Thermodynamics

Kunal Sinha
Complete Chemistry Notes By Prof. KunalProf

Sinha
THERMODYNAMICS & THERMOCHEMISTRY
Contents
Topic
Page No.
Theory
01 - 29
Exercise - 1
30 - 38
Exercise - 2
39 - 44
Exercise - 3
45 - 49
Exercise - 4
50 - 55
Exercise - 5
56 - 57
Answer Key
58 - 59
Syllabus
First law of thermodynamics; Internal energy, work and heat, pressure-volume work;
Enthalpy, Hess's law; Heat of reaction, fusion and vapourization; Second law of
thermodynamics; Entropy; Free energy; Criterion of spontaneity.
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Introduction :
Thermodynamics : The branch of science which deals with different forms of energy & their interconversion.
THERMODYNAMICS
First law of
Thermodynamics
Thermochemistry
(application of I law in
chemical reactions)
Second law of
Thermodynamics
Application of thermodynamics :
In chemistry using thermodynamics
We can predict feasibility of the reaction that is if two substances are mixed then the reaction
between them will takes place or not.
If reaction does take place then what are the energy changes involved during the reaction.
If in a chemical reaction, equilibrium is going to get attained then what will be the equilibrium
concentrations of different reactants & products, can be calculated with thermodynamics.
Limitations of Thermodynamics :
Laws of thermodynamics are applicable to matter in bulk or on system as a whole, these can not be
applied on individual particles(temperature, pressure, enthalpy etc have meanings only for system
as a whole).
Using thermodynamics we cannot calculate the time taken for completion of a reaction or for attainment
of chemical equilibrium.
Terms to be used in Thermodynamics :
System : Part of the universe which is under study for energy changes.
Ex.
Air in a room, water in a bottle, any living body.
Surrounding : Rest of the universe.
Universe : Universe = System + Surroundings
Boundary : Anything which separates system & surroundings is called boundary.
Boundary can be real or imaginary.
Boundary can be flexible or rigid

e.g. - air in a flexible balloon (flexible boundary) while air in a room (fixed boundary).
Boundary can be adiabatic(non-conducting) or diathermic(conducting).
Types of system :
Open system : System which can exchange energy & matter both with the surroundings.
e.g. : Living systems( any living organism) are open systems, air in an open room
Closed system : System which can exchange only energy but cannot exchange matter with the
surroundings is called closed system.
e.g. : any matter in a closed container.
Isolated system : System which cannot exchange energy and matter both with the surroundings.
e.g. : Water in thermos flask.(Though not a perfectly isolated system but can be taken as, for
small interval of time as the energy exchanges are negligible).
Whole of universe is a perfect isolated system.
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THERMODYNAMICS_JEE MAINS # 1
Open System
Close System
Isolated system
State of a system :
It means the condition in which the system is present.

It can be specified/defined by measuring/ specifying some observable/measurable properties of the
system like pressure, volume, temperature, amount of substance, elasticity, heat capacity etc.
e.g. For an ideal gaseous system state of the system can be defined by specifying volume,
temperature and pressure.
We may have to specify more properties of the system depending on the complexity of the system.
State function :
Property of a system which is dependent only on the state of the system i.e. it is a point function
It is independent of the path adopted to attain a particular state.

e.g. In Mechanics, Displacement of any object will a state function but distance travelled by the
object will be a path function.
For any thermodynamic system,
Temperature, Pressure, Volume, Total internal energy (E or U), Enthapy(H), Gibbs free energy (G),
Entropy (S) are all state functions.
e.g.
In the above example the final temperature, pressure, and the volume will be same in both the above ways
but the work involved and the heat exchanged during the processes will be different.
Path function :
Quantities which are dependent on the path/way the system has achieved a particular state.
e.g. Heat, work, Heat capacities(Molar heat capacities, specific heat capacities etc.).
These quantities are define when there is a process going on.
These can not have any definite (particular) value in any particular state of the system.
Types of preperties
Extensive properties :
Functions or properties of the system which are dependent on mass or on size of the system are
called Extensive Properties .
Extensive functions are additive in nature( The addition of the volumes of the two parts equals the
volume of the whole of the room.)
e.g. Volume, Mass, Total heat capacity, Total internal energy (E), Enthalpy(H), Gibbs Free
Energy(G), Entropy(S).

Intensive properties :
Functions or properties which are not mass dependent or size dependent are called intensive
function.
Intensive properties are not additive in nature.

eg. Temperature, pressure, molar heat capacity, specific heat capacity, density,concentration, vapour
pressure.
How to identify extensive or intensive properties
If a system in a particular state is divided into two equal or unequal parts, the properties which have value
equal to the original value of that property for the whole of the system is called an Intensive property. While
the properties which have values different from the values for whole of the system are called Extensive
Properties.
For example consider air in a room at temp of 300K, 1 atm pressure. Now, if the room is divided by
some boundary( imaginary or real) into two parts( equal or unequal) then in these two parts :
The temperature, pressure, density of the gas, concentration of gaseous molecules etc. will have
the same value as that of for whole of the system. (intensive)
While the volume of two parts, mass of gas in two parts, total energy of the gaseous molecules
in the two parts, entropy the two parts etc. will be different from the values of these properties as for
the whole of the system initially. (extensive)
Thermodynamic equilibrium :
When there is no change in any observable or measurable property of a system with time then the
system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium.
Thermodynamic equilibrium consist of three types of equilibrium.
(a)
Mechanical equilibrium
(b)
Thermal equilibrium
(c)
Chemical equilirbrium
Mechanical equilibrium :
There should not be any pressure gradient with time or with space (for any
ideal gaseous system, for a liquid system there can be pressure gradient
with space as pressure at the bottom of the container in which a liquid is
filled will be greater than the pressure at the surface of the liquid.) in the
system.
Thermal equilibrium : There should not be any temperature gradient (difference).

Temperature may have different values at different places/locations in a system but it should remain
constant with time.
Chemical equilibrium : There should not be any concentration gradient of any of the species in
the system.
Types of thermodynamic process on basis of state/conditions

Thermodynamic process : Any method/process by which system can change its state from one state of
thermodynamic equilibrium to another state of thermodynamic equilibrium.
There can be infinite type of thermodynamic processes, out of these the following are important ones:
1.
Isothermal process :
2.
Isochoric process :
3.
Isobaric process :
4.
Adiabatic process :
T = constant
dT = 0
T = 0
V = constant
dV = 0
V = 0
P = constant
dP = 0
P = 0
q = constant
or heat exchange with the surrounding = 0(zero)
Types of thermodynamics processes on basis of the way the processes are carried out :
Reversible process :
The process that can be reversed by a very small change is known as reversible process.
If a process is carried out in such a manner so that the system is always in thermodynamic equilibrium
at every stage of the process.
If the process is carried out such that the difference in driving force and opposing force is infinitesimally
small so that process takes place at infinitesimally slow rate.
Fdriving Fopposing = dF and dF 0
An ideal reversible process will take infinite time to get completed.
It is carried out infinitesimally slowly.
Strictly speaking there is no ideal reversible process in universe.
To get an idea of a reversible process we can consider the following system.

