Tethered Bailoon Handbook

AFC RL -69-0017(l)/
TETHERED BAILOON HANDBOOK (REVISED)

Philip F. Myers
Goodyear Aerospace Corporation
Akron, Ohio 44315
Contract No. F19628-68-C-0311
Project No. 6665
"TaskNo. 666507
Work Unit No. 66650701
Final Report
fD
O C -3
I May 1968 - 31 December 1968
NOV
41969
Contract Monitor: Edward F. Young, Captain, USAF

Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory
Distribution of this document is unlimited. It may be released to the

Clearinghouse, Department of Commerce, for sale to the general pmtlic.
Prepared for
Air Force Cambrid,e Research Laboratories
Office of Aerospace Research
United States Pir Force
Bedford, Massachusetts 01730
LAI..
THIS
tmg
DOCUMENT
V,
IS
BEST
AVAILABLE. TIM COPY

FURNISHED TO DTIC CONTAINED
A SIGNIFICANT NUMBER OF
NOT
DO
l IRIH
G'E5
"QUALIY
iTRD UCI7
LBGIB LY.
REPRODUCED FROM
BEST AVAILABLE COPY
THIS DOCUMENT CONTAINED

BLANK PAGES THAT HAVE
BEEN DELETED
tI
'
Qualified requestors may obtain additional copies fro)m the Defense

Documentation Center. All others should apply to the Clearinghouse
for Federal Scientific and Technical Information.
S.
AFCRL-69-0017(i)
'I1,11-T
I I"
'Ii)
IiALi)ON IIANDBOOI(K (IIVTSICI))
Philip F. Myers
Goodyoar Aerospace Corporation
Akron, Ohio 44315
Contract No. F19628-68-C-0311'
Project No. 6665
Task No. 666507
Work Unit No. 66650701
Final Report
1 May 1968 - 31 December 1968

31 December 1968
Contract Monitor: Edward F. Young, Captain, USAF

Aerospace Instrumentation Laboratory
Distribution of this document is unlimited. It may be released to the

Clearinghouse, Department of Commerce, for sale to the general public.
Prepared for
Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories
Office of Aerospace Research
United States Air Force
Bedford, Massachusetts 01730
FOREWORD
Thin project was sponnaorod by the Offl('
of Auromipace Jtooaarh, USAF, andt w1114
monitored by the Air Force Cambridge Resieanrch LiAbot'ato rien under ('Cmttracl No. F'i962, 68-C-0311. The project waLs carrrled jut under the direction (if ('aptalin Eudward F. Young aN
Contract Monitor for the Air Force Ciubridge Rlesearc'h Laboratories, Mr. Philill F. Myrn
was the Goodyear Ae )space Project Engineer. The c;ntraclr'm relxprt number in GEIt 14142,
iii
A 11SF RA('
l'hv *oivrthvI(1o ii-no
) ii I wa)Ivtic
Imit migl
NI4I
vi )I lum refe!rence cvoncring the hiNtory, de volupmnltn ujppivitioimn1 and I~tmIflgs of ikvaiihbleI nwdern equipnmcnI for tothered balloon actIvittton of an~miint'rring mr svcienitific raturty
(Page iv is blank)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Section
I
1I
III
IV
INTRODUCTION ...............
.............................
1. Gitneral ........................
............................
2.
1'ethered Balloon History ................
....................
3. Shapes and Stability ...................
......................
.......................
4.
Pressure Systems .............
5. Balloon System Operational Requirements ...
............
6.
Selecting ;, Balloon System ..........
...................
BALLOON SYSTEMS .............
........................
1. General ................
............................
2.
Helium-Filled Balloon System .......
..................
3. Hydrogen-Filled Balloon System .......
................
4.
Other Gas-Filled Balloon Systems .....
................
5. Hot-Air System .............
........................
6.
Information Required by Balloon Contractor . ........
7,
Available Balloon Systems ..........
...................
8. List of Manufacturers ..........
.....................
....
....
....
...
....
....
...........
ENVELOPE MATERIALS. .................

......................
1. General ............
.............................
2.
Fabrics ................
............................
3. Cloth ........................
.............................
4.
Elastomers .................
..........................
5. Fabric Construction ...........
......................
6.
Films
........................
...........................
7.
Woven Cloths .............
.........................
8. Coatings ...............
...........................
9. Diffusion and Infusion ..........
......................
10. Testing Laminated Fabrics .......
...................
11. Testing Permeability and Ply Adhesion ....
..............
12. Available Envelope Materials .......
..................
LIFTING GASES ..............
..........................
1. General ................
............................
2.
Aerostatics .................
..........................
3. Types of Lifting Gases ...........
.....................
4.
Balloon Displacement ........
.......................
5. Computing Helium Requirements ............
.................
6. Computing Hydrogen Requirements .....
................
7.
Computing Hot Air Requite-ments ........
................
8.
Helium Repurification .................
.....................
9. Helium Compressor, Electrical Driven ..................
10. Hydrogen Problems ............
......................
11. Hydrogen Generation .............
......................
12. General Safety Rules for Cylinders .....
................
13. Safety Rulas for Cylinders During Balloon Inflation ..........
14. Safety Rules for Cylinders Around Hydrogen Plants ..........
WINCHES AND TETHERS ............
......................
1. Winches - General Description ........
.................
2.
Types of Winch Installations ..........
..................
3.
Basic Winch Components .........
....................
4.
AFCRL Holloman AFB Billoon Winches ...
.............
....
...
...
...
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
...
...
....
....
....
....
....
....
.....
I
I
1
8
10
14
14
15
15
20
22
22
22
23
23
23
31
31
31
31
35
35
39
39
40
41
41
41
41
....
....
....
...
..
..
45
45
45
47
49
51
53
53
58
59
59
62
65
66
67
....
...
...
....
...
69
69
69
72
79
....
...
Section
Page
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11
12.
13.
VI
VII
Available Winches ...........

........................
Tethers - General Description ......
..................
Properties and Characteristics of Tethers ..........
Tether Materials ............
........................
Tether Length ...........
...
.........................
Tether Diameter .....
.........
........................
Tether Constru" t .ion ............
......................
Fittings .......
.........
............................
Available Tethers ........
.....
.......................
....
....
....
. . . .
123
123
123
123
............
BALLOON HANDLING .............

.......................
1. General .......
...........
............................
2.
Balloon Handling Precautions ....
...
..................
3.
Balloon System Operations
. . . ..
. . . . . . ..
INSTRUMENTATION ..............
........................
1. General .......
.........
............................
2
Temperature Sensors ............
......................
3
Pressure Transducers ....
.......
.....................
4.
Accelerometers ...............
........................
5.
Load Cells.......................................
6. Wind Speed and Direction .........
.....
....................
....
....
....
..
....
....
82
90
90
96
97
102
102
104
113
....
....
....
....
....
....
133
133
133
133
134
134
134
...
143
Appendix
I
AEROSTATICS .................
..........................
11
HELIUM FACT SHEETS ............
III
TETHERED BALLOON SITES ..............
......................
....
...................
154
167
REFERENCES ................
...........................
....
198
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..............
..........................
....
199
vi
IN
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
page
Figure
I
2
Double Tethered Balloon, Early French, 1795
......
Lowe's Balloon Washington Aboard the Custis During Americaj

Civil War, 1861 (Smithsonian Institution) .. ..........
..................
German Drachen Towed by Torpedo Boat (Smithsonian Institutio,,i) ....
Handling a Balloon Aboard Navy Ship (Wingfoot Lighter-Than-Air

Society Museum Collection) .. ..........
.............................
Goodvear Aerospace Vee-Bailoon

(80GO- Cubic- Foot Volume). ...... ....................................
Natural Shape Logiging Balloon. ..................
....................
7
9
Wind Effect onl a Tethered Balloon (Wingfoot Lighter -Than -AllSociety Museum Collevtion) .. ..........
..............................
5
6
7
8
9
Balloon Drag Coefficient at Zero Angle of Attack Versus

..........
.
Reynolds Number
Multilobe Internal Dilation Configuraticn ..
..............
..............
10
External Dilation Conf igu ration
...
11
bIternal ilallonet Configuration
........................
12
Typical Balloon -Logging Systra.
13
Tandem Balloon Sk homnes.
14
General Arrangement of Tandum liall.)ons.
15
Balloon With Internal Nose Girder and Surge C'urtain....
16
Fulton Skyhook 1allooti - Personnel Hericue System)

Sequence of Events .. ...... ..........................
17
Effect of Intercept Altitude on t-oad Trzajectoiry lm- Fulton Skyhook

Balloon System. .. ..........
......................................
18
..
..................
Recovery System.....
..
..
Heavy -Llad,
..................
............
................
17
................
18
18
19
'4 riace -to-Air
......
20
Typical Balloon Manufacturar's Inquiry Sheet ..
21
Basic Weaves ..
22
Strength to Weight Comparisons - Film Cloth Versus

Elastomer Laminates .. .. .........
..............
..
16
..............
Bedded-Down Natulral Shape Balloon.
..
..
....
..
........................
......
..........
..............
........................
24
Specific Lift of Games at Various Altitudes ..
25
Lift
26
27
Lift of Dry Hydrogen Versus Temperature, Pressure, and Purity

Specific Lift Versus Balloon Internal Temperature.............55
28
Specific Lift Versus Altitude
29
Gross Lift Versus Diameter for Hot-Air Balloon.
39
......
..................
........
40
........
48
Dry Helium Versus Temperature, Pressure, and P~urity
Constant Balloon Temperature ..
Vii
........
21
33
...............
Stress-Strain Curves for Nylon, Dacron. and Cotton Yarn.
20
24
............
23
(if
13
I.............................15
19
..............
12
..............
......................
Goodyear Boomerang Balloun

..
................
11
52
.
..
........
..............
54
55
56
Figure
Page
30
Maximum Authorized Operating Limits for Raven S-50 Balloon
31
Hot-Air Balloon Envelope Dimplng Limits .....
32
Internal and Skin Temperature Profile of Hot-Air Balloon
33
Electrical-Driven Helium Compressor .....
34
Air-Dropped Inflation Gear Kit for 750 CuLic Foot Balloon
35
Hydrogen Processed by the Acid-Metal Process During the

........................
American Civil War .............
57
..
58
.......
................
....
Giffard's Captiv.'e Balloon (25, 000 Cubic Meters) and Steam

..............
Windlass, 1878 (Charles Dollfus Collection) ....
39
AFCRL Balloon Tethering Site - WSMR, New Mexico ..
40
Types of Winch Installations ..........
41
Basic Tethered Balloon Winch System Components .
42
43
Largest Winch at Holloman AFB, 1968 .......

................
Winch Storage Drum ...............
........................
44
45
Fleet Az.gle ....................

Level Wind Mechanism ..........
46
American Chain and Cable Co. Retrieving Winch ...
47
48
Fairlead . . . . . .
. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
Tethered Site Layout for Winch Equipment ......
..............
49
Smith-Berger Winch at Holloman AFB .....
50
Data Sheet for Capstan Type Winches
51
Glastran Elongation No. 1 for Various Diameters .....
52
Glastran Elongation No. 2 for Various Diameters ...
53
54
Elastic Elongation of Samson 2-in-I Braided Rope ......

Strength-to-Diameter Ratios for Various Candidate Balloon
.......................
Tether Materials ...............
..
38
62
....
64
65
..
....
69
.........
..
....
..........
76
77
...........
...
78
...
80
...
81
................
...........
....
84
...........
94
...........
...
...........
Strength-to-Weight Ratios for Various Candidate Balloon

Tether Materials ..............
..........................
Strength-to-Cost lati(o
57
lBalloon Tether Strand and ('able Data Sheet .....
51
Typical ('Crom
59
60
T1hni ble End Fittingm ...........

Swaged End Fittings ...........
61
62
Aerust rand - Mowslrand Termiinatiwn Hequirenients .. ..........

Typical Potting Technique Umed ton Fiberglass Tethers. ............
63
Typical Potted End Fitting Xray .........
64
Miscellaneous En
for Various Candidate Balloon Tethers
..............
Sections (f Wire iope Construction ..............
.........................
.....................
95
96
..
98
....
99
..
100
...
101
...
103
....
106
.....
........................
...................
71
72
74
...
56
70
72
............................
.......................
...........
61
....
........
.....................
ttIings ...........
60
.......
Hydrogen Generator Set AN/TMQ-3 ......

.................
Hydrogen Generator Set AN/TMQ-3 Inflation Equipment ..
viii
...
..............
36
37
55
57
.....
i07
..
...
108
109
....
109
....
110
Figu re
Page
65
Brummel Hook Connection ........
66
Typical Bridle or Suspension Point ......
67
Ballon Handling Functional Breakdown ..........
68
69
Installing and ErectinT Balloon ......

Prelaunch Operations ..........
70
Launch Operations
71
Balloon Flight Operations .....
72
Balloon Retrieval Operations ........
73
74
Balloon System Service and Maintenance Operations ...

..........
Deflation and Pack-Up Operations ......
..................
75
Effect of Superheat on Static Lift ....
76
77
Lift and Drag Coefficients Versus Angle of Attack for Various

Balloon Configurations .........
.......................
Modern Helium Tractor Trailer (128, 230 Cubic Feet) ...........
78
Helium Conservation Map ..............
79
Locations of Possible Tethered Balloon Launch Sites ..
......................
.1.1.ill
..................
....
................
..
125
....
126
........................
....
127
........................
...
128
...................
.............
112
...................
....................
129
....
130
...
131
....
..................
132
149
.....
...
......................
.........
153
160
163
...
170
ix
A}
LIST OF TABICS.I'
t~d~IpPage
II
IV
%,
WrI'v
World
II
h irvgod1141.I
I~N
I. Ws11II~4
1iIl
111Iski
III
,
il),,l
*iI
VIIX
A.1 iIA%10141"' 1if

GAMON
Iin 'rI
I
1,1vli
I igim t
. .
inter1al NSttittl
ElI~astic Co(.iaduci'
XXI
XXII
C mpinpuy
I'~.mk~erd - Ilemmrim' Tioiirm'
'ITother
.r..
Ullitod States Steel T1ether's
Am'relaromoete~rse
..
.
..
...
.,
Lint
.,I
,II
..
. .,.
86
92
..
..
.9
104
114
..
.
. .
.
.
. .
..
. . . . .
117
118
.,
.............
.
11
117
. ...
,.
..
119
120
130
137
,138
....
,.
ManuaNcturers
..
,
..
WAtei' Vapor Prt'ssure ams FunL'tion ot Tmmmpurature
XXXI
1llimity Rathio and Unit 1Lift as a Funct ion of Alti tude

(Helium - 95. 5";. Purity) .. ................
.........
................................................
IDita for Helium ..
....................................
XXX
DAtW onl Helium Plants.
42
43
,.
..
(it in~trumnlmitaionl
.............
8pe%)d 1'rhAlnleitteas.
Conversimr
38plFarvi.ti
. . .
36
..
*,,
,.,
.......
Vm'and Divtrctioll 'I'iaiasnillt' rm
XXIX
135
Lomad Cells
Wind
. . .
United 8tatem Plaptic T'ethers (Mylar)
XXVIII
XXXIII
Naaiimon Cordagt, Works IT'illr
IPremmure Traiaduverm
XXXII
tOwe'a'(miCnting Film.'rglaas (orpmmr~ktin Tethers (A. roN I axild)
XXIV
XXVII
.3111
105
('inm
*'I'" fimriktllre sensmors
XXVI
um
Npol' I IvtrIt uae
XXIII
XXV
Ams'I'rivII C'liti wiad Cablo CompAny Totherm
XX
I I
..
. . . . . . .
. .
XVI
me
. .. .
Kinot Ntrongth ("'4miarlumao
XIX
I .II
.........
XV
('411U11111ia14
IstraIn I
Lo d
XIV
..
. .
6.'g'm11k rim il ol T1111101. MikoIvmi.4.a
I~
XIII
XV1II
,mi,
MmoriAlm
Falori
Aveelilihe W e.
in hl
Srlen t
N
'I I'I4
F ntoni, ra
Hi m Cloth I
Avilikilbe, Ciifo
XVII
hp,
I.
34
(lI
j' 'o lid i-44 igb114'i
I isos
Via
X'I
II~
0 1IM1g1111t1it,~ FlI#14,,11011104
VI 01111ial-141oilt
X1
811,
l il1g l .1111
ii 1
.
.
.,,.
....
..
. ...
138
..
...............
138
139
,
145
150
164
166
SYMBOLS
A
thickness of total layers of cable on drum (inches)
II
drum width between flanges (inches)
C"
flange clearance (inches)
CD
balloon drag coefficient
balloon lift coefficient
CIt
unit gam lift (pounds/cubic foot) - w. - Wg
drum diameter (Inches); also envelope length (feet)
cAble diameter (inches)
EMF
electro-motive force
line load (pounds)
(able coefficient of friction
Fi
fineness ratio,
FS
full scale; also factor of safety
cumnntant as noted
1,
tether length or envelop, le ngth (feet); also lift (pounds)
11b)
lift/drag rati()
Ii
number of units
)T
pv2/3 /CD
CL
2(li ) S
eloelenh
onvelope max dia
tether load (pounds)
atmospheric pressure (inches 11g)
Pv
vapo)or pressure ;at 100('t relative humidity (inches Hg)
dynamic pressure (pounds/square foot) [q
S9
specific gravity of gas
absolute temperature
ITA
11 b
ambient air temperature, absolute

average internal balloon temperature, absolute
xi
pv2
VK
speed (knots)
speed (feet/second)
Vb&I
volume of ballonet (cubic feet)

envelope volume (cubic feet)
V2/3
V'/
reference area (square feet)

envelope volumne 1/
(feet)
density of cable (pounds/cubic inch)
wR
weight of air (pounds/cubic foot); in U.S. Standard atmosphore

p is weight of air/cubic foot.
Wg
weight of gas (pounds/cubic foot)
angle of attack, degrees
cable angle of contact with capstan; also gas purity
mass density of air (slugs/cubic foot); sometimes used as

density (pounds/cubic foot)
relative humidity
xii
L.=,
1- -
t -
im
| ..
. .. -
SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
1, GENERAL
Balloons are normally categorized to identify a particular balloon system, including the
various trade names and models. Balloons are also identified by their shape, displacement,
type of lifting gas used, and the operational use of the balloon and its associated tethering cable. Most balloons can be scaled up or down in size, built of material of greater or lesser
strength (and weight), and in numerous ways optimized for a specific application. Basic criterla for balloon design include altitude requirements, total payload to be supported, including
tether of adequate st rength, and flight loads to be endured.
2.
TETHERED BALLOON HISTORY
Modern tethered balloons are flown unmant. I except in a few isolated operations. The
first manned flight was made in a tethered balloon on October 15, 1783, at Paris, by Pilatre de
Rozier. On October 17 Rozler made another asce1nt, tccon~pmiiied by utronde de Villette, who
immediately suggested the possible military advantages of ;he elevated position provided by tihe
balloon in a letter written to the editors of the Journal de Paris on October 20, 1783, and published on October 26.
In 1793 Gaspard Monge proposed to the Convention governing France after the fall of
Louis XVI the use of captive balloons in the war to repel the armies invading France. The
suggestion was adopted, and an act ordering construction of a military balloon was passed on
October 25, 1793. A balloon school was founded at Mendon, and a balloon corps consisting of
two companies was organized. By 1795 four balloons had been built. One of these, the Martial,
was a cylindrical balloon, but was more unsteady in a wind than the spherical types, presumably because it lacked stabilizing fins. Pictures of these early tethered balloons show that
twin tethers were used (see Figure 1). The twin tethers were most likely used to combat the
inherent Instability of spherical balloons, which develop a lateral oscillation across the wind
field at a relatively low wind velocity.
The Aerostiers, as the members of the corps were called, operated with some success,
but the corps was ordered disbanded In 1799, apparently because balloons were unsuited to the
mobile tactics of Napoleon, being better suited for use in static warfare such as sieges. (However, a company that accompanied Napoleon to Egypt in 1798 was not disbanded until its return
to France in 1801 or 1802. )
There was little military ballooning activity thereafter until the outbreak of the American
Civil War In 1861, although suggestions were made in the U. S. by Col. J. H. Sherburne in 1840
that they be used ih Florida against the Seminole Indians, and by John Wise in 1846 during the
Mexican War that a tethered balloon be used to bomb Vera Cruz (Reference 1). Margat took a
French balloon to Algeria in 1830 and made one ascent under fire, and in 1859 Louis and Eugene
Godard used captive hot-air balloons during the French campaign in Italy.
Captive balloons were used by both sides in the American Civil War. On the Union side,
after some mixed successes, a balloon corps of seven balloons with field generators for hydrogen was organized under Thaddeus Lowe (see Figure 2). Lowe resigned in 1863 because of a
salary cut and because of unrealistic hampering restrictions put on his operations. The balloon corps tried to continue under James Allen but disbanded not long afterward. The first
shipboard use of a tethered balloon was by John La Mountain on August 3, 1861, and Lowe soon
followed with an ascent from the first boat built for balloon operations, the G. W. Parke Custis,
in November 1861.
The Confederates, with considerable ingenuity, gained mobility for one of their balloons
by tying It to a locomotive and later to a steamboat on the James River.
Figure 1. Double Tvitrered Bali'on, Early French, 1795
Figure 2. &)we's Ballooni W, ,I-s4iIlrtpf)Aboard the Custis

During American
Civil Wtar, 1861 (Sliithisoniafn IInSHUt
i
ion)
Captive balloons were used rather ineffectually by both sides In the Franco-Prussian
War of 1870. In 1879 the British army adopted captive balloons, and in 1880 introduced the
storage of gas In steel cylinders for transport. During the 1880's, most of the countries of
Europe organized balloon divisions, some of which saw action in colonial wars.
The German army's balloon division was responsible for the first great technical advancement In captive balloons since the Aerostiers were disbanded (Reference 2). The greatest difficulty with captive spheric.l balloons, once official disinterest and inertia were overcome, was that even a light wind caused them to "oscillate, bounce, ,and twist In a manner too
violent for the strongest of stomachs to stand" (Reference 2). The Germans tried an elongated
balloon (called Cigarre) with no more success than the French had had 100 years before. In
1892, however, Parseval, Sigsfeld, and Riedinger designed the first kite balloon, or "drachen,
which made use of the wind for stability as a kite does (see Figure 3). The rigging of the balloon was such that the cylindrical envelope flew at about a 45-degree attitude. A single, thick,
air-inflated lower vertical tail fin served as a ballonet. It was not immediately successful, but
after various improvements, including a tail of drogue cups to produce a stabilizing drag force,
a sufficiently satisfactory design was attained by 1896 that the War Ministry ordered several.
Conservative members of the German balloon corps argued that the spherical balloons could go
higher and were therefore superior. However, experience demonstrated that the drachens
could ascend in weather that kept the sphericals grounded a third of the time and they could
reach an altitude sufficient for satisfactory results. Thus kite balloons replaced spherical balloons in the German army.
A kite balloon tapered to points at both ends was suggested by Captain Tokunago of the
Japanese army in 1899 (Reference 3). Model It sts showed good results, and a full-scale balloon was built in Japan; but by 1905 the Parseval-Sigafeld kite balloon had been introduced there.
Although Russia, Sweden, Italy, France, Austria, Spain, Japan, and the United States
had all experimented with kite balloons, at the outbreak of World War I only the Germans seemed
to have been using them; and captive balloons, because of their lack of mobility, were not regarded even by the Germans as likely to be very useful as Germany anticipated a 'blitzkrieg"
war. The German generals favored the military philosophy of the headlong offensive, believing
that since it didn't matter what the enemy did anyway, scouting was unnecessary. When the
fighting settled into trench warfare, however, the captive balloon became suddenly important.
The French and British, who were still using spherical balloons, soon recognized the superiority of the drachen and copied the design. In 1915, a French army captain, Caquot, designed
a better captive balloon using three inflated fins to improve stability. Before the war was over,
the Germans had copied and were using Caquit's design.
Balloons were also tethered to surface ships (see Figures 3 and 4) and used for scouting
and submarine spotting by the allied navies; ships were especially constructed with balloon wells
for handling the balloons. Incidentally, it was the vulnerability of the hydrogen-filled observation balloons of World War I to incendiary fire that led to development of helium proxiuction in
the United States.
Between World Wars I and I1, the principal captivo balloon development was the addition of
a motor and suitable controls to the kite balloon so that it could be flown from one station to another, thuPs improving its mobility. These motorized kite balloons were used at the beginning of
World War I1 by both Gormany and France, but did not play an important role.
The purpose of all military ballooning was to elevate a human observer to a point from
which he could see the enemy's activity. With the development of the bombing airplane, a new
problem arose and the balloon barrage was developed as a defense. A forest of these balloons
tethered by steel cables over a city made low-level bombing difficult, If not suicidal. Developed late in World War 1, they were used in large numbers during World War II around London
and other cities. They were also employed to protect surface ships, notably Eisenhower's
D-Day invasion fleet. Several designs were developed, but the two principal types were (1) the
ballonet type (like the drachen and thi, Caquot balloons with three fins) and (2) the dilatable-gore
Figurv 3.
(ierniari Drachvii 'I a)wedb

, hIv
upd
Iol(Sul
njlls[t~itut iou)
I4
0'\, -t'
'7*
Figure 4,
Handling a Balloon Aboard Navy Ship (Wingfoot Lighter-ThanAir Society Museum Collection)
WV
Figure 5. Goodyear Aerospace Veeo-Ballooni

(8000- Cubic- Foot Volume)
type with from four to six or eight fins.
defense of Hanoi in North Vietnam.
Barrage balloons have been used more recently in the
In the 1960's, new unmanned applications for tethered balloons came into being, with
antennas or instrument packages replacing the human observer of earlier times. A recent application is the support of low-frequency antennas for military communications. Another is the
use of balloons as a marker and cable support in several aerial pickup and rescue systems In
which an airplane flying by snatches the cable and reels in the payload by means (!f an onboard
winch and g rapnel system. Balloons are also used in the logging industry in arreas Inaccessible
by conventional logging methods. The French used a captive balloin to suspend a nuclear bomb
during a test in the South Pacific. Balloons have been used in lieu of tall twe',rs to support
various electronic payloads.
In logging operationms and in smut, proposed very high altitude tethered systems, two or
more balloons in tandem (one above the other) may be used. This cmiNsideration led tf a c'ofiguration that is called the Vee-Balloon, a twin-hulled des ign with a ho rir/mital fin cl('sing the
V (see Figure 5)
The cable t,) the balit m (r hiallowms above (i n a tandem arrangenent) runs
T. M. , Goodyear Aerospace Corporatitn,
Akron, Ohio 44315
A=Ift
through the crotch. Incidental advantages of this conftgt'ration are (1) much greater aerodynamic lift, which is especially useful in logging, and (2) greater stability than conventional
single-hull kite balloons.
This review has traced primarily the history of military ballooning. Nonmilitary uses
of tethered balloons have not been as well recorded. They have existed as toys since September, 1783, and tethered balloons hav, ascended with people aboard ever since Pilatre de
Rozier's day (Reference 4). In 1868, Henri Giffard in London built a captive balloon that was
370, 000 cubic feet in volume and capable of lifting 28 people. The following year Giffard bull'
a 425, 000 cubic foot balloon. These were tether-ed to a steam winch that raised and lowered
them. Giffard built what was surely the largest captive balloon ever for the Paris World's Fair
In 1878. It was 880, OtO cubic feet In volunie and lifted 50 people at a time, operated by a huge
steam winch. This balloon and winchb arc ilust rated in Figure 38 (Section V).
The most common nonmilitary use- of the tethered balloon hans been for advertising. Demand in this area has led beyond small kite balloons to balloons shaped and painted to simulate
wine bottles, light bulbs, stockinged legs, and even an automobile battery. These are variations of the figure balloon, which dates back to 1785, when the Entslen brothers of Strasbourg
built from goldbeater's skin a hyd rogeta-filled balloon shaped and painted like the winged horse
Pegasus. Perhaps the best -known e'xamplies of figure balloons in moderni times are the balloons in Macy's annual Th,)aksgl-viiig Day parade Iin New York City.
Another use, of t it Ia':ed ballmmi zs is to support aerial came ras. Trhe idea has bevil used
in recent years for various kin1(8ds ofi
mia I surveys (a rchaeologiclaI invest igatil'ns, for Instance).
Tethiered hot air ballouaas have been used at sea fromi shipboard by the U1.S. Blureau of
COmme r~,iaI Fishe ries, La Jda
al, Ca lii ornia, in exp~eriments5Involving fish spraiting. Jacques
Coustcau has used a Raven hot -air I a IIin in similar fashion with his,, research vessel in) va rious underwater researches.
3.
SHAPES A"D STABILITY

The shapes of balloons art, na'a'nal lY divided into thie three categories listed below.
0I
) Spherical
(2) Natural Shape

