APUSH Writing Guidelines & Historical Thinking Skills

The AP history courses seek to apprentice students to the practice of history by explicitly stressing the development of historical
thinking skills while learning historical content.
This section presents the historical thinking skills that students should develop in all AP history courses. The nine
historical thinking skills are grouped into four categories:
1. Analyzing Sources and Evidence,
2. Making Historical Connections,
3. Chronological Reasoning, and
4. Creating and Supporting a Historical Argument.
The first table [page 2 of this document] describes how each skill demonstrates historical thinking from the perspective of a
history practitioner. The second table lists the proficiency expectations for each of the nine historical thinking skills. Every
AP
Exam question will assess one or more of the skill-based proficiency expectations as well as one or more of the
thematic learning objectives.
There are 9 skills, but the
are the ones you will be answering directly on essays. Other skills are important for
how you write your essays or how you analyze multiple choice prompts and short answer questions.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Historical Causation (Explaining causes and/or evaluating impact of events)

Patterns of Continuity and Change over Time (Explaining how & why things change or remain the same)
Periodization (Analyzing turning points and characterizing eras)
Comparison (Explaining how and why events are similar and/or different)

The AP U.S. History Exam is 3 hours and 15 minutes long and includes both a 100-minute multiple-choice / short-answer
section (Part I) and a 95-minute free-response section (Part II). Each section is divided into two parts, as shown in the table
below. A majority of your points will come from writing and understanding these skills is extremely important in ensuring
you are prepared for the prompts! Skills are also necessary in interpreting multiple choice questions.
Section
I

II

AP Exam Question Type

Number of Questions

Timing

Percentage of Total Exam Score

Part A: Multiple-choice questions

55 questions

55 minutes

40%

Part B: Short-answer questions

4 questions

50 minutes

20%

55 minutes

25%

35 minutes

15%

BREAK
Part A: Document-based question
Part B: Long essay question

1 question
1 question (chosen from a pair)

Historical Thinking Skill Categories

Analyzing Historical
Sources and Evidence
Primary Sources

Making Historical
Connections

Chronological
Reasoning

Creating and
Supporting an
Argument

Secondary Sources

Historical Thinking Skill Descriptions

1. Analyzing
Evidence: Content
and Sourcing
Historical thinking
involves the ability
to describe, select,
and evaluate
relevant evidence
about the past
from diverse
sources (including
written documents,
works of art,
archaeological
artifacts, oral
traditions, and
other primary
sources) and draw
conclusions about
their relevance
to different
historical issues.
A historical analysis
of sources focuses
on the interplay
between the content
of a source and
the authorship,
point of view,
purpose, audience,
and format or
medium of that
source, assessing
the usefulness,
reliability, and
limitations of the
source as historical
evidence.

2. Interpretation

3. Comparison

6. Causation

9. Argumentation

Historical thinking
involves the ability
to describe, analyze,
and evaluate
the different
ways historians
interpret the past.
This includes
understanding
the various types
of questions
historians ask, as
well as considering
how the particular
circumstances
and contexts in
which individual
historians work and
write shape their
interpretations of
past events and
historical evidence.

Historical thinking
involves the ability to
identify, compare, and
evaluate multiple
perspectives on a given
historical event in order
to draw conclusions
about that event.

Historical thinking
involves the ability to
create an argument and
support it using relevant
historical evidence.

It also involves the ability

to describe, compare,
and evaluate multiple
historical developments
within one society, one
or more developments
across or between
different societies, and in
various chronological
and geographical
contexts.

Historical thinking involves

the ability to identify,
analyze, and evaluate the
relationships among
historical causes and
effects, distinguishing
between those that are long
term and proximate.
Historical thinking also
involves the ability to
distinguish between
causation and correlation,
and an awareness of
contingency, the way that
historical events result from
a complex variety of factors
that come together in
unpredictable ways and
often have unanticipated
consequences.

4. Contextualization

7. Patterns of

Historical thinking
involves the ability to
connect historical
events and processes
to specific
circumstances of time
and place as well as
broader regional,
national, or global
processes.

Continuity and

5. Synthesis
Historical thinking
involves the ability to
develop understanding
of the past by making
meaningful and
persuasive historical
and/or crossdisciplinary
connections between
a given historical issue
and other historical
contexts, periods,
themes,
or disciplines.