An ideal gas is enclosed in a container and a massless piston is put on
the gas on which a pile of sand is placed having particles of negligible
mass. To carry out a reversible expansion we will slowing decrease the
mass of the sand lets say by removing the particles one by one, so the
expansion of the gas will take place at infinitesimally small rate and we
can always assume the system to in thermodynamic equilibrium. So, the
expansion will be of
reversible type.
FBD of piston
For piston to be in equilibrium :
Pgas = Patm + Mg/A
Irreversible process : The process can not be reversed by a small change is known as irreversible.
If a process is carried out in such a manner so that the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium (I)
Only at initial & final state of the process but not at the intermediate stages.
(II) System may be in thermodynamic equilibrium state at some finite number of intermediate stages
only - for example - n step irreversible expansion of a gas
If during the process there is a finite difference in driving force and opposing force so that process
takes place with a finite rate.
Irreversible processes will get completed in finite time.
At intermediate stages of the irreversible process, different state function such as Pressure,
temperature etc. are not defined.
All real process are irreversible.

Consider the above system. If the stopper placed over the piston is removed, then the piston will move with
almost infinite acceleration and will keep moving to a position where the pressure of the gas becomes equal
to the external pressure. Since the process will get completed in finite time and there was a finite difference
between the driving force and the opposing force so, process is irreversible.During the process, the pressure
of the gas can not be defined as it will be having different values at different locations.
Modes of energy exchange :

These are two ways by which a system can interact or can exchange energy with its surroundings.
(i) Heat & (ii) Work
Heat & Work both are forms of energy.
Heat : When the energy transfer takes place because of temperature difference between system &
surroundings. It is known as heat.
Work : Energy transfer which is not heat or which is not because of temperature difference is called work.
Work can be of many types : Mechanical work, Electrical work, Magnetic work, Gravitational work etc.
The same energy transfer can be called work or can also be called heat depending on choice
of the system.
To understand this, consider a system shown below in which water is taken in a closed container at 25C,
the surroundings is also at temperature of 25C and there is a heater coil in the dipped in the water which is
connected to a battery through a switch S.Heater coil is also at 25C initially.
Now, there are two ways in which system can be chosen

System : All contents of the container (water + Heater coil).
When switch is turned on there will be increment in the temperature of the system. Since the temperature
of the surroundings was equal to temperature of the system so, heat can not flow but still there is increment
in the energy of the system and hence, there is temperature increment. This must be because of electrical
work done by the battery on the system not because of the heat transfer as initially temperatures were equal.
System : Water only is our system. Heater coil will be part of the surroundings.
In this case when switch is turned on the temperature of the heater coil will increase first so there will be a
temperature difference between system & surroundings. Hence, this energy transfer will be called heat.
IUPAC Sign convention about Heat and Work

Any energy given to system is taken positive so heat given to system = positive
heat given out from system / taken out from system = Negative
Work done on the system = Positive
Work done by the system = Negative
The sign convention is different from physics, but the meaning always comes out to
be same only in equation we have to use a different sign convention for work.
So if in any problem, w = 10 J
It means system has done work of 10 Joule on surroundings.
According to Chemistry :
Q
In Physics
w
U = Q + W
w
U = Q W

IUPAC convention of Heat

1. Heat given to the system = +ve
2. Heat coming out of the system = ve
3. Work done on the system = +ve
4. Work done by the system = ve
First Law of Thermodynamics (FLOT) :

Law of energy conservation :
Energy of total universe is always conserved.
or
Total energy of an isolated system is always conserved.
or
Hence absolute value of E can never be calculated only change in value of E can be calculated for a particular
process.
Mathematical form of First Law of thermodynamics.
If a system is intially in a particular state in which its total internal energy is E1. Now q amount of heat is given
to it and w amount of work is done on it so that in new state its total internal energy becomes E2. Then
according to 1st Law of thermodynamics.
E2 = E1 + q + w
so
E = (E2 E1) = q + w
Application of First Law
U = Q + W
U = Q PV
Since
W = P V
Calculation of different quantities in First Law of Thermodynamics (FLOT) :

Calculation of E :
Thermodynamic definition of an ideal gas :
If for a gas the internal energy is directly proportional to its absolute temperature then the gas is
termed as an ideal gas.
E
E
=0,
=0
so
V T
P T
Internal Energy (E, also denoted by U) :
Every system having some quantity of matter is associated with a definite amount of energy,
called internal energy.
It is the sum of all forms of energies present in the system.

E = ETranslational + ERotational + EVibrational + Ebonding + .....
E = EFinal EInitial .
E = qv, heat supplied to a gas at constant volume, since all the heat supplied goes to increase the
internal energy of the gas .
It is an extensive property & a state function . It is exclusively a function of temperature.

If
T = 0 ;
E = 0 as well.
With change in temperature only kinetic energy changes.
Degree of freedom The total no of modes on which a molecule of an ideal gas can exchange energy
during collisons is known as its degrees of freedom.

Translational degree of freedom = 3 - for all type of gases.
Rotational degree of freedom
=0
monoatomic gases
=2
diatomic or linear polyatomic gases

=3
non-linear polyatomic gases.

If f is initial degree of freedom for that gas.
f=3
for monoatomic
=5
for diatomic or linear polyatomic
=6
for non - linear polyatomic
Law of equipartion of energy :

1
kT is associated with each degree of freedom per ideal gas molecule
2
Where k is Boltzmann constant
Energy equal to
U/molecule = f x
U/mole =
1
kT
2
f
RT (k NA = R)
2
For n moles,
f
U = nRT only for ideal gas.
2
f
U = nRT
2
Calculation of Heat (q)
Heat is a path function and is generally calculated indirectly using Ist Law of thermodynamics
First calculate E and W & then q or heat can be calculated if heat capacity of any process is
given to us.
Heat capacity is a path function and different type of heat capacities are defined
Remember heat capacity of a substance is not fixed it is dependent on type of process which is being
performed on that substance
Total Heat Capacity (CT)

Heat required to raise the temperature of system by 1C under the given process is known as total
heat capacity.
Mathematically, CT =
q dq
J/C
T dT
It is extensive properties and path function.

So, dq = CTdT
on integrating
q = CTdT
Molar heat capacity (C)

Heat required to raise temperature of 1 mole of a subtance by 1C
q
dq
J mole1 K1
nT ndT
dq = nCdT
Mathematically, C =
So,
q=
nCdT nCT
C is intensive path function.

Cp is molar heat capacity at constant pressure
CV is molar heat capacity at constant volume
Cp and CV are intensive but not a path function
Specific heat capacity (s) :

Heat required to raise temperature of unit mass (generally 1 g) of a substance by 1C.
q
dq
Jg1 K1
m T mdT
dq = msdT
S=
So,
q=
dq ms dT msT
S is intensive path function

SP is specific heat capacity at constant pressure
SV is specific heat capacity at constant volume
SP & SV are intensive but not a path function
Total heat capacity, molar heat capacity & specific heat capacity of a process on a substance are related as
CT = nC = ms
&
C = Ms
Where m weight of substance
M molar mass of substance
n no. of moles of the substance
For
For
isothermal process
isochoric process
C =
C = Cv
For
For
isobaric process
adiabatic process
C = Cp
C=0
Heat capacity can have value from to + depending on the process.
WORK DONE (w) :