(3) Aerodynamic Shaalw
/a) Single Hill (hli
iip)
(b) Vee-IBallown (diaala,
(c) Other
lnt'r1Sectiag hulls,1)
The liIrst two. caltqi'orics ; ir thai' carlicst shapes, and are logical ais promising the( great est volumetra.ic elffIcc *en
v. Tht, onIa in shanpi- Is nioare ifficelot froma a structural standpoint
whenever the payload Is a Iiatc a icnodlratei*(h id to) beisupp~orted by the balloon (see Figure 6).
Both of these shapes arl, Widevly 1aseIt 11w tree hanllaaos, hot arie limited intethered applications.
As free balloons, they feel najwindl alt ar 1ianna'Ii except [Ir, casual g;ust effects. The natural
shape free balloon is noarmally ve('Idio by an applend~ix and has no~pressu rization other than the
head of lifting gas inthe elavt'laaii'
When tethevred, any bnhlaaaaa - aiga rdless o)fcoaat gu rat but - will have ina
vxternally app~lied pressure' on the windward sub'. '1li ball nan a; thaus subject to dimpling or "'cupping"'if It
does not have a greator internal prssr'5Li't latha Ihe externally apl jultd
dynamic stagnation pressure (see Figurv 7). The'winad sp ivd hor aa
Initial
dimap)1ling ot a giveni conlfiguirat ion does not re~present an absolute uppeir linmat hor HIighat, buatitisthn' ounset if buoth structural and flight instability.
wu
C2
NAWLRAI, SHAPI
Sil It-R
RI I
RI
STRII
I AA
*1SNUO
RI YN
I"V
1-o
Drag
ARAlio
Wh
Ut-ii
IsIv
l(111111
loollm
%Vvi'I'1111111W'
Iidtil'vremi ikiie
11rMso l s. ll'i
v~I)I.g4
fZ~r
td
1vS
drag'I'O
and
liet
re
rc
"Nefcei
nlIIAtc
Verss
liywillm
Nimb)
II~1111Il. itdo'hw
h'A
1( 't1iiitions,
U. 1)),'N Tilt ilta Is toial, lit
lo
nau
'/.e'i'ity ofthe
iArly
rlcve
by Inatrrain
htvuhe drag
mid dyaic;
bop~th
iIal bllon
hteb
lo
spai'kv
Ihp'bll(-lf-oonr
ofcti'wht lessd
alo n
ratr-
rnaglFor mini
gliLA1) INdult Iit'd, anid flhi', tlot ii Ift would desl rably' ebprinmarily stat ic. In
montII Ililt wdi)wn, Iit
rediv(a at thi' evpinsi' of
it meitt'ihl applicat ion iquehI its Iol-.ging, high dlytnamIc lift may Ih' de'sin
It Igh draig,
S'it' at'roividnit m i'ally mhapi'dI ha II' ios art' ope'rateid inl winds as; hi gh as 50 or 00 knots. A
ciupping and van be provided by eit her n dili ttio i sys tent or it hallIoitit y mIim.
~inh iit,
"supi'ipreislun feisrequ ired I1 pl~int'
A dil at ion sysit'nt IN an Ioltrmial ''I- exIt'rnal huinger co'rd a rrangemeiint which, ei ther
iiss- t c mnl giolmet ry or anl expans ion of a gore or svveral go rvs,
t hriough it chitalgi ill ha Ilii)
alt itude anad tempe'rat ure. The
h allo inwith cha agis inl
pe' mmits a i'hnnige fit the voltI inn o'f) fit
chi angi ill violum , Is norm ally iniiIcateid by a gauge band. Inteiriial and uxti'rnal dilat ion coal igo rat ions arte shown Inl vIgures () and 10, respect iviely. The balloon must have a minim um presso rv
at launch, p rov ided by topping witlIt liftinag gas, and hitcnital pre'ssurme will Inc reast' to teIN im Its
anInc i'tast it In litudi' or tempe'ratur e. The nvi'vlopt' Is oi'dIna rIly
Otf thei dilation systi'mi wit ;ll
prtecteltttid by a pop1 -off'' rei'lt val vi. Mi ninturn premsure must he great enough to) prevent
''(11)1)1ing and huckli ng dot'( tI) wimds,
'
'
v'olulm
systvi'm (st't Fig ri'11) eons ists of a curtained -iff space wi'wthin thi' fixed The balIt nt't
pumpvd undo'r slight supe rpres sure. Expanasion of thei
WhichI amh ivit air it,
vtveolop itl
to
Photo supplied by Th
Figure 9.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.
MultIlobe Internal Dilation Configuration
11
--
meow-
12
HklH ALTITUDE
LOW ALTITUDE
AONTRACTED
fEXPANDED
GAS
FANPV" "ES
BALLONET CURTAIN
RAM AIR SCOOP
,TO
BALON ET
"
TAI L ON LY
RAM AIR SCOOP
CONFLUENCE
OR SUSPENSION POINT
Figure 11.
Internal Ballonet Configuration
lifting gas due to altitude or temperature change is permitted at the expense of ballonet volume.
Pressure height is, by definition, the altitude at which the envelope is 100 percent full of lifting
gas and the ballonets empty, and depends upon takeoff inflation. An envelope relief valve is
normally incorporated to protect the envelope by valving gas when pressure builds up after pressure height is exceeded or higher temperatures develop.
The ballonets are inflated and pressurized either passively by strategically located ram
air scoops or by a windmill-driven blower, ,r actively by a pressure-switch controlled, electrically-powered blower. Power may be supplied by battery or from the ground by wires routed
with the tether. Back-flow valves or collapsible sleeves prevent loss of air through scoops or
blower during no-wind or blower-off condition. Inflated empennages may be either air- or gasinflated. Lower fins have frequently been air-inflated because of vulnerability to ground damage
and greater ease of deliberate deflation without loss of gas when bedding down.
Both dilation systems and ballonet systems are directly influenced by the altitude excursion and superheat requirements of a given balloon specification. Dilation systems are
simpler, passive, generally heavier, and ordinarily used for leeser altitude excursions. Ballonet systems are more complex, usually active (electrical blower), capable of maintaining a
1,
LI
predetermi'aed pressure, and provide a constant balloon configuration. The dilation bungee cord
is subject to deterioration from weathering, and dilation gores are normally located on the underside of the envelope to provide protectioi, from sunlight and avoid water entrapmenL Changes
in balloon volume and geometry must be considered in suspension and confluence point design as
well as in empennage arrangement anc! bracing. The pressure system essentially lets the balloon 'breathe, "that is, change volume without loss of gas to compensate for altitude change,
temperature change, etc. Usually for short flights with small changes in altitude (less than
500 feet), the pressure system can be eliminated since the air density change is small.
Aerodynamically shaped balloons are inherently heavier for a given volume than spherical or natural shape balloons, but they are capable of operation in higher wind velocities. Because of their higher wind operational capabilities, tethering requirements will tend to stronger and heavier - cables. As always, the precise choice of balloon configuration and its detail design are primarily functions of the 3perating specifications the balloon is to fulfill.
5. BALLOON SYSTEM OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Operation and performance requirements for a particular balloon system dictate the selection of materials and the design configuration. For example, a long service life with numerous launch and retrieval cycles and handling operations or the capability of withstanding high
wind, long-duration flights, and long exposure to the elements may require a heavy rugged material. On the other hand, a short service life, short flights, very high lift or high altitude may
permit or dictate a lightweight, less-rugged material. Operational and performance requirements, such as environmental conditions, type and frequency of ground handlirg operations, service life, flight endurance, lift, altitude, number of launch and retrieve cycles, number of !nflation and deflations and packaging, are all interrelated factors that require careful consideration to provide an optimum balloon system for a particular application.
6.
SELECTING A BALLOON SYSTEM
Normally a tethered balloon systaem can be selected by one of three approaches: (1)
punch a system out of a table (refer to Tables I and 11 in Section If), (2) start with an available
balloon and build up a balloon system around that available balloon, or (3) start with a required
payload and an operi|ithonal requir|,nivt. In any system selection, after the system operational
requirements are known, the liallon configuration and type of lifting gas must be considered to
suit the stability and safety require-ments. Then the size of the envelope must be selected (refer
to Table X), based on the type of gas used, the envelope weight, and the total tether weight
at maximum operating altitude. The envelope material selected (refer to Section M) is governed
by the maximum load requirements expected under heavy wind conditions and the envelope internal operating pressure, plus a safety factor. When men are raised aloft in the balloon, the
safety factor is normally increased. The tether cable (refer to Section V) must be selected for
the specific job, taking into account length, electrical load where applicable, diameter, strength,
and a safety factor. In the selection of winches (refer to Section V), the following must be considered: length and diameter of tether cable, the method by which the winch is secured or ballasted to base, rate of reel-in and reel-out of tether, type of power source, type of brake used,
size of fairlead, type of drive coupling, type of controls, safety of operator, and often the various Instruments upd in conjunction with the winch and tether.
14
SECTION 1l
BALLOON SYSTEMS
1. GENERAL
The history of tethered balloons has indicated their early military exploitation for
observation and reconnaissance, and later as balloon barrrges to obstruct heavlr-than-air
craft. Their present development and use are primarily fer the elevation and support of men,
instruments, communications gear, etc.
Logging of otherwise inaccessible t, rrain has betn u tdvr development since' World War IL
Both dynamic-lift and all static-lift types of balloons have b,,,i used In this very ruiged application (see Figure 12). Such balloons are heavily loaded, low-alt itude types handled by specialized winches or logging yarders in an overall logging smstem.
At the other extreme Is a 112 cubic foot, 1/4-mil Mylar btlaitnato kite-balloon made
by E. Bollay and Associates. This delicate system can lift a 2-pound, 5-ounce electronic payload to 5000 feet for a specific short-life atmospheric research operation.
Attempts to reach higher altitudes by th, use of balloons in tandem (two or more stacked
vertically) have been made since at least 1918. Recent studies of feasibility of tethering to as
high as 100, 000 feet have shown this technique as not only desirable, but absolutely necessary.
Figure 13A illustratcs the earliest tandem arrangement attempted, in about 1918. Figure 13B Is a later, through-the-envelope, tethering arrangement. Greater detail Is shown in
Figure 14. Figure 13C avoids the through-the-envelope arrangement with a tethering through
TETHER LINE
TAILBLC
BUTT RIGGN
RIDER
BLOCK
D\
12.
\
/PULLDOWN
yER
y cLINE lHO
TAG
/'"
CORNER
LIEBLC
S~~LANDING
!-
YARDER
~~Figure 12. Typical
Balloonm-,Lorgglg Sys~tem
15
'I
Li m
. om-

I 1j
mlm
i J
j0
//
/0
Figure 13.
Tandem Balloon Schemes
181
LIGHTNING ROD
SPIDER ASSEMBLY
BRITISH MARK 84 BALLOON (84,000 CU. FT.)

Figure 14.
General Arrangement of Tandem Balloons
a nose spike or cone arrangement. Figure 13D is essentially similar to Figure 13B, but provides easier recovery of the upper balloon with the addition of an auxiliary line and disconnect
fitting.
One of the advantages of Vee-Balloons in tandem is the capability of tethering the upper
balloon through the crotch area of the lower balloon, avoiding any necessity of penetrating thW.
gas-filled envelope.
High-altitude balloons of the ballonet type have been destroyed by surging of the gas-air
combination at low altitude. A severe shift of center of buoyancy ran cause buckling from the
abnormal loadings on the suspension. Figure 15 illustrates a balloon with a surge curtain,
which inhibits or damps surging of the gas-air combination. The curtain is porous, but provides resistance to a sudden gas shift.
Modern recovery or rescue systems involving tethered balloons include the Fulton
Skyhook system for personnel rescue and the Goodyear Boomerang for a heavy payload recovery. Both involve balloons for elevating a high-strength tlethierrom 400 to 500 feet above
the terrain. A recovery aircraft with onboard winch strikes the line or the balloon, snatches
the payload into the air, and winches the payload into the aircraft while in tow. Maximum gforces on the payload are from 5 to 7 g's with nylon tethers and 120-knot aircraft impact speed.
Figures 16 and 17 show some of the particulars of the Fulton rescue system. Figure 18 shows
Goodyear's Boomerang heavy payload recovery system.
17
Figure 15.
Balloo~i With Internal Nose Girder

and Surge Curtain
RESCUE
AIRCRAFT
i
YOKE
PARACHUTE
-w..-20F
DROP K(ITSBA
L O
HARNESS
SUIT
~I
PHASEA
DROP KITS TO SURVIVOR
Figure 16.
PHASEB(
PHASE
BALLOON
LAU NCHIFulton Skyhook Balloon
PICKUP
-Personnel
Sequence of Events
Rescue System,
--
BALLOON
-
""
ALTITUDE AND RESULTING
-PTINTERCEPT
'ATH
P
OF LOAD
400
wc~-
--
-4I1
200
FEET
1000
-
2000
3000
COMPRESSED SCALE
40005000600o000ooo
EFFECT OF LINE (INTERCEPT ALTITUDE) ON PATH OF LOAD AT 110 KNOTS AIRSPEED
FE 0020300
4000
5000
6000
TRUE-SCALE DRAWING OF TYPICAL SINGLE LUVE LOAD TRAJECTORY, INTERCEPTING

LIFT - LINE AT 475 FOOT LENGTH AND AT I I- KNOTS GROUND AND AIRSPEED
Figure 17.
Effect of Intercept Altitude on Load Trajectory for

Fulton Skyhook Balloon System
19
WIND
APPROX.
400 FT
SURFACE
Figure 18,
2.
Goodyear Boomerg Balloon - Heavy-Load,

Surface-toAir ecovery System
HELIUM-FILLED BALLOON SYSTEM
All tethered balloon systems, regardless of type of lifting gas used, have many common
elements. The "flying" part of the syrtem consists of the inflated balloon, its empennage, overpressure valve, ballonet or dilation system, destruct system, suspension, tether line, and
ground winch.
"Bedding-down" between flights requires a smooth, clear ground area, ground cloth,
permanent or temporary ground anchors, and handling lines or tie-down patches on the balloon
itself. A bedded-down balloon is shown in Figure 19.
Inflation or erection of a balloon, if in
with the bedding-down area. During Inflation,
balloon handling lines or by a netting over the
pound sandbags or shot-bags with short ropes
the open, requires an area similar to or identical

the balloon may be controlled and restrained by
envelope. If netting is used, a supply of 25 to 50
and S-hooks are hooked into the netting on either
20
a-
CI
21
oldi of the eanvlopep.
Am inflation proceeds, the bags are hooked progreslively lower In the net-
thig, ie'r'mlIttltg the' envh'lope to riHe, until finally It can be handled by hnndling lines and tether.
The Phot- hnug aiid nellting can then Ihe r'emoved.
In the c'tis, of n hel turn-fillled balloon, the' helium in available only from storage in conI Ins, ri' alithigh or low pPresaure, "Nurse" bagn have been used, storing helium at atmospheric
pre'esso11, usually
tire'
ftter rlemoval from a balloon envelope. Normally, the' gas will be available
f'rom go.en ryllikle,'r at 1800 pain. Elaborate Installat tons may ha,,- underground or abovegrieteod atoriage' Ifhollurn (refer to Appendix 1U). A balloon In inflated by connectIlon of a he trni
liii, to an Apprpriat e fitting or sleeve on the ballo, i. With any gas under pressure, therewili
he it refrige ratiton effec't from .It, gits expannihn to ,ttmospheric pressure. ln a large' or per,,op'rattion, helium purifhtat ion apparatus may be' a part of (the ground equipment ftor
mne'eit
enla tntlna tItn halloon heltum at acceptable purities.
:1, IlVI)ItOGEN-FILLEI) BA.LLOON SYSTEM
T'ht, prinmary differc'ncev between helium-filld and hydrogen-filled balloon systems are
in the' atteton Wh'tails
to
of design and the techniques of inflatioa and handling to prevent Ignituel, of the' explosively filammble' hydrogen. A balloon designed for use of hydrogen can cerIihtly be', u,d with heltum, with anbout an 8 percent loss in gross lift.
limits:
The aerious hanzard of a hydrogen-air mixture is due to the wide range of combustion
4 to 741 p,,rcentl hy volume hi air Is flaminibhe.
Detall d&e'gn of the' balloon includes electrical bonding of metal parts of over-pressure
vilve's, which otherw'ise might be electrically separate. Any electrical equipment to be carried
I1\', hi' balloon or' in the' vicinity of an inflatton (switches, relays, motors, etc) should be exil) Iiz-i'roof
n
or' kept reniowte.
A "unicorn" nose probe, grounding down the tether to earth, has
Iee'en u=,d t)e dissipate' ambient electrenal potentials when flying (s,, Figure 14).
pIil'm
4.
Hydrogen Is available in high-pressure cylinders or by means of a number of chemical

ees ,
].it'Teheemitcal geneeratoxrs usually require a source of local water.
OTHER GAS-FILLED BALLOON SYSTEMS
The, only other lifting gsses occasionally used are coal gas and anmmonia. Because of
their gireater weight, a balloo
inflated with these gases has a much reduced lift compared with
that i,( helium or hydrogen.
Bloth ctal gas and aninmonia are flammable, but not with the wide limits of hydrogen.
The balloron system suitable foCrhydlrogen will c.,rtainly suffice with these two g'tses, always
cinsidering the vastly lessentd lifting capability.
Aminonia vapo(r is highly irritating to eyes and nasal membrxanes. Any appreciable connitenable tee le'l
. A technique of breaking ammonia into a hydrogenVent'raitfon will be ob'e.
niltr.cgen mixture is described in Section IV.
5.
Itsr-AIR SYSTEM
The hot-air tethered mdhloont could be built in a variety of shapes, but at present is availabhic only in the natural shape. The envelop' is built of an uncoated calendered r=lon with excellent c'estst alet'tee t comb)tustiton
'
products.
The gondolas are of welde'd tubing, providing two suspension points to the envelope rigging. The gondola mounts ip'(opane' fuel tanks, flight instruments, space for pilot and passenger
(it manned), and experimental equiplm)ent. The top of the gondola pro ,ides a mounting for the
burDN', which sui)p1les the heatt for buoyancy. Burner peak output is 2.4 million Btu/hour.
Larger ballootns use multiple burners.
22
The lower part of the balloon envelope is open to provide a wide clearance around the
flame. The gondola is suspended from the envelope by steel cables, and the entire harness
assembly is surrounded by a fabric skirt. The skirt protects the flame from winds, which
could deflect the heat and damage the envelope.
Buoyancy is controlled by adjusting fuel flow through a dual path. The normal buoyancy
level is set by metering the fuel through a needle valve. When a rapid increase in buoyancy is
required, a toggle valve is operated to provide maximum fuel flow. A maneuvering vent near
the top of the envelope can be opened by appropriate control lines to vent heat rapidly.
Inflation can be accomplished on open ground in winds of up to about 10 knots. With the
smaller balloons, the gondola and burner - directed laterally into the supported envelope - can
supply the initial bubble of hot air to erect the balloon. With the larger balloons, ground blowers
with auxiliary burners inflate and erect the balloon, after which the gondola burner(s) take over.
At the conclusion of flight, after landing, two techniques are possible. After shutdown
of the flame, a deflation port on the balloon topside can be pulled open to deflate the balloon.
An alternate method is release of the balloon from the gondola, but restraint of the envelope
with an outside rope to tCe top point of the balloon. The envelope is inverted at release from
the gondola and rapidly deflated.
Auxiliary ground equipment can include blowers, burners, and propane storage equipment.
6. INFORMATION REQUIRED BY BALLOON CONTRACTOR
A typical inquiry sheet sent out by a tethered balloon system prime contractor to a
potential customer is shown in Figure 20. The customer was requested to furnish all information on the sheet plus any additional information that would affect reliability and ultimate cost
of the end product. Most of the table items are self-explanatory. Where further information
is required, the remaining sections of this handbook should be studied for additional data.
7.
AVAILABLE BALLOON SYSTEMS
All known industry sources directly involved with tethered balloon activities were requested to contribute engineering and performance data and description of specific designs and
products for inclusion in this handbook. The data received was reduced to tabular form (refer
to Tables I and II). The designs and equipment listed donot represent the limits of capabilities
in the industry. Most balloon systems are rarely "off-the-shelf" items. The balloon systems
are usually custom-tailored for a particular operation.
8.
LIST OF MANUFACTURERS
The names and addresses of the ballonn manufacturers listed in Tahles I and II are
given below.
Air Cruist rs Div of Garrett Corp
P.O. Box 180
Belmar, New Jersey 07719
E, Bollay & Assoiates, Inc.
Boulder, Colorado
Robert Fulton Co.

Old Ridgebury RoAd
Danbury, Connectict 06810
The Gene-al Tire & Rubber Co.
General Office
Dewey & Almy Chemical Division

62 Whittemore Avenue
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140
1708 Englewood Avenue

Akron, Ohio
Firestone Tire & Rubber Co.

General Office
1200 Firestone Parkway
Akron, Ohio
The B.F. Goodrich Company

General Office
500 S. Main Street
Akron, Ohio 44311
23
Date
7.
Name of Person ...........
Flight Requirements
Dept. or Title
a) Endurance per flight
Name of Company
Street Address
City, State, Zip Code
b) Frequency of flights
Telephone
1.
Description of intended use
2.
Payload Description
8.
Balloon Life
a) Operating
b) Shelf life
a) Type
9.
b) 9ize
Ttrise Requirements
a) Erection
c) Weight
b) Ascent
d) Other
c) Descent
3.
4.
Stability, Directional Requirements &

Verticality of Payload or Balloon
10.
Number of Balloons Required
Operating Altitude
11.
Winch Required
12.
Tetrier Requirements
13.
Delivery
1 1.
Documentation
a) Above site
b) Above MSL
5.
Operating Site
a) Area Description
b) Fixed
6.
c) Mobile
a) Operation Handbooks
d) Will location be changed
b) Erection & Maintenance
Weather & Wind
c) Other (drawings, specifications)
a) Climate
15.
Training Program
16.
Field Service
b) Operating wind
c) Survival wind
d) Bedded down wind
17. Military Security
e) Temperature range
Figure 20.
Typical Balloon Manufacturer's Inquiry Sheet
24
Goodyear Aerospace Corporation

1210 Massillon Road
Akron, Ohio 44315
Sea.-Space Systems, Inc.

1754 South Crenshaw Blvd.
Torrance, California 90501
The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.

1144 East Market Street
Akron, Ohio 44316
Semco Balloons
2002 N. 11th Street
Coeur d'Alene, Idaho 83814
Jalbert Aerology Laboratory

170 N.W. 20th Street
Boca Raton, Florida 33432
Uniroyal (Formerly U.S. Rubber Co.)

General Office and Product Information Center
Uniroyal, Inc., Rockefeller Center
1230 Avenue of The Americas
New York, New York 10020
Litton Industries
(No longer in the tethered balloon
business)
Raven Industries, Inc.
Box 1007, 205 E. 6th Street
Sioux Falls, South Dakota 57101
Vee-Line Company
1650 Superior Avenue
Costa Mesa, California 92627
G.T. Schjeldahl Co.

P.O. Box 170
Northfield, Minnesota 55057
Table I.
Winzen Research, Inc.

401 W. 84th Street
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55420
World War II Barrage Balloons

Envelope
Mode!
Vu e
V"Ifl'e
(j3)
M dl
Single-Hull (Blimp) Shape, Hydrogen Inflated
Net
Staticf
it
Lift
Maximum
Hull
m nee
0ametr
('Cnfluence
loint to
Tip (l Env
(Ib)
(t)
(ft)
510.0
'16.6
13.5
8.25
Lngih
(It)
Atlt it,
'a
t y
(,a.al):ilaty
(1)W
Max1incun
Desi
Weignd
nd
44.8
75.0
10.000
50
19.75
41.82
77.0
80
...
9500
50
AIR CRUISERS
L
0D4
27,950
THE GENERAL TIRE & RU"BEI, CO.

M-I. VLA
D4
3,000
30.7600
71.0
THE B.F. GOODRICH COMPANY

M-l.
V LA
3,000
71.0
13.5
36.0
...
THE WODYEAR TIRE & RUBBER CO.

ZK2G
1,525
32.0
10.75
17.25
2700
M-1,
2,700
3.000
50.0
71.0
12.75
13.5
--
D7
D-BH- 1(;
20,000
22. 750
495.0
505.0
25.25
25.75
D8
23, 500
589.0
27.0
ZKA
D3
D3
D5
D5
24,000
24.950
27.000
30. 500
32,000
596.0
400.0
470.0
620.0
505.0
27.0
27.3
32.0
23.0
29.0
D-BB-6L
D-6L-6F
71,000
71,000
1340.0
1100.0
36.8
36. 8
63.4
VLA
FIRESTONE TIRE & RUBBER ('O.

M-1. VLA
3.000
71.0
28.350
515.0
D6
13.,
27 7V
--
29.66
64.0
77.25
5.000
7.000
60
50
68.0
6.200
46.0
45.65
45.65
48.5
48.5
68.0
77.5
77.5
82.5
82.5
6.200
7. 500
6. 500
7. 500
7.000
50
-50
60
40.0
--
109.73
115.0
36.0
fi
35 0
37.0
45 6
15.000
15.000
50
-
...
83.92
7,500
SP
36.0
75.5
9. 500
50
U.S. RUBBER (O.

M-1, VLA 1
D4
3.000
28.000
71 0
tb. 0
13.5
28.08
,46.0
25
Table II.
Model
Ba l o o
N
l ng
M o d ift
0tz
Modern Tethered Balloons (Sheet 1)
Envelope
Vollmse
3 ta
Net11
Lilt
Shape
(it
E. BOLLAY &ASSOCIATES,
INC.
MAT Wing
MAT
I Helium
..Lift
..
Dynamic
At Alt
At Wind
Ob)
112
Airfoil
5.0
48
82
9.2
Single hull
single hull
Spherical
1.3
2.0
0.6
(knots)
--
(knots)
---
...
17
17
N/A
SL
IL
N/A
ul
Ma Hull
Diameter
(fit)
N/A
DEWEY & ALMY CHEMICAL DIVISION

7060
8000
N-100
Helium
Kytoon
Kytoon
Darex
NS-10-350
66
2.e
N 5-1S-500
NB-18-1065
N5-24-1750
N5-28-2400
N5-42-7000
113
206
66,g
42:
660
,250
5.
10.3
4.7
6.0
N/A
3.3
4.1
2.6
5,0
6.0
7.3
1.3
36.2
125.0
10,.8
16.3
...
ROBERT FULTON COMPANY
DUDA-2
BUDA-3
BUED-7&7-1
BUED-12&12-1
Skyhook
Helium
or
hydrogen
Iso
250
b.9
9.2
Single hull
,
725
34.0
55.0
_1,275
--..
---
---
...
...
...
..---
---
...
---
5.3
62,
8.6
10,3
GOODYEAR AEROS PACE CORPORATION

--351Z001
352Z000-001
628A000-003
8017-100
342Z000-001
359Z000-001
350Z001
GZ349
GZ349
Helium
Vee
Vee
Vee
Boomerang
---
GZ356
Vee
Vee
Vee
TVLF No. 6
TVLF No. 8
Vee
GZ355
Vee
6
400
700
2,000
Double hull
6,000
6,500
Single hull
Double hull
0.20
10
8,000
14,000
75,000
Ito
172
116
156
250
1,400
1,800
-----
...
---
-----
...
...
...
...
...
...
----------
---------
-------------
...
92,000
90,000
2,300
...
...
..-
...
180,000
3,,0o
---
---
---
...
...
4.5
5.0
6.0
9.5
17.0
12.0
11.5
15.0
27.0
27 0
26.9
34.0
JALBERT AEROLOGY LABORATORY

Jo2D
5D
J-7D
Helium
J-8D
J-9D
J-9AD-62
J-1O
None
or
600
850
1,100
Single hull
1,500
92,10
3,400
5,0O0
hydrogen
10
10
15-18
---
.--..--
...
...
...
25 - 30
50
100
150
.--
...---
--..
---
..
......
...
8.3
9.0
9.75
10.0
12.0
..
13.75
15.75
---
LITTON INDUSTRIES
.
Helium
Helium
38-ft
Spherical
Circus Day
28,200
Spherical
1,168
N/A
N/A
N/A
38.0
55, 000
Spherical
1,745
N/A
N/A
./.
46.0
Vulcoon
60,000
Natural
765
N/A
N/A
N/A
50.0
765
N/A
N/A
N/A
50.0
2,150
29
N/A
Aeroklte
1O,000
625
N/A
...
N/A
..
60.0
7.0
RAVEN INDUSTRIES INC

S-50A
Hot air
S-I0P
8-60
625 XD-5-3
60,000
1
Helium
Single hull
--..
26
.I
MEOW
Table II.
Confluence
Point to
Top of Env
(ft)
Length
(it)
Max
W-lying
0ft
it)
3.4
4.1
N/A
8.5
10.7
N/A
4.0
5.17
N/A
Max Design Wind

eddd
lyi/g
(jot))
...
20
20
15
15
15
15
15
Is
S15
9.0
11.0
14.0
17,0
----17.5
25.5
26,5
50.0
50.0
---
-------.-.
Modern Tethered Balloons (Sheet 2)
Altitude
Capability
)
Down
( o )(b/ft)
---
45
45
60
80
60
60
60
40
40
- --
1,000
1,000
500
1,000
1,800
5,000
15,000
10,000
20,000
0,020
0.020
0.020
0.020
0.020
0.020
0.020
0.020
220
220
220
220
220
220
0.008
1.000
0.008
0.008/0.050
0,008/0.,050
1,000
1,000/6,000
1,000/6,000
16.5
6.5
200
6.5
7.1
7.1
200 500
500
1000
10i0l 1000
4.5
3. 17
13.0
19.0
24,0
21.0
3 2 .0
36.0
41.0
72.0
71.3
70.7
88.0
19.0
23.7
24.5
29.3
32.5
37.5
40.0
30
30
30
50
50
35
50
50
...
---
...
....--....
---
-----
- ----
.......
......
0.0166
2,000
1, 5 0 0
5,000
9 000
5,000
10,000
.
---.......
0.0278
0.046
0.190
0.190
220
220
---
Mylar balloon wing system.
Nylon envelope and fins.

Neoprene bladder.
Neoprene expandable balloons. Can he clustered.
Can be fitted with automati- gas-tight valves,
Personnel rescue system.

All balloons have ballcheck filler valve and viaual indicator.
140
Mylar tim construction.