Change over Time

Historical thinking involves

the ability to recognize,
analyze, and evaluate the
dynamics of historical
continuity and change over
periods of time of varying
length, as well as the ability
to relate these patterns to
larger historical processes
or themes.
8. Periodization
Historical thinking involves
the ability to describe,
analyze, and evaluate
different ways that
historians divide history into
discrete and definable
periods. Historians
construct and debate
different, sometimes
competing models of
periodization; the choice of
specific turning points or
starting and ending dates
might accord a higher value
to one narrative, region,
or group than to another.

Creating a historical argument

includes defining and framing
a question about the past and
then formulating a claim or
argument about that question,
often in the form of a thesis. A
persuasive historical
argument requires a precise
and defensible thesis or
claim, supported by rigorous
analysis of relevant and
diverse historical evidence.
The argument and evidence
used should be framed
around the application of a
specific historical thinking skill
(e.g., comparison, causation,
patterns of continuity and
change over time, or
periodization).
Furthermore, historical
thinking involves the ability
to examine multiple pieces
of evidence in concert with
each other, noting
contradictions,
corroborations, and other
relationships among
sources to develop and
support an argument.
Argumentation
Continued: Using
Evidence to Support
an Argument
Historical thinking involves
the ability to examine multiple
pieces of evidence in concert
with each other, noting
contradictions,
corroborations, and other
relationships among sources
to develop and support an
argument.

Historical Thinking Skill Proficiency Expectations

Students will be able to
ANALYZE EVIDENCE
1. Explain the relevance of the authors point of view, authors
purpose, audience, format or medium, and/or historical
context as well as the interaction among these features, to
demonstrate understanding of the significance of a primary
source.
2. Evaluate the usefulness, reliability, and/ or limitations of a
primary source in answering particular historical questions.

ANALYZE CAUSES AND EFFECTS

1.
Explain long and /or short-term causes and/or effects of an
historical event, development, or process.
2.
Evaluate the relative significance of different causes
and/or effects on historical events or processes,
distinguishing between causation and correlation and
showing an awareness of historical contingency.

INTERPRET DOCUMENTS
1.
Analyze a historians argument, explain how the argument
has been supported through the analysis of relevant
historical evidence, and evaluate the arguments
effectiveness.
2.
Analyze diverse historical interpretations.

ANALYZE PATTERNS OF CONTINUTY AND CHANGE

OVER TIME
1.
Identify patterns of continuity and change over time
and explain the significance of such patterns.
2.
Explain how patterns of continuity and change over
time relate to larger historical processes or themes.

COMPARISON
1.
Compare diverse perspectives represented in primary and
secondary sources in order to draw conclusions about one
or more historical events.
2.
Compare different historical individuals, events,
developments, and/ or processes, analyzing both similarities
and differences in order to draw historically valid conclusions.
Comparisons can be made across different time periods,
across different geographical locations, and between different
historical events or developments within the same time period
and/ or geographical location.

ANALYZE HISTORICAL PERIODS

1.
Explain ways historical events and processes can be
organized into discrete, different, and definable
historical periods.
2.
Evaluate whether a particular event or date could or could
not be a turning point between different, definable historical
periods, when considered in terms of particular historical
evidence.
3.
Analyze different and/or competing models
of periodization.

CONTEXTUALIZE
1. Situate historical events, developments, or processes
within the broader regional, national, or global context
in which they occurred in order to draw conclusions
about their relative significance.
SYNTHESIZE
1.
Make connections between a given historical issue and
related developments in a different historical context,
geographical area, period, or era, including the present.
2.
Make connections between different course themes and/or
approaches to history (such as political, economic, social,
cultural, or intellectual) for a given historical issue.

CREATE AND DEFEND AN ARGUMENT

1.
Articulate a defensible claim about the past in the form of a
clear and compelling thesis that evaluates the relative
importance of multiple factors and recognizes disparate,
diverse, or contradictory evidence or perspectives.
2. Develop and support a historical argument, including in
a written essay, through a close analysis of relevant and
diverse historical evidence, framing the argument and
evidence around the application of a specific historical
thinking skill (e.g., comparison, causation, patterns of
continuity and change over time, or periodization).
3. Evaluate evidence to explain its relevance to a claim or
thesis, providing clear and consistent links between
the evidence and the argument.
4. Relate diverse historical evidence in a cohesive way
to illustrate contradiction, corroboration, qualification,
and other types of historical relationships in
developing an argument.

Creating Your ArgumentThe Thesis Statement What are you defending?