Energy that is transmitted from one system to another in such a way that difference of temperature is
not directly involved is known as work. It is a path function.
This definition is consistent with our understanding of work as dw = Fdx. The force F can arise from
electrical, magnetic, gravitational & other sources.
Units :
Heat & work both are forms of energy . Hence, their units are units of energy. i.e.S system: Joules (J).
Much data is available in the old units of calories (cal) as well.
P V = (litre. atmosphere) term which has unit of energy . It is useful to remember the conversion
1 litre. atm = 101.3 Joules = 24.206 cal
For irreversible processes, state parameters such as P,T etc cannot be defined. Hence, work
cannot be estimated using Pgas. But by the work energy theorem
W gas = W ext + Kpisston
When the piston comes to rest again Kpiston = 0
W gas = W ext =
ext dv
as the external pressure is always defined hence, for all processes work can be calculated using
W ext = Pext .dv
Work : dW = Fext dx
P-V Work :
Assuming that under an external force Fx, the piston moves down by a distance dx.
Fext
dx
Fext
( A dx )
dW = Pext (dV) W ext = Pext dV & W gas = W ext = Pext dV

A
As the work done in the above case by the external agent is +ve and as the expression conveys otherwise,
hence a -ve sign is introduced.
dW
dW = Pext. dV
Calculation of work for different type of process on an ideal gas.
(A) Isothermal expansion : There are many ways in which a gas can be expanded isothermally.
(a)
Isothermal reversible expansion :
mg
= Pgas = P (always)
A
In reversible process,
Pext = P0 +
Pext= Pgas (thermodynamic equilibrium always)

Since process is isothermal
nRT
V
P=
Vf
W=
Vf
Vf
Pext dV =
Vi
P dV
W=
Vi
Vi
Vf
W = nRT ln V
i
nRT
dV
V
PV diagram Representation
In expansion work is done by system on the surroundings and Vf > Vi
W = ve
Work = Area under the PV diagram
(b)
Irreversible isothermal expansion :
(i) Single step isothermal expansion

We are assuming expansion against atmospheric pressure which need not be the case in a given problem.
A mass equal to m0 is placed on piston initially to maintain equilibrium.
Initially, Pi = Pgas = Patm + m0 g/A
PV diagram Representation
For expansion to take place, m0 mass is suddenly removed so gas expands against constant external
pressure of Patm
In this case, the pressure of the gas will not be defined as the sudden expansion has taken place so all the
molecules of sample will not get the information of expansion simultaneously, there will be a time gap and
hence, there will be a state of turbulence.
From some intermediate state of volume V, the work done is slight expansion from
V (V + dV)
dw = Pext . dV
(IUPAC sign convention)

Vf
So,
W=
dw Pext .dv
Vi
W = Pext (Vf Vi)

Only initial and final states can be located (as at intermediate stages pressure of the gas is not defined)
(ii) Two step isothermal expansion :
Mass M0 is divided into two mass (may be equal or unequal)
M0 (m1 m 2 )
Now, if m1 only is removed, then the expansion of gas will take place against constant external pressure
Pext1 = (Patm + m2g/A)

and this expansion will take place only upto volume V1 such that
Pext1 . V1 = Pi Vi (isothermal)
Now, if second mass m2 is also removed then expansion
V1 Vf will take place against constant pressure
Pext2 = Patm
So,
work done is expansion Vi V1

W 1 = (Patm +M2g/A) (Vi V1)
& work done is expansion V1 Vf
W 2 = Patm (Vf Vi)
Total work = W 1 + W 2
Patm
M1
Vf
M0
V
Vi
PV Diagram representation
Work done in this irreversible expansion is greater than work done by gas during the single stage expansion
of gas and so on for three step expansion we divide the mass m0 into three masses m1, m2 and m3 and
remove these step by step and so on.
(iii) For n step expansion and n
Irreversible process becomes
PV Diagram representation

(B) isothermal compression of an ideal gas :

(a)
Reversible isothermal compression of an ideal gas
This can be achieved by placing particles of sand one by one at a very slow take in the assembly which
keeps the temperature of gas constant in this case the expression of work done will be exactly similar to as
obtained in case of reversible expansion of gas
W = nRT ln(Vf/Vi)
This will automatically come out to be +ve as Vf < Vi
(Patm + M0g/A) = Pf
Patm
Vi
Vi
Patm
Vf
(b)
Irreversible isothermal compression of an ideal gas
(i)
Single step compression :

To compress gas a mass m0 is suddenly placed on massless piston
dw = Pext. dv
= (Patm + m0g/A) dv
so. to calculate total work done on the gas
Vf
W=
dw V
(ii)
Pext . dv ;
Vi
W = Pext (Vf Vi)
Two step compression :

Place mass m0 in two fragments (m1 + m2) the graphical representation will make the calculation of
work done.
If m1 is placed first, then the first compression has taken place aganist external pressure of (Patm + m1g/A)
So,
W 1 = (Patm + m1 g/A) (V1 Vi)
Simlarly, W 2 = (Patm + m0 g/A) (Vf Vi)
Note : If process takes place in n steps and n then process will be like reversible compression
Conclusion :
Whenever work is done on the gas then it will be minimum in case of reversible process.
Thats why different machines/engines are designd to work reversibly so maximum output can be obtained
but minimum input is given to it
output work done by engine/machine/system
input work done by system us a surrounding
If expansion/compression takes place against constant external pressure then it is irreversible.
If there is sudden change then the process is irreversible.
A
Reversible and irreversible isothermal process.
Except the infinite stage compression/expansion, all are irreversible.

We can redefine reversible and irreversible as follows :
Reverssible process : If a process operates is such a fashion that when it is reversed

back both the system as well as surroundings are restored to their initial position w.r.t. both work and heat,
is known as reversible process.
If for the process A B work = w, heat = Q then if for the process B A, work = w, heat = Q then the
process is reversible.
If the external pressure is constant in isothermally process, process is irreversible
Calculation of Cp and CV
(a)
Constant volume process (Isochoric)

dU = dq + dw
dU = dq pdV
dU = (dq)v
Heat given at constant volume = change in internal energy
du = (dq)
dU = (nCdT)v
dU = nCvdT
Cv is Specific molar heat capacity at constant volume.
1 dU
1 d ( fnRT ) / 2
fR
=
n dT
n
dT
2
Cv = .
(b)
Constant pressure process (Isobaric) :

dU = dQ + dW
dU = dQ PdV
dQ = dU + PdV ............... (i)
Defining a new thermodynamic function

H Enthalpy
It is a state function and extensive property
It is mathematically defined as :
H = U + PV
as
dH = dU + d (Pv)
as
P = constant
dH = dU + PdV .............. (ii)
from equation (i) & (ii)
dH = (dq)p only at constant pressure.
Heat given at constant pressure = Change in enthalpy
dH = (nCdT)p
dH = nCp dT
Relation between Cp ad Cv for an ideal gas

H = U + PV
dH = dU + d(PV)
for an ideal gas
PV = nRT
d(PV) = d(nRT) = nRdT
nCp dT = nCvdT + nRdT
Cp Cv = R only for ideal gas Mayers Relationship

ADIABATIC PROCESS :
dQ = 0 (no heat changed b/w system and surrounding

dU = dQ + dW
nCV dT = PdV
T2
T1
V2
C v .dT
T =
T2
ln T = ln
1
nc
T2
V2
Cv ln T = P ln V
1
1
T2
T1
V . dT
V1
V2
V1
R / c v
T2 V2 1 = T1 V1 1
or
V dT
nRT
. dv
V
V1

V2
T V1 = constant
PV = constant
This is only valid when the quantity PV or TV is constant only for a quasi-static or reversible
process.
For irreversible adiabatic process these equations are not applicable.
Operation of adiabatic process

