publicly- and privately-derived classes

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
// base class
class A{
private:
int privdataA; // (functions have the same access
protected: int protdataA; // rules as the data shown here)
public:
int pubdataA;
};
class B : public A{
// publicly-derived class
public:
void funct(){
int a;
a = privdataA;
// error: not accessible
a = protdataA;
// OK
a = pubdataA;
// OK
}
45
};

Access Combinations

(2/2)

class C : private A{
// privately-derived class
public:
void funct(){
int a;
a = privdataA;
// error: not accessible
a = protdataA; /* OK */
a = pubdataA;
// OK
}
};
int main(){
int a; B objB; a = objB.privdataA; // error: not accessible
a = objB.protdataA;
// error: not accessible
a = objB.pubdataA;
// OK (A public to B)
C objC; a = objC.privdataA;
// error: not accessible
a = objC.protdataA;
// error: not accessible
a = objC.pubdataA; // error: not accessible (A private to C)
return 0;
46
}

Access Combinations

47

Levels of Inheritance (UML Diagram)

48

Levels of Inheritance

(1/4)

// multiple levels of inheritance

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
const int LEN = 80;
class employee{
private:
char name[LEN];
// employee name
unsigned long number;
// employee number
public:
void getdata(){
cout << "\n
Enter last name: "; cin >> name;
Enter number: ";
cin >> number; }
cout << "
void putdata() const{
cout << "\n
Name: " << name;
cout << "\n
Number: " << number;
}
};

49

Levels of Inheritance

(2/4)

class scientist : public employee // scientist class

{
private:
int pubs;
// number of publications
public:
void getdata()
{
employee::getdata();
cout << "
Enter number of pubs: "; cin >> pubs;
}
void putdata() const
{
employee::putdata();
cout << "\n
Number of publications: " << pubs;
}
};
50

Levels of Inheritance

(3/4)

class laborer : public employee

// laborer class
{
};
class foreman : public laborer
// foreman class
{
private:
float quotas;
// percent of quotas met successfully
public:
void getdata(){
laborer::getdata();
cout << "
Enter quotas: "; cin >> quotas;
}
void putdata() const{
laborer::putdata();
cout << "\n
Quotas: " << quotas;
}
51
};

Levels of Inheritance

(4/4)

int main(){
laborer l1;
foreman f1;
cout << endl;
cout << "\nEnter data for laborer 1";
l1.getdata();
cout << "\nEnter data for foreman 1";
f1.getdata();
cout << endl;
cout << "\nData on laborer 1";
l1.putdata();
cout << "\nData on foreman 1";
f1.putdata();
cout << endl;
return 0;
}
52

Multiple Inheritance (UML Diagram)



A class can be derived from more than

one base class. This is called multiple
inheritance. Figure shows how this
looks when a class C is derived from
base classes A and B.
In programming we write as

class A
// base class
{ };
class B
// base class
{ };
class C : public A, public B
{ };

A
B
// C is derived
// from A and B
53

Member Functions in Multiple Inheritance

class student
{ };
class employee
{ };
class manager :
private employee, private student
{ };
class scientist :
private employee, private student
{ };
class laborer : public employee
{ };
54

Member Functions in Multiple Inheritance

(1/5)

//multiple inheritance with employees and degrees

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
const int LEN = 80;
// maximum length of names
class student{
// educational background
private:
char school[LEN];
// name of school or university
char degree[LEN];
// highest degree earned
public:
void getedu(){
cout << "
Enter name of school or university: ";
cin >> school;
Enter highest degree earned \n";
cout << "
cout << "
(Highschool, Bachelor's, Master's, PhD): ";
cin >> degree;
}
55

Member Functions in Multiple Inheritance

(2/5)

void putedu() const{

cout << "\n
School or university: " << school;
cout << "\n
Highest degree earned: " << degree;
}
};
class employee{
private:
char name[LEN];
// employee name
unsigned long number;
// employee number
public:
void getdata(){
Enter last name: "; cin >> name;
cout << "\n
Enter number: ";
cin >> number;
cout << "
}
void putdata() const{
cout << "\n
Name: " << name;
cout << "\n
Number: " << number;