Your thesis is not only your answer or stand on a question, it is your entire introductory paragraph which includes your answer/stand,
analysis of an opposing or alternate viewpoint, context, and organizational categories/themes. Your introduction will typically be
between 2 and 5 sentences, and it should clearly communicate your answer/stand and what you will be expounding upon in your body
paragraphs.

The Thesis Formula: (Depends upon the prompt)

Although X, Y because ABC.

X. However A and B. Therefore, Y.

X represents the strongest point against your

argument. We call this the counter-argument. It can
also be a alternate viewpoint. This X needs to be
thoroughly explained (with evidence) in your
introduction.
A, B, and C represent the three strongest points for
your argument. We call these your organization
categories. Sometimes you may only have two
other times four three is usual but not mandatory.
Y represents the position you will be taking in
other words, your stand on the prompt. Your Y must
be clear and ATFP address the full prompt!

X represents the strongest point against your

argument. We call this the counter-argument. It can
also be an alternate viewpoint. This X needs to be
clearly identified and briefly explained but the details
and specific evidence will come in your first body
paragraph (with this second formula the X is the
first body paragraph!)
A & B represent the two strongest points for your
main argument (Y). We call these your organization
categories. These two paragraphs will clearly explain
your Y with specific evidence.
Y represents the position you will be taking in
other words, your stand on the prompt. Your Y must
be clear and ATFP address the full prompt!

For example, if you were addressing the prompt, Evaluate the extent to which westward migration in the later 19 th century
contributed to maintaining continuity as well as fostering change in the United States, your thesis might include the following:
X: maintained continuity culturally
Y: led to dramatic changes
ABC: geographically, economically, and politically
Weak Thesis:

Although westward migration maintained continuity, it fostered change to a greater extent because of changes in
politics, economics, and geography.

Strong Thesis:

Although westward migration in the later 19th century propagated the spirit of manifest destiny and white dominance
which was consistent with westward expansion in the early 19th century with things like the addition of new states in
the Louisiana Territory and the Trail of Tears, the movement westward in the later half of the 19th century fostered
change to a greater extent than it maintained continuity. Change came economically with new technology, resources,
and labor, politically with new, western political organizations and agendas, and geographically with dramatic changes
to the environment.

Formulas for the BIG FOUR using formula #1: Although X, Y because ABC.
The formula is essentially the same for any type of question, and you can move the variables around. Below you will find some different ways to use
it depending on what type of question you are answering.
1.

2.

3.

4.

Historical Causation:
What are the major causes or consequences of event and what were the most important causes or consequences of event?
X = least important cause or consequence, with an explanation why; explained thoroughly with a piece of specific evidence
A, B, C = most important causes / consequences, explanations why, broken up into organizational categories
Y = your assertion statement

Continuity and Change over Time:

What are the major patterns of continuity or change over the time period and was there more continuity or change over that time period?
X = continuity or change, your counter-argument explained thoroughly with a piece of specific evidence
A, B, C = continuity or change during the specified time period, broken up into organizational categories
Y = your assertion statement

Compare and Contrast:

What similarities and differences are there between the two things, are there more similarities or differences, and why, account for those similarities or differences?
X = more similar or different, your counter-argument explained thoroughly with a piece of specific evidence
A, B, C = similarities or differences between the two things, broken up into organizational
categories Y = your assertion statement

Periodization | (or Take a Position):

Evaluate whether something was a turning point or a major marking period in history, noting what things were like before and after that period.
X = counter argument, why something was or was not a turning point explained thoroughly with a piece of specific evidence
A, B, C = argument, why something was a turning point broken up into organizational categories
Y = your assertion statement

Formulas for the BIG FOUR using formula #2: X. However A and B. Therefore, Y.
The formula is essentially the same for any type of question, and you can move the variables around. Below you will find some different ways to use
it depending on what type of question you are answering.
1.

2.

3.

4.

Historical Causation:
What are the major causes or consequences of event and what were the most important causes or consequences of event?
X = least important cause or consequence, with an explanation why linked to a theme or organizational category which will also be topic of first body
paragraph A, B = 2 most important causes / consequences linked to Y, explanations why, broken into organizational categories (topics of your 2 nd and 3rd body
paragraphs) Y = your assertion statement

Continuity and Change over Time:

What are the major patterns of continuity or change over the time period and was there more continuity or change over that time period?
X = continuity or change, your counter-argument linked to a theme or organizational category which will also be topic of first body paragraph
A, B = continuity or change during the specified time period linked to your Y, broken into 2 organizational categories (topics of your 2nd and 3rd body
paragraphs) Y = your assertion statement

Compare and Contrast:

What similarities and differences are there between the two things, are there more similarities or differences, and why, account for those similarities or differences?
X = more similar or different, your counter-argument linked to a theme or organizational category which will also be topic of first body paragraph
A, B = similarities or differences between the two things linked to your Y, broken up into organizational categories (topics of your 2 nd and 3rd body
paragraphs) Y = your assertion statement

Periodization | (or Take a Position):

Evaluate whether something was a turning point or a major marking period in history, noting what things were like before and after that period.
X = counter argument, why something was /was not a turning point linked to a theme or organizational category which will also be topic of first body paragraph
A, B = argument, why something was a turning point broken up into organizational categories (topics of your 2nd and 3rd body paragraphs)
Y = your assertion statement

Body Paragraphs What are you saying?

Each body paragraph will focus on a category or theme and contain your exposition (defending your thesis) with specific, historical
evidence relevant to your topic. Your goal is to have at least three five specific pieces of evidence for each category or theme. If
you are including document analysis, remember you still need outside evidence independent from the documents. For the DBQ, you
will also need to extend your argument and analysis by illustrating contradictions, corroborations, and/or qualifications.

One last thing about your body paragraphs end each one with Close the Loop!
Closing the loop means to explain how or why your evidence supports your thesis always connect back to your thesis!
How to Reference the Documents in the DBQ
The most unsophisticated way to reference a document in a DBQ essay is to do the following, According to Document 1 blah, blah,
blah. Document 1 says this; document 2 says this . . . etc. Dont do this!
Instead, you should show the reader that you understand the documents and use them effectively within the argument of your paper.
DO NOT quote the documents. In order to get full credit for document usage on the DBQ, you must use CAPPFLAC and you must
use ALL the documents. Document usage in the DBQ will include at least Context one of the other levels of analysis must be
employed:
*C= Context + A=Audience P= Purpose P=Point of view F=Format L=Limitations A=Audience C=Content
Suppose you had a document that was excerpt from the Clayton Antitrust Act. Your CAPPFLAC may look something like this:
C: Context What are the immediate historical events that shaped/triggered this document?
A: Audience For whom (specifically, generally, logically) was the document intended?
P: Purpose - Why was the document created?
P: Point of View Who (specifically, generally, logically) wrote/produced the doc? What point of view do they hold?
F: Format Is it a letter, law, diary entry, etc.? What does this tell you?
L: Limitations Is the document credible?
A: Authorship: Who wrote it? What is his/her relationship to the historical event?
C: Content: What information is being conveyed in the document?
You do not need to have all 4 components JUST CONTEXT + one from APPFLAC.
What would it look like in an essay? If you had a paragraph addressing ways the federal government implemented progressive
reform in the early 1900s, you could include the document like this: The historical context of the Clayton Antitrust Act was the
Progressive Era in the early 1900s when Wilsons administration supported progressive legislation as they were desperately seeking
help in enforcing anti-trust legislation under a relatively inefficient Sherman Antitrust Act. The purpose was to give some
enforcement power over anti- trust legislation to the federal government.

Conclusion How much should you say?

Your concluding paragraph should NOT simply restate your thesis. You want to conclude with higher level analysis; however your
conclusion does not need to be extensive. For your essays in this class, your conclusions will have three requirements.
Conclusion Formula:
First:

Therefore, Y + BC. BC is similar/different to OC, because E.

Restating your thesis with broad context Therefore, Y + BC. (one sentence)
BC = Broad Context what is the big picture within the era you are writing about
Second: Synthesis or Other Context (similar in kind but in a different time) One sentence connecting and comparing, then
OC = Other Context what other time period experienced a similar or different big picture/theme?
Third: Explanation One sentence explaining how your theme/topic is similar or different than that same theme/topic in a different
era. E = explanation (at least one strong piece of evidence to support your comparison)

How will you be graded?

Long Essay (LE) RUBRIC 6 Possible Points
Thesis: Introductory Paragraph____Skill: ARGUMENTATION_____________________________
Must use thesis formula!
Although X, Y because ABC.
Dont forget to ATFP!

Presents a thesis that makes a historically defensible claim and responds to all parts of the question. The thesis must consist of
one or more sentences located in one place, the introduction. The thesis must DO MORE than restate the question, it must have
complex analysis including opposing/varying viewpoint or evaluation of significance [depending on prompt].