(a)
Reversible Adiabatic
Operation wise adiabatic process and isothermal process are similar hence all the criteria that is
used for judging an isothermal irreversible processes are applicable to adiabatic process.
Also, volume in case of isothermal volume is more than that of adiabatic at constant pressure and no
of moles, V T
w=
Pext. dv ,
w=
but
. dv ,
work done =
Pext = Pint =
1
V1 1
2
V
W = K
P2 V2 P1V1
1
P2 V2 .V2
P1V1 .V11
1
(as K = P2V2 = P1V1 )

(b)
Irreversible Adiabatic
Adiabatic irreversible expansion
W=
ext.dv
= Pext (V2 V1) ,
and
du dw
W = u
W = nCv (T2 T1)
nR(T2 T1 )
P2 V2 P1V1 )
=
1
1
Note: If two states A and B are connected by a reversible path then they can never be connected by an
irreversible path.
If the two states are linked by an adiabatic reversible and irreversible path then
wrev. = urev.
But as u is a state function
urev. = uirrev.
wirrev. = wrev.
as work is a path function.
If we assume that
wirrev. = wrev.
It implies that
urev. uirrev.. which again is a contradiction as U is a state function.
Two states A and B can never lie both on a reversible as will as irreversible adiabatic path.
There lies only one unique adiabatic path linkage between two states A and B.
Comparison of Adiabatic Expansion (single stage Vs Infinite stage)

Single stage means irreversible process
Infinite stage means reversible process
In adiabatic expansion process,
(W gas)rev > (W gas)irrev urev. > uirrev.
(T2)rev. < (T2) irrev

(P2)rev.< (P2) irrev
(If volume change are same)
(V2)rev.< (V2) irrev
(If pressure change are same)
Comparison of Adiabatic Expansion (single stage Vs Infinite stage)

Single stage means irreversible process
Infinite stage means reversible process
In adiabatic compression process,
(W gas)rev < (W gas)irrev urev. < uirrev.
(T2)rev. < (T2) irrev

(P2)rev.< (P2) irrev
(If volume change are same)
(V2)rev.< (V2) irrev
(If pressure change are same)

Comparison of single stage Vs two stage expansion(adiabatic).

If the expansion is carried out in two stages then work done in two stage by the gas > work done in
one stage by the gas. So, Utwo stage > Usingle stage
Tf in two stage < Tf in single stage because decrease in internal energy in two stage is >
decrease in internal energy in one stage.
Adiabatic Irreversible process (calculation of state parameters)

irrev
State A
State B
P1,V1,T1
P2,V2,T2
W=
P1V1
P2 V2
nR(T2 T1 ) P2 V2 P1V1
= Pext. (V2 V1) , T = T

1
1
1
2
Free expansion
Always going to be irrerversible and since Pext = 0

So,
dW = Pext . dV
=0
If no heat is supplied q = 0 then E = 0 So,
T = 0.
Calculation of H, U, work, heat etc.

Case - I
For an ideal gas undergoing a process.

the formula to be used are
dU = nCvdT =
f
nRdT
2
f
dH = nCpdT = 2 1 nRdT
W=
ext . dV
dH = dU + d (PV)
H = U + nR T
du = dQ + dw

Case - II
For solids and liquid system :

dU = nCvdT
dH =
W=
f
nRdT
2
(as it is not an ideal gas)
nCp dT 1 nRT (as it is not an ideal gas)

2
ext . dV
H = U + (P2V2 P1V1)
dU = dq + dw
Case - III
For chemical reactions :

aA (s) + bB() + cC(g) aA(s) + bB () + c C (g)
W =
=
Pext. dV
Pext. Vf Vi
= Pext. [(VA(s) + (VB() + (VC(g) (VA(s) + (VB() + (VC(g)]

= W = Pext. [VC(g) VC(g)]
n'c RT nc RT
Pext. (n' c nc )RT
=
= Pext. P
Pext.
Pext
ext
W = (nc nc)RT
W = ng RT
dU = dq + dw
if at constant pressure
dq = dH
dU = dH pdV
dU = dH ng RT
dH = dU + ng RT
Case - IV During phase transformation.
Phase transitions generally take place at constant pressure (unless specified) and at constant temperature.
So, T = 0
But still H and E are non zero (different from process on an ideal gas)
Because during phase transitions though the kinetic energy of molecules of substance remains same but
the potential energy gets modified or changed and since E is summation of all type of energies. So, E 0.
Also, during this phase transition (PV) 0
Hence, H 0.
Now, to calculate heat generally latent heats of transitions are given and since process is taking place at
constant pressure. So,
q = H
To calculate W, use dW = Pext dV
and then calculate E using Ist law of thermodynamics
IInd Law of thermodynamics :

Requirement : Ist law insufficient to Explain
Neutralization, Melting of ice > 0
Combustion, Freezing of water < 0
Fall of water , Boiling of water > 100 C
Cooling of a hot body, Free expansion of a gas, mixing of gases.
Spontaneous /Natural /Irreversible Processes :
If a system moves along in a direaction on its own and system, surrounding interactions without the help of
any external agency, then that direction is known as spontaneous direction and the process is knwon as a
spontaneous process.

Limitation :
First law cannot predict the direction of any process. But in nature a process is found to have a specific
direction at certain conditions.
1.
Energy can be the factor : To achieve stability
* All exothermic processes are spontaneous.
* All endothermic processes are non spontaneous.
Exceptions
* melting of ice (above 0C) although H > 0 , E > 0
* Vaporization of water (above 100C) H > 0 , E > 0
* Spreading of ink in water H = 0 , E = 0
* Mixing of two gases
* Endothermic solution of salt H > 0 , E > 0
2.
It is observed that nature tries to distribute energy and matter uniformaly (randomization)
Second law of thermodynamics :

Entropy of the universe is constanlty inereasing.
S universe = S system + S surrounding > 0
for a spontaneous process.
Where (S) = entropy is the measure of randomness or disorder. It is a state function and extensive property.
Mathematically
ds =
dq rev
or S =
T
dq rev
T
dq
is state function only for reversible process
T
1
T
At Higher T - entropy is already high. Therefore, heat addition will not introduce much change in the entropy.
dS dqrev , dS
Entropy Calculation :
Calculation of Ssystem
As S is a state function S will not depend on path.
S irrev = S rev
B
S =
dqrev
T reversible path
Entropy calculation for an ideal gas undergo in a process.

irr
State A
State B
Sirr
P1, V1, T1
P2, V2, T2
As S is a state function.So, S will not depend upon path

B
Sirrev = Srev, system =
dq rev
T
from the first law

du = dQ + dw
dQ = du dw
for reversible path
dq = dqrev
dqrev = du + Pgas dV
Srev, system =
rev path.
{Pext = Pgas reversible}
du Pgas dV

for an ideal gas

Pgas
nR
& du = ncV dT
V
T2
S sys =
T1
nc v dT
V2
V1
nRdV
V
T2
V2
Ssystem = ncv n T + nR n V
1
1
Calculation of Ssurrounding : As the surrounding is an infinite heat reservoir hence, no. amount of heat given
to the surrounding can cause turbulance in it, hence all heat exhanges with surroundings are considered to
be reversible.
dq surroundin g
Ssurrounding =
For
T
surrounding T is constant
q surroundin g
1
dq surr =
T
T
But according to the law of conservation of energy
qsurr = qsystem
Ssurr =
Ssurr =
q system
T
Isothermal process :
(a)
Reversible
Re v
State A
State B
P1,V1,T
P2,V2,T
S system = nCVn
V
T2
+ nRn 2
V1
T1
Since T1 = T2
S system = nRn
Ssurrounding =
V2
V1
q system
T
du = dq + dw (since T1 = T2 . So, du = 0)
dq = dw
V2
q = w as w = nRTn V
1
V2
q = nRTn V
1
nRTn
Ssys. =
V2
V1
nRn
V2
V1
Suniverse= Ssystem + Ssurr