56

Member Functions in Multiple Inheritance

(3/5)

}
};
class manager : private employee, private student{
private:
char title[LEN];
// "vice-president" etc.
double dues;
// golf club dues
public:
void getdata(){
employee::getdata();
cout << "
Enter title: ";
cin >> title;
cout << "
Enter golf club dues: "; cin >> dues;
student::getedu();
}
void putdata() const{
employee::putdata();
cout << "\n
Title: " << title;
cout << "\n
Golf club dues: " << dues;

57

Member Functions in Multiple Inheritance

(4/5)

student::putedu();
}
};
class scientist : private employee, private student{
private: int pubs;
// number of publications
public:
void getdata(){
employee::getdata();
cout << "
Enter number of pubs: "; cin >> pubs;
student::getedu();
}
void putdata() const{
employee::putdata();
cout << "\n
Number of publications: " << pubs;
student::putedu();
}
};

58

Member Functions in Multiple Inheritance

(5/5)

class laborer : public employee { };

int main(){
manager m1;
scientist s1, s2;
laborer l1;
cout << endl;
cout << "\nEnter data for manager 1"; // get data for
m1.getdata();
//several employees
cout << "\nEnter data for scientist 1"; s1.getdata();
cout << "\nEnter data for scientist 2"; s2.getdata();
l1.getdata();
cout << "\nEnter data for laborer 1";
cout << "\nData on manager 1";
//display data for
m1.putdata();
//several employees
cout << "\nData on scientist 1";
s1.putdata();
cout << "\nData on scientist 2";
s2.putdata();
cout << "\nData on laborer 1";
l1.putdata();
cout << endl;
return 0;
59
}

Constructors in Multiple Inheritance

(1/5)

// multiple inheritance with English Distances

#include <iostream>
#include <string>
using namespace std;
class Type{
// type of lumber
private:
string dimensions; string grade;
public:
Type() : dimensions("N/A"), grade("N/A")
// no-arg constructor
{ }
Type(string di, string gr) : dimensions(di), grade(gr)
// 2-arg constructor
{ }
void gettype(){
// get type from user
cout << "
Enter nominal dimensions (2x4 etc.): ";
cin >> dimensions;
cout << "
Enter grade (rough, const, etc.): ";
60
cin >> grade;
}

Constructors in Multiple Inheritance

(2/5)

void showtype() const{

// display type
cout << "\n
Dimensions: " << dimensions;
cout << "\n
Grade: " << grade;
}
};
class Distance{
// English Distance class
private: int feet; float inches;
public:
// no-arg constructor
Distance() : feet(0), inches(0.0)
// constructor (two args)
{ }
Distance(int ft, float in) : feet(ft), inches(in)
{ }
// get length from user
void getdist(){
cout << "
Enter feet: ";
cin >> feet;
cout << "
Enter inches: "; cin >> inches;
}
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Constructors in Multiple Inheritance

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void showdist() const

// display distance
{ cout << feet << "\'-" << inches << '\"'; }
};
class Lumber : public Type, public Distance {
private:
int quantity;
// number of pieces
double price;
// price of each piece
public:
// constructor (no args)
Lumber() : Type(), Distance(), quantity(0), price(0.0)
// constructor (6 args)
{ }
Lumber( string di, string gr, // args for Type
int ft, float in,
// args for Distance
int qu, float prc ) :
// args for our data
Type(di, gr),
// call Type ctor
Distance(ft, in),
// call Distance ctor
quantity(qu), price(prc)
// initialize our data
{ }

62

Constructors in Multiple Inheritance

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void getlumber()
{
Type::gettype();
Distance::getdist();
cout << "
Enter quantity: ";
cin >> quantity;
cout << "
Enter price per piece: "; cin >> price;
}
void showlumber() const
{
Type::showtype();
cout << "\n
Length: ";
Distance::showdist();
cout << "\n
Price for " << quantity
<< " pieces: $" << price * quantity;
}
};
63