...
2,100
---.
..
3,200
2,600
-14,000
-14,000
Mylar, I mil.
Communication package support.
.
----Communication package support.
Communication package support.
---
.,60
...---
..........--
...
Remarks
---.......
---
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
----.
500
1,000
...
---
---
9(1
500
1100
50(10 1400...
Tether
Strength
(lb)
5,000
21.7
25. 11;
33.9
18.0
20.0
24.0
46.6
4 6 .0
51.0
59.0
105.0
108.0
128.5
162.0
Tether
Weight
....
---.-.-.
...
--
......
---.-
N/A
N/A
N/A
25
---
7,000
N/A
N/A
N/A
25 at alt
---
12,000
---
67.0
N/A
N/A
15
N/A
5,000
---
All balloons have dilation syntern. Fin assembly is removable.
--
..--5,000
...
Manufacturer no longer in bal loon business. These balloons

in AFCRL inventory at2 Holloman AFB. 3.5 oz/yd
DAcron-Tedlar laminate.
Three to four hours on 44 gal

propane. Other tankage available. Unmanned remote control gondola aval able. E.nvelope is 1.6 oz/ydi hi-tenacity
67.0
N/A
N/A
25
N/A
5.000
---
80.0
12.0
N/A
22.4
NIA
9.0
18
50
N/A
8.000
6,000
...
......
---
27
...
nylon.
S-50 with on-buard blower for
superpressure.
Mylar bi-laminate or film-fabric,
2
2 oz/0d. This design represents family of 100 to 3000
cubic foot balloons,
Table II. Modern Tethered Balloons (Sheet 3)
Lifting
Gas
Model
Balloon
Name
B
Envelope
Lifting
Vollkme
(fti)
Net
Static
Lift
(it)
Shape
Dynamic Lift
Pounds At
Wind
At
Alt
(knots)
(knots)
Max Hull
Diameter
0it)
RAVEN INDUSTRIES INC (Continued)

16.5-3-5
Helium
32-3-5
250K01
Aerocap
9,000
Aerocap
50,000
---
530K02
Sinigle hull
316
800
40
, 000
16.5
900
1,300
30
10.000
32.0
N/A
NiA
82.0
N, A
N A
104,0
250,000
Natural
14,000
N/A
530,000
Natural
25,000
,A
Single hull
0.25
0.75
25
200
2.0
25
25
25
1,500
7.5
20
27
20
1.000
7.5
46
45
20
3,000
9.5
206
120
20
5,000
14.0
513
727
25
5,000
17.0
673
---
---
---
20.0
69, 000
Clas "C'.
FR 4:1
Class "C, "
FR 3.5:1
Class "C, "
FR 5.5:1
Class "C, "
FR 3.5:1
Modified "C."
FR 3 3:1
Class "C,"
FR 3:1
Natural
4062
N/A
-.
.--.
55.0
30,000
91,000
Natural
Natural
225 + fuel
650 + fuel
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
40.0
55.0
350
400
500
600
750
Delta V
14.75
17.00
22.25
26.50
32.50
44.50
55.50
66.75
...
...
...
0.T. SCHJELDAHL CO.

...
Helium
SchJelminnow
None
8
650
S009500
775
S009700
1,500
S009800
5,300
---
7,820
17,000
17,000 ft3
SEA-SPACE SYSTEMS, INC.
NO DATA AVAILABLE
SEMCO BALLOONS
One-Man
Fou. Man
Hot air
Hot ar
Semco
Semco
VEE-LINE COMPANY
-----
Helium
---
1,000
1,250
--...
-..
WINZEN RESEARCH,
Dart
1,500
2.000
-----...
...
....
---...
89.00
4,000
178 00
..
..
---..
...
...
--.......
-.--.
...
..
.....
---
...
. .
..
INC.
NO DATA AVAILABLE
28
Sh
Modern Tethered Balloons (Rheet 4)
Table 11.
24 0
!17 if
22A13
'111.0
,P) (I
401
60
4 5,9(1 0
50.
7I tII
I 5(..I)1111(
(11If) imm
30
(it)
6,00011I1(l
N A
N A
:1
7(1
6,. 00101
---
25
N A
110
261,
0
I1.1)
0.
Ik
I~iI i
I mo(Hwivng~.Ii il
% i m-if 4 1117 -11 V411 11 11Ki
4,00
N A
N, 75
~Ifi~
I~
N A
70I
_rlth
M.1141111
MIHII
W111
,,ilt
--
_
_-%il-1
8.
40
70
S3.
(0,00005
HO
.0 77
2, 500
0.007
2(3
50
750
40
(3, 0
10
23.1) 45,1
210
5.0-1
70
-
7(
70
31,60(1(1.0091
S1.
M1 00-111I ,iluiiiilli'll Nh lar,

mval,,
1xc-I'li,
S.
1100
,
101.1(0(0 - .24.
000)
15.000 0,3124
13. "l00
N A
N A
!1O
N A
81,
55. 0
H850
N A
N A
N A
N A
I5
I5
N A
N A
20,00
OW
20,000
227
23, 5
(15"
75
10.000
24.0
3,000
. .
I,
If~
. alnl 31
4.7
vit
2.400
SI,
83.0
Sew Noi-mi I mid1(23 Nylon ureilh~ini. 4.7 Ii. vd #it-
H0)
(
72.0
(I
cI'l
ivd
it,
1.
GO
30.0)
0.028
Si., N-
it
4.7 wi y1
NO'hirtli'ih1.111,
SI.
()Ol)
2. 1
Nylonuii ui,(hiin.
3.200
50
2.0
5.215
I11.01
030iii
00
*000
,(u
It'iilin1(i2
%loijt.
14.0)
11.3 111
lAl2I
2(00
81.
V1
NVlIon neoprene. 7 5 1it yd ivi

ilip, Stev Noilem I and 2.
2
Nyli,-urethuaiw, 11,5 11 ycI vo
ve.33w. Ser N-ir
(e1
. 41 dliii
i'iivi'lI
Myhir N~crini. 1.77 oI'.
V(. veiiiiiiiilei3 ho.i five Ii011

Cm~uIN- Iihiitl,
---
28. 5
42.0
3)'tiin widi bmild bal~loons iol poly-
i-thy line. ind puilyur.'(h~Ati

NO)TES.
I
:1
I(.iiint'triv ti~ill11 set- Ito ilesgnt

N
wind trimi 10" ilihI upi.
Nii w ind trim 10" hi 15 mii lil
4.
Iji'lliii IheLJIVajI'.i
"A ttli i(vIIl.11nii
iiziip
,altltiiiie 1(iei
rvinifrct-d hohlei
f~or defation.
lilt
29
(Page 30 is blank)
film
SECTION III
ENVELOPE MATERIALS
1. GENERAL
Balloon envelopes are made of film-fabric laminates, two-ply fabric laminates, or
single films, depending on the application of the particular balloon. The exterior coating usually is aluminized polyurethane or aluminized Hypalon to protect against the weather and ultraviolet radiation.
Dacron/Mylar laminates or nylon/Mylar laminate. have been most recently used in balloon envelopes. The cloth provides the necessary strength, with the Mylar film acting as the
gas barrier. This type of laminate is used where maximum net static lift is required.
A laminate of straight anol biast' cloths coated with polyurethane, neoprene, and butyl
or other elastomer materials is used for balloon envelopes where ruggedness and strength are
needed. The cloth provides the strength; the coatings saturate the cloth and act as the gas barrier, and also provide weather and ultraviolet protection.
Materials within the present day state of the art can be preselected with a high degree
of confidence to fulfill specific material requirements of proposed balloon systems. These
materials fall within one of the following categories:
(1) Unsupported films
(2) Film-cloth laminates
(3) Cloth, calendered but uncoated (hot-air application)
(4) Single-ply coated fabrics
(5) Multi-ply coate.. ,.hrics
New materials of all types are constantly being sought and tested, individually and in
combinations, to provide balloon materials that are stronger, lighter, and more economical.
Fabrication processes are under continual scrutiny to develop better techniques and to improve
the quality.
2.
FABRICS
The use of a flexible fabric in pressure-rigidized structures requires that the fabric
perform two basic functions:
3.
(1)
Support the structural loads (cloth).
(2)
Contain the pressurizing media (elastomer).
CLOTH
Woven cloth is the usual form of the load-carrying member. The cloth is woven from
filaments that can be made from a multitude of materials. Some of the more common filaments
are listed below.
Cotton
Rayon
Acetate
Nylon
Dacron
Orlon
Acrilan
Polypropylene
Polyethylene
Fiberglas
Some exotic filaments that have been woven into cloth form include Teflon, hightemperature nylons, metals, nickel alloys, carbon, boron, etc. This discussion will center
31
mainly on the materials most often used for ordinary applications within temperature extremes
of -350 to +140 0 F.
Since normally there can be several hundred yarn intersections in each square inch of
woven fabric, there exists a wide range of fabric weave patterns that designers have developeL.
There are four basic weaves that are most often used in weaving cloths. These four types of
weaves are described below.
(1) Plain Weave. This is the simplest and most comiron weave, repeating on two
warp and two filling yarns. It is also known as a "one up and one down" weave,
expressed by 1/1.
(2)
l.
The basket is a modification of .he plain weave except that two
or more warp and filling yarns are woven as one. A common expression to describe it is, for example, 'two by two basket weave, " ex 'Tssed by 2/2.
(3)
Twill Weave. Twill weaves produce diagonal or "twill" lines running upward to
tie right (or-left) on the fabric face. The diagonals are accomplished by moving
the yarn intersections one pick higher on successive warp yarns. In some caser
the intersections are moved more than one pick, thus producing steep twills,
broken twills, and the like. Warp twills contain more warp yarn on the fabric
face. Even-sided twills have an equal number of warp and filling floats up, and
therefore have equal amounts of warp and filling on the fabric face. Similarly,
filling twills have more filling yarns on the face. In the herringbone twill, the
twill line runs up to the right and then goes down to Uaie right.
(4)
Satin Weaves. Satin weaves produce a smooth fabric surface by carrying the
warp (or the filling) uninteruptedly on the fabric surface over many filling (or
warp) yarns. Intersections between warp and filling are kept to a minimum,
usually just sufficient to ensure that the fabric will firmly hold together. The
long warp (or filling) "floats" on the fabric face cause the light to be uniformly
reflected, and so satin weaves are usually smooth and shiny - particularly if the
yarn is continuous filament and of low twist.
A comparison of the basic weaves, which are shown in Figure 21, is given in Table III.
A comparison of the more predominately used filaments in woven cloth is given in Table IV.
Table III.
Teeof
Comparison of Basic Weaves
Advantages
Disadvantages
Plain
Tightest weave; lowest

porosity; low racking.
Low abrasion resistance
Basket
Square woven; higher yarn

count possible.
High bulk
Twill
Softer and more flexible;

higher yarn count possible.
Higher rackingO
Satin
Most flexible; highest yarn

count; smoothest surface;
A,,
Abrasion
resistance.
Highest rackinga
a*Racking is the distortion of warp-fill pattern out of square due to

bias loading.
32
PLAIN WEAVE 1 x 1
BASKET WEAVE 2 x 2
TWILL WEAVE 2 x 2
SATIN WEAVE
Figure 21.
Basic Weaves
33
Table IV.
Properties
Comparison of Filaments
Rayon
Nylon
Dacron
Breaking tenacity,
grams/denier . . .
2.4to3.2
4.6to5.9
4.4to 5.0
Tensile strength,
psi .....
........
46 to 65,000
67 to 86,000
77 to 88,000
Breaking elongation,
percent ....
......
15 to 20
26 to 32
19 to 25
97 at 2%
100 at 2%
97 at 2%
Specific gravity
1.46 to 1.52
1.14
1.38
Water absorbency
at 70OF & 65% RH,
percent ....
......
13
4.5
0.4
Does not melt. Loses

strength at 300F.
Decomposes at 3500
to 400 0 F.
Melts at 482 0 F, Yellows slightly at 300F

when held for 5 hrs.
Melts at 480 0 F.
Similar to cotton; hot

dilute or cold concentrated disintegrate
fiber.
Boiling in 5% hydrochloric acid ultimately

causes disintegration.
Dissolves with at
least partial decomposition in cold concentrated solutioris of hydrochloric, sulfuric,
an) nitric acids.
Good resistance to
most mineral acids.
Dissolves with at
least partial decomposition by concentrated solutions of
sulfuric acids.
Strong solutions cause

swelling and reduce
strength.
Substantially inert.
Good resistance to
weak and moderate
resistance to strong
alkalis at room temperatures. Disintegrated by strong
alkalis at boiling
temperatures.
Attacked by strong
oxidizing agents; not
damaged by hypochlorite or peroxide
bleaches.
Generally good resistance.
Generally good resistance. Excellent

resistance to
bleaches and other
oxidizing agents.
Elastic recovery,
percent ....
......
Effect of heat
Effect of acids
Effect of alkalis
Effect of other
chemicals ........
34
n h I , ni"!
I u
n u
. .
Table IV.
Properti es
Rayon
Effect of organit,
solvents
,
Dyes used
...
Itesistance to
mildew ......
Identification
4.
Comparison of Filaments (Continued)
Nylon
Dacron
Generally insoluble;
soluble in cuprammongum and a few complex
compounds.
Generally insoluble,
soluble in some phenolic compounds and
in conc'utrated formic
acid.
Generally insoluble.
Soluble in some phenolic compounds.
Same as for cotton;

medium and high tenacity are harder to dye.
Disperse and acid Lre

usually preferred, but
most other classes are
also used.
Disperse (acetate).
developed (azoic),
and cationic (for
some types), with
carrier, or at high
temperatures.
A tacked,
Not attacked.
Not attacked.
Does not melt. Burns

readily with little ash.
Insoluble in acetone.
Melts before burning,

self-extinguishing.
Insoluble in acetone or
boiling NaOH solutions.
Soluble In concentrated
formic acid and xyleiol.
Melts before burnIng. Soluble in hot

metacresol, but not
soluble in acetone or
concentrated formic
acid.
ELASTOME RS
The batt function of the elastonier compound is to provide the gas barrier for the inflated structure. A the same time, the elastomer covers the threads, thus providing sunlight
and other weathering protection and a suitable bonding surface. The thickness of the elastoiner
on the outside of the cloth can be varied to provide the required amount of abrasion protection
for "wear and tear" considerations. Some of the available elastomern are listed below.
Natural rubber
Butyl
Neoprene
Polyurethane
Teflon
Hypalon
Viton
Silicone
In addition, Mylar film has been laminated to cloths such is nylon and Dacron, thus providing an extremely impermeable fabric.' The relative general properties of elastomer types
are given in Table V.
,5
FABRIC COITIJUCTION
Various fabric construction techniques have been investigated and utilized for inflatable
structures, such as free and tethered balloons and nonrigid airships. The selection of the fabric for thin type of Inflatable structure is based primarily upon the necessary skin strtngth required to resist deformations due to internal and external loads, Other !mportint considerations have been service life, impermeability to game3, strength-to-weight ratio, and goci
packaging .haracteridtics.
The most cornmorJy used .'onstrue'tion has been the elastonmer coated fabrics.
iferv, multiple plies oif cotton, nylon, or Dac ron woven clothe were used, with the
3,5
Table V.
Elastomer
Types
Relative General Properties of Elastomers (Sheet 1)
Tensile
Tear
Abrasion
Impact
(fatigue)
Natural Rubber
AB
AD
AB
CD
+250OF
B
-80F
Styrene Butadiene Rubber

(Buna 8 or GRS)
BC
AD
AB
C
+275 0 F
BC
B
-80o to
-90F
Isobutylene
Isoprene Rubber
13
i1
BC
+300F
BC
-500 to
Flame
Heat
Cold
(stiff)
(Butyl or GR-!)
Chloroprene
-80OF
AB
Rubber
+300F
BC
-450 to
(Neoprene or
GR-M)
Polyurethane
Elastomers (Adiprene, Chemigum
Cold
(b) ittle)
-70F
CD
C
+250oF
A
-30 to
-95F
Nitrile Butadiene
Rubuer (Buna N)
BC
BC
AC
B
+275oF
BC
BC
-80, to
Silicone Rubbers
CD
CD
A
.,550oF
A
-200OF
Chlorosulfonated
Polyethylene
(Hypalon)
BC
BC
AB
BC
i3C
*325 0 F
B
-70o to
-80 0 F
Fluorinated Elastomers (Fluorel,

Kel-F, Viton)
BC
BC
BD
A
+450 F
BC
+100 to
-40 O F
Organic Polyo4ulfide Rubbers

(Thiokol, GR-P)
1)
D)
C
f200 to
+275oF
B
-600 to
-80F
SL, CX-1046)
A . Exceptional, Outs tanding, or Exctellent
36
1)
3
Good
C - Fair
-90oF
Poor
Table V.
Relative General Properties of Elastomers (Sheet 2)
Radiation
Gas
Retention
ResistanceChemical
- Oil,
Weather,
BC
Highly resilient, low hysteresis, general purpose.
Contact with oils, ozone,

strong oxidizing agents.
0.93
BC
General purpose rubber,

not so resilient as natural,
better resistance to aging.
Contact with oil, ozone,

strong oxidizing agonts.
0.94
AB
Weather, heat, ozone,

chemical and solvent resistant, low air pormeability.
Contact with oils.
0.92
AB
CD
AB
Weather resistant, fair

oil resistance.
Temperature extremes,
contact with aromatic
oils and most fuels, long
exposure to low temperatures.
1.24
Superior abrasion resistance, sunlight and ozone

resistance, good oil resistance.
Contact with steam or hot

water.
1.05
to
1.17
BC
Medium to good oil reslstance, '.Air fuel resistance.
Contact with ozone,

strong oxidizing agents.
0.99
Resistant to terni&'rature
extremes, fair .l reststanhe, properties const ant from -6o0 to +500"F.
Contact with high pressure steam, aromatic

oils, fuels, abrasion.
1.25
BC
AB
Weather, heat, ozone, and

mode 'ate oil rcsistance,
good color posiibilities.
Aromatic oils and most

fuels.
1.10
BC
Resistant to oxidizing
acids, fuels containing up
to 30% aromatics, ozone,
weather; excellent oil resistance.
Contact with diester lubricants, uses where material must be easily

flexed at temperatures
below 0F.
1.40
to
1.85
BC
Excellent oil resistance,

good resistance to aromatic fuels, excellent
weather and ozone reststance.
Resistance to compression set particularly at

tem,8eratures above
100 F, uses where mercaptan odor would be objectionable, contact with
oxidizing acids.
1.25
to
1.60
A
(R. T.)
Exceptional, Outatanding, or Excellent
37
Specific
Gravity
Good
C - Fair
D Poor
necessary weight of elastomer coating such as neoprene, to provide gas tightness and weatherability. With the multiple-ply coated fabrics, a straight and bias ply construction was found
to be necessary to provide the shear stiffness required for maintaining the shape of a streamlined envelope. Ea -ly attempts at streamlined envelope construction with a single-ply coated
fabric resulted in a distorted 'banana" shape. The usual practice with a straight/bias ply construction is to orient the bias ply at 45 degrees, with the straight ply carrying the major hoop
and longitudinal tensin loads in the direction of its warp and fill threads. The bias ply is normally the outer one, io take the brunt of weathering.
Recent investigation and use have been made of balloon fabric consisting of Mylar film
laminated to Dacron cloth and in some cases further coated with a pigmented polyurethane
elastomer. This construction technique was used for a family of film-cloth laminates with
weights varying from 1. 5 to 7 ounces per square yard, and breaking strengths from 40 to 300
pounds per inch. Comparisons of strength-tu-weight ratios, tear strength, and permeability
to gases for unsupported films, film-cloth la;,iinates, and coated fabrics are tabulated in Table
VI and plotted in Figure 22.
The usual practice in the final selection of a balloon fabric is the result of compromise,
where material properties desircd are extreme light weight, high strength, impermeability to
gases, and packageability, plus a specified service life contingent on known 2nvironmental exposure conditions. The various candidate materials that may be selected for a balloon fabric
specification are described in the following paragraphs.
Table VI.
Comparison of Film-Cloth Laminates, Coated Fabrics, and Unsupported Films

-Mylar-Dac ron
Polyethylene
Properties
Film
Pl
2-DPcy
Neoprene
Fabprice
Fabric
Mylar
Capran
Polyurethane
V'abric
fabric
Frze
balloon
Air
shelter
Vee-Balloon
Nonrigid
airship
Film
Film
Typical
application ....
.....
Frev
Nomiral weight,
oz/yd . .......
...
0.75,/mil
1/muil
I rMil
4.15
11
Ultimate tensile,
lb/in ..........
...
5/rail
20i/mil
6. 7/rail
75
13.1
Strength/weight,
inches ...........
...
139,000
415,000
139,000
385,000
253,000
Per ieability (Fie),

1/mg/24 hr . . .
43.3/mil
l.5,mil
1.7,il
Tear strength (Goodyear I" centerslit),

lb ...
.........
...
3.2/mil
1.7/mil
56
115
Tear strength. g/mil

(Elmendorf) ..
. ..
170
15
b)allulu
7`5,
38
I'
STRENGTH -WEI GHT RATIO

255,000 TO 320,000 INCHES
0
STRENGTH- WEIGHT RATIO
500,000-740,000 INCHES
MYLAR-DACRON POt VURETHANE

(220 Pt.4IER)
250
-j
I-w
0.
200
,150
2-PLY DACRON - NEOPRENE
-.-
(220 DENIER)
z
S100
MYLAR-DACRON LAMINATE (40-70 DENIER)
(TYPICAL FOR UNSUPPORTED MYLAR)
-_-
.]-.--L--
L_
10
l-
-~j.-.-.
-.....
L..-._.-- L_-- L.- -
15
20
WEIGHT (OZ/YD2
Figure 22. Strength-to-Weight Comparisons - Film

Cloth Versus Elastomer Laminates
6.
FILMS
Mylar polyester type film and Capran polyamide type film are the prime film candidate
materials and would be used in combination with tightly woven cloth constructions on a balloon.
Both films offer outstanding combinations of mechanical properties of high impact strength,
flex life, and impermeability to gases. Both are considerahly higher than polyethylene film
for impermeaoility, arid while the tear strength of Mylar is considerably lower than that of
polyethylene film, Capran film tear strength is nearly as good. Both Myl: r and Capran films
exhibit a practical service temperature range adequate for most tethered balloon temperature
environments. As both Mylar and Capran films have only fair resistance to ultraviolet, a
balloon might require ultraviolet absorber type suriace coating.
".
WOVEN CLOTHS
Due to the usual requirement for a high degree of dimensional stability in a balloon
structure so a to maintain the desired aerodynamic shape, a flexible material exhibiting high
initial modulus (resistance to initial stretch) is required. To provide an indication of efficiencies of finished woven cloths, yarn data have been plotted to show the stress-strain relationship of nylon, Da'rnn, and cotton yarn (see Figure 23). These plots indicate that the initial
39
140
120
DARO
52
NYLON 300
100 ,
DACRON 51
"N OMEX(
80-
S~COTTON
S60
- EGYPT!AN
tA
40
2o0I
12
89
4
o
16
20
ELONGATION (STRAIN)
F ,rure 23. Stress-Strain Curves for Nylon,

Dacron,. and Cotton Yarn
modulus of Dacron yarn is high when ('onppared with that of other textile fibers. As a result of
past experience and the yarn surv'wy, Dacron would be selected as the most promi~ing basic
fiber for cloth in a balloon film-cloth or coated cloth laminated construction. As to the cloth
weave, a plain type weave with low twist filament yarns has been foua:d to give the best adhesion with films and elastoner coatlng.
8.
COATINGS
For the one- or two-ply elastomer coated balloon fabrics, a minimum-weight polyurethane elastomer coating on Dacron cloth is good. This serves to facilitate joint construction
for a more heavily loaded structure, by use of a wet cemented type joint. Dependett on
whether radio frequency energy is to be reflected or transmitted, the proper pigmenting, such
as aluminum or t~tanium dioxide, may be added to the coating for ultraviolet protection, and
also solar heat reflectance to minimize superheat of the inflation gas. Past experience with
effects of long time-weathering on fabrics has shown the lightweight film-cloth laminated type
construction (Mylar-Dacron-polyurethane) to have 6 to 12 months' service life with the proper
combination of coating weight and cloth weave. The heavier two-ply airship-type coated fabrics
(Dacron-Neoprene-lHypalon) have been found to give up to 5 years' service if given proper maintenance.
40
9.
DIFFUSION AND INFUSION
Diffusion and infusion are phenomena dealing with the loss of lLfting gas arid the increase
of impurities within balloon envelopes and other similar gas-holding barriers. Diffusion describes the action of gases slowly escaping through a gas barrier mater:ial. Infusion describes
the action of plain air going through the same barrier from outside to inside and mixing with the
gases, thus changing the purity of the gas. Both diffusion and infusion take place at the same
time, with a resulting gradual loss of lift. Diffusion and infusion take place with both hydrogen
and helium and are the second largest lift losses after just plain gas leaks. When the losses
are noted with a hydrogen balloon, the gas supply is simply replenished because of its cornparative low cost. When losses are noted in a helium envelope, under some conditions, helium
purification is sometimes necessary. During a single purification of the helium within a nonrigid airship envelope, water (to the extent of quite a few gallons) has been removed from the
helium to prove out the theory of Infusion into a constantly pressurized envelope.
rhe amount
of diffusion and infusion on any particular envelope varies according to the type of barrier, the
amount of barrier, the use or abuse the barrier has received, ard the age of the material
where aging is a factor. Most tethered balloon applications hav,, required very min.l or no
application of helium purification; therefore, diffusion and infuton rcords dot notl e' 'si. Every
balloon system operator should understand that these lift losses (10 exist.
10.
TESTING LAMINATED FABRICS
The weight, width, or breaking strength of laminated fabricis is usuall v I et eid Ini avt(ildance with the American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) secilti'atiiis.
The ASrM Itests
are normally accepted standards throughout the fabric-pIrOducImg induitry,
11.
TESTIN(; PERMEABILITY AND PLY ADHESION
When the diffusion rate or ply adhesion tests are required on envelope fabric. they are
normally conducted as outlined in specification Fed. CCC-T-191. The specification List) describes the type of instruments used for the tests. Normally a series of tests requireb separate pieces or samples of envelope material. A re('ommended maximum allowable dilfusion
rate for a good envelo)pe would not exceed 2 liters per square meter in 24 hoirs. A recoimmended nfininiuni all)(wabile ply adhesion rite is 3 p)ounds per inch for goo)d fabric.
12.
AVAILABLE ENVELOPE MATERIALS
Tables VI1 and VIII list the envelope materials available iromn the manufacturers who
furnished data for this handb()ok. The names and addresses of the nmanufacturers listed in the
tables are given below.
Ai vey Corp. , Lanic(ute Div.

3500 N. Kiimball Ave.
Ch ('a,.-(, Illinois 60618
Sm co Balloons
2002 N. IIth St.
Cocur d'Alv,,e, Idaho
tha rtz -Mas It. Itc.

270 Pleasant Street
Waterto'n Ma,.sachusetts
Standard Packaging Co.

I Lisbon Street
Clifton. New Jersey 07013
02172
Reeves Vulcan Divisiin

P.O. Hitx 5216
Akron, Ohi(i 44313
"
Vee Live Corp.