= nRn
(b)
V2
V2
nRn
=0
V1
V1
rreversible
irrev
State A
State B
P2,V2,T
P1,V1,T

Ssystem = nRn
SSurrounding =
V2
V1
qsystem
T
qsystem is calculated using FLOT
qsystem = Pext(V2 V1)
Ssurrounding =
p ext ( V2 V1 )
T
Suniverse = nRn
p ext ( V2 V1 )
V2
V1
T
1
T
V2
) Pext ( V2 V1 )
(nRT n
V1
1
[W irrev W rev ] > 0
T
As irreversible work of gas is more than reversible work.
=
Adiabatic Process (Isoentropic process)

(a)
Reversible Adiabatic
rev
State A
State B
P1,V1, T1
P2,V2, T2
T2
V2
Ssystem = nCV n T + nR n V
1
1
TV1 = constant
T2
V1
=
T1
V2
V1
(S)system = nCVn
V2
S surr =
V2
+ nRn V = 0
1
qsys
= 0 (qsys= 0)
T
S universe = 0 + 0 = 0
(b)
Irreversible Adiabatic
irre
State A
State B
P1,V1,T1
P2,V2,T2
Using irreversible adiabatic process it is not possible to reach same state B which was reached by
reversible adiabatic.
T2
V2
S system = nCV n T + nr n V > 0
1
1
S surr =
[(T2)irrev > (T2)rev]
q sys
=0
as q = 0
T
For irreversible expansion the decrease in temprature will be lesser as work done is lesser hence,
decrease in entropy due to fall in temprature will be lesser in case of irrversible expansion. Hence,
net entropy would increase.

Isobaric process :
(a)
Reversible Isobaric
rev
State A
State B
P1,V1, T1
P2,V2, T2
Ssys =
dqrev
=
T
nC p dT
T
T2
Ssurrounding
dqrev
=
=
T
T1
dqsys
T2
= nCpn T
1
T2
= nCpn T
1
Suniverse = Ssys + Ssurrounding = 0

(b)
Irreversible Isobaric
T2
Ssys =
dqrev
=
T
nC p dT
T2
= nCpn T
1
T1
nC p T2 T1
Ssurrounding =
T2
Suniverse = Ssys + Ssurrounding > 0
Isochoric Process
(a)
Reversible Isochoric
rev
State A
State B
P1,V1, T1
P2,V2, T2
T2
Ssys =
dqrev
=
T
T1
nC v dT
T2
= nCvn T
T
1
T2
dqrev
Ssurrounding =
=
T
T1
dqsys
T2
= nCvn T
1
Suniverse = Ssys + Ssurrounding = 0

(b)
Irrversible Isochoric
T2
Ssys =
dqrev
=
T
T1
nC v dT
T2
= nCpn T
T
1
nC v T2 T1
T2
Ssurrounding =
Suniverse = Ssys + Ssurrounding > 0
Entropy Calculation for phase transformations

Sfusion=
dq
1
T
dq T
Hfus
T
Ufusion
for constant volume Sfus. =
T
for constant pressure Sfus. =
Svap =
dQ
1
Q
dQ
T
T

for constant Pressure, Svap =

for constant Volume, Svap =
H vap
T
U vap
T
Entropy Calculation solid or liquid systems:

(a)
Cu block kept in open atmosphere

T2
Ssystem =
T1
msdT
T2
T = msln T1
q surr
dqsurr
T
T
2
but q surr = qsystem = ms (T2 T1) = ms (T1 T2)
Ssurr =
Suniverse = Ssystem + Ssurr
(b)
T2
ms (T1 T2 )
Suniverse = ms n T +
>0
T2
1
Two copper block kept in contact in thermostat
Two blocks are of same mass
//////////////////////
//////////////////////
/////////////////////////////////////
Cu (M)
T2
T1
/////////////////////////////////////
Thermostart
Ssurr = 0 (since no heat is lost to surrounding)

S system = SA + SB
System will reach a common temperature (Tf ) and T1 > Tf > T2
Tf
S system =
T1
Tf
T1
dq A
+
T
Tf
T2
dqB
T
Tf
msdT
msdT
= ms
T +
T
T2
Tf
Tf
n n
T
T
1
2
Ssystem = msn
Since Tf =
Tf
T1T2
T1 T2
2
Ssystem = msn
T1 T2 2
4T1T2
Third Law Of Thermodynamics :

The entropy of perfect crystals of all pure elements & compounds is zero at the absolute zero of temperature.
Thus, absolute value of entropy unlike the absolute value of enthalpy for any pure substance can be calculated
at any given temperature . In standard state (298 K, 1 atm), it is standard absolute entropy S .
T
S = ST(K) S0(K) =
nCdT
T

For chemical reaction

aA + bB cC + dH
0
0
S0system = ( ni Sm
)product ( ni Sm
)reactant
0
where Sm
= standard molar entropy. It can calculated using third law of thermodynamics.
Ssurr =
Q system
Hsystem
T
T
* For a perfactly crystline substance at 0 K, entropy = 0
Gibbs free energy (G) :

A system parameter to predict the spontaneity of chemical reaction was introduced by Gibbs so
that entropy calculation for the surrounding need not be carried out.
It is a free energy at constant pressure.
G = H TS
dG = dH TdS SdT
& H = E + PV
dH = dE + PdV + VdP
dG = dE + PdV + VdP TdS SdT
From Ist law of thermodynamics
dq = dE + PdV
& from 2nd law , dq = TdS
dG = dq + VdP TdS SdT
dG = SdT + VdP
At constant temperature,
dG = VdP
For ideal gas , V =
dGm = VmdP =
P2
dG
= RT
P1
nRT
P
RT
dp
P
dP
P
Gm2 Gm1 = RTln
P2
P1
Where Gm is free energy for 1 mole

If Gm1 is free energy for 1 mole in standard state and Gm2 is free energy for one mole in any other state.
Gm Gm = RTln
P
1
& G G = nRTln
For the reaction, a A (g) + b B (g)

(G)reaction= GC + GD GA GB
P
1
C (g) + d D (g)
PC
GC = GC + cRTln PC
1
GD= GD + dRTln PD
GC GC = cRTln
Similarly,

GA= GA + aRTln PA ,
GB= GB + bRTln PB
(G)reaction= (GC + cRTln PC) + (GD + dRTln PD ) (GA + aRTln PA ) (GB + bRTln PB)
= (G)reaction + RTln
P c C .P dD
P a A .P b B
Greaction= Greaction + RTlnQ
Gibbs Helmholtz Equation :

dG = VdP SdT
At constant Pressure
dG
G
=S&
= S
dG = SdT
dT
P
T P
& G = H TS
GH
=S
T
G
GH
=
T P
T
G
G = H + T
T P
T P
G = H + T
G = H T S
Sunivense = Ssystem + Ssurrounding
Ssurr =
Q system
Hsystem
T
T
TS univ = TS system Hsystem
Introducing a new thermodyamic function G = Gibbs free energy (State function and an extensive
property)
Gsystem = H system TS system
G = H TS
Gsystem = H system TS system .................. (ii)
Comparing equation (i) and (ii)
Gsystem = TS universe
New criteria of spontaneity :

(i) If G system is (ve) < 0
(ii) If G system is > 0
(iii) If G system = 0
process is spontaneous
process is non spontaneous
system is at equilibrium
So, at every temparature G 0

G system = H system TS system
H system
S system
+ Ve
Ve
Ve
+ Ve
+ Ve
+ Ve
Ve at high temprature
Ve
Ve
+ Ve at high temprature
G = standrad free energy change :

When the reactants under standrad conditions gets converted into products which is also under standered
condition, then the free energy change is known as G (it is a constant) for 1 mole at 1 bar.