Support for Argument: Body Paragraphs_______Skill: ARGUMENTATION______________________________________

Explain Your Evidence + Close the Loop!
Stay within parameters!
Supports the stated thesis (or makes a relevant argument) using specific evidence from relevant era
(at least 3 specific pieces of evidence)
and
Clearly and consistently states how the evidence supports the thesis or argument, and establishing clear linkages
(close the loop connect back to your thesis!)

Application of Targeted Skill: Body Paragraphs

Apply the Skill with Evidence!

First Point
Must Be
Earned Before
Second Point
Possible

Skill: TARGETED BIG FOUR SKILL

Change Over Time

Describes historical continuity and change over time.
and
Clearly and thoroughly explains at least 3 specific reasons/examples that both maintained continuity and fostered change .
Comparison
Describes similarities and differences among historical individuals, events, developments, or processes.
and
Clearly and specifically explains at least 3 specific reasons for both similarities and differences or, [depending on prompt],
and evaluates the significance historical individuals, events, developments, or processes.
Causation
Describes causes and/or effects of a historical event, development, or process.

and
Clearly and thoroughly explains at least 3 specific reasons for the causes and/or effects of the historical event, development, or
process. [If prompt asks for both analysis must cover both!]
Periodization
Describes the ways in which the historical development specified in the prompt was different from and similar to developments
that preceded and/or followed.
and
Clearly and thoroughly explains the extent to which the historical development specified in the prompt was different from and
similar to other developments that preceded and/or followed.

First Point
Must Be
Earned Before
Second Point
Possible

Synthesis: Concluding Paragraph____________________________________

Must us conclusion formula! Therefore, Y + BC. BC is similar/different to OC, because E.
Accurately and explicitly extends the argument by explaining the connections between the argument and a development in a
different historical period, situation, era, or geographical area.
[Although the official rubric has options for historiography and thematic contrasting, in this class your conclusion will focus on
comparative context.]

Grade Conversion: 6 = 100;

5 =90; 4 = 80; 3 = 70 ; 2 = 60; 1 = 50

TOTAL: ________

Document Based Question (DBQ) RUBRIC 7 Possible Points

Thesis: Introductory Paragraph___________________Skill: ARGUMENTATION________________________
Must use thesis formula! Although X, Y because ABC.
Dont forget to ATFP!
Presents a thesis that makes a historically defensible claim and responds to all parts of the question. The thesis
must consist of one or more sentences located in one place, the introduction. The thesis must DO MORE than restate
the question; it must have complex analysis including opposing/varying viewpoint or evaluation of significance
[depending on prompt].

Document Analysis & Support for Argument:

Body Paragraphs__Skills: ANALYZING EVIDENCE and Argumentation__

Analyze Documents & Use Them To Defend Your Thesis! Cite Docs! Close the Loop!
Stay within parameters!

Doc. 1

Doc. 2

Doc. 3

Doc. 4

Doc. 5

Doc. 6

Doc. 7

a. Offers plausible analysis in support

of stated thesis or relevant argument
b. Includes extended HIPP analysis
(not found in source)
1 Point: At least 6 documents used effectively to support the stated thesis or relevant argument.
1 Point: At least 4 documents analyzed effectively (authors point of view, purpose, audience, or historical context).
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Argument Development 1 Point: Develops and supports a cohesive argument that recognizes and accounts for
historical complexity by explicitly illustrating relationships among historical evidence such as contradiction,
corroboration, and/or qualification.

Using Evidence Beyond the Documents: Body Paragraphs

Skills: CONTEXTUALIZATION & Argumentation
Additional evidence to defend thesis NOT found in the documents! Stay within parameters!

Provides an example or additional piece of specific evidence beyond those found in the documents to support or
qualify the argument. This example must be thoroughly explained. Other outside evidence assessed as parts of the
introduction, conclusion, or document analysis will not count.

Contextualization (continuation of using evidence beyond the documents) & Synthesis:

Concluding Paragraph____

Must us conclusion formula! Therefore, Y + BC. BC is similar/different to OC, because E.

Contextualization 1 point: Situates the argument by explaining the broader historical events, developments, or
processes immediately relevant to the question. This broad contextualization must be thoroughly explained with
outside specific evidence.
Synthesis 1 point: Accurately and explicitly extends the argument by explaining the connections between the
argument and a development in a different historical period, situation, era, or geographical area. [Although the official
rubric has options for historiography and thematic contrasting, in this class your conclusion will focus on comparative
context.]

Grade Conversion: 7 = 100 ; 6 = 95; 5 =90;

4 = 80 ; 3 = 70 ; 2 = 60; 1 = 50

TOTAL: ________