1650 Superior Ave.
Costa Mesa. Calilornia
G. T. Schjeldahl Ci
P.O. 13tx 170
No'thfield.
Minnesota
83814
55057
41
92627
Table V11.
Miu~uav~uri,
?Ia.%rti MmimII
Oid.' Nil,
17113 N05i12
l..a
Itti
W1
t~~
Nviiprene.
Cte.411ii11
flutyI
(11111 -t
rkli;ajjlI
Ttl~itl
Dacriti
Nvtnit'n
1753 1112230
lWIi
'.'t
'I-~Igh,
1)Ill.i
U I
0r
I- 1
I H
Ij
(I
likilyl
).1 siei
ii
No-iprumei
317
1
0) 1
I ..Vkup1
I NI Uretlh~eill
eli
DaI).utinl
11I,'i-Ihant.
2 4 NvI'ti
1 (C Ilr.'I1i.
4:1
1 11
L..yupl
'.7
111411111A111 2
111%
'(it,
On
I4
24h,
max11
42
4.0
0A
0,9)
plly
1'u
Ml A21
1115
H7 x 07
46
210
MI 0
7.01
8.
3I:.0)
mi ll
2, C)
wt
1,0I
Nyltim
lete 1,( I I uuIhlaiel
42'II
M11. x~tin
7Cl
W1
4.11
Om phe
(3
,II
I NS 14
1111ii1
'vetite-e ilitv tllve1

11it
w.- I'lk
6. 6
C tI't~,7
iti~
IllIl
.t'
1:1.II
q Id
1avul
Nnipre'i
0'iiIn
(1
At~ lgiat.i
IA111
All I I
IS24uI
0I 6
Illy
2, Width, Inl. , 1101

3,
~ ieiiIt~
1)I n. 1111n(WX F
02yc~III
HiitWiI"
I.
Avaihkble (.'oated Fabric Miaterials
10
Table VIII. Available Laminated Fi

Manufacturer
Arvey Corporation
Code No.
It-V-CX-2711
Description
Layup
Wt
lt-V-CX-6
A-3512
l ayup
Standard Packaging
Wt
L/ayup
A-3617
Wt
Layup
...
--
Unknown
Wt
Layup
Haartz-Ma
Unknown
1758-D-0:
Wt
Layup
Wt
Layup
..
...
Mylar
Polyester
0.25
0,30
--- --
Construction:
...
Film
Adhesive
---
-- -
Mylar
Vi et
othi
Film
MyliA
0.5
Poly -
Adhesive
Polyester
...
DA)r ,n
...
0,5
...
.. I
...
Coating
Cloth
Coating
Total - oz/yd
Cleat
Physical Properties:
I. Weight, oz/yjd
(t0.25 oz/yd l)
2. Width, in., nin
3, Breai&,j strength,
lb/tn
rain (WxF)
4. Ply adhiaton,
lb/in. , win
Coating
...
ethylem,
.
- -....
...
1.6
Ratmarks
5.
0.
,td ehion.
I/in2,
main
6. Perrewability (fie'
1,-m3/24 hr, max
...
......
...
0.3
0.2
Mylar
Urethane
0.36
0.08
0.4
Mylar
0.36
Capran
0.75
Tedlar
0.5
--.---
Polyester
---
Polyester
Daucron
0.60
--.1. 14
....---
Polyester
--.Fiberglass
0.3
--.-.
0.6
-.--
..
...
0.4?
--...0.80
...
...
0,9
2.03
Aluminized Mylar, orange

pigmented urethane
Orange pigmented urethane
Nylon
...
2.49
Clear
Mylar
..
1,00
Nylon
---
...
1.4
Aluminized
Tedlar
Polyester
Urethane
Dacron
Urethane
1.55
Aluminized Myla', orange nylon
Auminun, pil
mented ure
1.6
0.9
2.0,
2.49
1.4
1.55
4.8
54
45 x 25
54
4 x 4
41
41 x 41
40
45 x 45
36
---
34
40 x 40
44
45 x 50
3,0
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
5,0
- .....--
2,0
7.5
1.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
NOTE: Weight is given tn oz/yd 2 .
43
7/4
(Page 44 is blank)
ilable Laminated Film-Fabric Materials

,
1758-D-0226
known
Layup
Wt
or
0.25
0.30
---
Wt
---
Chrome-Tec 150
Layup I wt
-----
..
Mylar
..--0.5
Polyester
0.4
1.00
Dacron
1.3
Nylon
---
Urethane
1.5
---
---
---
Uretha~ne
1.55
zed Mynge nylon
1.1
Saran
---.---
4.8
44
45 x 50
40
5.0
.5
i"7
Chrome-Tec RS-2
Layup
3.3
---
Composite
..
---
.. ..
43
(Page 44 is blank)
---
2.4
---
2.2
..
Nylon
1.1
..
..---
2.4
Composite Nylon Type 304 stainless

steel yarn
2.4
97 x 95
..
Wt
Layup
Wt
Layup
WI
Mylar
Polyester
Mylar
0.25
0.40
0.25
Mylar
Polvester
0.36
0.62
Mylar
Polyester
0.35
0. 16
Polyester
0.45
........
Dacron
0.80
Dacron
0.60
DacronO
0.28
Dacron*
0.19
---
. ........
---......
*Adhesive - coated
scrim. Mylarscrim - scrim
laminate.
3.3
2.15
1.77
34.5
41
60
53 x 48
40 x 40
100 x 25
3.0
1.5
*Flying thrcad
loom type
0.79
55 x 20
---
...
. .....
-1.0
0.79
1.77
2. 15
Clear
Cleat
GT-112
Layup
3.3
---
- --
I"2.0
Saran
..
-..---
53 x 48
WI
.
---... ...
1.1
tLayup
---.
---
3.3 .
Clear
Wt
GT-1012-2
GT-31
N-I1-135
----..
---
--
4.8
Auminum pigmented urethane
---2.2
G. T. Schjeldahl
Semen
Ves Line
Haartz-Mason
1.6
---
SECTION IV
LIFTING GASES
1. GENERAL
This section covers the science of aerostatics and the procedures for determining a
required balloon displacement. The handling problems and history of various lifting gases are
also described. The information in this section is supplemented by detailed information in
Appendixes I and II.
2.
AEROSTATICS
a.
General
The science of aerostatics, which deals with flotation of lighter-than-air aircraft by the
buoyancy arising from the differences in weight between the air and the inflating gas used, is
discussed in the following paragraphs. Information from War Department Technical Manual
1-325 (Reference 5) is included in this discussion.
b. Atmosphere
For a complete understanding of the subject of aerostatics, it is necessary first to
make a brief study of the atmosphere, which is the sustaining medium.
The atmosphere is defir.ed as the gaseous enveiope which surrounds the earth. It is
composed of a mixture of gases, and at mean sea level under average conditions, excluding
water vapor, its approximate composition uy volume is as follows:
Nitrogen .........
Oxygen ..........
Argon ........
Carbon dioxide .
Hydrogen ..........
Other gases ......
Total ..........
..................
...................
....................
.................
..................
.................
..................
..
..
..
...
78.00%
20.95
0.91
0.03
0.01
0.10
100.00%
As can be seen from the foregoing, nitrogen and oxygen are the two principal components, hydrogen 6nd other gases being present in very small quantities. At an altitude of about
30,000 feet the amount of hydrogen is about double that at the earth's surface.
The atmosphere is subject to changes in condition, but only in a very small degree to
changes in composition near the earth's surface. For purpose of the study of aerostatics, it is
assumed that pressure, temperature, and humidity of the atmosphere alone affect aerostatic
computations. Of these three, the first two affect only the condition of the atmosphere, while
the third affects both condition and composition. Any effects of latitude upon gravity will be
neglected as they are negligible for practical purposes. The causes which operate to alter
pressure, temperature, and composition of the atmosphere are treated in the study of meteorology. These causes can be traced, and to a certain extent, changes in the condition of the atmosphere can be foretold. The barometric pressure shows a rapid drop during ascent up to
about 6 miles, where the trend changes less rapidly; also about half of the earth's air, by
weight, lies below 20,000 feet, or less than 4 miles. The pressure is reduced by approximately
one-half for every 3.6 miles of ascent.
c.
Physical Properties of Gases

As it is necessary to use gases for inflation of lighter-than-air aircraft, it is necessary
45
to make a study of some of their physical properties. The ideal balloon would be one containing a vacuum, but due to the tremendous value of the atmospheric pressure it is impossible to
build a balloon u-rong enough to contain a vacuum and yet be light enough to float in the atmosphere. In reality the gas in a balloon (by opposing the external or atmospheric pressure) serves
as a medium by which internal pressure or shape is maintained in the balloon or airship envelope.
Both liquids and gases are fluids. A fluid does not offer permanent resistance to forces
tending to produce a change of shape, that is, its modulus of shear is very low. The resistance
or friction to distortion is called the viscosity of the fluid. The three important differences
between gases and liquids are as follows:
(1) Gases are compressible.
(2)
Gases change volume rapidly with changes in temperature.
(3)
Gas atoms or molecules appear to have the same electrical charges or to possess
the property of repelling each other,
The weight of the unit of volume of a body is called the "density" of that body.
density is thus tMe force of gravity acting on the mass of a unit volume.
The
weight of body
Density =volume of body
In the metric system the unit of volume is the cubic meter and the unit of force the kilogram; the density is expressed in kilograms per cubic meter. For water and air the densities
are, respectively, 1,000 kilograms per cubic meter and 1.23 kilograms per cubic meter. In
the English sys'om of units, the unit of volume being the cubic foot and the unit of force the
pound, the density of gas is expressed in pounds per cubic foot. For air under standard conditions, the density is 0.07651 pound per cubic foot, or 76.51 pounds per 1,000 cubic feet. In
the case of gases, condiLions of pressure and of temperature are of such importance that it is
impossible for them not to be taken into consideration. The gas used for purposes cf comparison is air under established conditions of purity. The composition of atmospheric air is remarkably constant, as previously stated, except for the proportion of water vapor it contains.
This variability is eliminated by taking dry air as a standard of comparison. In determining
the standard densities or specific gtravities of air and other gases, the temperature is suposed
to be maintained at 59 0 F and under a constant pressure of 760 millimeters of mercury (2j.92
inches). Under these conditions, the standard density of dry air is 1.23 kilograms per cubic
meter (0.07651 pound per cubic' foot) and is the standard of comparison from which specific
gravities of all gases are determined.
The ratio of the density of a given substance to the density of some substance adopted as
a standard, buth being subjected to identical conditions of pressure and temperature, is known
as the specific gravity of the given substance. This ratio is independent of the system of units
employed, but both densities must be expressed in similar units. Dry air is the standard of
comparison for determining the specific gravity of gases. The specific gravity of a gas is the
ratio between the weight of a unit volume of that gas and the weight of the same volume of dry
air taken under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.
weight of unit volume of gas
SS =
= weight of unit volume ot air
For instance, the densities under standaid conditions of dry air and hydrogen are, respectively, 0.07651 and 0.00532 pound. Therefore, the specific gravicy of H is
S9
0.00532
0.0751
0.069
.6
46
The ratio thum obtained to practirally constant whatever may be conditions of temperature and pressure, In other words, the coefficients of expansion ofu l gas@e are the @am#,
The following are the constant densities and poecific gravities fur some ganes under
standard conditions of pressure and temperature:
(I)
Standard Density
(a) Air a 0,07651 lb/cu ft
(b) Hydrogena 0,00532 lb/cu ft
(c) Helium - 0.01056 lb/cu ft
(2) Average density of illuminating gas m 0.0306 lb/cu ft

(3) Specific Gravity
(a) Dry air - I
(b) Pure hydrogen - 0,069
(c) Pure helium a 0, 138
(4)
Average specific gravity of illuminating gas = 0.4 (approx)

NtOTE: Gas produced in large quantities as for inflation of balloons cannot be obtained chemically pure in manufacture. Its
specific gravity will therefore be higher than the preceding.
It must be made clear that "standard conditions" as defined by aeronautical or aerostatic sources, by physicists or chemists, or by the compressed-gas industry are by no means
identical. Even within a given field, standard conditions may have changed over the years.
Great care should be exercised in the use of densities and weights of air or any other gas as
given by any referenco source. Correlation of data from different sources may require correction to common standard conditions before using the data.
d.
Laws Governing Aerostatics

The science of aerostatics is derived from the following laws and fundamentals:
(1) Archimedes' principle - The buoyant force exerted upon a body immersed in a
fluid Is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
(2)
Boyle's law - At constant temperature the volume of a gas varies inversely as

the pressure.
(3)
Charles' law - At conbtant pressure the volume of a gas varies directly as the
absolute temperature.
(4)
Dalton's law - The pressure of a mixture of several gases in a given space is

equal to the sum of the pressures, which each gas would exert by itself if confined in that space.
(5)
Joule's lav' - Gases in expanding do no interior work.
(6)
Pascal's law - The fluid pressure due to external pressure on the walls of the
containing vessel is the same at all puints throughout the fluid.
A complete discussion of the laws of aerostatics is given in Appendix I.

3.
TYPES OF LIFTING GASES
The various types of lifting gases are listed in Table IX in the order of lift capability
in pounds per cubic foot.
Specifi, lift of gases at various altitudes is shown in Figure 24.
47
Table IX. Lift Ratlow of Gase
Itatio to Helium
Type of Ou
"Hydrogrn
1.08
Helium
1.00
Coal gmi (hydroggen, carbon

monoxiks, methane)
0,73
Ammonia
0.48
Hot air (noe Figure 27)
0. Ie
"When Tb - Ta , 190 0 F
'
25,000
20, OW
I'HOT AIR
3HELIUM
k~oa
200F
256OF
HYDROGEN
AMMONIA
10,00
=
A~1A
0
Figure 24.
10
70 80
40 50 60
30
20
LIFT (POUNDS/10OO CUBIC FEET)
Specific Lift of Gases at Various Altitudes

48
With the exciptiun of helium and lhot air, all of theone, gaiRas are flammable.
Tho lattor
three gases have been used primarily in sport ballooning, because of their low coat, Hydrogen
and helium are the primary choice* for serious work, with hot air having Intriguing advantages
fur certain applications, Hydrogen Is less expermlvp than helium, has 8 percent greater lift per
cubic font, and in highly flammable. It can be generated on the site from a variety of processes,
frequently utilizing available local 1 ter. Helium ordinarily in only available in steel cylinders
under pressure of 1800 pet or lei
thth hydrogen and helium (can be stored or transported
cryogenically. The normal boilinj point ait ono atmosphere pressure is -452. 11F for helium
and -423, 0OF for hydrogen.
Hydrogen or helium usually permeates a given elastomer or plastic film by closely
similar amounts. In addition to loss of gas outward, there will be infusion inward of air and
water vapor to degrade the lifting gas. Seams, valves, and other details can frequently contribute greater gas loss over a period of time than diffusion through the envelope surface.
Total "tightness" of the envelope is usually of considerable interest in a balloon to be operated,
or at least inflated,. over a lengthy period of time, Occasional 'topping-off" will be necessary,
and eventually repu'rificatin or replacement of the gas will be required when purity is too low.
The hot-air balloon is strictly a "superheat" balloon and does not have the tightness requirements of the gas-inflated envelope. It is ordinarily an unpressurized balloon, being open
at the base for the admission of burner heat. Modern hot-air envelopes are tightly woven,
single-ply, calendered, and uncoated. Pressurized natural shape hot-air balloons are available, and pressurized aerodynamically shaped hot-air balloons are possible.
The hot-air balloon has the unique capability of ready, low-cost inflation without stored
or generated lifting gases. Fuel may be carried aloft, or for prolonged periods of operation,
a fuel line may be connectod to a ground supply and the burner controlled either at the balloon
or from the ground.
4.
BALLOON DISPLACEMENT
An empirical method of determining the necessary balloon size for a given payload,
altitude, and design wind requirement is given in Table X. The payload is taken as the basic
reference, and several tries may be necessary before a suitable balloon size is determined.
Balloon weights (step 4 in Table X) are based on a 50 to 60 knot capability for blimp or
Vee-Balloon hulls. The natural shape hot-air balloon would not normally be operated beyond
20-knot winds.
Tether strengths (step 5 in Table X) will reflect design wind requirements, except again
in the case of the hot-air natural shape. Here a 20-knot design limit is assumed.
A typical problem for sizing a necessary ballonet volume for altitude capability is given
below. The problem also covers maximum rate of ascent and descent as limited by a given exhaust valve or blower capability, respectively.
(1) Calculation of Required Ballonet Volume
At 5000 feet above MSL, the expansion ratio is 1. 16 = pO/PSooo.
(Expansion
ratio is reciprocal of density ratio,) Assuming a balloon volume (44) of 100,000
eu ft.
100,000
1.16 I== 1 10.00
100, 000 -- vbbal
where Vbal is the ballonet volume in cu ft.
Solving for the above,
Vbal = 13. 830 cu ft (No allowance for superheat.)
49
Ilk,
5;
iCIO
a
b..
It-
.11
0
v
It V.
I=
-----------
050
01
(2) CoaIculation.of Maximum Rate of Ascent

Assuming that the ballonet oxhust valve can permit 1500 cdm at the pressure
differential desired, the rate of ascent and the time to altitude can be calculated
as follows:
Rate of ascent
150
(5000) a 542 fpm
Time to altitude -AQ

(3)
9.
minutes
Calculation of Maximum Rate of Descent

Assuming a blower capability of 400 cfm, the rate of descent and the time from
altitude can be cal. ulated as follows:
Rate of descent
400
40
Time from altitude -
(5000)
5000
144
144 fpm
- 34.6 minutes
All aerostatic calculations are based on coefficients (such as CL and CD) based on a
reference area of ;V2/3. In aeronautical expressions comparable coefficients are based on wing
plan-form area in square feet.
Care should be taken in comparing such coefficients from European and U.S. sources,
or from different periods of time, Frequently they are not based on common dimensional references. Coefficients for spheres and other geometric bodies may be based on maximum
cross-sectional area or some other reference area.
Helium unit lift (wa -w ) at 100 percent purity is 0.065988 lb/ft 3 at standard atmospheric sea-level conditions of 5"9F and 29.92 in. Hg. Lift at any altitude is 0.065988 times
the altitude density ratio. With gases other than helium, multiply the helium lift by the ratio
given in Table IX.
5.
COMPUTING HELIUM REQUIREMENTS
The appropriate balloon size and necessary helium gas to lift a required total balloon
system weight to a required altitude can be determined from Table X. Unit helium lift
(c n= w - wg) can be obtained from, Table XXXI in Appendix I or by reference to #he U.S.
StandarlAtmosphere (Reference 6).
Figure 25 presents a graphical representation of the final equations in Appendix I.
Where standard conditions do not prevail, unit lift can be determined from Figure 25 when
pressure, temperature, and gas purity are specified. To determine unit lift from the graph,
proceed as follows.
(1) Enter the figure horizontally frorr
he left at specified barometric pressure.
(2)
Travel horizontally to the right until diagonal tempe,'ature line is intercepted.
(3)
Drop vertically from this point to intercept with diagonal purity line.
(4)
Travel horizontally to unit lift value at right.
This unit lift is with the assumption that both ambient air and gas are at the specified
conditions of temperature and pressure.
51
TEMPERATURE IN
so
120/110/10wo 901 1
30.4-
-A
?1/
v j
nil
Al
-10
-20
All
30.0--
I]
/8
11"fli'llH
All
30.2--
A 10 311 / 10 10
29.6
//A
hl//
29.6 1;
118111/1)
29.4 -
29.2 1%
SAMPLE LINE
29.
z
w
A .8 [on'
0.)50-
111
-0.052A/
0.054-
28.6
O56-
280.4
0.058-0U.
28.2-41
0.062.
28 0
4A
z
/h
Hi
'80/88
0064.8
%G.
z
0.
A,
A
1//
U/
0.06!-j
0,
0.070
0.072
JAY11
HELIUM
11A I / 1/
L-
Figure 25.
Lift of Dry Helium Versus Temperature,

Pressure, and Purity
52
0.07
6.
COMPUTING HYDROGEN REQUIREMENTS
Table X is snt up for naiing balloons inflated with helium. Inflation with hydrogen can
be covered by adjusting the lift of helium by the appropriate factor of 1. 08 as given in Table IX.
Figure 26 is a graphical representation of the final equations of Appendix I, based on the
weight differential of air and hydrogen. Use of the graph is identical with the procedure for
using the graph for helium (Figure 25).
7. COMPUTING HOT AIR REQUIREMENTS
Hot-air balloon envelopes are considered to be operated at constant volume and, since
open at the base, at ambient pressure (unless deliberately superpressured by blower).
Ambient air density varies with altitude as a result of both temperature and pressure
effects. The internal heated air also varies in density with temperature and pressure. Since
pressure is assumed equal, buoyant lift can be expressed as:
L = (w
L=4(a) ~
Ta
Tb!
where
3
Y is the balloon volume (ft )
Wa is the weight of ambient air (lb/ft3 )

Ta is the absolute temperature of ambient air
Tb is the average absolute temperature within the balloon
In actual practice the gas within the balloon includes combustion products, but the
weight discrepancy from pure air is negligible.
Figure 27 is a graphical representation of Equation 1 for sea-level standard conditions
of the ambient air. It is a plot of the increase in specific lift with increase in balloon internal
temperature, Tb.
Figure 28 indicates the trend of specific lift with altitude, with Tb maintained at a constant 250 F.
Figure 2.0 ..,,ws the gross lift of envelopes of various diameters, at several altitudes,
for a constant internal temperature, Tb, of 250 0 F.
Figure 30 indicates the adverse effect of higher ambient temperatures on the lift capability the Raven S-50 balloon, a 60, 900 cubic foot balloon. Other sizes can be ratioed as a
function of volume.
Figure 31 is a presentation of the "dimpling limit" of the S-50 balloon. With heat alone,
the wind velocity of dimpling on the windward side is a function of temperature differential,
Tb - Ta. As can be seen, the addition of a blower to superpressure the balloon can eliminate
dimpling as a consideration. The inherent instability of the balloon shape then alone determines
the maximum wind capability.
The typical temperature distribution within a hot-air envelope and throughout the surface
area is shown in Figure 32.
53
12NO 110 1001 90

-
30.4--
TEMPERATUlti -IN-5 -t/ 601/ 510 A 40 /,30
10
30.230. Ob.
29.8
29.6
29.4.
S'29.21
z
29.O'C-9
-0.058-
4A
Ui
-0.060-
28.8,ac
SAMPLE LINg U
0.062-
28-6/
0.064,,0
%U
-28.4-i
49,47
211,I)VII
.066-a
LLJ
.068 4A
070,
8/81/8
72-
H h
lb
0. 0741 Z
0.076
IAN
lbN%
0.078
HYDROGE
.0604
Figure 26.
Lift of Dry Hydrogen Versus Temperature,

Pressure, iuid Purity
54
0.040-
0.030
U_
OPERATI NG ALTI TUDE =SEA LEVEL

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE= 590F
AMBIENT PRESSURE= 29.92 INCHES OF HG
-----
S0.020
U-
'/1
0.010
---
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
BALLOON INTERNAL TEMPERATURE, Tb (OF)
Figure 27.
Specific Lift Versus Balloon Internal Tenmperature
0.030-
AVERAGE INTERNAL TEMPERATURE (Tb)
-BALLOON
250*F
0.020
__
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000O
25,000
30,000
35,000
ALTITUDE (FEET)
Figure 28. Specific Lift Versus Altitude
55
Constant Balloon Temperature
40,000
107
10A4
01
$EA LEVEL
10, 000 FT
8
6
70',000FT
30~, FT
5-
4-_
40,000 FT
..
2
106
103
9
100
I-
7 --
nn
105
101o2 10
_J
-,
- -
322
0 11 10-2
10
__0
0
1
2
10 20
100 200
BALLOON INENLTEMPERATURE
2500F
3I
4
5
6I
8
910
30 40 50 60 70 80
90 100
300
BALLOON DIAMETER (FEET)
Figure 29.
Gross Lift Versus Diameter for Hot-Air Balloon
56
ASSUMPTIONS;
I
noINERNLBALLOON VLM
I I
B.
1600---
609
ROSS
GGROSSLOADs.50
LOAD
1600
---
Boo
.
-
20
10
B0
50
60
70
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE, T (OF)
40
30
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
TEMPERATURE
I II
-IoL
--
""
-" NOT~t
PROPANE PRESSURE MARGINAL______
0
'
BELOW 0 F. BUTANE PRESSURE
MARGINAL AT 60 0 F.
"
-.-
1400
600
UF
09
BALLOON INTERNAL TEMPERATURE a 200F
(M XPRISBEFOR SUSTAINED OPERATION)
90
100
110
120
"Figure 30. Maximum Authorized Operating Limits