At standared conditions :
G = H TS
= constant for a GIVEN REACTION
AB C + D
G = (Gbbs energy of product) (Gibbs energy of reactant)
0
0
0
0
0
0
G = Gm
,C + Gm,D Gm,A G m,B , where Gm can not be calculated as Hm cannot be
calculated.
hence, we can convert this relation in to Gibbs energy of formation of substance.
G = G0f ,C + G0f ,D G0f ,A G 0f ,B
G0f : standered Gibbs energy of formation.

G0f (elements in their standard states) = 0
G = G0f ,product G0f ,reac tan ts
For a reaction in progress
G = G + RT n Q
Q is reaction quotient , G > 0 backward is feasible , G < 0 forward is feasible
At equilibrium G = 0
Q=K
G = RT n K at equilibrium
THERMOCHEMISTRY
Enthalpy of a substance :
Every substance has a fixed value of enthalpy under any particular state. Though, its exact value cannot be
calculated but it has some finite fixed value.

The enthalpy of one mole of a substance called molar enthalpy in any particular state can be assigned symbol
Hm(substance) : For example molar enthalpy of water vapours at 398 K and 1 atm pressure may be represented
as Hm (H2O, g, 398 K, 1 atm). In very simple works, enthalpy can be considered as heat constant (amount)
of substance, and during reaction this heat is being released or absorbed.
Molar enthalpy of substance under standard conditions is called standard molar enthalpy of a substance.
Standard state of any substance means.
For a GAS standard state means ideal gas at 1 bar partial pressure at any give temperature.
For a LIQUID pure liquid at one bar pressure at 1 bar pressure at any given temperature.
For a PURE CRYSTALLINE SOLID pure crystalline solid at 1 bar pressure and at any given temperature
For any SUBSTANCE or ION IN SOLUTION the species should be in unit molality (can also be taken
as 1M concentration), at one bar pressure and at any given temperature.
Molar standard enthalpy of water vapours at 398 K will be represented as H(H2O, g , 398 K) and molar
standard enthalpy of liquid water at 398 K will be represented as Hm (H2O, l, 398 K)
(It is hypothetical but can be calculated).
We cannot exactly calculate enthalpy content of a substance only the change in enthalpy can be calculated
when substance is taken from one state to other.
For example :
0
0
Let enthalpy contant initially be Hm ,1 & finally enthalpy content be Hm , 2
0
0
Then, H = Hm , 2 Hm ,1
= heat added at constant pressure to change temperature from 25C to 50C.

= CPT = (18 cal/mole C) (25C) = 450 cal

Enthalpy of formation :
It is not possible to determine the absolute value of the molar enthalpy of a substance. However, based on
the following convention, the relative values of standard molar enthalpies of formation of various substances
can be built.
The standard enthalpy of formation of every element in its stable state of aggregation at one bar pressure
and at specified temperature is assigned a zero value.The specified temperature is usually taken as 25 C.
A few exmaples are
Hf (O2 , g) = 0
Hf (C, graphite) = 0
Hf (C, diamond) 0
Hf (Br2 , ) = 0
Hf (S, rhombic) = 0
Hf (S, monoclinic) 0
Hf (P, white) = 0
Hf (P, black) 0
The standard enthalpy of formation of a compound is the change in the standard enthalpy when one mole
of the compound is formed starting from the requisite amounts of elements in their stable state of aggregation.
The chemical equations corresponding to enthalpy of formation of few substances are given below.
Enthalpy of formation of HBr(g) :
1
1
H (g) +
Br2 (l) HBr(g)
2 2
2
0
0
= B Hm
(B) = Hm
(HBr, g)
Hf(HBr, g)
Enthalpy of formation of SO2 (g) :

Hf (SO2, g) =
0
Hm
(SO2, g)
1 0
1 0
Hm (H2, g)
H (Br2, 1)
2
2 m
...(1)
S (rhombic) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)

0
(S,
Hm
0
rhombic) Hm
(O2, g)
...(2)
But above equations cannot be for calculation of enthalpy of reaction as the molar enthalpies of different
species can not be exactly known.
Enthalpy of Reaction from Enthalpies of Formation:

The enthalpy of reaction can be calculated by
Hr = B Hf,products B Hf,reactants
B is the stoichiometric coefficient
above equation holds good for any reaction as
the same reference state is used for reactants
and products (shown in figure).
Hesss Law of constant heat summation :

The heat absorbed or evolved in a given chemical equation is the same whether the process occurs in one
step or several steps.

The chemical equation can be treated as ordinary algebraic expressions and can be added or subtracted to
yield the required equation. The corresponding enthalpies of reactions are also manipulated in the same way
so as to give the enthalpy of reaction for the desired chemical equation.
Since rH stands for the change of enthalpy when reactants (substances on the left hand side of the arrow)
are converted into products (substances on the right hand side of the arrow) at the same temperature and
pressure, if the reaction is reversed (i.e., products are written on the left hand side and reactants on the right
hand side), then the numerical value of rH remains the same, but its sign changes.
The utility of Hesss law is considerable. In almost all the thermochemical numericals, Hesss law is used.
One of the important applications of Hesss law is to determine enthalpy of reaction which is difficult to
determine experimentally. For example, the value rH for the reaction

C(graphite) +
1
O (g) CO(g)
2 2
which is difficult to determine experimentally, can be estimated from the following two reactions for which rH
can be determined experimentally.
C(graphite) + O2(g) CO2(g)
CO(g) +
1
O (g) CO2(g)
2 2
rH1
rH2
Substracting the latter from the former, we get

C(graphite) +
Consequently,
1
O (g) CO(g)
2 2
rH = rH 1 rH 2

Enthalpy of Combustion :
It is the enthalpy change when one mole of a compound combines with the requisite amount of oxygen to
give products in their stable forms.

For example, the standard enthalpy of combustion of methane at 298 K is 890 kJ mol1. This implies the
following reaction :
CH4 (g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O ()
H = 890 kJ mol1
The standard enthalpy of combustion of methane at 298 K may be written as
Hc (CH4, g, 298 K) = 890 kJ mol1
The data on the enthalpy of combustion can be determined experimentally.
With the help of such data, we can determine the enthalpy of formation of a compound, which otherwise is
difficult or impossible to determine experimentally. Consider for example, the enthalpy of formation of CH4(g):
C(graphite) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)
First of all, the combination of carbon and hydrogen does not occur readily. Secondly, if the reaction is even
completed, the end product would not be pure methane. Therefore, the enthalpy of formation of methane can
be determined indirectly through the enthalpy of combustion of methane :
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O()
HC(CH4, g) = Hf(CO2, g) + 2Hf(H2O , ) Hf (CH4, g)
therefore
Hf(CH4, g) = Hf(CO2, g) + 2Hf(H2O , ) HC (CH4, g)
The enthalpies of formation of CO2 and H2O can be determined experimentally by the combustion of carbon
(graphite) and hydrogen. Thus, knowing the mesured value of HC(CH4, g), the enthalpy of formation of CH4
can be calculated. The value is
Hf(CH4, g) = Hf(CO2, g) + 2 Hf(H2O , ) HC (CH4, g)
= [ 393 + 2 (285) (890)] kJ mol1 = 73 kJ mol1
or, equivalently, we may add the following three chemical equations.
C(graphite) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
2 [H2(g) +
1
O (g) H2O()]
2 2
CH = 393 kJ mol1
rH = 2( 285) kJ mol1
[CH4(g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O()]
rH = ( 890) kJ mol1
C(graphite) + 2H2(g) CH4 (g)
fH = 73 kJ mol1
Measurement of Enthalpy of Combustion :