Constructors in Multiple Inheritance

int main()
{
Lumber siding;

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// constructor (no args)

cout << "\nSiding data:\n";

siding.getlumber();

// get siding from user

// constructor (6 args)
Lumber studs( "2x4", "const", 8, 0.0, 200, 4.45F );

cout << "\nSiding";

cout << "\nStuds";
cout << endl;
return 0;

// display lumber data

siding.showlumber();
studs.showlumber();

}
64

Ambiguity in Multiple Inheritance

Two base classes have functions with the same name, while a
class derived from both base classes has no function with this
name.
How do objects of the derived class access the correct base
class function?
The name of the function alone is insufficient, since the
compiler cant figure out which of the two functions is meant.
Next program demonstrates this situation.
Another kind of ambiguity arises if you derive a class from two
classes that are each derived from the same class.
This creates a diamond-shaped inheritance tree.
The DIAMOND program shows how this looks
65

Ambiguity in Multiple Inheritance

// demonstrates ambiguity in multiple inheritance
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class A{
public: void show() { cout << "Class A\n"; }
};
class B{
public: void show() { cout << "Class B\n"; }
};
class C : public A, public B { };
int main() {
// object of class C
C objC;
// objC.show(); //ambiguous--will not compile
objC.A::show(); //OK
objC.B::show(); //OK
return 0;
}

66

Ambiguity in Multiple Inheritance

//diamond.cpp investigates diamond-shaped multiple inheritance
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class A { public: void func() {cout << "Hello World \n" ; } };
class B : public A { };
class C : public A { };
class D : public B, public C { };
int main(){
D objD;
objD.func(); // ambiguous: wont compile
return 0;
}
67

Aggregation: Classes Within Classes

If a class B is derived by inheritance from a class A, we can say
that B is a kind of A.
This is because B has all the characteristics of A, and in addition
some of its own.
Its like saying that a car is a kind of vehicle : A car has the
characteristics shared by all vehicles (wheels, seats, and so on)
but has some distinctive characteristics of its own (CNG, EFI,
automatic etc).
For this reason inheritance is often called a kind of relationship.
Aggregation is called a has a relationship. We say a library has a
book or an invoice has an item line.
Aggregation is also called a part-whole relationship: the book is
a part of the library.
68

Aggregation: Classes Within Classes

In object-oriented programming, aggregation may occur when
one object is an attribute of another. Heres a case where an
object of class A is an attribute of class B:
class A { };
class B { A objA; /* define objA as an object of class A */ };
In the UML, aggregation is considered a special kind of
association.
Sometimes its hard to tell when an association is also an
aggregation.
Its always safe to call a relationship an association, but if class A
contains objects of class B, and is organizationally superior to
class B, its a good candidate for aggregation.
A company might have an aggregation of employees, or a stamp
collection might have an aggregation of stamps.
69

Aggregation: Classes Within Classes

Aggregation is shown in the same way as association in UML class
diagrams, except that the whole end of the association line has
an open diamond-shaped arrowhead.

70

Aggregation in the employee program

Lets rearrange the EMPMULT program to use aggregation instead
of inheritance.
In EMPMULT the manager and scientist classes are derived from
the employee and student classes using the inheritance
relationship.
In our new program, EMPCONT, the manager and scientist classes
contain instances of the employee and student classes as
attributes.
This aggregation relationship is shown in next figure.

71

Aggregation in the employee program

Figure: UML Class Diagram for EMPCONT.