for Raven 8-50 Balloon
4_
ENVELOPE DIMPLING LIMITS'
'BALLOON
VOLUME
DRY WT
ATM TEMP
ALTITUDE
S-o0(o0'DIA)60,900 CU FT
380 toL
390F
SEA LEVEL
--
INTERNAL
PRESSURE-
'
100
150
200
, ST,
5T"
I-
-DIMPLING AND
INSTABILITY
tIN FLIGHT
10
15
20
25
AIND VELOCITY (KNOTS)
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL (OF)
Figure 31.
250
4-
WIND VELOCITIES TO
RIGHT OF CURVE WILl,
INCREASING
.CAUSE
I
0,05
4.
50
--
'.
AT 25% GORE.
~~~~
ILNTH.. ....
S--
-__-
LIMIT FOR SHORT-TERM OPERATION

LIMIT FOR SUSTAINED-I
I'--OPERATION
-
--
BWITH
LOWER
SUPERPRESSURE
NOMLRANGE
OFOPERATION Z" -'
--
Hot-Air Balloon Envelope Dimpling Limits
57
30
APEX TEMPERATURE IS APPROXIMATELY

EQUAL TO THE AVERAGE TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENTIAL.
+ 1360
mX
X~ ++1200
X + 1700
0
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE=X
(ALL TEMPERATURES AREOF)
X+240
X +150PX+
X +150O
(SKIN TEMPERATURE)
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL
IN THIS ILLUSTRATION IS 1400 F.
Figure 32.
8.
Internal and Skin Temperature Profile

of Hot-Air Balloon
HELIUM REPURIFICATION
Helium can become contaminated in a balloon by leaks in the envelope and by a phenomenon called diffuslon and infusion. (Refer to Section 1n.) The resulting contamination progressively causes loss of lift. When sufficient gas is ivw,lved, a repurification plant may be required.
At the writing of this handbook, Goodyear Aerospace Corporation of Akron, Ohio, is
building a two-ton unit that will become one part of a maintenance semi-trailer. Previous to
this time a unit of about six tons was required to do approximately the same repurification. The
specifications for the two-ton repurification unit are as follows:
(1) Model: Goodyear 1800-G
(2)
Dimensions: 103" long x 30" wide x 90" high
(3)
Weight: Approximately 4000 pounds
(4)
Voltage: 120/240, 60 cycle, 3 phase

58
(5) Peak demand power: 25 kilowatts

(6) Performance: Not less than 30 standard cubic feet per minute. Operated with
minimum of atteiltion.
(7) Freon gas: R12
The following instruments are built into the unit:
(1.)
Dewpointer: Parametrics Inc. Hygrometer, Model 1000
(2) Helium Purity Indicator: Beckman Instruments Therma-Bridge Analyzer, Model

TBA3. 0 to 3 percent range impurities (air in helium). Samples both input and
output helium gas.
The names of other companies that manufacture helium repurification plants of various
capacities are listed below.
Air Products & Chemicals Inc.
Allentown, Pennsylvania
Air Reduction Co., Inc.
Murray Hill, New Jersey
Electron Technology Inc
Kearny, New Jersey
Gardner Cryogenics Corp
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
Gas Equipment Engineering Corp

Milford, Connecticut
Linde Corporation
New York, New York
Arthur D. Little Corp
Division 500
Cambridge, Massachusetts
9. HELIUM COMPRESSOR, ELECTRICAL DRIVEN

The compressor (Figure 33) is, a five-stage, radial-flow, air-cooled, electrical-driven
unit with'a 4000-pet output and an inlet pressure of not less than 50 psi. The compressor is
normally used to transfer helium from commercial or Air Force helium bottles to a 25-foot
discharge hose with the following fitting: 0. 5625-18 UNF-3B per MS28740-6 (AN818-6 nut) with
protective cover. The hose is normally connected to a 4000-pound bottle (see Figure 34). The
motor is 208 volts ac, 400 cycle, 3 phase. The motor draws 75 amps under normal load
(locked rotor 321 amps maximum) and is thermally protected against overload. The helium
compressor is manufactured by Walter Kidde and Co., Inc. Belleville, New Jersey. The drawing for this compressor is 893342 Rev P.
10.
HYDROGEN PROBLEMS
When mixed with air in the proportions from 4 to 74 percent purity, hydrogen forms a
flammable mixture. The explosiveness of a hydrogen fire frequently makes the determination
of the initial source of ignition impossible.
The natural buildup of electrical potential between pieces of equipment, various materials, and even personnel have been the causes of ignition. The flow of hydrogen from the
compressed state (in storage bottles) to the lower atmospheric pressure in the presence of air
can create static electrical charges resulting in self-ignition of the flowing gas. During the
initial inflation of a balloon, small amounts of air are normally within the interior of the envelope. The initial rapid movement of the inflowing gas has sometimes initiated a destructive
fire. Once the hydrogen-air mixture in an envelope or similar enclosure reaches 74 percent
purity, the mixture of itself is no longer flammable. However, small leaks in equipment
readily provide an explosive possibility if presented with any source of ignition. Some of the
innocuous sources of a random spark are ferrous tools, ferrous nails in shoes, and the friction
of one fabric against another.
59
Photo supplied by Robert Fulton Co.

Figure 33. Electrical -Driven Helium Compressor
60
Ph~oto supplied by Robert Fulton Co.
Figure 34.
Air-Dropped Inflation Gear Kit for 750 Cubic Foot Balloon
61
In-flight hydrogen hazards are lightning or heavy electrical discharges through the balloon equipment and the occasionally necessary valving of gas to descend or to deflate an envelope..
Inflation area fire hazards can be reduced by heavy wetting down of a concrete floor
Just prior to inflation, in addition to the normal grounding procedures.
11.
HYDROGEN GENERATION
Hydrogen is normally produced in almost a pure state, as repurification is far too

costly compared with the initial generation process. Hydrogen purchased commercially is
normally the by-product of some prime manufacturing process, such as from an alkali plant.
When hydrogen production is the prime output, during wartime or in the field, the basic process
is the decomposition of water into its two basic elements, either directly or indirectly.
The simplest and most direct method is to pass electrical current through water solutions, which is called the electrolytic process. Another direct method is to separate the hydrogen from the oxygen of water in the form of steam which is further superheated while in contact with hot iron, which is called the iron-contact process. Early French balloons were
inflated with this process. The indirect methods are represented by the chemical reactions of
certain metals and alloys immersed in strong caustic solutions such as aluminum orferrosilicon
in sodium hydroxide. The last process is normally called the silicon process.
During the American Civil War, hydrogen was generated by the vitriol process, better
known as the acid-metal process (see Figure 35). The generator wagon was lined with some
material to make it acidT-resistant, and the wagon box partially filled with iron filings. A solution of sulfuric acid and water was dripped onto the filings, with the resulting gas passing through
gum tubes to a box of cooling water. The gas bubbled up through the water and was piped to a
Figure 3S.
Hydrogen Generated by the Acid-Metal Process During the American Civil War
62
Ll
second box. The second box contained unslaked lime which acted as a drier before the hydrogas of about 98 percent purity was piped to the balloon being inflated.
SgenZinc was also used
as the base metal in some acid-metal units during this era.
During World War I, hydrogen gas generation in the field had been accomplished by the
use of the ferrosilicon-caustic soda method, the hydrogen being produced at atmospheric pressure. The period between the two world wars saw very little progress in hydrogen generation
systems.
When World War 11 started, the original plan was to
Due to the large amount of lifting gas required and the need
ships, hydrogen was finally used in most tethered balloons.
hydrogen gas in the first war was abandoned for a series of
inflate barrage balloons with helium.

for helium in man-carrying airThe method of field-producing
modern gas-producing systems.
During World War II, large fixed-base hydrogen plants were employed in areas where
large numbers of balloons were flown and where heavy gas bottles could be moved short distances. The permanent plants were usually electrolytic hydrogen-oxygen generating plants,
each with a daily capacity of 300,000 cubic feet of hydrogen. Practice has shown that a balloon
barrage uses gas at the rate of 250 percent per month of original inflation capacity.
In addition to the varied commercial ways of producing hydrogen, three field systems
are presently available as called out by military specifications. They are (1) Generator, Hydrogen and Carbon Dioxide, Menthol-Water Type, Low Pressure, Motor Driven, Semitrailer
Mounted With Dolly, MIL-G-10157A; (2) Generator, Hydrogen, ML-539/TM under MIL-G27369A; and (3) Generator, Hydrogen, ML-303 under MIL-G-11127B (EL). These three systems are described in the following paragraphs.
For the first system, the hydrogen and carbon dioxide gas-generating plant consists of
a complete semitrailer mounted assembly for continuously forming a gas mixture of hydrogen
and carbon dioxide by cracking methanol and steam in presence of a catalyst, and successively
separating the gases by scrubbing the mixture with a monoethanolamine solution, purifying the
hydrogen and carbon dioxide rspectively, 'and liquefying the carbon dioxide for filling shipping
containers. The plant has a continuous output capacity of not less than 4,000 cubic feet p:i
hour of actual free hydrogen containing less than 2 percent by volume of heavier gases, a,.-. iiot
less than 156 pounds per hour of carbon dioxide in liquid form, which shall have a purity of not
less than 99.0 percent by volume before liquefying.
The rated capacity is obtained while using not more than 19 gallons of burner fuel oil
per hour. The complete semitrailer mounted plant with dolly weighs not more than 41,000
pounds, and the maximum height does not exceed 11 feet.
Unless otherwise stated in contract or order, a separate skid-mounted, portable, dieseldriven, 60-kw generator set is required as a power source for plant equipment.
The second is a controlled process system which produces a hydrogen and nitrogen gas
mixture by a steady flow process through a retort in which an endothermic, platinum catalyzed
dissociation of anhydrous ammonia occurs. The energy for the heat of dissociation of the ammonia shall be supplied to the retort by the combustion gases of an oil burner.
The ML-539/TM consists of the necessary parts, assemblies, instrumentation, and
accessories. The overall weight of the ML-539/TM, without accessories, does not exceed
900 pounds.
The ML-539/TM produces a consistent composition gas mixture of three parts by volume
of hydrogen, one part of nitrogen, and 0.04 or less parts of ammonia from a feedstock of liquid
anhydrous ammonia. Ammonia conforms to 0-A-445.
The equipment delivers product gas at any preset flow rate between 60 and 400 standard
cubic feet per hour.
63
The third system, Hydrogen Generator ML-303/TM, is a portable, manually

operated generator for generating hydrogen gas in the field. (See Figure 36.) The hydrogen
is generated by the reaction of water on calcium hydride in charge containers attached to the
generator by interrupted threads. A punch is included with the hydrogen generator for punching out the knockouts in the top of the charge container. The weight of the complete Hydrogen
Generator ML-303/TM (including punch) shall not exceed 2 pounds.
A present-day system, shown in Figure 27, is used to inflate hydrogen balloons with
prepackaged charges of ML-305A/TM used in Hydrogen Generator set AN/TMQ-3.
This equipment should not be operated unless all safety precautions are followed as
outlined in the operating directions packed vi th the generator. Serious fires could result if
the directions are not followed.
When using this equipment, the two operators as well as the equipment must be at earth
ground potential by using the cable personnel grounds and ground straps.
Three GI cans of cool water are required; two cans are used for one generation, and the
third can is used as a stand-by. The four calcium hydride chemical charges are attached to
the generator. When ready to inflate the balloon, two men hold the generator down in one of
the cool water cans for 15 to 20 minutes. Additional gas is generated by merely pinching off
the gas line, removing the generator from the heated water, changing the four charges, releasing the tube, and inserting the generator into another cool water can. The second can is used
as a condenser to remove moisture and any harmful by-products. The unit produces 24 cubic
feet per charge, or an output of 96 cubic feet, when all four charges are attached. The unit
can be operated with a single charge.
MANIFOLD
ML-334/TtAQ-3
CASE CY-219/TMQ-3
HOSE ML-81
(6-INCH LENGTH).
HYDROGEN,
GENERATORS
ML-303/TM,
GASKETS
HOSE ML-81
(10-FT LENGTH)
HYDROGEN
GENERATOR
GASKET
ML-303/TM
Figure 36.
Hydrogen Generator Set AN/TMQ-3
64
L_
OUTLET TUBE
HOSE INFLATION
GENERATOR
CAN 01, 32 GALLON
GENERATOR
HOLD-DOWN
BRACKET
CAN GI, 24 GALLON
,CONDENSER
/1
HOSE S.PRING
HOSE INFLATION
',
CONDENSER
HYDROGEN
GENERATOR
SET
ANTM-
HOSE CLAMP
CALCIUM HfYDRIDE
CHARGES ML-305A/TM
CABLE
PERSO NNEL
,. .'
'
GROUND
..
SMANOMETER
HOSE CLAMP
FITTIN
HOSEFILLING
GROUND ROD
ADAPTOR HOSE
Figure 37.
12.
Hydrogen Generator Set AN/TMQ-3 Inflation Equipment
GENERAL SAFETY RULES FOR CYLINDERS
The following cautionary instructions are fairly standard in the use and handling of hydrogen cylinders:
(1)
At all times and under all conditions, every precaution must be taken to prevent
the mixture of hydrogen with air or oxygen.
(2)
Smoking should not be permitted in the vicinity of hydrogen cylinders; there may
be some leakage of gas due to defective valves or ruptured discs.
(3)
Do not use an open flame in testing for hydrogen leaks; a soap and water solution
applied to valves or piping is usually effective in locating escaping gas of any
kind.
(4)
Do not use a wrench on the hand wheel for opening valves, as that damages the
valve seat. If valves cannot be opened by hand, they should be marked for replacement.
(5)
Cylinders of hydrogen should not be discharged directly into the air; but if that
is necessary, then every precaution should be taken to prevent spontaneous ignition of the hydrogen, and there should be facilities available to extinguish the
flame and prevent the fire from spreading.
(6)
Cylinder caps should not be left on piles of cylinders or on the ground.
65
13.
(7)
Cylinders must always be handled with care and not dropped or
,j
(8)
Cylinders should not be exposed to fire or heat; the direct ra-:-,

be prevented by shelters over cylinders.
the sun should
(9)
Exceptional heating of charged cylinders by the sun usually causes losses of

gas due to increased leakage and occasional rupturing of safety discs.
jars.
(10)
Except when delivering gas, the cylinder valve should be kept closed and protected by the cap. This rule also applies to empty cylinders to avoid entrance
of air.
(11)
Hydrogen cylinders should not be stored in a confined space or room not freely
ventilated. This precaution is necessary to prevent accumulation of hydrogen
from leaky valves.
(12)
Cylinders should not be allowed to strike on the caps during handling.
(13)
Except when cylinders are being charged or discharged, the caps protecting the
valves should be securely in place.
(14)
When cylinders are transported by railway or motor truck, they must be held
securely in place by battens or wedges to prevent movement during transit.
(15)
In stacking cylinders, the valve outlet should be pointed upward to facilitate attachment of the discharge connections. Some cylinders are marked on the
shoulder, indicating position of the valve outlet.
SAFETY RULES FOR CYLINDERS DURING BALLOON INFLATION

The safety rules applicable during inflation are as follows:
(1) Smoking or open fires should not be permitted within 150 feet of a hydrogenfilled balloon or manifold. Suitable signs should be displayed warning against
smoking in the vicinity. Open fires to windward must be especially avoided.
(2)
A balloon being inflated should be placed at least 75 feet from the hydrogen
cylinders.
(3)
Before discharging hydrogen, all cylinders should be grounded electrically to

lessen danger from ignition of hydrogen; the grounding should include all manifold piping and personnel.
(4)
Valves should not be opened slightly to blow out valve passages before connection to the manifold, as that frequently has caused ignition of hydrogen.
(5)
The valves of high-pressure cylinders containing hydrogen should be opened

slowly at first.
(8) Particular care must be taken to prevent the inflation tube or appendix from
kinking or twisting, as it may be ruptured and ignite the gas.
(7)
The manifold should not be moved without first closing all cylinder valves connected thereto.
(8) After discharging cylinders, the valves should be fully closed before disconnecting from the manifold and protecting caps installed.
(9) Signs of suitable size should be placed on piles of cylinders, stating whether
filled or empty.
66
14.
SAFETY RULES FOR CYLINDERS AROUND HYDROGEN PLANTS

The safety rules for cylinders being handled around hydrogen plants include the follow-
ing:
(i,
Before charging cylinders, inspect to determine the kind of gas remaining as

residue from previous contents. In case of doubt, the residual gas should be
analyzed to make certain that it is not oxygen or any other gas that would form
an explosive mixture or damage balloon fabric,
(2)
A noise about like a pistol shot or less in cylinders containing compressed hydrogen indicates a small quantity of o ygen. the burning of which does not generate sufficient heat to rupture the cyiinder walls, but is a danger signal of
importance. An increasing quantity of oxygen is sometimes produced in cylinders on account of chemical changes resultiig from corrosion.
(3)
Any cylinders exposed to fire or dented by rough handling must be marked as

defective and retested in accordance with Interstate Commerce Commission
(ICC) regulations before being used again.
(4)
Before cylinders are charged, examine for dents, cracks, ordamaged valves.
(5)
Cylinders used for one gas should not be used for any other gas until the cylinders have been -. alved and washed out per ICC regulations.
(6)
If cylinders have contained such gases as oxygen or chlorine, they should be

annealed in accordance with ICC regulations before being used for other gases.
(7)
When cylinders are charged, the letters "MT. " frequently marked in crayon on
cylinders as an abbreviation for the word "empty, "should be erased.
(8)
Empty hydrogen cylinders to be stored 4 months or longer should be subjected

to the following procedure: empty out all water that has collected in the cylin-
der; then purge with dried hydrogen to 50-lb pressure, three times: then fill the
cylinder to about 30-lb pressurowith hydrogen especially dried by passing
through a drying agent to prevent deterioration of the cylinder due to rust inside.
It is advisable to paint cylinders and caps before long storage.
(9)
Every 5 years cylinders must be tested in accordance with specification 3A of

the ICC and the date stamped on each cylinder. No cylinder should be charged
with compressed gas if the date of the last test exceeds 5 years.
(10)
Cylinders should be protected fromz weathering, and painted as required to prevent corrosion due to rust or chemical action that might diminish the thickness
and strength of the walls.
67
(Page 68 is blank)
SECTION V
WINCHES AND TETHERS
1.
WINCHES - GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Winches for tethered balloon operations are used to raise and lower balloons to the desired altitude and make necessary operational adjustments to the balloon altitude during flight
operations. Relatively inexpensive hand-operated winches may be used for small, low-altitude
balloons. Power-driven winches come with a multitude of available features and can range in
price from several hundred dollars to several hundred thousand dollars. Some of the features
of power-driven winches for tethered balloon applications which add sigrificantly to the cost of
the winch are variable speed drives, capstan or traiction drives, level wind mechanisms,
and various line speed, tension, and footage measuring instruments. The winch system installation may be permanent, mobile, or portable.
Tethered balloon winches are rarely "off-the-shelf" items and are usually customtailored for a specific application. Many winch manufacturers have standard components frokn
which these special winches can be assembled, thereby eliminating much of the design time
and expense which would otherwise be required.
2.
TYPES OF WINCH INSTALLATIONS
Permanent winch installations are used at military and civilian test sites that perform
frequent balloon flights for weather and other scientific programs. Figure 38 shows Giffard's
ki
Figure 38. Giffard's Captive Ballon (25, 000 Cubic Meters) and
Steam Windlass, 1878 (Charles Dllifus Collection)
69
VTHINIINO-OUT POINT
SUPPORT JQUIPMINT
7:1#I WINCHP
."ILIUM
TRUCK
W
(TYP)
(TYP)(TYP)
fI
ROUND ZIRO
O''U
'
eNNIf1
OPERATORS CAGE
xI7p:7
GROUND ANCHORS
te A)VRL Waloon Tthering Site -WIMR. Now Mexico
utinstulatosntorance in I01. Locations wsed top tethered balloon operations are Included in
Apendin III Ad may hae" permanewnt Installation winching equipment available for use, as
does ANVIL at lHollomma Air Forc DeUa
Petmanent winch Installations, in addition to the main tether winch, may. also have
auxiliary ground handling winches ot an equivalent system such as the truck~-pulley arrangemeat shuown in Tipre 89 to be used for bedding-down the balloon conce the tether line has been
completely meled n. Such ground handling equipment Innot necessary it the balloon in question Is riot excessively large and sufficient manpower io available.
A mobile winch is defined as one permanently attached to a wheeled or tracked vehicle,
whereas a portable winch is not an integral prt of a mobile vehicle but is small enough to be
transportable. Figure 40 illustrates the difference between permanent, mobile, and portable
winch systems, The balloons used with such mobile and portable winches are generally In the
small to intermudiate sine category due to the obvious tact that If the balloon lift can exceed
the winch system weight, some means must be provided for anchoring the winch to the ground.
Tethered balloon systems, both civilian and military, for use in communication and weather
station applications often require equipment capable of being airlifted or transported over rough
terrain to remote aras, tn such situations, the use of a portable winch becomes mandatory.
70
MOBILE WINCH
PRTABLE WINCH
PERMANENT WINCH
Figure 40. Types of Winch Installations
71
L.
q--__
____
3.
BASIC WINCH COMPONENTS
a.
The basic components of a tethered balloon

mechanism, winch storage drum, winch capstan winch are the winch power source and drive
or traction drive, level wind mechanism, and
the winch instrumentation asid controls (see Figures
41 and 42).
DDRIV
STORAGE
LEVETRACTION
GEAR REDUCTIONW_
J ENSIOMETE
Figure 41.
Basic Tethered Balloon Winch System Components
POWER
"
Figure 42.
MAIN.
WINCH
"
JJ
"
"
Largest Winch at Holloman AFB, 1968
72
e,
b.
Winch Power Source

The selection of the winch power source depends largely on the facilities at the intended
winch site. Gasoline or diesel internal combustion engines driving electrical, hydraulic, and/
or pneumatic motors have all been used as the source of motive power in winch systems. Portable and mobile winch systems are normally gasoline- ur diesel-engine powered.
In selecting the actual type of power source to be used, the following percentages of the
actual horsepowor, with due allowance for transmission losses, should be selected so as to compensate for sudden shocks and overloads.
Steami
. . . . . .. ...
. ... ...
. . .
.. . . . . ...
Electric Motor .......

...........
Diesel Heavy (slow speed) ...........
........
Gasoline Multi-cylinder (heavy duty).....
....
.
Diesel Light (high speed) ...................
Gasoline Multi-Cylinder (high speed) . ...........
Gasoline Single Cylinder (large flywheel) ..........
c.
........
.
...
85%
100%
.....
.....
.....
110%
120%
120%
140%
150%
Power Transmission and Brake System
The drive shaft of the prime mover is usually connected to the winch storage drum by
it-anp
means of -a ltclutchcansmgear train or chain and sprocket drive or some _combinatly
combination -of
of thed
the twa
two with
an appropriate clutching mehanism
n use can be categorized i mechanical,
electrical, or hydraulic. Mechanical clutches are of two main classes - positive and friction
drive. While positive clutches are usually small and uncomplicated, they cannot be engaged at
high speeds and provide no protection against sudden overloads, as does the friction clutch.
Electrical clutches perform the same functions as mechanical clutches, but are activated and
controlled electromagnetically rather than mechanically. An electrical clutch can act as either
an on-off or continuous-slip device. Hydraulic or fluid coupling clutches perform much the
same function as that of the mechanical centrifugal clutch. An advantage of fluid couplings is
that during startng or for other shock loadigs, the dlutch simply slips.
Winch brakes may. be used as an on-off device or as a drag device, as is done in freewheeling during a balloon's ascent. Winch brake systems can be categorized as either mechanical or electrical. A mechanical brake is a friction device that converts kinetic energy to
heat and dissipates it into the atmosphere. It can be actuated mechanically, pneumatically,
hydraulically, or electrically. Electric brakes are of three basic types - magnetic particle,
eddy-current, and hysteresis.
d.
Winch Storage Drum
The winch storage drum (Figure 43) is used for spooling and storing the balloon tether
cable and must be capable of withstanding the compressive loads exerted on it by the stored
cable. The drum must be selected to facilitate storage of the maximum desired cable capacity
and of sufficient strength to handle the loads involved. The storage drum core may be smooth
or in some cases grooved to provide support to the cable. A significant reduction in cable life
may be experienced due to the abrnsive and crushing action of improperly wound tether cable.
Cable crushing becomes increasingly severe with each additional layer of cable wound on the
drum. The application of a high line load to a drum on which underlying cable layers were
stored at low loading may cause the cable to crush through the outer layers, resulting in cable
snarling and damage.
e.
Storage Drum Capacities

The capacity of a given tether storage drum is calculated by the formula given in Equa-
tion 2.
73
Figure 43.
Winch Storage Drum
L = (A+D) xAxBxK
(2)
where
L = rope length (feet)
K a constant given in the list below
a-
radial distance from drum to outer layer (inches)
B - drum width (inches)

H a flange diameter (inches)
D
drum diameter (inches)
flange clearance (inches); distance from flange outer edge to topmost layer
74
mI
"RopeDia
(inches)
Constant
K
Rope Dia
(inches)
Constant
K
Rope Dia
(inches)
Constant
K
1/16
3/32
1/8
5/32
3/16
7/32
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
49.8
23.4
13. 1
8.72
6.14
4.59
3.29
2.21
1.58
1.19
1/2
9/16
5/8
11/16
3/4
13/16
7/8
1
1-1/8
1-1/4
0.925
0.741
0.607
0.506
0.428
0.354
0.308
0.239
0.191
0.152
1-3/8
1-1/2
1-5/8
1-3/4
1-7/8
2
2-1/8
2-1/4
2-3/8
2-1/2
0.127
0.107
0.0886
0.0770
0.0675
0.0597
0.0532
0.0476
0.0419
0.0380
The formula is based on uniform winding and
Ar
will, not give correct results if rope is wound nonuniformly on the reel. It is based on the same number
of wraps of rope in each layer, which is not strictly
correct, but which does not result in appreciable error
unless the traverse (B) of the reel is quite small con pared with the flange diameter (H). The clearance,
shown in the sketch at the right, should usually be 2
inches unless fittings on ends of roperequire greater
clearance. The value of K allows for normal oversize
of ropes.
For example: How much l-inch rope can be

wound on a drum that is 12 inches in diameter, 36 inches
wide, and has flanges 40 inches in diameter, leaving
a 2-inch clearance
4H4"0"B 361" D
A- H -D
C
2
12"
K- O0239
-2
124i
2"
L - (A +D) xAx BxK , (12 + 12) x 12 x 36 x 0.239

L = 2477. 95 ft
f.
Fleet Angle and Level Wind Mechanism
When the tether cable is led from a winching drum directly onto the fairlead, the rope
is parallel to the sheave groove only when it is at one point on the drum - usually the center
(see Figure 44).
As the rope moves from this point either way, an angle is created and wear starts on
the side of the rope. This angle, called the fleet angle, should never be greater than 1-1/2
degrees on either side. Any greater angle creates needless wear on the sides of the rope.
This holds true for either grooved or smooth drums.
This degree of fleet angle has been established by experience to give a minimum of side
wear against the groove walls or against the next wrap of rope in the case of a smooth drum.
A fleet angle of 1-1/2 degrees means that the fairlead should be approximately 40 feet away for
each foot of drum width from the center line. If the fairlead is lined with the center of the drum
and the drum is 3 feet wide, there is a foot and a half on each side and the fairlead should be
1-1/2 times 40 feet away, or 60 feet away.
75
I
I"
Figure 44.
Fleet Angle
I'
RIGHT
FLEET
ANGLE
LEFT
FLEET
/ ANGLE
A level wind mechanism such as the one shown in Figure 45 can be incorporated into
the winch system to lessen the possibility of an unevenly wound storage drum. However, the
fleet angle between the fairlead and the translating level wind sheave must still not exceed
1-1/2 degrees.
g.
Capstan or Tractive Drive
The use of a capstan or tractive drive may be required whenever high tether tension