Enthalpy of combustion are usually measured by placing a known mass of the compound in a closed steel
container (known as bomb calorimeter) which is filled with oxygen at about 30 bar pressure.
The calorimeter is surrounded by a known
mass of water. The entire apparatus is kept in an
insulated jacket to prevent heat entering into or
leaving from the container, as shown in figure.
The sample is ignited electrically to bring about
the combustion reaction. The heat evolved is used
in raising the temperature of water and the
calorimeter.
If total heat capacity of calorimeter and all of its
contents = C, rise in temperature = T
then heat released = q = CT of this heat is
because
of mass m of substance then
M
q = EC
m
due to 1 mole, heat released =
(constant volume reaction).

Now, HC can be calculated by using HC = EC + ng RT.
Where ng is the change in stoichiometric number of gaseous species in the balanced chemical equation
representing the combustion process.

Integral enthalpy of solution :

The integral enthalpy of solution at the given concentration is the enthalpy change when one mole of
the solute is dissolved in a definite quantity of solvent to produce a solution of a desired concentration.
While recording integral enthalpies of solution it is a general practice to state the amount of the
solvent in which 1 mole of solute is dissolved ; Thus
HCl(g) + 10H2O() HCl (10H2O)
H1 = 69.5 kJ mol1
indicates that when 1 mole of hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in 10 mol of water, there is an
evolution of 69.5 kJ of heat. Other values are
(i)
HCl(g) + 25 H2O() HCl (25H2O)
H2 = 72.3 kJ mol1
(ii)
HCl(g) + 40 H2O() HCl (40H2O)
H3 = 73.0 kJ mol1
(iii)
HCl(g) + 200 H2O() HCl (200H2O)
H4 = 74.2 kJ mol1
(iv)
HCl(g) + aq HCl (aq)
H5 = 75.0 kJ mol1
Whenever amount of solvent is not specified then take its amount to be very large just like
in equation no. (iv).
Enthalpy of Hydration :
Enthalpy of hydration is used in following to ways.

Enthalpy of hydration of anhydrous or partially hydrated salts :
Enthalpy of hydration of a given anhydrous or partially hydrated salt is the enthalpy change when it combines
with the requisite amount of water to form a new hydrated stable salt.
For example, the hydration of anhydrous cupric sulphate is represented by
CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O () CuSO4 . 5 H2O(s)
There is a almost invariably a liberation of heat in such reactions, i.e. the value of H is negative.
CuSO4(s) + 800 H2O () CuSO4 (800 H2O)
Hr = 68 kJ mol1
CuSO4 . 5H2O (s) + 795 H2O () CuSO4 (800 H2O)
Hr = + 10 kJ mol1
by subtraction, we get CuSO4(s) + 5H2O () CuSO4 . 5 H2O(s)Hr = 78 kJ mol1
Enthalpy of hydration of gaseous ions.
Enthalpy of hydration of any gaseous ion is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of the gaseous ion is hydrated
in large amount of water to form aqeous ion.
By convention, the standard enthalpy of formation of H+(aq) is taken to be zero.
Enthalpy of hydration of Cl gaseous ions will be represented by :
Cl(g) + aq. Cl(aq)
Hr = Hf (Cl, aq)
Enthalpy of Neutralization :
The amount of heat released when one gram equivalent of an acid is neutralised by one gram equivalent of a
base.
or
The amount of heat released in formation of one mole of water when an acid is neutralised by a base.
or
Enthalpy of neutralization is defined as the enthalpy change when one mole of H+ in dilute solution combines
with one mole of OH to give rise to undissociated water, i.e.
H+(aq) + OH(aq) H2O()
H= 57.1 kJ/mole = 13.7 kcal/mol
Remember :
For Strong Acid + Strong Base, heat of neutralisation is always equal to 13.7 kcal/mole or 57.1 kJ/mole.
For any other combination of acid and base this heat is less than 13.7 kcal/mole or 57.1 kJ/mole.
Enthalpy of Ionization :
Whenever a weak acid (or base) reacts with a strong base (or acid), the release of heat is less than 57.1 kJ
mol1.
It is because of the fact that these acids or bases are not completely ionized in solution. Some of the heat is
consumed in ionizing there acids and bases this heat is known as enthalpy of ionization. Examples are :
HCN + Na+ OH Na+ + CN + H2O
rH = 12 kJ mol1
+
CH3COOH + Na OH Na + CH3COO + H2O rH = 49 kJ mol1

The enthalpy of ionization can be calculated as follows. The neutralization of a weak acid, say HCN, may be
represented in two steps, namely,
Ionization
HCN H+ + CN
H1 = x
+
Neutralization H + OH H2O
H2 = 57.1 kJ/mole
The complete reaction is obtained by adding the above two steps. Thus
HCN + OH H2O + CN
Obviously,
H = 12 kJ/mole
H = H1 + H2
H1 = HH2 = [12 (57.1)] = 45.1 kJ/mole
Greater the enthalpy of ionization of any weak acid or weak base, weaker will be the acid or base.
Enthalpy of Transition :
Enthalpy of transition is the enthalpy change when one mole of one allotropic form changes to another.
For example :
C(graphite) C(diamond)
Htrs0 = 1.90 kJ mol1
so if
C(graphite) + O2(g) CO2(g)
HC0 = 393.51 kJ mol-1
and
C(diamond) + O2(g) CO2(g)
HC0 = 395.41 kJ mol1
Subtracting, we have,
C(graphite) C(diamond)
Htrs0 = 1.90 kJ mol1
Enthalpy of Precipitation :
Enthalpy of precipitation is the enthalpy change when one mole of a precipitate is formed.
For example : BaCl2(aq.) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
rH0=24.27 kJ mol1
Enthalpy of Formation of ions :