72

Using Aggregation in programming

The following miniprogram shows these
relationships in a different way:
class student { };
class employee { };
class manager {
student stu;
employee emp;
};
class scientist {
student stu;
employee emp;
};
class laborer{
employee emp;
};

// stu is an object of class student

// emp is an object of class employee

// stu is an object of class student

// emp is an object of class employee

// emp is an object of class employee

73

Using Aggregation in the Program

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// empcont.cpp containership with employees and degrees

#include <iostream>
#include <string>
using namespace std;
class student{
// educational background
private:
// name of school or university
string school;
string degree;
// highest degree earned
public:
void getedu(){
cout << "
Enter name of school or university: ";
cin >> school;
Enter highest degree earned \n";
cout << "
cout << "
(Highschool, Bachelor's, Master's, PhD): ";
cin >> degree;
}
74

Using Aggregation in the Program

void putedu() const {
cout << "\n
School or university: " << school;
cout << "\n
Highest degree earned: " << degree;
};
class employee {
private:
string name;
// employee name
unsigned long number;
// employee number
public:
void getdata(){
cout << "\n
Enter last name: "; cin >> name;
Enter number: ";
cin >> number;
cout << "
}
void putdata() const{
cout << "\n
Name: " << name;
cout << "\n
Number: " << number;
}
};

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75

Using Aggregation in the Program

class manager{
// management
private:
string title;
// "vice-president" etc.
double dues;
// golf club dues
employee emp;
// object of class employee
student stu;
// object of class student
public:
void getdata(){
emp.getdata();
cout << "
Enter title: ";
cin >> title;
cout << "
Enter golf club dues: "; cin >> dues;
stu.getedu(); }
void putdata() const{
emp.putdata();
cout << "\n
Title: " << title;
cout << "\n
Golf club dues: " << dues;
stu.putedu();
}

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};76

Using Aggregation in the Program

class scientist{
// scientist
private:
int pubs;
// number of publications
employee emp;
// object of class employee
student stu;
// object of class student
public:
void getdata(){
emp.getdata();
cout << "
Enter number of pubs: "; cin >> pubs;
stu.getedu();
}
void putdata() const{
emp.putdata();
cout << "\n
Number of publications: " << pubs;
stu.putedu();
}
};

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77

Using Aggregation in the Program

class laborer {
private: employee emp;
public:
void getdata()
void putdata() const
};
int main(){
manager m1; scientist
cout << endl;
cout << "\nEnter data
m1.getdata();
cout << "\nEnter data
s1.getdata();
cout << "\nEnter data
s2.getdata();
cout << "\nEnter data
l1.getdata();

(5/6)

// laborer
// object of class employee
{ emp.getdata(); }
{ emp.putdata(); }

s1, s2; laborer l1;

for manager 1";

//get data for

//several employees

for scientist 1";

for scientist 2";
for laborer 1";
78

Using Aggregation in the Program

cout << "\nData on manager 1";
m1.putdata();

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// display data for

// several employees

cout << "\nData on scientist 1";

s1.putdata();
cout << "\nData on scientist 2";
s2.putdata();
cout << "\nData on laborer 1";
l1.putdata();
cout << endl;
return 0;
}
79

Chapter Summary
A class, called the derived class, can inherit the features of another
class, called the base class.
The derived class can add other features of its own, so it becomes
a specialized version of the base class.
Inheritance provides a powerful way to extend the capabilities of
existing classes, and to design programs using hierarchical
relationships.
Accessibility of base class members from derived classes and from
objects of derived classes is an important issue.
Data or functions in the base class that are prefaced by the
keyword protected can be accessed from derived classes but not
by any other objects, including objects of derived classes.
Classes may be publicly or privately derived from base classes.
Objects of a publicly derived class can access public
80

Chapter Summary

members of the base class, while objects of a privately derived

class cannot.
A class can be derived from more than one base class. This is called
multiple inheritance. A class can also be contained within another
class.
In the UML, inheritance is called generalization. This relationship is
represented in class diagrams by an open triangle pointing to the
base (parent) class.
Aggregation is a has a or part-whole relationship: one class
contains objects of another class.
Aggregation is represented in UML class diagrams by an open
diamond pointing to the whole part of the part-whole pair.
81

Chapter Summary
Inheritance permits the reusability of software: Derived classes can
extend the capabilities of base classes with no need to modifyor
even access the source code ofthe base class.
This leads to new flexibility in the software development process,
and to a wider range of roles for software developers.

82