loads exist in a tether cable. If these tension loads are not relieved prior to storage on the
winch drum, the resulting loads may become so high as to cause substantial crushing of both
the winch storage drum and the tether cable. Capstan drives-for tethered balloon systems may
be either single or double drum capstans. Figure 46 shows a large tethered balloon winch system with a double capstan drive. The decrease in the tether cable load resulting from use of
a capstan can be determined from Equation 3, given the high-tension cable load and other pertinent information such as the tether cable speed, cable density, cable diameter, coefficient
of friction, and the cable angle of contact with the capstan drum. The equation is given as
3 wjd~vS\/ots - I\
(FI- F 2 )
p
!g
)F
(3)
where
F, - high tension load (ib)

r2 a low tension load (lb)
76
7'
Figure 45. Level Wind Mechanism
weight of cable (lb/in. 3)
cable diameter (in.)
v - cable speed (ft/iec)

* acceleration of gravity
=
32. 2 ft/sec2
f a cable coefficient of friction

0 a cable angle of contact with capstan (radians)
Use of a capstan also reduces the variations in the tether cable load at the winch drum
by the same factor that the tether tension is reduced across the capstan. If the cable tension is
10,000 (*500) pounds and the low tension load is 200 pounds, then the variation in tether load
at the winch storage drum will be 200/10,000 (*500) a *10 pounds. Thus the use of a capstan
winch arrangement also tends to reduce the power and cable tension variations occurring at the
winch drum.
77
Figure 46.
h.
American Chain and Cable Co. Retrieving Winch
Fairleads (See Figure 47.)
Definite minimum diameters exist

for rollers and sheaves used in conjunction with the winch system. Under these
minimum diameters, excessive abuse is
caused to the rope even if the fairlead
merely guides the cable and takes no great
part of the load. The sheave diameter
should be at least the length of the rope
lay (approximately 6 times the diameter

of a six-strand cable) if the sheave is
grooved, and 1-1/3 times the rope lay
length if the sheave is smooth. Sheaves
and rollers smaller than these minimums
cause the rope to vibrate as its natural
contour follows the small surface of the
sheave.
,J-
Figure 47.
78
Fairlead
'
L.
Winch Instrumentation and Controls

Winch instrumentation and controls for determining tether cable footage, tether cable
line speed, and tether cable tension are often found desirable for tethered balloon operations.
Other features such as enclosed remote or on-station control modules, slack line limit controls, automatic line take-up, audible line fail-warning devices, and fail-safe brakes are
available for added convenience and safety.
4.
AFCRL HOLLOMAN AFB BALLOON WINCHES

a.
Qjr
AFCRL has developed a flight test facility where tethered balloon systems can be evaluated at White Sands Missile Range, Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico. (See Appendix
M!.) Several winch systems are presently located there, and a larger winch installation will
be operational by the end of calendar 1969.
b.
AFCRL Winch
The largest win msystem presently available (see Figures 41 and 42) was built by
Smith-Berger of Seatltll,Vashington, and is owned by AFCRL. The system is a tractiondrive winch capable of hanidling 1/8-inch to 3/8-inch cable with static loads to 12,000 pounds.
A 110-hp Ford industrial engine powers a unique hydraulic system capable of stepless speed
control-between 0 and 1000 fpm with controlled tension to the storage drum. It is possible to
accommodate cable sizes from 0.045 to 0. 400 inch by selection of traction sheave adapters and
fairlead assemblies.
The lnhanl and outhaul rates are as follows:
Loading
Rate
I,200 lb
lb
12,000 lb
1,000 fpm (in or'out)

S4,000
300 fpm (in)
Static
The storage drum capacities are as follows:

Cable Diameter
0.090"4
0.125",
0.188"
0.250"
0.375"
Feet
195,000 (potential)
104,600
47,600
26,250
11,650
Figure 48 depicts the general layout. The main winch assembly, mounted on a flat-bed
trailer for mobility, is positioned 100 feet from ground zero. A sheave assembly at the winch
location transfers cable from winch level to ground level and enables measurements of
cable tension, speed, and footage. This sheave assembly is suitable for either steel or tiberglass cable.
Figure 42 shows the overall side view of the winch, which consists of two basic units,
the power pack (with heavy-duty protective cage for the operator) and the main winch assembly.
Figure 41 depicts the main winch assembly, which consists of traction drives, storage
drum, level wind assembly, and necessary hydraulic motors and other components. A removable tenuiometer measures tension, speed, and footage of the moving line. It is calibrated for
use with 1/8-, 3/16-, 1/4-, and 3/8-inch steel cable, but Is not suitable for use with fiberglass
tether. Braking is by means of heavy compression springs and is fail-safe with hydraulic
pressure loss.
79
RECORDS:
FAIRLEAD ASSEMBLY
GROUND ZERO
3600 AZIMUTH
TENSION
SPEED
FOOTAGE
CABLE HOUSING
WITH REMOVABLE COVERS
AFCRL TETHERED FLIGHT FACILITY
AFCRL WINCH
Figure 48.
c.
Tethered Site Layout for Winch Equipment
Naval Electronics Laboratory Winch
Naval Electronics Laboratory, San Diego, California, h.w bailed a hydraulic SmithBerger winch to AFCRL, Holloman AFB. Figure 49 illustrates this traction-drive winch. The
winch is equipped with 1/4-inch steel cable and is not adaptable to other sizes or materials,
such as nylon or fiberglass.
The inhaul and outhaul rate are as follows:
Loading
Rate
1200 lb
3400 lb
300 fpm t in
110 fpmI
1200 lb
3400 lb
400 fpm o
140 fpm out
The storage drum capacity is as follows:

Cable Diameter
ee
0.250-in. steel
14,000
The winch is powered in or out with a worm-gear drive. Friction of the worm-gear
provides fail-safe holding. The winch weighs 4000 pounds and is mounted on a flat-bed trailer
for mobility. The separate gasogne-driven power unit weighs 2500 pounds.
8o
Figure 49.
d.
Smith-Berger Winch at Holloman AFB
Tri-Tethering Capabilit),
Much smaller winches exist at Holloman for tri-tether accurate positioning of a balloon
over a specific ground zero.
e.
1969 Capability
As of December 1969, AFCRL will have an additional operational winch system as illustrated in Figure 39. This traction-drive winch will handle cables from 3/8-inch through
3/4-inch diameter with mean sheave diameter of 30 inches. The system will be capable of
stepless controlled inhaul or outhaul rates from 0 to 1000 fpm with controlled tension to the
storage drum of 250 pounds (*10 percent).
The inhaul and outhaul rates will be as follows:
Loading
Rate
0 to 30, 000 lbs
0 to 6,000 Ibs
0 - 1000 ft/minute
200 ft/minute
Acceleration and deceleration will occur within 20 seconds with positive control.
L1
Lt
'ftl etalrm drum apelaltie (separate drums) will be as folnwsi
e1a1t"
003I"
0, M0"
(Into"e
IV,ON III
Is,
lb
II0
-
Mal
"Nolarn"
'Noar"o
"I I11/lOf00 t
Ib/lO00 ft
fibe rglaus
eliablilly)
111000
10,000
35,000
Level wInd capability will be from 3/I to 1/4 Inch In 1/1-inch Increments,
MetIuMeNtatiet will Include Alte MIWOwIngI
(1) 70t0e1l UdIcat41o
(ll cable AlMRs) 6i% QoVr 2,000 It
(3) PmOIt and InhalI rate

(1) T'nelometer rage- N00 to 110,00 pounds, 4%, (Range of 100 to 30,000 pounds
in future)
pe"lal features will Include the following I

(I) Ovetensiin proltction
(1) Audible Warning of ovrterlhlon at tension below
(3) Fall-safe bralidne to 30,000 pounds lIne pull
0 pounds
(4) Line-cutter
(1) Opersatl and flood Ilghts
(6) ground sera handlingwlnch (electrical), capable ofOto 10 fpm at 30,000 pounds
1Igure 30 indiateit the location of the following elements
(1) Oroutd sern falilead and handling winch position
(1) Primne mover and Ixiwer transmission units (150 feet foim ground sero)
(3) Operator's console with protective cage
(4) Helium supply trailer
(5) Fairleada for handling lines (four locations, 300 apart, matching pattern of
ground anchors)
(6) Auxiliary tractor or truck for bedding-down

(7) Tethering-out point
5.
AVAILABLE WINCHES
Engineering and performance data wore obtained from many Industrial nources nmanufacturing winch systems. Because of the vast number of winch manufacturers, only the companies that were known to have made tethered balloon winches or those whose standard winches
seemed most suited to tethered balloon operations were tabulated. In gathering this information, it was observed and should be noted that winches designed for oceanographic operations
can frequently be used an tethergd balloon winches with only slight modification.
Figure 50 is a typical winch manufacturer's information sheet indicating the information
required to design a special-purpose winch. Table XI presents the performanci and size characteristics of commercially available winches. Winch manufacturers who have built tethered
balloon winches in the pant or have the capability of doing so on request are listed below. There
are undoubtedly other manufacturers not listed here who have such design and manufacturing
capability,
82
l]
Adame
lnginering Co,
81711 sones Rd.
UT Research nstitute
10 West Seth Street
Salon, Ohio
Chicago, Illinois 60e10
All Americma Ilinlerien Co,

Development Division
Wilmington, Delaware
sInesoil-Rand Co.
Columbus Ave,
Boston, Musachusetts
OAlne OsOphysical Asociates bia,

2
treet
Norwood, Now Jersey 07640
Joy Manufacturing Co.

Mini and Construction Div.
Dept l, Oliver Bldg,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
King Manufacturing Co.
American Chain and Cable Co.

ACCO %Iutpment Diviyion
I110 a priness It,
York, Peoylvania 17403
American Oear and Supply Co. Inc,
Division of Power Tools Inc.

500 1.515Hicks Rd.
Box
Platine,
5
5400 Cedar Crest

Houston, TeXAS 77017
llinois 60007
RG. LeTourneau Inc,

Box 830?
Longiyew, Texu 75601
Marine Engine Specialties Corp.
-6 Broome It.
Now York, Now York 10013
American Hoist and Derrick Co.

57 South Robert It.
at, Paul. Minnesota
Neboe Brothers Inc.
1784 Ixth Ave.
Seattle, Wuhlngton 08134
STO
Clyde Iron Works Inc.
Subsidiary Republic Industrial
Corp.
Duluth, Minnesota
e
ruYo
Markey
Co Inc.
South Machinery
Horton ftrent
0attle, Wu hinHrton 0814
Northrop Corp.
442 Marrett Rd.
Mssachusett
Pbilp.xiton
Farrington
and Kearney Avenues
New Brunswick, New Jersey
0D1e7
Ocean Science and Engineering Inc.

Ocean Science Building
4905 Del Ray Ave.
Washington, D.C. 20014
Otis Engineering
Eneas Research and Development Corp.

75 Carver Avenue
Westwood, New Jersey 07675h
SThe Entwistle Co.
1475 Elmwood Ave.
Providence, Rhode Island 03910
P.O. Box 34380

Dallas,
Texas 75234
Dallas,
Texas 75234
Pengo Hydra-Pull
Corp.
Marine Division
P.O. BOX 1989
Fort Worth, Texas 76101
Saggen Derrick Co.
3101 West Grand Ave.
Chicago, Illinois
Fairchild Hiller Corp.

Technical Service Div.
6501 Laffeett Ave.
Riverdale, Maryland 20840
Hyden-Murphy Equipment Co.
4501 Hiawatha Ave.
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Silent Hoist and Crane Co.

841877 63rd Street
Brooklyn, New York 11220
Skagit Corp.
P.O. Box 151
sedro-Woolley, Washington
Hydro Products
Division of Dillingham Corp.
P.O. Box 2528
San Diego, California 92112
83
Smith-Berger Manufacturing Co.

3336 Sixteenth Ave. Southwest
Seattle, Washington 98134
USM Corporation
Harmonic Drive Div.
Balch Street
hBeverly, Massachusetts 01915
Value Engineering Co.
Alexandria, Virginia
Stanapeo Corp
4018 Schaaf Lane
Cleveland, Ohio 44131
Thorn Inc.
5712 Industrial Park Rd.
Winona, Minnesota 55687
Western Gear Corp.

Advance Systems Div.
2316 Jefferson Davis Highway
Arlington, Virginia
Western Scientific Services Inc.
600 Industrial Park
P.O. Box 1965
Fort Collins, Colorado 80521
Tulsa Products Div.

Vickere Incorporated Div. of
Sperry Rand Corp,
Tulsa, Oklahoma
1,0
1.0
GENERAL DESRIPTION OP APPLICATION AND ABIOCIA1ED EOUIPRINT,
PIERFORAANEI
NORMAL
CABLE TINSION AND SPlEo
NAUL
_
LO A'
FtPkI
PAIOUtJLO
AI
__
FPll
2.1
011
--
---
RAAPHAt 0I1AHFOR VARVIN| LOAD$

-
fill OF CABLE PAID OUT

212
RATED TINIION ANDSPElo
HAUL-
PAYOUT _
2,4
RUNNING OVERLOAD
CABLE TtNSION (AT NP SPECIPIED $PilO)
2,3
-LA AT. -_.IPPM

Ll At-FtfI
HAUL
PALVOU1'
-.......LB AT_
_ L1 At.
__
FPM__
ftPi
STATIC CABLE TENSION

LI
3.0
DUTY CYCLE AND LIFE REOUIREMENTS

PAVOUT__.F.
.
HAUL
T AT
4.0 INVIRONNIENT
0NARINEOLAND EASED
5.0
POWERSOURCES AVAILABLE
220
60e40,
CYo, -
230V D.C.
. LI, REST
--..
. Ir.IpEET
AT.I......
-_ _
DESERT
:CV0
CENTRAL
...
LI, ReT.
HI
E-
MARINE. SHIPBOARD
rL7ARCTIC
LIFE
Y48.
-JRURAL
D.C..
__0 _115V
YVORAULIC
Figure 50.
NO. CYCLES PEL DAY

NO. CYCLES PER YEAR
__lllN,
OTHE
Data Sheet for Capstan Type Winches
84
--~_-
_ - _1-
01_
1.0
CAWL
6.1 CAlLI CNARACTERISTICS
(Lll STEP LINE WI$1 FINMLEFT TO RIGHT AS 4hEY ARl WOUND ONTO TNE DRUM)
LINVIN (Fell$
1114111,1400 of,
OV1tI0I lOVtIll
0101690 1101411
$J,11SPCIAL SPLICES1,
CONNECTOR OR11
7.0
TM
h~ NTE
uST PASS THIROUGHA
tE DINO". GIVE sill AND 11UR11O01.
SNEAVES - 1MINIUMl SEND RADII
MILY1O110 1"fwly
11m NONE
10.0 ISPEEDCONTROL
REOUIREMENIS
lSINILI SF110
SVARIABLE
SCONSTANT HORSEPOWER
Figure 50
Concluded
85
Table X1. Available Winches (Sheet 1)
AT-8003-LtA
Adams
Power
Rating
(hp)
Type
Model
Mauatrr Dsgainof
MauacuerDs~nt~n
Power
AT-8OOS-LI1A
Power takeoff
or hyd pump-
AT-8019-LIA
motor comb
Ovrl 15Appro
-
(inches)
Width
Length
American
64
67
15C-4
8OC
-.
ACCO
Beebe Bros
-~
glec ur hyd
Flse
30 hp, 3 phase
Retrieving winch
Flse or Hyd
Capstan: 30
Adjusting wInch
Balloon winch
Elsec
Else
30
Capstan: 35 - 41
Storage: 7.5 -9
*-38-1/4
Medium capacity
5.500 to 21.ON0
Medium capootty
5,500,to 91i,000
.-
84
2195
so
30
20
34
31-1/2
32
30
as
iIII
Es
30
is
37
30
3.600
96
64
16.400
1
11
11
15
15
l5
'16
15
Is,
23-1/2
144
370
165
314
..
...
storage: 2
A61)-'7
Bea
LO
LIO
Clyde
54
3834
40
24
-.-
Airship remanning
winch
H1S
.H24
16001190
*.
2. or 3.0
I, dor 36
tic
(lb)
as to 1161
gleecor Hyd
Flve
Bloec
glee
Hyd
SE
Height
*..-
AT-SODS-LEA
PAll
___Weigaht
.....
240
1~-*
14
----
is1
--
...
--.
26
...
34
glee
Gas or diesel
El to 237
Vivo,
'1 tomo0
--
70
IS
Is
..
1
22
60so-
...
- --
---
- --
-*
--
.10.
150
175
540
2, 300 to
14-401)
2.,80t
BUZ
500
American Hoist
560B
American Hoist
70-13
Gas or elee
36
6712
53-5/16
47-1/2
Gas or else
6s
91-l/2
76
43
3,115
Hydro Pzaoducts
HR-00
Gas
34-1/2
21-1/3
32
250
Ingersoll -Rand
KOVAL
KOUL
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
58-1/2
58-1/2
34
24
30-13/16
30-13/16
Joy Mfg
DW-I I
EW- III
11,IIFloe
U-lI12
Piston Air
6.0Oto 9.0
22 to 25
15-3/IS
17
315tIo315
Gas
7. 5 to10. 0
S to I5
44 to50
4 to 59
25 to ES
23
2101
tog
35 to 38
575 to 900
agin S35
Hyden-Murphy
...
...
.1,125
1,550
1,560
.-
Table X1. Available Winches (ghost 2)

Drum Oise
Cable Storage
(inches)
Drum
______
Flange
'6..
Length
3-1/0
7/16
20,000
1,000
1,000
1.300
1.500
9,000
3,5
100
2/4
1/4
1/S
1/4
1/6
1/6
7.000
6,000
1.500
8.000
20,000
10,000
1,350
1/4
2,500
7.000
3/6
46
11
2500
15,000
6
6
10
16
24
12
135
735
376
464
716
1,075
460
a36
Divided Drum
Divided Drum
29..-
...
...
..
------
...--
30
30
--
2-1/2
3-1/2
4
4
616
--
6-1/3
6-1/3
8-1/2
6-1/3
1/2
513-.
513-12/
.12
10 to 20
21 to 45
40 to 20
t45
314
to
Load
Caaiyspeed
(lb)
32. 00
3500
2,
1,680
1,650
25-12/
CapacityCaatyLn
Length (it) Die (in.)
20 to 32
2,600 to
,800
3.,000 to
3,600
0to 32
16
2030
10220
2,141
.637brakes
,3
7/16
7/16
7/10
Ln
Remarks
(it/mim)
All models are designed

for truck mounting and
are primarily the same
except In drum design.
301000
30. 000
30,000
362
260
1l0
150
at 630 lb
at 2000 lb
at 300 I
at340 Ib
3440 at 400 lb
3040 at 40Olb
Renmote control. Level

wind, Fail-side brakes.
Pawls.
550 at 1300 lb
Constant tension winch.
20,000
100 at 30 hp
1/4
12/
10.000
10,000
100 at 30 hp
340 at 42 hp
Heavy duty, dual drum

capstan with storage
drum. Remote or onstation control. Slack
line limit econtrol. Failsafe brakes, Automatic
line take-up, Hydrostatic transmission. Infinitely variable remote
speed control.
1/8
1118
1/4,
1/4
3/8
3/6
3/8
1,000
1,000,
4.000
4,000
10,000
10,000
1,600
g0
Autometic, electric brake.

Load held when power off.
3/8
5,500 to
77 to.3t)0
3/8
S. 500 to
21.000
64 to 358
Accessories available:
(2)torque converter for
gasoline and diesel hoists,
(3)special drums,
(3) automatic brakes,
14)pneumatic control dovices, and (5) reversing
electric motors.
3/8
5.000
/2
7,000
21,00
Hand-operated winches.
Friction clutches and
- contracting
bond type. Ratchet and
doge~for added safety.
16-1/4
13
20
3,000
1/4
goo
24
24
1,200
12.00
5/8
5/6
5,000
7,000
IS0
Recoil-startwid. Briggs
Stratton, 4-cycle engine.
Hiand-operated drum brake.
Friction clutch, freerunning cable payout.
95
65
Six-cylinder, piston-type
reversible motor. Heavyduty hand-operated band
brake, Disengaging clutch
WIF
13
I3
23-1/2
23-1/2
also available.
470
14
6-1/2
li-1/8
IS to 20-3/4
9 to 13-1/6
2,500
Il-1/8
30-3/4
13-1/0
2,500
1,250 to 3,000
60 to 75
3/8
3,000 to 2,.340
lob to 150
3/6
3,000 to 2, 750
1010
to130
5/16
Bi
hL7
Special features available:

(1) remote pushbutton control end (3) automatic
msgnetic brakes.
Table X1. Available Winches (heet 3)

-
King
130
240
260
364
380
480
490
530
540
5a0
568
580
500
703
705
707
710
803
0.5
607
610
1220
1835
2060
3455
6060
Por
Raten
yp
of
Power
Model
Desigiod
anatuePnton
Manufacturer
Gas
Gas
Gas
Gas
Gas
Gas
Gas
Gas
one
Gas
Gas
0461
Gas
Elec
Else
Elec
rice
Else
Elec
Elec
Elec
Gas
Gas
Gas
-Gas
Gas
(hp)
3.0
4.0
6.0
6.0
860
8.0
9.0
3.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
8.0
9.0
3.0
5.0
7,5
10.0
3.0
5.0
7.5
10.0
10.
16,4
26,:5
34
0
03.8
at 3600 rpm
at
at
at
at
at
400rpm
3600 rpm
2200 rpm
3000 rpm
3300 rpm
Length
Overall Its.
(inches)
Width
35
35
35
42
43
48
48
34
24
31
31
3s
36
36
54
B6
60
38
38
43
49
46
48
50
72
84
33
23
23
30
so
35
35
34
34
36
as
36
38
s6
31
31
33
33
23
31
31
36
30
40
53
52
13
36
36
41
41
41
41
30
30
33
33
33
33
17
30
30
34
l2
t9
30
30
34
35
43
43
43
387
153
159
64
44
70
IIW-30 Balloon
winch vehicle
W-500
Diesel
Markey
DW-580
Oceanographic
Slec
25
89
74
Otils
Engr
063MO136
Diesel
411
so
36,
82M023
82M0232 and -333
Slecial'purpose unit
83MO371 and -193
86MO00 and -193
Diesel
Diesel
Diesel
Diesel
Diesel or hyd
Diesel or hyd
4?
53
34
30
80
80
69
86
6DL 15 -A 8
Gas or else
6 tO 11
Gas or elec
15 to10
WA- 30AC
FHA-SOAC
Stec
Elec
Bleo
30
TEISAC
HE--50AC
slec
glee
Sklagit
BU-S
BU-12
BUf IS
l3U-16
Gas
Diesel
Hyd or Wlce
Smith-Berger
Ground handling
Upper balloon winch
Lower balloon winch
Sloe
Bloc
Sloe
R,
. LeTourneau
.IMO151
Sasgen
.-.
lec
Height
160
3t0
I3S
330
300
365
396
160
165
395
318
365
360V
415
1,480
1,530
1.575
400
550
700
2,200
1,050
2,350
4,300
3,600
3,000
71,500
6.000
-.--
49
60
72
Two separate
Two separate
Two separate
Two separate
'
6000
3.400
68
46-1/2
units
units
units
units
L-
Ain-oht
(Ib)
3.400
3.700
3,100
,1300
---
735 to 775
""
770 to 1.300
ODL-30-A27-A-I11
IDL-
6DM-IS-R;-0
""
" ""
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
...
...
...
...
..
.--
67 to 106
60 to 79
30 to 67
---
50
43
Be
36
UDM-.3-R-90
SDM-20-R-20'
Silent Hoist
,TA15C
....
50
15
50
---
3o0
384
364
300
88
200 to 6.800
1,
...
...
...
...
Table XI. Available Wincheu (Sheet 4)

Drum $is*
Cable Storage
(inches)
Drum
Capacity
Flange
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
4
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
10
13
13
i3
14
14
i6
Is
II
II
13
13
16
26
15-1 /3
26
16
16
16
16
16
IS
16
10
IS
Length
Is
I, o0
1,950
1,950
3,700
3,700
4,700
4,700
2 .50
1,950
1.500
1,500
3,400
3,400
3.200
1.500
1,500
1.500
1, 100
1,200
1,t00
1. 100
1,500
1,500
1,300
30
3o
Is
is
s0
3o
26
26
It
23
13
13
13
26
16
26
13
II
22
12
16
16
15
i6
16
16
-11
34
16
30
24
30
34
Length (ft)
1II '
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
2/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
2/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
3/8
3/8
3/8
3/8
3/8
3/8
3/8
3/8
3/8
5/8
1.200
1, 150
_.._..
Capacity
Load
piane
Speed
(Ib)
(ft/min)
300
400
550
oo0
750
725
850
400
525
600
750
850
1,000
850
1.100
1,700
3, 150
1,900
3.000
3,300
3,700
2.000
3,500
6,000
5/8
.,400
...
Dia (in.)
300
300
300
300
190
t80
180
160
180
335
200
300
300
100
200
100
200
50
50
50
50
130
160
6,000
233
100
36.000
I9
1-1/3
1.51
0,0oo
50,00
30, 000
3/16
30
1,500
Up to 600
---
---
-...
---
___
35,000
so ,0
0.082
3,500
0.002
10
17.000
1.150
"..-..
3/16
6,000
17,000
0o
3/'16
I/2
1,500 to 3, 000
135 to 150
3/8
23,000 to 8. 600
150 to 300
450
14.
18;500
1--4
--
0.1082
25.000
All series of King hydraulic controlled hoists

available with gasoline,
diesel, or electric ,
power, Band friction
type brake- standard,
Drive is roller chain and
gear combination,
Ratchet and pawl equipped,
115
5/6
3/4
1.350
133
5, 500
30,1.900
Remarks
10
Level wind. Variable voltaged-c motor. Removable

drum. Variable rate. Fairlead drive. Turntable base,
units. Hydraulic and
mechanical drive units

provide high horsepower
to weight ratio and son-
itivo operationai control.
Hoist can be supplIed wIth

or without power source.
Double roller chain drive,
Positive worm screw
clutch, External band
friction brake.
.
...
..---....
"...
...
7-luAto 13
10
30
30
13.000
24, 000
2...
...
......
--
- -
1S to 30
15 to 20
665 to 1,350
2/3
is
20
25
25
400
16,000
13,500
3/4
3/8
5/8
50
64
12,000
40.000
30
30
340,0
30
30
Hydraulic friction clutch,

free spooling drum,
Electric brake optlioAl.
Fool-operated brakes,
Power take-off and torque
converter drive.
-
10,000
32.600
89
so
50
tip to 400
Up to 400
Table XI. Available Winches (Sheet 5)

Manufacturer
Stanspec
thern
Minto
MotlType
n
of
Overall size
Power
Rating
Poer h)Legh
Ell
El-ND1
El-N1M
EU2-HUM
AS
E-Co
Eler
Eloc
Elec
Air
Elec
4 to 8
E-LW
Elel'
50
4849 Al
4849 A3
4849 A5
49633 A7-1/2
49633 AIO
Weather balloon
Elve
Elec
Elee------
..
...
Fier
Fleer-
-...--
3 tu 13
30 to 48
30 to 46
S0 to 108
...
3 to 25
Elec
Ap
Weight
(lb)
(inches)
Width
Height
l2a16
10 to 38
46 to 104
t to 10
1628
to ito 10
13 to 51
--
42 to 48
it
375 Ito 775

..
1,310 to 76112
16- 1/4
310 to 375
.
..---
...
-.
..
..
..
..
-..
...
-13
...---
305
310
341
391
-*-
Elec
--
...
..-.
---
...
..
- --
- --
...
...-
--
--
...
...*
winch
Tulsa
2F33
3FI0
Western Glear
Western Scientific
6.
TETHERS
Power supply
not supp~e
TETHERED BALLOON WINCH SYSTEM

Lower power unit
Flee
100
Upper powur unit
Elec
100
Lower trac~tion unit N/A
N/A
Upper traction unit NAN/A
Lower stowage unit N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Upper stowage unit
WSSI 1000
-GENERAL
Gas
I5
117-1/4
117-1/4
77-3/4
77-4/4
It0
1210
41
41
55
15
71
45-2/1
45-I/I
60
60.
74-1/2
74-1/23
76
43
B6
55
911
465
1',8000
1,000
--
1,100
DESCRIPTION
Tethers generally have the4 same requirements of high tensils, strength, high strengthto-weight ratio, low drag, low stretch, torque stability, high flexibility,, abrasion. resistance,
and easy splicing. Several balloon tethering configurations have been used. The typical con-j
figurations are single, dual, tri, and tandem tethers for multiple balloon flights. The different
configuratio.ns offer different degrees of, freedom which are dictated by the intended balloon
operation. Special tethers may be required for a particular balloon usern. Some special
tether requirements may involve antenna carrying; power leads in the tether; sensors on the
tether; or tubing for transferring helium to the balloon or for air sampling or as a propane line.
Tapered or stepped tethers may be desired for high-altitudle flights where the weight of a
constant-diameter tether cannot be borne. Most tether manufacturer. have the capabilities of
producing a unique tether to fit a specific need.
7.
PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TETHERS

a.
Geeral
In order to select the proper material and construction for a balloon tether, an understanding of the characteristics and the important physical operating properties of a balloon
tether is essential. There must be a careful correlation of the factors discussed in the following paragraphs.
g0
Table X1.
Drum Stitz
Cable 8trago,
Capacity
f(Inches)
______
"Drum
Flange
Le'ng~th
length (it)
11.5 tot14
II to) 18
U1pth 400
5 8
14 to 33
litu48
11p)to 720
11.5
11,0
1-l14
....
14
...
.....
S.........
....
Lm~d
Capacity
Speed
(Ib)
(Itt nl)
Dia (III,)
5.0 to 6,5
-......
a tos0
...
...
Available Winches (Sheet 6)
1,000 to 10,001
I. 000 to 40. 000
5.000 to 25.000
5,000
750 to4,000
3/4
5,000
8,000
120
120
..........
000
1,000
14
1.
14
1,800
2,600
30
30
1...It00
A4
4.400
30
...
I, 000
1,000
5.280
14
1/4
14
2.800
3.600
14
74
300
---
......
2.231
3 8
1,000
5-7/8
......
748
3/8
7.000
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
50
38
---
10 11)25
20 to 100
1,000
6.500
3, (100
--
N/A
NiA
N, A
N/A
48
36
..
NA
N A
N A
N, A
12.500
16.000
6.000
,
N A
N:A
NA
WN,A
9 16
5 16
14
ltetmarks
15 Ito50
-...
N.A
N/A
NA
NA
22-I '2
18
Lnt
Stafety baAke, Torque

limiting clutch. Capsitinll Available as all
e~xtia,
Manually operated drum
- --
bra.,ke.
N 'A
NiA
22. 800
10,000
2,000
1,000
N/A
N A
210
220
0 to 400
0 to 400
2,000
900
Balloon system was designed fur high-altitude

tethered balloon systens.
System includes level
wind, Indicators for
vaIble speed, table tenslon, cable Angle front
vertical, Aid cable azlntuth,.
LA'vel wind. Enclo'sed
cab. 360" horizontal
rotation.
Strength
Sb.
A tether is a flexible member designed to fasten and position a balloon or balloons to the
surface of the earth or object thereon. As such, it must possess strength. The measure of a
tether's strength is its ultimate tensile breaking strength, and this is equivalent to the external
force that must be applied in tension to cause its failure. This breaking strength generally is
expressed in pounds or tons. If other forces are involved, such as a shearing from the method
of making the attachment or from bending, failure of the tether can actually occur at a tensile
stress lose than its rated breaking strength. It is important that these factors be recognised
by those responsible for designing and operating the tether line equipment, so that a proper
safety factor is incorporated. The breaking strengths of typical tether line candidates are
given in the tables at the end of this section. The breaking strengths listed are the minimum of
each tether and are of the completed rope and not the individual strengths of all the members
composing it. The breaking strength of the completed member is lower due to the helical constructions used, and the completed tether strength is less than the sum of individual filament
strengths due to the various mechanical interactions.
c.
Weight
The weight of tether lines is expressed in pounds per foot or in feet per pound. Tether
weight varies directly with material, size, and construction. The weight of the tether is a vital
design consideration. There is a limit to the lenkth of a tether that can be suspended. The
limit is known as its 'breaking length." Refer to subsection 8, "Tether Materials" for a discussion of breaking length.
91/
The ultimate altitudes may be achieved by the use of a tapered tether construction,
Tapering is either a continuous construction or a stepping from larger diameter rope to smaller
diameter rope. High-altitude tethers that are being considered are made of fiberglass because
of its extremely long breaking length, but special handling techniques and special equipment
required to handle it are a hindrance to its balloon system application.
d.
Flexibility
All operating tethers are subject to bending around sheaves and drums, and the more
severe the bending, the more flexible the rope must be. There is a loss of useful strength in
the rope when it is bent around a sheave or drum, and the act of bending sets up stresses in the
tether that become more serious as the tether becomes less flexible. A tether loses some of
its potential strength when It is bent around a sheave as compared with a straight tether. The
strength loss is dependent upon the relative sizes of the sheave and the rope, but not upon the
number of degrees of bend, provided at least one lay of the tether is in contact with the sheave
or drum (in other words, if full bending occurs). The data in Table XII, taken from U.S.
Bureau of Standards tests, indicate the relative strength reduction of ropes bent around sheaves
as compared with straight rope.
Table XII.
Strength Efficiency Under Static Load
Where Sheave Diameter Is
Efficiency of Rope
10 times rope dia
79% of strength of straight rope
12 times rope dia
14 times rope dia
16 times rope dia

18 times rope dia

20 times rope dia

24 times rope dia

93%
'of strength of straight rope
30 times rope dia
Some of the typical tethers may r, 'ire larger diameter sheaves due to the nature of
use, material, or construction. Refer t, ,e tables at the end of this section as an aid in the
selection of sheave and drum. Contact the manufacturer for drum and sheave sizes when special problems are involved. If the bending stress is excessive, and particularly in the case of
reverse bending, where the tether is first bent in one direction and then in the other, the tether
becomes fatigued. The flexibility of a tether depends primarily on its construction and filament
material. As the number of members or strands increases with diminishing filament size, the
flexibility increases. Tether flexibility should not be judged completely by flexing the tether by
hand. It is the ability of a tether to withstand bending and to resist bending fatigue that is the
ultimate measure of flexibility.
e.
Abrasion
Theability of a tether line to resist abrasion is almost entirely dependent upon the size
of the outer strand. The larger the outer strands, the more abrasion will be required to damage to the point of outer fiber fracture. However. the larger the strands, the less flexible the
construction and the tether will be less able to withstand bending stresses. When the outer
strands are large, they constitute a large portion of the total tether strength. This becomes
a concern when reserve strength of the inner strands is important as a safety factor or when
the discarding of a tether is dependent on a visual examination of the outer layer of strands.
92
Many manufacturers have abrasion-resistant jacketing material with which they encapsulate