The enthalpy change when one mole of hydrated ions is obtained from element in its standard state as.
Cl2 (g) + aq Cl (aq) Hr = Hf (Cl, aq)
By convention, the standard enthlpy of formation of H+(aq) is taken to be zero.
We have seen that
H+ (aq) + OH(aq) H2O(l )
rH0 = 57.1 kJ mol1
0
0
0
+
0
For this reaction,
Hr = Hf (H2O,l ) {Hf (H , aq) + Hf (OH,aq)}
Hence, at 25C, we get Hf0 (H+, aq) + Hf0 (OH ,aq) = Hf0 (H2O, l ) Hr0
so
Hf0 (OH ,aq) = { 286.1 ( 57.1)} kJ mol1 = 229.00 kJ mol1
With the enthalpies of formation of these two ions, the enthalpy of formation of any other ion can be found
from the enthalpies of formation and solution of its pure compound with H+ or OH. for example, the enthalpy
of formation of Na+ can be calculated from the enthalpy of formation and enthalpy of infinite dilute solution of
NaOH. The two values are :
The chemical equation for the formation of infinite dilute solution of NaOH(s) is
NaOH(s) + nH2O() Na+(aq) + OH(aq)

aqH(NaOH, s) = 44.50 kJ mol1
Since there are equal amounts of water on both sides of the above equation, the two enthalpies give no net
effect and thus
aqH(NaOH, s) = fH(Na+, aq) + fH(OH, aq) fH(NaOH, s)
or
fH (Na+, aq) = aqH (NaOH, s) fH(OH, aq) + fH(NaOH, s)
= [44.50 (229.99) + (425.61)] kJ mol1 = 240.12 kJ mol1
Similarly, from NaCl(aq) or HCl(aq), the enthalpy of formation of Cl(aq) can be determined, and so on. The
changes in enthalpy of any ionic reaction can then be found from these ionic enthalpies of formation and the
usual enthalpies of formation of compounds.
Bond Enthalpies :
The bond enthalpy is the average of enthalpies required to dissociate the said bond present in different
gaseous compounds into free atoms or radicals in the gaseous state. While bond dissociation enthalpy is
the enthalpy required to dissociate a given bond of some specific compound.for example the enthalpy of
dissociation of the OH bond depends on the nature of molecular species from which the H atom is being
separated. For example, in the water molecule.
H2O(g) H(g) + OH(g)
Hr0 = 501.87 kJ mol1
However, to break the OH bond in the hydroxyl radical required a different quantity of heat :
OH(g) O(g) + H(g)
Hr0 = 423.38 kJ mol1
The bond enthalpy, OH, is defined as the average of these two values, that is :
OH =
501.87mol 1 423.38kJmol1
= 462.625 kJ mol1
2
In the case of diatomic molecules, such as H2, the bond enthalpy and bond dissociation enthalpy are
identical because each refers to the reaction.
H2(g) 2H(g)
H H = Hr0 = 435.93 kJ mol1
Thus, the bond enthalpy given for any particular pair of atoms is the average value of the dissociation
enthaplies of the bond for a number of molecules in which the pair of atoms appears.
Estimation of Enthalpy of a reaction from bond Enthalpies :

Let the enthalpy change for the gaseous reaction
C2H4(g) + HCl(g) C2H5Cl(g) (g)
be required from the bond enthalpy data. This may be calculated as follows :
Enthalpy required to break reactants Enthalpy released to form products
from the gasesous atoms
H = into gasesous atoms
=
=
[4CH + C=C + HCl] + [5CH CC CCl]

(C=C + HCl) (CH + CC + CCl)
Resonance Energy :
Difference between energy of resonance hybrid and resonating structure in which
resonance
hybrid have lower energy because stabilised by resonance.

Hresonance = Hf, experimental Hf, calclulated
= Hcombustion, calclulated Hcombustion, experimental
Relation between energy and enthalpy of a reaction :

rH = rU + (vg)RT where vg is the change in the stoichiocmetric number of gaseous species in going
from reactants to products.
It should be noted that while computing vg of a reaction, only the stoichiometric numbers of gaseous is
counted and those of liquids and solids are completely ignored.
Kirchoffs equation
(Variation of H with temprature)
Since the enthalpy (or standard enthalpy) of a substance is dependent on state of the substance, value of
enthalpy of a substance changes with temperature and hence the enthalpy change of reaction is also
dependent on temperaturte at which the reaction is being carried out. This change is enthalpy change (or E,
of reaction is carried out at constant volume) is represented by Kirchoffs Equations.
P + Q R + S
at temperature T1 let the standard enthalpy of reaction be H1 , then
H1 = Hm (R,T1) + Hm (S, T1) Hm (P, T1) Hm (Q, T1)
If the same reaction is carried out at temperature T2, then
H2 = Hm (R,T2) + Hm (S, T2) Hm (P, T2) Hm (Q, T2)
Then, the change in enthalpy (or difference in enthalpy at these two temperatures)
H = H2 H1 = {Hm (R,T2) Hm (R,T1)} + {Hm (,T2) Hm (,T1)}
{Hm (P,T2) Hm (P,T1)} - {Hm (Q,T2) Hm (Q,T1)}
Hm (R, T2) Hm (R,T1) = CP, R (T2 T1) = Heat required at constant pressure to increase temperature of one
mole of R from T1 to T2
Similarly
Hm (S,T2) Hm (S,T1) = CP,S (T2 T1)
Hm (P,T2) Hm (P,T1) = CP,P (T2 T1) and
Hm (Q,T2) Hm (Q,T1) = CP,Q (T2 T1)
so
H = H2 H1 = CP,R (T2 T1) + CP,S(T2 T1) CP,P (T2 T1) CP,Q(T2 T1)
= [ CP,R + CP,S CP,P CP,Q] (T2 T1)
= CP (T2 T1)
CP = CP, R + CP,S CP,P CP,Q
= Difference in molar heat capacities of products and reactants.
so
H2 = H1 +
P .dT
for example for the reaction

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
H2 = H1 + CP (T2 T1)
where
CP = 2CP,NH3 CP,N2 3CP,H2
* for a constant volume reaction
E02 E10 C V .dT


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Kunal Sinha

Complete Chemistry Notes By Prof. KunalProf

THERMODYNAMICS & THERMOCHEMISTRY

Name : ____________________________ Contact No. __________________

302 Shivam Appartment

THERMODYNAMICS & THERMOCHEMISTRY

Terms to be used in Thermodynamics :

Air in a room, water in a bottle, any living body.

Surrounding : Rest of the universe.

Universe : Universe = System + Surroundings

Boundary : Anything which separates system & surroundings is called boundary.

Boundary can be real or imaginary.

Boundary can be flexible or rigid

Boundary can be adiabatic(non-conducting) or diathermic(conducting).

Whole of universe is a perfect isolated system.

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It means the condition in which the system is present.

It is independent of the path adopted to attain a particular state.

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Intensive properties are not additive in nature.

Thermal equilibrium : There should not be any temperature gradient (difference).

Types of thermodynamic process on basis of state/conditions

An ideal reversible process will take infinite time to get completed.

It is carried out infinitesimally slowly.

Strictly speaking there is no ideal reversible process in universe.

To get an idea of a reversible process we can consider the following system.

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Modes of energy exchange :

Now, there are two ways in which system can be chosen

IUPAC Sign convention about Heat and Work

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IUPAC convention of Heat

First Law of Thermodynamics (FLOT) :

Calculation of different quantities in First Law of Thermodynamics (FLOT) :

Internal Energy (E, also denoted by U) :

It is the sum of all forms of energies present in the system.

It is an extensive property & a state function . It is exclusively a function of temperature.

With change in temperature only kinetic energy changes.

during collisons is known as its degrees of freedom.

diatomic or linear polyatomic gases

non-linear polyatomic gases.

Law of equipartion of energy :

Calculation of Heat (q)

Total Heat Capacity (CT)

It is extensive properties and path function.

Molar heat capacity (C)

C is intensive path function.

Specific heat capacity (s) :

S is intensive path function

Heat capacity can have value from to + depending on the process.

WORK DONE (w) :

When the piston comes to rest again Kpiston = 0

W ext = Pext .dv

dW = Pext (dV) W ext = Pext dV & W gas = W ext = Pext dV

Calculation of work for different type of process on an ideal gas.

Isothermal reversible expansion :

Pext= Pgas (thermodynamic equilibrium always)

Irreversible isothermal expansion :

(i) Single step isothermal expansion

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