their tethers. Jackets also provide protection against weather, water, dirt, ice buildup, and
ultraviolet rays. However, an added weight must also be considered in the selection of a
jacketed tether.
f.
Elongation and Elasticity
When dealing with long tethers, particularly when positioning problems are involved,
the effects of elongation are a vital consideration. When working below the elastic limit of the
tether, there are two types of elongation involved - constructional and elastic.
Constructional stretch is an elongation that becomes noticeable as the tether is put under
load. Most of this elongation occurs early in the tether life. The cause of this elongation is the
progressive adjustment of the individual strands to a final working position in the tether line.
Constructional elongation will usually occur during the first few days of use. It is usually less
than one percent of the total length. A great deal of the constructional elongation may be removed by applying a load greater than the estimated maximum operating stress but below the
elastic limit of the tetb r. If this type of tether (prestretched) is desired, special handling
must be used because coiling and uncoiling will return a small amount of the constructional
stretch.
Elastic elongation is due to the elastic properties of the tether material below the elastic
limit. This type of stretch is recoverable when the load is removed. The elastic elongation of
a tether is directly proportional to the load and length of tether under load, and inversely
proportional to the material area and the modulus of elasticity of the tether. The formula for
the elastic elongation is as follows:
change in load (lb) x length of tether under load (ft)
material area (in. 2) x modulus
Elastic elongation (ft)
This formula is approximate. Figures 51, 52, and 53 are elongation curves for Glastran and Samson tethers. Information for other tethers can be found by referring to the tables
at the end of this section. If precise determination is required, contact manufacturer of desired tether.
g.
Rotation
Rotation of a tether is primarily due to its helical construction, and the direction in
which it rotates depends on the lay of the strands. The tendency to roll is noticeable when the
tether operates over a sheave or onto a drum. U the tether is not properly placed on the drum,
the tether may overwind onto itself, causing extensive bending stress and eventual failure.
Rotation may also cause added forces on the balloon which may disrupt stable flight. The usual
method of elimination is by means of swivels, which will allow the tether to rotate freely under
tension. However, all of the ropes described in tables at the end of this section are built with
a non-rotating or no-lay construction. It is very import~int to specify a non-rotational or
torque-balanced tether in a balloon system.
h.
Safety Factor
The factor of safety of a tether line is the ratio of the strength of the tether to its maximum design load. In other words, it is the number of times the tether is stronger than the
load. For example, if a tether line has a breaking strength of 10,000 pounds, it would have a
safety factor of 2 if the design load were 5.000 pounds or a safety factor of 4 if the design load
were 2,500 pounds.
93
--
40-
--
36
~24
---
---
1/2"
20-4
7/16"1
z
83/8
5/66
0,3/86"
..L......
120.40.8
0.2.6
0 1.0F
rO"0
14
1.8
20
2.2
.4
26
100
PERCENT
LONGATIO
Figur
51.
0 0sran ElnainN
aiu I imtr
94p
mo-a
00-
Io
/11
2.
1.0
7/8"
3/41"
40-
01
00e-
---
20
1a
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.4
1.6
1.0 1.2
PERCENT ELONGATION
1.8
2.0
2.2
Figure 52. Giastran Elongation No. 2 for Variouo Diameters
95
2.4
2.6
20 .
..
...
'4E
SkB~LE 304~t
__
'STER*"
(POLY"
p LYPROPYLE E).
COMBINATION OF EITHER POLYESTER

OR NYLON AND POLYPROPYLENE FIBERS
0/0
10
15
I
20
I
25
I
3035
I'
% LOAD OF BREAKING STRENGTH

Figure 53.
Elastic Elongation of Samson 2-in-i Braided Rope
The proper safety factor is of great importance, not only for safety but for economy.
It is difficult to establish arbitrary values for the safety factor, but a higher factor usually
means greater operating economy. When risk is involved, the safety factor should be considerably higher than where no injury to personnel can occur. Factors of safety of about 2
are average for a balloon application; however, special cases may require this number to be
higher.
Balloon tethers frequently involve higher average ratios of working load to ultimate
strength than those recommended by manufacturers. A reduction in working life results.
8.
TETHER MATERIALS
There are various materials with which tethers can be made. Table XIU shows a comparison of various tether lines in terms of 'breaking length." Breaking length is a method of
expressing the strength-to-weight ratio. Breaking length is the vertical height to which a
cable can theoretically be raised before it breaks of its own weight. The theoretical breaking
length can be calculated by dividing the breaking strength in pounds by the weight in pounds per
foot. Theoretically, the breaking length of cables made from one particular material should
be the same for all sizes of tethers. In actual practice, the breaking length decreases as the
96
hLt
Table XI?!. Comparison of Tether Materials

Breaking Length
(feet)
able Material
Construction
Weight
(lb/ft)
Strength
(pounds)
Diameter
(inches)
8-Glase Monostrand
Single strand
0.0094
3000
0.125
319,000
5-Glass Glutran
1x 7
0.0095
1800
0.128
190,000
Samson 2-in-1 Nylon
Braided
0.0166
2100
0.250
126,500
Carbon Rocket Wire
I x 19
0.0310
3275
0.117
105,500
Music Wire
1 x 19
0.0360
3250
0.121
90,500
NS-355 Stainless
Steel
7 x 19
0.0296
2370
0.138
80,000
Dacron Nolaro
No-lay
O.0210
1650
0.250
78,500
Type 304 Stainless

Steel
3x7
0.0402
2800
0.1562
69, 500
NS-302 Stainless
Steel
7 x 19
0.0290
1960
0.136
67,500
Mylar Rope
Three-strand
0.0213 _.. 1400
0. 125
65,800
diameters increase. From this we can see that breaking length is a good comparison for basic
material strength. However, it should not be used as the only guide to tether selection. Figures
54, 55, and 50 show comparisons of breaking strength versus diameter, breaking strength versus weight, and bieakingstrength versus cost for various tether candidates. All these and more
must be considered for the final selection of a balloon tether. The tables at the end of this section contain pertinent data and descriptions of typical tethers that may be purchased from manufacturers. The designer can enter the information on a balloon tether strand and cable data
sheet (Figure 57). The data sheet can then be sent to the tether manufacturer for review and
final approval to make sure that his particular tether can suit the particular requirement.
TETHER LENGTH
The length of a tether is determined by the design altitude and the design winds to be
encountered. In other words, with no wind, the balloon will carry the tether vertically from
its mooring. If the tether is let out, the balloon will rise until the weight of the tether balances
the static lift of the balloon or until the tether reaches its breaking length and fails from its
own weight. The point at which the balloon buoyancy equals the weight of the tether is the balloon's static ceiling. However, as soon as the wind blpws, the balloon and cable drag will
cause the balloon to drift downwind and the cable will become inclined to the vertical. The
aerodynamic force on the tether can be assumed to act normal to the length of each tether e16ment. The inclination of the tether to the vertical causes a component of the wind force to act
vertically downward on the tether. The summation of these forces causes the balloon to sink
to a lower altitude. The lowering of the balloon height will require more tether to be payed out
in order to attain the original static ceiling. Since the balloon lifts more cable clear of the
ground, the vertical force on the mooring decreases and the angle of the tether at the mooring
also decreases. The tether at the nmooring will eventually reach the horizontal, and no vertical
force will exist there. At this point, the balloon has reached its coiling for that wind speed.
Any more tether payed out would lie on the ground. In order to select the proper amount of
tether line, it is necessary to calculate the configuration (single-, dual-, or tri-tether) that
9.
97
L..l
ol
RA PPENLAO
0NO
I(NON-JACKETED)
ROPE%
2 I-
~STEEL ROIONNLO
ROCKET
RP
WIRE-,
30,000-
20,
z
2
10,000
01
04
0.6
0.6
1.0
1.2
1.
CABLE DIAMETER (INCHES)
Figure 54. Strength -to -Diameter Rtatiom for Various Candidate

Balloon Tether Materials
go
.1.6
40,000
NOLARO ROPE
OLASTRAN ROPE
30,000r
z
RP
w 20,000O
10,000
00
100
200
CABLE WEIGHT (LB/10OO FT)
Figure 55. Strength -to -Weight Ratios for Various Candidate

Baloon Tether Materials
300
30*000
30,000
___
z
lu6
10,000
PRICE IS DEPENDENT ON CONSTRUCTION

I
-o
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
DOLLARS PER FOOT
1.20
Figure 56. Strength -to -C ust fttios for Various

Candidate Balloort Tothers
t00
1.40
1.60
Flirm________________
Order No...............
Address
Request No.
_____________________
City
state
Attention...
Dept,
CABLE APPLICATION________________________
Construction Pteferra'd, Step'C:1
Constant Die.
Antenna
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CABLE

Length, Continuous
__________
ofLength Req.
________-Number
MAle.
Work Load ________.......a. Shook Load
Safety factor_______
Might in ai.,.,....
.,.sMtorial ofTensile Members________________
Construction endSize.................
Life Expectaocy;''Ok., No., Yr_______UeCycle
Strage Conditions_________
Environment.
........... Temp.
Min.
AmblInt, W
_ l
_
at
Space
Pressure rt.ige
Outer Jacket , pNsateris
iThickness
NoX.Cebil 0.0.
tacwnts,
_______.....
_____
___M
CONDUCTOR PROPIRT lES OFCABLE

INDIVIDUAL COtJOUCTORS#
CapcIty
\Type
_________
volts
AC,DC AMIPS
Size
AWO_________
______
Dielectric Material ________.....emp. Rating

Impedance -Coac i tance
ConstrIction
I MStranding.....
Shielding, %-Coverage
Attenuattin Required
leading or lacket for
Conductor cable
Conductor location, surface 0
orcenter ofcable CO
Frequencies Used .2Conductor
skin depth.....-.......in.
0sFIciFY SEPARATELY INFORMATION AlOVI FOR EACH SIZE AND IVPE .conouciee REQUIRED. Usf LADITIONAL 101118.
SPECIFI1CATIONS OFWINCH
Winch Type: Drum C

Capstan, single C
:Capstan, double
Drum; grooved for-.......in. cable, or smooth drum
Number of layes( of Cable on drum ....
_......at cable tension.
____lb.
Minimum drum diameter.............in.;

Minimum sheave dliouter
per min.
Reeling speed, constant
variable from
to
Acceleration characteristics_____________
_____
in.
___________ft.
_
______f~p.m.
_____.
Figuro 57. Balloon Tether Strand and Cable Data Shoet

101
the tether cable assumes when the selected design wind blows. Various methods for calculating
the approximate single-tether configuration exist. The "Hollingdale and Wild" method for calculating tether configuration is applicable to only low-altitude, constant-diameter tether and
constant wind profile balloon flights (Reference 7). If a more sophisticated and exact method
is desired, refer to the "cable" listings in the Bibliography. Many of the reports listed provide tables, formulas, and computer programs with which to solve the more complex tethering
problems.
10.
TETHER DIAMETER
The tether diameter should be as small as possible and still retain the strength capabilities necessary to maintain tho balloon's position in all anticipated winds. A tether's drag,
strength, and weight vary as functions of the tether diameter. The diameter of the tether will
determine sheave size, size of drum, and amount of cable stored on the drum. Refer to the
earlier parts of this section for determination of proper drum and reel capacity.
11.
TETHER CONSTRUCTION
Tether construction is the general term that includes numbe." of strands; size, number,
and arrangement of the members in the strands; the lay; the core; and the type of fabrication.
Innumerable constructions are possible by varying the above factors, and the problems involved have been the subject of continuous study, research, and test.
A strand is a group of members of metal, synthetic, or natural material, and the
number of strands denotes how many of these groups are laid around the core to form the
tether. The number of strands in a tether may vary depending on the application. Figure 58
shows typical cross sections of wire rope constructions. Most constructions are shown,
but only a few of these may have been used ,'tballoon tethers. There are various other constructions that are used dependent on the material. Typical ropes, cables, and tension members that may be used as tether lines are listed in the tables at the end of this section. The
'Design Construction" column in these tables indicates the type of construction used for that
particular tether line. Most of these constructions are of the torque-balanced type.
"Lay" is the term used to describe the twist or pitch of the members and strand used
in the tether. It is very important in giving the tether elasticity, stability, resistance to crushing, increased flexibility, and the ability to absorb shock loads. The length of the lay is the
distance along the tether that is required for one strand to travel all the way around the core.
There are various types of rope lay constructions. The construction that should be noted here
is the non-rotating. This type of construction is used in free susnension, where rotation must
be restricted. The tether is constructed in two layers. The insidie layers are laid ilu one
direction, and the outside layers are laid in the opposite direction. Therefore, the tendency
for twisting is balanced.
Another method of manufacturing a non-s'otating type of tether is to use a no-lay construction. No-lay construction is made by paralleling low twisted members under as nearly
equal tension as possible and holding the bundle together by extruding a covering jacket. The
no-lay construction eliminates the loss of strength and increase in elongation, which results
when fibers are put in the helical position by twist, lay, etc of conventional stranded tethers.
Another type of construction is used by the fiberglass cable manufacturers. The construction
of the cable is accomplished by collimating glass fibers, coating with a resin sizing, and curing the resin to form an integral strand. The strands may be used individually or put into the
conventional wire rope construction form. Other constructions used are the braided constructions. This is a more flexible construction and is usually used with the more flexible natural
and synthetic fibers. Most manufacturers can provide tethers with integral electrical conductors. Table XIV shows three conductors that could be used in tether constructions. (These
conductors are manufactured by Columbian Rope Co.. Auburn, New York.) If conductors are
used, additional weight must be added to the tethers. Consult Table XIV for specifications.
Most manufacturers are also equipped to produce either a stepped or tapered cable upon request.
102
uno
6.
to0.
06 1
819
flon.
I~h
I sO
6aof.48#l1
1013
*RoofSIM
__
Table XIV. Elastic Conductor Specifications

Property
Approximate equivalent
AWG ......
...........
OD Size (inches) ....
......
No. 3
No. 24
No. 17
No. 22
0.098
164
No. 24
0.129
117
No. 17
0.158
55.5
Weight per 1000 feet

(pounds) ..........
.. .
Core ......
...........
6.1
Nylon
8.5
Nylon
18.0
Nylon
Number of copper wires.
18 - No. 34 AWG
18 - No. 34 AWG
16 - No. 28 AWG
PVC with nylon

overlay
HM-LD-PFe
HM-LD-PEO
90
275
550
10
16
17
16
Red, white, dark
blue
Wire rope core
25
Red, white, black
5.0
Red, white, black
Length per pound (feet) .
Insulation material
..
.....
Approx strength at break

(pounds) ............
....
Approx elongation at break
(percent) ............
...
Max resistance (ohms per
1000 feet) ......
.......
Colors available ......
...
Specific use ...........
...
Other
'ASTMD1248-60 Type 1. Grade 4, Class B

12.
FITTINGS
a.
General
Various types of end fittings and connections can be used to attach the balloon to the
tether line and the tether line to the ground. The type of end fittings to be used will depend on
the purpose and type of tether to b6 used. The following paragraphs suggest various types of
fittings available to the system designer. However, the designer of the system should contact
the tether manufacturers for data and suggestions as to the proper choice.
b.
Knots and Splices
The most common end connection that can be used on small balloon systems and handling
lines is the knot, The knot has the limitation of being usable only on small, highly flexible
ropes, but has the advantage of beic. quickly done in the field. Table XV gives a comparison of
the strength of knots tied with Samoan's 2-mn-I braided rope. If another brand or type of tether
line is used, contact the tether linu manufacturer for knot efficiency,
Another type of connection is the splice. The splice may stand alone or may be used in
conjunction with a thimble or hook. Figure 59 shows typical thimbles that can be used with the
eye splice in order to make a good end fitting.
104
IL
Table XV. Knot Strength Comparison
Type of Knot
Percent of Strength Retained

2-in-1 Braid
3-Strand
Buried eye splice
92
End-for-end
90
90
Timberhitch
Two half hitches
Bowline
67
70
69
60
62
65
Square knot
68
68
Overhand knot
Fisherman's bend
68
69
71
68
Carrick bend
70
62
94
NOTE: Knots tied with Samson's 2-in-I )r'dded rope.

c.
Swaged Fittings
Swaged fittings or terminals ar'e usually used on wire rope tethers. There are several
types of swaged fittings from which to choose. The proper choice will depend on the function of
the system. Swaged fittings will develop 100 percent of the rated breaking strength of the wire
rope. Figure 60 shows several typical swaged end fittings.
d.
Potted End fitttings
Potted end fittings can be used with almost all of the tethers. Special potting procedures should be followed when applying this type of end connection to certain types of tether
lines. The tether manufacturer should be consulted for the proper procedure of potting his
particular tether. In general, the method consists of the following procedure:
(1) Place the tether in a socket prescribed for that tether.
(2) Splay the end of the line in the manner prescribed by the manufacturer.
(3)
Pull the splayed end into the socket.
(4)
Fill the socket with molten zinc or resin compatible with the tether material.
(5) Allow to harden.

Figure 61 shows a modified end fitting and a splaying method used on the monofilament
type Aerostrand. Figure 62 shows a representation of the potting method used on Olastran
cable. It is recommended that all potted end fittings be x-rayed before use to ensure full penetration of the zinc or resin. Figure 63 shows four potted end fittings. End fitting A received
full penetration of resin. End fittings B, C, and D did not, as can be seen by the apparent
voids. If a socket in properly potted, it will develop 100 percent efficiency of the rope. Figure 64 shows two different sCyler of potted end fitting sockets. Other styles are also available.
105
iI
LIGHT DUTY THIMBLE

SYNTHETIC OVAL THIMBLE
HEAVY DUTY THIMBLE
SYNTHETIC
ROUND THIMBLE
THIMBLE AND
DOUBLE PRESSED CCLLAR
THIMBLE AND
SINGLE PRESSED COLLAR
HEAVY DUTY
(CLOSED END) THIMBLE
Figure 59. Thimble End Fittings
106
DOUBLE PRESSED
COLLAR ENDING
COLLAR ENDING
SWAGED THREADED STUD
SWAGED OPEN SOCK,
ORK
SWAGED CLOSED SOCKET
Figure 60.
Swaged End Fittings
107
I uI
dg
IQz1
I-
1088
LUI
at
Q,,v
S~TEST
FITTING
*_,-..-SPLAYED CABLE
.......
EPOXY-RESIN
FITTING
POLYURETHA E-JACKETED
GLASTRAN CABLE
TEMPORARY SEALING TAPE
Figure 62.
CABLE
Typical Potting Technique Used on Fiberglass Tethers
AI
Figure 63.
Typical Potted End Fitting X Ray
109
DEAD END ASSEMBLIES
KELLEMS GRIP
CLOSED SPELTER SOCKET
SC
OPEN SPELTER SOCKET
YV
PIN SHACKLE
ROUND PIN SHACKLE
PENGO-MILLER SWIVEL
Figure 64.
BRUMMEL HOOK
Miscellaneous End Fittings
110
e.
Grip-Type Fittings
The grip or friction type of fitting may be used with almost all of the tether lines, with
the exception of the very small, smooth-strand type of tether. Figure 64 shows two types of
the friction grips. The first type shown is the wrap-around type. The idea of the grip is to
wrap the preformed metal fitting around the tether line so a friction bond is set up, thus restricting the tether line from being pulled out. The grip type of end fittings are capable of
developing 100 percent of the tether line's rated breaking strength.
The second type is the 'Chinese finger grip" type. The formal name is 'Uellems grip."
Kellems grip is a mechailical wire-mesh holding device. The tether is placed in the grip, and
as the load on the tether increases, the grip tightens. Kellems grips can be used for modest
loadings. Breaking strength can be supplied by the manufacturer.
f.
Miscellaneous Fittings
There are several other mechanical devices that should be Mentioned here. Shackles
are used to connect different pieces of equipment to the tether line arrangement. Figure 64
shows two types of shackles that can be connected rapidly in the field. If an extremely fast
connection of tether line to balloon is required, the Brummel hook shown in Figure 64 is a
quick method. Figure 65 shows the manner in which the two identical Brummel hooks are connected. Swivels are quite often used in the tether line to dissipate any rotation that might be
generated by either the balloon or the tether. Figure 64 shows a typical Pengo-Miller swivel.
A shear link of some form is frequently incorporated in a balloon-tether system. The
shear link is a safety measure to avoid the lose of the balloon by failure of the tether line.
The shear link is a device that has a breaking strength less than the tether line. The shear
link may take the form of another lighter piece of tether line, spliced into the line at the suspension point, or a mechanical device such as shown in Figure 66, with a rivet or bolt with a
shear' value less than the breaking strength of the tether line. When the tension in the balloon
tether approaches the breaking strength of the tether line, the shear link will break and the
balloon will rise. A rip cord attached to a rip panel in the balloon and the shear link attachment will rip the balloon. The use of this system avoids complete lose of the balloon and payload. Figure 66 shows a typical mechanical shear link in the systen. A chain added to the
IYOU
SYOU PUT THE BEVELED OPENINGS
TAKE TWO HOOKS

Figure 6b.
TOGETHER AT RIGHT ANGLES

Brummel Hook Connection
111
FORtWARD SUSPENSION LINE
5/16" DIA NYLON TETHER LINE
Figure 86. Typical Bridle or Suspension Point
112
suspension system of the balloon provides a simple method of adjusting angle of attack without
adjusting all the suspension lines. Figure 66 also shows a typical suspension point arrangement. The addition, extraction, and order of the fittings and devices may vary according to the
weight limitation, purpose, and type of balloon involved in the system.
13.
AVAILABLE TETHERS
Tables XVI through XXII represent a collection of tether lines that have been or could
be used in a tethered balloon system. The tether lines listed in the tables are representative
of the many different types of material and constructions that can be manufactured. The data,
approximate prices, and general information are valid as of 1968 and should be used for engineering approximations only. The names and addresses of manufa.turers who produce
tethers or have the capability are listed below. Other companies not listed here may also produce similar tethers and should also be contacted for literature and suggestions if necessary.
American Chain & Cable Company, Inc.
Automotive and Aircraft Division
1022 E. Michigan St.
Adrian, Michigan 49221
Samuel Moore & Co.

Mantua, Ohio 44255
Morse Controls, Inc.
Hudson, Ohio 44236
Anchor Specialty Mfg.

300 Hollister Road
Teterboro, New Jersey 07608
North American Aviation Ocean Systems

Operations
3370 Miraloma Ave.
Anaheim, California 92803
Armco Steel Corporation

703 Curtis Street
Middletown, Ohio 45042
D.G. O'Brien, Inc.

500 Cochituate Road
Framingham, Massachusetts
Bergen Wire Rope Company

1234 Oregg Street
Lodi, New Jersey 07644
Oceanographic Engineering Corp

Hydro Products Division
P.O. Box 2528
Boston Insulated Wire

65 Bay Street
Boston, Massachusetts 02125
Ocean Research Instruments

501 Northwest 65th Street
Braincon Corporation
13 Shenandoah
Marion, Massachusetts 02738
C .F. & I. Steel Corp.
Box 1920
Denver, Colorado 80201
Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp

Office of Aerospace and Defense
717 Fifth Ave.
New York 22, New York
Columbian Rope Company

Auburn, New York 13021
Gulton Industries
212 Durham Avenue
Mituchen, New Jersey 08840
Packard Electric
Division of General Motors
P.O. Box 431
Warren, Ohio 44482
Lindgren Assoc. Inc.

P.O. Box 61
Wilton, Connecticut 06897
Pennsalt Chemicals Corp.

3 Penn Center
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19102
Marsh & Marine, Div Vector Cable

5123 Gulfton Drive
Houston, Texas 77036
Pennsylvania Wire Rope Corp.

905 First Street
Williamsport, Pennsylvania 17701
113
Precision Surveys Inc.

Point and Erie Street
Simplex Wire and Cable Co.

Box 479
Camden, New Jersey 08102
Portsmouth, New Hampshire 03801
Rochester Ropes, Inc.

P.O. Box 312
Culpeper, Virginia 22701
Teleflex, Inc., Aerospace Div.

Church Road
North Wales, Pennsylvania 19454
SSamson Cordage Works
United States Plastic Rope, Inc.

711 Hamilton Ave.
Park, California 94025
470
ve.Menlo
tlatic
Boston, Massachusetts 02210
United States Steel Corporation

Wire Rope Products
71 Broadway
New York, New York 10006
Sea Equipment, Inc.

92 South Front Street
Bergenfield, New Jersey 07621
Table XVI,
II
Part No.
American Chain and Cable Company Tethers
~-I
II
Diameter
(inches)
Design
Construction
Weight
per
1000 Feet
(pounds)
Minimum
Breaking
Strength
(pounds)
Standard
Shipping
Length
(feet)
Cost per
100 Feet
(dollars)
See Note 4
SMOOTH STRAND, TYPE 1 MUSIC WIRE (See Note 1)

RA-6643
RA-8281
0.038/0.040
0.042/0.044
1x7
1r7
3.85
4.52
380
440
2.50
2.50
FA-6836
RA-6639
0.048/0.050
0o053/0.055
1x 7
lx7
5.76
7.01
560
680
2.60
2.70
RA-6330
RA-60940
RA-8844
RA-7389
RA-7371
RA-7373
RA-7375
RA-7377
0.062/0.064
0.070/0.072
0.080/0.082
0.095/0.097
0.104/0.106
0.114/0.117
0.121/0.124
0. 133/0.,136
1x9
1 x7
1x7
1x19
1x19
1x 19
1 x 19
1 x 19
30
11.68
15.42
21.50
25.90
31.00
36.30
42,00
880
1,120
1,390
2,010
2,%90
2,800
3,250
3,710
3.00
3.00
3.20
7.00
7.40
7.90
8.50
9.00
290
302
370
420
530
613
800
3,530
5,000
7,900
8,900
11,600
2,350
2,550
3,250
3,000
3,350
7.00
7.10
7.20
7.50
7.80
8.20
8.60
15.00
20.00
100.00
100.00
125.00
11.00
11.50
12.00
15.50
16.00
STRANDED-COMPACTED MUSIC WIRE (See Note 5)

N/A
0.041
1x7
5.50
N/A
0.046
1x 3
5.00
N/A
0.050
1x 3
7.00
N/A
0.055
1x 3
8.00
N/A
0.063
1x 3
10.00
N/A
0.068
1x3
11.80
N/A
0.078
1x 3
14.00
N/A
0.137
1 x 19
47.00
N/A
0.213
1 x 19
105.00
N/A
0.235
1 x 19 x 7
126.90
N/A
0.245
1 x 19 x 7
141.00
N/A
0.260
1 x37 x7
123.00
RA-837
0.117
3 x 7
31.6
RA-8939
0.127
3 x 7
37.3
RA-8941
0.137
3 x 7
43.6
RA-8943
0.117
1 x 13
35.0
RA-8945
0.127
1 x 13
39.0
114
i
Table XVI.
Part No.
Diameter
(inches)
American Chain and Cable Company Tethers (Continued)
Design
Construction
Weight
per
1000 Feet
(pounds)
Minimum
Breaking
Strength
(pounds)
Standard
Shipping
Length
(feet)
Coat per
100 Feet
(dollars)
See Note 4
STRANDED-COMPACTED MUSIC WIRE (See Note 5) (Continued)

RA-8947
RA-8303
0.137
0.143
1x13
1 x 19
N/A
N/A
N/A
0.250
0.375
0.500
1 x 37 x 7
1 x 37 x 7
1 x 37 x 7
47.0
45.00
118.00
267.00
476.00
4,000
4,000
(See Note ()
11,050.
23,750
40,500
22.00
40.80
75.70
2,160
4,000
1,230
6.00
6.00
7.00
94.12
5,100
'10.00
43.50
65.80
110.00
1,535
2,550
4,840
17.00
18.00
20.00
'
16.50
10.00
95.00
125.00
150.00
ARMORED, MIL-C-5765D (See Note 7)

RA-6280
RA-1784
RA-4906
0.094/0.098
0.125/0.130
0.177/0.182
RA-4986
0.198/0.203
RA-7507
RA-8368
RA-7459
0.128
0.160
0.210
'
NOTES:
1.
Similar sizes of Rocket Wire grade strand are available with approximately 17% more
strength and some loss in ductility.
2.
ACCO tether lines are available in any length desired.

require an increase in price.
3.
ACCO has developed a splicing technique that will operate over sheaves and drums and
provide a strength equal to the smaller tether member.
4.
Prices listed were provided at time of publication; prices are OEM and for engineering
estimates only.
5.
Available in IPS, VHS, Rocket Grades, carbon, stainless, or coated wires.
6.
Plastic jacketed.
7.
Flat wire armor can provide greater abrasion resistance, minimiz6s torsion induced by
tensile loadings and constructional stretch.
8.
A minimum of 30 times the tether diameter should be used as a guide for sheave and
drum selection.
9.
ACCO citn also produce conductors or tubing in their tethers upon request.
10.
Approximate maximum length at yield (in 1000's of ft)
115
Extremely long lengths may
0.7 (breaking strength)

weight per 1000 ft
Table XVII. Columbian Rope Company Tethers
-Minimum
Diameter
Design
(inches)
Construction
Weight
per
1000 Feet
(pounds)
Mini
Street
(xngthent
treakin
Strngt
See Note 2
Standard
Cost per
(olas
100 Feet
Shipping
Lngth 1(dollars)
(feet)
See Note 5
NOLARO, POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC) JACKETED (See Notes I and 4)

0.250
23.0
1,650
8.00
0.312
35.2
2,750
13.50
0.375
53.6
4,400
25.80
0.437
72.8
6,050
o5
0.500
94.5
8,250
33.00
0.625
3
144.0
13,750
50.00
0.750
208.0
21,000
73.00
1.000
361.0
40,000
126.00
NOLARO, POLYETHELENE (PE) JACKETED (See notes 1 and 4)
0.25
20.1
1,650
0.312
30.9
2,750
V
0.375
46.4
4,400
0.437
62.6
6,050
o
0.500
82.7
8,250
0.625
127.9
13,750
0.750
187.6
21,000
1.000
333.0
40,000O
7.00
10.07
16.00
21.90
29.00
44.50
68.00
116.00
NOTES:
1.
Typical examples of Dacron Nolaro with PVC and PE jackets are given.
2.
Approximate breaking strengths are given.
3.
Jacketed, parallel low twist yarns,
4.
Nolaro is custom made to order in quantities of 100 pounds or more wz a size.

This weight will determine the minimum length of a tether that can be ordered.
5.
Nolaro prices were calculated on the following basis:

A charge of $150.00 is made for setup plus
$3.50/lb for Dacron Nolaro
3.00/lb for Nylon Nolazo
2.50/lb for Polypropylene Nolaro
6.
Dacron Nolaro elongation (approx) can be calculated by using the following data:
Load as % of
Breaking Strength
10
20
30
50
70
7.
Approx % Elongation
1.0
1.8
2.8
4.3
5.6
Conductors can be incorporated in the tether upon request.
116
Table XVIII.
Diameter
(inches)
Owens-Coming Fiberglas Corporation Tethers (Aerostrand)

Weight
per
1000 Feet
(pounds)
Design
Construction
Minimum
Breaking
Strength
(pounds)
0.029/0.033
0.040/0.043
0.060/0.066
0.55 (*0.06)
1.2 (0. 14)
2.4 (*. 27)
0.067/0.075
0.080/0.088
3.7 (A0.43)
4.8 (A. 56)
1,100
1,500
0.113/0.125
9.4
3,000
220
440
800
(W1.1)
Standard
Shipping
Length
(feet)
Cost per
100 Feet
(dollars)
NOTES:
1.
Aerostrand is constructed from "S" glass fiber reinforced with epoxy resin.
2.
Aerostrand is in a research and development stage. Quantities are available for

test purposes. Tapered construction is a-,ailable by splicing different sizes of
Aerostrand.
3.
Production prices not available at this time.
4.
The minimum bend diameter should be 140 times the nominal tension member
diameter. Under certain conditions, a smaller working diameter may be used;
however, adjustment in stress and safety factor must be made.
5.
Physical properties are as follows:

(a) Tensile Modulus - 7.0 x 106 psi at 72 0 F - 50% RH
(b) Specific gravity - 1. 03 (*0. 17)
(c) Elongation at Break - 5% at 72 0 F - 50% RH
(d) Conduction - Greater than 500,000 ohms/ftlwith d-c or a-c current
Table XIX.
Prices quotedupon request.
Packard-Electric Tethers
-St-nd-rd
Part No.
Diameter
(inches)
GLASTRAN, PE-800
65052-R
0.125/0.131
65053-R
0.188/0.198
65067-R
0.218/0.228
65055-R
0.312/0.332
65056-R
0.375/0.395
65057-R
0.438/0.468
65058-R
0.500/0.530
65060-R
0.625/0.655
65062-R
0.750/0.790
65064-R
0.875/0.915
65066-R
1.000/1.040
Design
Construction
1x
1x
1x
7 x
7 x
7 x
7 x
7 x
7x
7x
7x
7
19
19
7
7
19
19
19
37
37
37
Weight
per
I000 Feet
(pounds)
9.5
22.0
26.0
57.0
80.0
110.0
140.0
218.0
312.0
445.0
565.0
117
Minimum
Breaking
Strength
(pounds)
Stpndard
eing
Lingth
(eet)
Cost per
100 Feet
(dollars)
See Note 3
1,800
3,800
5,200
10,000
13,000
17,500
20,400
32,000
45,000
62,000
74,000
9,000
5,000
6,000
6,000
4,300
3,000
2,500
6,000
4.000
5,000
5,000
7.00
16.00
23.00
48.00
64.00
95.00
115.00
175.00
220.00
280.00
315.00
Table XIX.
PaLrt N.
-egt
iameter
Dimte
GLASTRAN,
65072-H
65073-R
65087-H
65075-R
65076-R
05077-R
65078-R
65080-R
65082-R
65084-R
65086-R
(.itchei)
Packtrd-Electric Tetheis (Continued)
mnnim
MBinmum
Sadr
Shppn
L.on~th
Cost per
0 Feet
(dlr)
1000 Feet
(lp)unds)
Strength
(pounds)
(fent)
S(e Nte 2
(dollars)
See Note 3
13.0
27.0
32.0
66.0
90.0
126.0
160.0
240.0
355,0
490.0
620.0
1,800
3.800
5,200
10,000
13,000
17,500
20,400
32,000
45,000
62,000
74,000
9,000
5,000
6,000
6,000
4,500
3,000
2,500
6.000
4,000
5,000
5,000
9.00
18.00
24.00
52.00
67.00
100.00
125.00
180.00
245.00
315.00
350.00
eel.
Weight
Ir
Conotructinl
I~re'ikhiig
PF,-800-.1 (JACKETED)
Ix 7
0,149/0.167
0.212/0.234
0.242/0. 264
0.330/0.368
0.399/0.431
0.470/0,516
0.532/0.578
0.657/0.703
0.800/0.860
0.925/0.985
1.050/1.100
1x
1x
7 x
7 x
7 x
7x
7 x
7x
7 x
7 x
19
19
7
7
19
19
19
37
37
37
NOTES :
1.
Gastran glass fiber cable is constructed of continuous filaments of high-strength "E"

glass impregnated with epoxy resin. Filaments are assembled into strands and then
constructed similar to rope. Electrical conductors can be incorporated upon request.
2.
Special sizes and lengths are available on special order with an increase in price.
3.
estiumates only.
4.
Recommended minimum sheave and drum diameters should be 30 times the bare tether
diameter.
5.
Physical properticb can be obtained from manufacturer.

Figrircs 51 and 52, shown earlier in this section.
Table XX.
Diameter
(inches)
Design
Construction
Elongation curves are given in
Samson Cordage Works Tethers

Weight
per
1000 Feet
(pounds)
Minimum
Breaking
Strength
(pounds)
Standard
Shipping
Length
(feet)
Cost per
100 Feet
(dollars)
See Note 5
BRAIDED NYLON (See Note 1)

0.25
0 312
0.375
0.437
0.500
0.562
0.625
0.750
0.875
1.000
2-in-I
16.6
27.8
33.3
50.0
66.7
83.3
111.0
150.0
208.0
2,100
3,500
4,200
6,000
7,500
9,500
12,000
17,000
23,700
250.0
28,500
118
0
o
Z
5.23
8.62
10.00
14.25
19.00
23.32
29.97
38.25
52.00
61.25
Table XX.
Diameter
(Inchom)
Samson Cordage Works Tothorm (Continued)
Design
Conutruction
Welight
per
1000 Foot
(pounds)
Minimum
Dreoking
Strength
(pouildi)
POWER BRAID (See Note 2)

0,25
2-in-I
0,312
0,375
0.437
0.500
0.562
0.62t
0,750
0.875
1.000
10.0
27,8
33,3
50,0
66,7
83.8
111.0
150.0
208.0
250.0
2,100
3,500
3,400
5,000
7,400
8,600
11,500
16,000
20,800
25,000
STABLE BRAID (See Note 3)

0.25
2-in-I
0.312
0.375
0.437
0,500
0.562
0,625
0.750
0.875
1.000
17.0
26.0
35.0
51,0
68.0
110.0
150.0
200.0
280.0
350.0
1,700
2,600
3,500
5,100
6,800
11,000
15,000
20,000
28,000
35,000
Standnrd
Shipping
Idwinith
(feet)
Coot Ior
100 Feet
(dollars)
(moo Note 5)
5,23
8162
8,75
12,50
16,50
20.75
25.92
36.00
48.00
60.00
7.23
10.40
13,83
19.13
24.82
39.60
51.00
68.00
95.20
112.00
NOTES1.
Braided nylon - braided nylon cover, braided nylon center.
2.
Power braid - braided nylon cover, braided polypropylene center.
3.
Stable braid - braided polyester cover, braided polypropylene center.
4.
Longer lengths are abailablo by request.
5.
List price from manufacturer.
6.
Sheave and drum diameter should have a minimum ratiu of 15 to 1, based on tether
diameter.
7.
Elongation characteristics are given in Figure 53, shown earlier in this section.
8.
Dielectric properties and physical characteristics are available from manufacturer.
119
Table XXI,
o
(iichoa)
United Sthtea Illhatith tether. (Mylar)
(IX)Und.
(l)uida)
0.125
0.156
6,67
9,10
0.187
0.250
0.312
0.375
.437
0.500
P.562
0.625
0.750
0.875
1.000
Standard
1Shipping
Length
(feet)
Mtt itiiuni
Breaking
Strength
Strontgth
Weight
por
1000Fert
t000 Feet
roiruction
DomiiI
('onat ruetboi
('Coat ix, r
100 Feet
(dodlArs)
See Note 2
500
685
5,000
4,000
12.00
15.6
1,050
21.3
30.3
41.7
60.2
83.5
100.0
139.0
167.0
238.0
278.0
2,500
20,00
1.400
2,100
2,750
3980
5,200
6,000
6,750
10,000
15,500
18,500
2,500
1,725
1,200
1,200
600
600
600
600
600
600
33.00
47.00
60.00
89.00
121.00
175.00
...
262.00
324.00
414.00
16.00
NOTES:
I.
Rope is manufactured from DuPont polyester film 3/4" wide by 0.001" (1 mi) thick.
The film is formed into throad by the patented process of U.S. Plastic Rope. Construction is in conventional 3-strand in either regular twist (standard lay) or low
twist (long lay).
2.
All sizes available in unbroken coils up to 2. 500 feet on

jacketed wid braided ropes available on request.
3.
Use a minimum sheave or drum diameter of 10 times the tether diameters.
4.
Physical characteristics are available from manufacturer.

Table XXII.
Diameter
(inches)
Design
Cntruti
See Note
l)ecial order,
PA ices fur
United States Steel Tethers
Weight
per
1000 Feet
Minimum
Breaking
Strength
Standard
Shipping
Length
Cost per
100 Feet
(dollars)
(pounds)
(pounds)
(feet)
See Note 3
40.2
48.6
57.3
73.8
97.2
147.0
213.0
284.0
375.0
478.0
2.800
3,300
3,900
5,000
6,600
10,000
14,500
19,300
25.500
32,500
AMGAL-MONITOR AA ROPE
0.156
0,172
0,187
0,218
0.250
0.312
0.375
0.437
0.500
0.562
3 x 7
120
4.62
4.88
5.03
6.40
7.76
8.83
9.90
16.20
17.20
20.70
Table XXII,
ij(inches)
esign
nSte
n DMI'Ver
(inches)
United States Steel Tethers (Continued)
Minimum
lo'eaking
Strength
(pIunds)
W.eight
p)rFeel
1000
(pouIndn)
Standard
Shipping
Length
(feet)
Cont per
Feet
100
(dollars)
See Note 3
AMGAL-MONITOR AA ROPE (Continued)
0.172
3 x 19
0.187
0.218
0.250
0.312
0.375
0.437
0,500
0.562
0,625
0.750
0.875
1.000
50.7
58.6
79.5
99.7
153.0
220.0
304.0
392.0
492.0
602.0
879.0
1210.0
1560.0
3,500
4,000
5,400
6,750
10,300
14,800
20,000
25,700
32,500
40,300
57.,800
78,000
100,600
40 6
49.1
57.8
74.5
51.2
519.2
80.3
100.6
2,800
3,300
3,900
5,000
3,500
4,000
5,400
6,750
221.0
299.0
388.0
487.0
12,700
17,200
22,000
28,000
5.57
6.68
7.67
10.65
11.97
13.90
19.09
20.90
23.00
28.90
42.30
52.30
64.70
Z
4
t%
STAINLESS STEEL TYPE 304

0.156
0.172
0.187
0.218
0.172
0.187
0.218
0.250
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
7
7
7
7
19
19
19
19
o
z
10.48
11.96
13.45
18.24
14 50
17.08
21.63
26.20
See Note 2
See Note 4
STAINLESS STEEL TENELON

0.375
0.437
0.500
0.562
1.
3
3
3
3
x
x
x
x
19
19
19
19
If more flexibility is required, a 3 x 46 may be ordered in the following sizes: 0.625,

0.750, 0. 875, and 1.00.
2.
3.
4,
5.
Standard shipping lengths of 30,000 feet are available for sizes less than 0.25 inch.
Longer lengths are available in the smaller sizes.
estimates only.
Prices for the Tenelon ropes are approximately "'V higher than the Type 304 stainless
steel rope.
An approximate value of 40 times the diameter should be used for sheave and drum
diameters.
6.
Custom-made tethers are available by contacting manufacturer,

strengths are available upon request.
7.
USS non-rotating ropes have an ele,,ted elastic limit as compared to conventional sixstrand rope. Elongation information Is available upon request.
121
(Page 122 is blank)
Higher breaking
SF.T' 'ION VI
13ALLOON HANDLING
1.
GENERAL
Any balloon system operati,in is a series or sequence of individual steps, necessitating

throLghout a total operation cerlain inspection ai.d monitoring requirements.
Paragraph 2 pr'ients general and rather universal cautionary instructions.
The flow
charts following paragraph 3 present a nearly universal flow diagram.

2.
BALLOON HANDLING PRECAUTIONS
There are several precautions to exercise in the handling of balloons. While

ope material is strong and durable in many respects, it must be handled with care.
should be instructed in careful handling techniques and required to trim fingernails,
sharp cornered rings, watches, and pencils from breast pockets, etc. The handling
precautions are listed below.
(I)
the envelPersonnel
remove
technique
Hold and lift or pull the balloon with both hands in a flat open position.
(2) Do not grab balloon with fingers and/or pull with fingertips.
(3)
Do not step or kneel on the balloon.
(4) Do not smoke near the balloon.

(5)
Do not wrap the rope around body, hands, or feet.
(6) Do not put patches in peel.
3.
Pull "in line" with the patch.
(7)
Pick up sharp objects (stones, bricks, boards, etc) on the ground before laying
out the ground cloth.
(8)
Do not lay the balloon on sharp or protruding objects.
(9)
Keep the area "picked up. "
(10)
Keep feet out of line entanglements.
(11)
Be sure all lines are free of knots, twists, and each other.
(12)
Protect the balloon from abrasion at all times.

cloth and in the box when stored.
(13)
Do not step over tether line between winch and pulley assembly.
BALLOON SYSTEM OPERATI
Keep it wrapped in protective
;S
The wide variety of balloon systems preclude& detailing the operational procedures of
each. Moreover, specific procedures changewith experience of individual operators. However, it is possible to set forth in general terms the functions required of all balloon systems large or small, simple or complex. Specific operating details of a system would be furnished
by the supplier.
The format chosen for outlining balloon operations has been borrowed, with some license, from the functional flow diagrams of sys tern engineering procedures. This format was
123
chosen as presenting the clearet;t picture of balloon operations. It alsu may be expanded by the
reader to detalla particular balloon system that may be under consideration.
The functional diagrams, which are shown in Figures 67 through 74, are sequence
oriented but not time oriented. They normally flow from left to right. The gross functions
are expanded one level and show some of the differences among the various systems. Function blocks are numbered for identification only, not to indicate sequence.
Several functions are shown preceded by or followed by "AND, "which denotes that all
these functions must be performed, but not in a particular sequence, prior to proceeding to the
next function.
Functions or a sequence of functions preceded by or followed by "OR" denotes more
than one method of accomplishing a function or that more than one type of equipment may be
used to perform the function.
A line marked "G" (no-go) from the bottom uf a functional block indicates where something may go wrong which must be corrected before proceeding.
Monitoring functions, such as weather or balloon pressure, are shown at the top or
bottom of a diagram. A vertical line from the mainflow line shows the start of a monitoring
function, which continues until another vertical line returns to the mainllow line - often through
several diagrams.
The system diagrammed is a composite one, in some cases showing more than one type
of equipment through the use of "OR. " Thus the differences may be shown in their proper
relative position in the balloon operation.
124
z
00
I.-#
oz
10i
o
>
-'
-j-
0
-J
U-
z
z
LUJ
I-
<
ce
0 Y~
0
C4C
UJ
cx
tb
Cie
UJLu
z-J
o(W
UAJui
IQ
09i
j
R
ag
C6
SL
z z(
IL
Z
ZU-
LA
-,o
LL
ccU
z0
C))
J5
orz
L6p
-i
D
U-
L,
LAN
uu
-A
-w
neU-u
LL
zz
00
LU
U,
z~~
IoI-
Mz 0
jCe
IL.
U4.
a0
Z~
L
Ix0U
00
C,
vAJ
L0uJ
n
Q)
,-
0.-
L~J
LIU
_5-1
-JiC
%A
Pa
l-4
cd
zI
wow
0.
i!
m
~ujZ
'4
Lu1
CM z
z
00
0'-A
'0
a0
z0
-zL,
SMzU.
I.
zz00
1'
nA
VL
SM
in
0J
04 ;S.M
u
wn
6,4
MONITOR BALLOON
INTERNAL TEMPERATURE
6.5
L+
MAINTAIN BALLOON
INTERNAL TEMPERATURE
6.6
MONITOR
BALLOON (S)
INTERNAL PRESSURE
MAINTAIN
BALLOON (S)
INTERNAL PRESSURE
REFERENCE
2.0
PERFORM
CORRECTIVE
_I_
16.1l
_ACTION_
_I
PRE - LAUI
OPEPATI O
JPERFORM BALLOON
1SYSTEM SERVICING[
REF ERENCE6.68
J 5.0
IBALLOON RETRIEVAL
OP.ERATIONS
PERFORM BALLOON
SYTMSHDLED
MAINTENANCE
AD
MODIFY BALLOON
SYSTEM AS REQUIRED
PERFORM BALLOON
SYSTEM UNSCHEDULED
MAINTENANCE
REFERENCE
4.5
MONITOR
C3ROUND
17.0
DEFLATION At
PACK- UP OPE
"WEATHER
4.6
MONITOR
SURROUNDING
AREA WEATHER
Figure 73.
___
Balloon System Service and Maintenance Operations
131
ON
RATURE
AND
OON
RATURE
OR
SURE
AND
REFERENCE
SURE
I2.0
PERFORM
-
CORRECTIVE
ACTION
PRE- LAUNCHJ
OPERATION
ON
ING
6.0
N
LED
AND
MODIFY BALLOON
SYSTEM AS REQUIRED-O
N
ULED
REFERENCE
7.0
DEFLATION AND
10- PACK -UP OPERATION
FIRST LEVEL
FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM
G
R
* 73.
6.0 PERFORM BALLOON SYSTEM

SERVICE AND MAINTENENCE
..
Balloon System Service and Maintenance Operations
131
ll,
ii
MoN ITOR
_________________________________________________________________4.5
G*,ROUND WEATHER
DISCONTINUE AND
PROTECT EOL!IPMFNI
7.6
REMOVE
PAYLOAD
7.7
REMOVE
INST RU-CLA
MENTATIO01N
_PERfSONNI:L STAYCLA
OF ESCAPING GAS
7.8
REMOVE
REF6.0
BAION
RETRIEVAL
OPERATIONS
7.1
SPREAD
GROUND
CLOTH
CHECK
SECURITY
OF
GROUND
HADIGLN
7.
DSO-OPEN
NETAND
TEHR79TION
IS7.12
INFLAEOESLEEVE
LINESe
74EDMatoERGE132
7.15
CLEAR
ALL GAS
AND AIR
POCKETS
Pc-U
OR
ATHER
---
__________
ISCONTINUE AND
ROTECT EQUIPMENT
OA
T
GASN
7..77.2
STYCLEAR
ALL
GAS
PRT
ANDUIAIR
FIRSTLEVE
SIFUNCTIONAL.
DIAGRAM
7.0AT
DELAEONCPCKU
AABONLYSE
ion ad Pak-UpOperFioS
132.16
SECTION VII
INS TRUMENTATION
I.
GENERAL
Instrumentation for tethered balloons will vary considerably with each specific application. Two of the main factors to be considered are the altitude at which the balloon will be
flown and the duration of the flight. For high-altitude flights, Telemetry systems with selfcontained power supplies should be considered to eliminate the excessive weight of power and
signal cables. If these high-altitude flights are to be of long duration, command control systems should be considered to turn the telemetry system on and off for data acquisition at infrequent intervals. However, if the balloons are at a lower altitude, power and signal cables
can be strung in the tethering line, and conventional excitation can power supplies, signal
amplifiers, and recording devices.
This document does not intend to design the complete instrumentation system involved
in gathering the specific data depicting balloon performance. Tables XXIII through XXVIII define a majority of the measuring instruments available for determining the balloon perfirmance.
The manufacturers of these instruments manufacture their own specific brand of transducer
excitation, signal amplifiers, and recorders. Many combine these three elements intoi one
unit, and others make them as separate components. The readout equipment can be either
visual or recorded. Most instruments can be used with available conventional equipment.
Setup of the systems can be quite simple or very complicated, depending on the specific application.
The instruments being considered to cover most applications are temperature sensors,
pressure transducers, accelerometers, load cells, and wind direction and wind speed indicators. The instruments referred to in Tables XXIII through XXVIII are in the ranges of tethered
balloon uses. All values listed are nominal and may not apply to each specific manufacturer
listed. The cost of the components listed in these tables varies with each specific type and
manufacturer. A brief description of each transducer's operation is listed in th- tables. The
instrumentation manufacturers are listed in Table XXIX.
2.
TEMPERATURE SENSORS
Temperature sensors break down into three categories - thermocouples, thermistors,

and resistance. Thermocouples are a temperature-sensitive junction of two metals that generate an E.M.F. as a function of the temperature. This is a small millivolt output. This signal must be run to the recording device with special thermocouple wire or be transferred to a
copper lead wire in a controlled reference junction. Thermistors and resistance thermometers
operate on the principle of a change in resistance to the element due to change in temperature.
The output of thermistors and resistance thermometers is usually in millivolts. Signals from
all of these sensors must be amplified if they are a long distance from the recorder. All three
types can be manufactured in many forms to withstand any environment. (Refer to Table XXIII.)
3.
PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS
Pressure transducers measure in three basic forms - absolute pressure, gauge pressure, and differential pressure. Almost all manufacturers make transducers in all three
foraun. However, the principle on which they work varies considerably. First there is a bellows or diaphragm that physically moves when pressure is applied. This movement in turn
excites a signal in one of several signal systems, such as a strain gauge, solid-state device,
potentiometer, or variable reluctance device. Another system is the bourdon tube which turns
and thus moves a coil in a fixed field or moves a wiper on a potentiometer. Another type is
the pressure capsule which is similar to a diaphragm except that is has considerably more motion. One other type that is not listed In Table XXIV is the piezoelectric type that is sellgenerating of a signal. Most of these, however, fall in a pressure range above that compatible
with tethered balloons.
133
4.
ACCELEROMETERS
Inertia forces in a specific direction are measured by accelerometers. Alignment of

the sensitive axis of the sensor at installation determines the response direction. Three independent accelerometers are sometimes assembled with the individual axes orthogonal to each
other. In all cases the acceleration is determined by measurement, either directly or indirectly, of the force on a mass of known value. Strain gauges or potentiometers requiring deflection (which results in inherent errors) are used in the simplest form of this sensor.
Piezoelectric crystals are used as a force-measuring device and require very slight deflections.
The response of these crystals is such that they are most effectively used in the measurement
of high accelerations or in applications where d-c response is not required.
The mass element within an accelerometer is damped by means of entrapped gas or
liquid to provide a specified response to stimulus. When the acceleration to be measured is
known to be only low frequency, deflection errors are eliminated through the use of a servonull system. (Refer to Table XXV.)
5.
LOAD CELLS
Load cells are generally of the strain gauge type; however, there are other types available (refer to Table XXVI). Manufacturers have standard off-the-shelf configurations that meet
most requirements. They also manufacture these load cells in any requested configuration.
For cable tensions, the cable can be split and the strain link inserted in the cable, or the strain
link can be connected to pulleys that support the cable to measure the load in that manner.
There are also devices that can be attached directly to a loaded cable for direct reading of load
or transmission of a signal to a recorder.
6.
WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION
Wind direction indicators are normally vane operated and the signal generated by means
of a continuous potentiometer or synchronous a-c motor (refer to Table XXVII). They are
normally mounted from a ground tower, which provides a fixed and stable support.
Wind speed measuring devices, which can be balloon-mounted, include impact tubes
(pitot) or anemometer cups driving a d-c generator (refer to Table XXVIII). The anemometer
is more polular and Iq readily coupled to most recording systems.
Another basic sensor type measures air velocity as a function of cooling of a heated resistance coil from the air flow.
134
Table XXIV.
Instrument
Type
Bellows or
diaphragm
strain gauge
Absolute
Gauge
Differential
Bellows or
diaphragm
solid-state
strain gauge
Absolute
Gauge
Diiferential
Bellows or
diaphragm
variable
reluctance
Absolute
Gauge
Differential
Bellows or
diaphragm
potentiometer
Absolute
Gauge
Differential
Bourdon
tube signal
generator
Absolute
Gauge
Differential
Bourdon
tube potentiometer
Absolute
Pressure
capsule
potentiometer
Absolute
Gauge
Gauge
Differential
Pressure
Capsule
LVDT
Absolute
Differential
Range
Accuracy
Resistance
Resolution
0 to 1 psia
and up
0 to 1 psig
and up
0.05 paid
and up
0.25% FS
to 5% FS,
depending
on range
120, 350.
Others on
request.
0 to 10 psia
and up
0 to 10 psig
and up
*2 paid and
up
*0.25%
FS and
up, depending
on range
200 nominal. Others

available,
0 to 0.2 psia
and up
0 to 1 psig
and up
*0. 1 paid
and up
*0.03%
FS
0 to 5 in.
H 20 and up
0 to 1 paig
and up
*0. 5 paid
1% FS
2% FS
0.3%
0 to 10 psia
and up
0 to 10 psig
and up
0 to 10 paid
and up
*0. 25%
FS
*0. 25%
FS
*0. 25%
FS
0 to 10 psia
and up
0 to 10 psig
and up
1% FS
0 to 1 psia
and up
0 )1 paig
and up
*0.5 paid
30%
0 to 0. 15
psia and up
*0. 15 paid
and up
2% FS
1% FS
Pressure Transducers
Excitation
Output
Infinite
5 to 28 volts
ac or dc, depending on
manufacturer
I to 10 mv/v
nominal
4,9
26,
72,
95,
Infinite
3 vac or 3 vdc
to 28 vdc, depending on
manufacturer
5 mv to
5 vdc
11,
97
Infinite
24 to 32 vdc
at 25 ma
0 to 5 vdc
10,
76
0.3%
Any voltage
desired
Depends on
excitation
10,1
77
Infinite
0 to 5 vdc
0 to 5 vdc
28
1000 and
up
1000 and
up
0. 25% FS
Depends on
system
Depends on
excitation
10.2
83
500 and up
Infinite
Depends on
system
Depends on
excitation
10, 3
Infinite
Depends on
system
Depends on
excitation
68
(ohms)
All ranges
from 300
to 15,000
nominal.
0.3%
0. 25% FS
*3%
33%
*0. 15%
*0. 15%
*See list of manufacturers in Table XXIX.
136
Tadle XXIV.
istance
Resolution
Pressure Transducers
Excitation
Output
Vendors'
Ren
ks
hms)
350.
rs on
uest.
Infinite
5 to 28 volts
ac or dc, depending on
manufacturer
I to 10 mv/v
nominal
4, 9,18, 24,
26, 32, 56, 58,
72, 79, 80, 88,
95, 98
All manufacturers make a variety of halfand full-bridge transducers with low-level

output, good reliability and repeatability.
The bellows or diaphragm of metal bends
under pressure, putting an unbalance in the
strain gauge which is part of a four-arm
Wheatstone bridge.
nomiOthers
lable.
Infinite
3 vac or 3 vdc
to 28 vdc, depending on
manufacturer
5 mv to
5 vdc
11,48,68,72,
97
Miniature and subminiature transducers

withstand severe environmental conditions.
Operation same as for strain gauge.
Infinite
24 to 32 vdc
at 25 ma
0 to 5 vdc
10,23,45,51,
76
High level input and output, suited for severe environments, high accuracy under
extreme vibration. This type uses a variable reluctance displacement to voltage
converter.
0.3%
Any voltage
desired
Depends on
excitation
10,14,16, 68,
77
Simple design, high reliability and performance. This type usually moves the potentiometer wiper arm through a mechanical
advantage.
Infinite
0 to 5 vdc
0 to 5 vdc
28
Long-ternm stability, good safety on burst

pressure. As the bourdon tube twists, it
moves a coil in a fixed field, generating a
new signal.
and
0.25% FS
Depends on
system
Depends on
excitation
10, 27,73, 78,

83
and
0.25% FS
Miniature, reliable. As the bourdon tube

twists, it turns the wiper of a rotary potentiometer.
Infinite
Depends on
system
Depends on
excitation
10,31,34
Provides a large choice of operating voltages. Good linearity. As the pressure

capsule expands, it moves the wiper arm
of the potentiometer.
Infinite
Depends on
system
Depends on
exciitation
68
High degree of accuracy and reliability.

As the pressure capsule expands, it moves
the core through the windings of a linear
variable differential transformer.
anges
300
,000
nal.
0.3%
0.3%
d up
136
I-1
-0
Zf
4*
oL
GI~o~
91
24a0121,
74
:80
&ed-
to
in o
tk
40
nWc
"4)4
00
in
Ln
~-iqm1
C14C0
-~
4)
Load Cells
Table XXVI.
Brrxidgt
idge
Range
Instument
T pe
Tension -
0 to 10
gauge
c(omcpression
Anid up
Differential
transformer
Tensioncompression
Hydraulic
Tension
Resistanc(e
0. 25'.(', FS
120 to 350,
lHe
~(ohmls)
lutieon
;atiopU
0
5 to 28, de -
I. 5 and u
others on
Ix-nding on
chIcendi li
request
nintfacturtl
Illano
t: facit
Continuous
i I and up
0. 5,
--
ConhtInuous
0 to 1000
---
---
---
5 tIl 20
2 to 30
and up
tensiometer
0 to 1000
and up
Tension
Mechanical
tensitron
Accuracy
(I
Strain
---
See list of manufacturers in Table XXIX.
Table XXVII.
Wind Direction Tranenitte
Instrument
Type
Range
(degrees)
Accuracy
(degrees)
Resistance
(kilohms)
Excitation
OutputI
Potentiometer
V:tne
360
:3
10 to 100,
depending on
manufacturer
12 vdc
0 to 4.8 vdc
Synchronous
a-c motors
Vane
360
12
.........
7. li 12
2C s;,
37
See list of manufacturers in Table XXIX.
Table XXVIII.
Range!
instrument
T"ype
Potentionmeter
Anomometer
0 to 90 mph
Accuracy
,1I' ,
(kisthanc)
10 and up
rhermopile
Exittatiolt
10.6 tol 12.6
Output
1,l
I',
0.5 mw
16
vdc
('U)
D-v generat,,r
Wind Speed Transtritter.c
Sell-
7,.8.'
c'ups
generating
37,4
11
Tuiwm
Self-
3.38
Anemometer
0 to 100 mph
-I-
enerI t iler
Pholoi celk.
aeF'. lisi
Ancnutiemo-r
,upm
ll n IAlluA=tIlIuri
0 Il
k Ii I
100 kiit
t I ktd
95 toi 132 volts.

Battery: 10. 6
to 12 6 vftlIis
--
Al. XXIX
Table XXVI1. Ld
('elI1
lI Iaioi
tilIt'
1 ,1 i.
I hol
1 4t illIWi
ld
I,1
II0
' oI t 1
iNaiitut
lt
..
Illlllk! Actl
I 1 'll 1\H I I
N I9
d, m Ililtiil i'tluala 11
4 -,
hl2ra 0
aI alI
oi
........
In
lt.I itl Joe
ca
Daal t l in i
iio.
I e pril
diffly
lltat
hIl l r ,lo ma|at r
I4
r1181l
tliar hla
e lluit, it Matinit i
Atltahhem to cabl,e with dial rtadout,h No UlIvea

1111'ia output.
l l
..4
Table XXVIL
Wind DIrection Transmltters

otput
Vilndaoril
0 its 4. 1 Vda'
7. 1.,213, Ifl,
Elie Ilita kon
10 iu1 I00,
tdowdtni
llt1
II Vit'
Table XXVI?)
'
10 iuad up
Uuies low torque potentlometer,
One synchronous motor in vane aaad one in indicator

equipment.
Wind Speed Transmitters
IX1a
I1tia,1i
Output
Io. I111IIWI
Vendorme
95 11 133 vo'tltM.
Blattery: 20. 6
3 ito24 voliN
Remarks
0 5 111w
16
Continuos rotu ry potentlometer puts out wave p,'oporrtional to wind speed,
eI,lgeneratinag
/7,, 12, M0,35,

37, 44, 71,96
fl-c generator generally transmittitng 360 pulses per

revolution in digital output types and A d-r voltage in
voltage types.
SSell-
3,3p,95
Thermocouples are heated with an a-c current. A

chuige in air flow changes the thermocouple temperature and d-c output.
13
Light shlning through a perforated disk on a photo cell

givem a pulee-type signal.
95
Air blowing oJver a heated resistance coil changes the
g'n11rAttlio
Remarks
10., 35, 44, 71, 90

37
i'khy
Aliat'ehlu to cable; howover, can lat adapted to

iodal'tri'al readoiut by manufaac'turesr,
MI. level
resmitance,
138
Table XXV.
Accelerometers
Bridge
Instrument
Type
Range
Accuracy
Resistance
(ohms)
Resolution
Excitation
5 to 28 volts
ac or dc
Strain Gauge
Linear
*0.25g and
up
*1%
120 and 130
Infinite
Potentiometer
Linear
Dual Axis
*0. 5g and up
*0. 5g and up
0.6%
1%
1000 and up
500 and up
Triaxial
*5g with *2g

in yaw
1%
2000 and up
Depends on
0.45%
Varies with system
axis
Varies with
axis
Linear
*0. 5g and up
1%
---
Continuous
Dual Axi,
*lg each
axis
1-1/2%
---
Continuous
Servo balance
nulling amp
Linear and
multiaxis
40.5g
0.01% FS
Piezoelectric
Linear and
multiaxis
*0. 1gand up
*1%
Signal generator LVDT
---
28 volts ac
or dc
nominal
28 volts ac
or dc
nominal
0.001% FS
*15 to 28
vdc
O.Olg max
None
aSee list of manufacturers in Table XXIX.
137
4 to
Dep
exci
300
300
:7.5
1.5 (
8.0
depei
on tr
duce
mate
Table XXV.
Bridge
Resistance
Resolution
Accelerometers
Excitation
Output
(ohms)
Infinite
1000 and up
00 and up
- --
Remarkm
5 to 28 volts
ac or dc
4 to 10 mv/v
0.02g/g
5,11,18, 74,
80
Natural frequency varies with

vendor and sensor. Bonded
strain gauge in four-arm bridge
attached to a cantilever.
0.45%
Depends on
Varies with system
axis
Varies with
axis
Depends on
excitation
0.Olg/g
0.Olg/g
10,27,33,40
40
0.02g/g
33,40
High reliability with low crossaxis error. Usually spring mass

system with potentiometer coil.
Both gas and liquid damped.
Continuous
28 volts ac
or dc
nominal
28 volts ac
or dc
nominal
300 mv/v
0.02g/g
27,33,49,70,
92
300 mv/v
0.015g/g
between
sensitive
axis
33
0.001% FS
*15 to 28
vdc
07.5 vdc max
0.002g/g
36, 47, 82
This is a miniature servo system. A mass movement causes

unbalance of servos. The unbalance is detected and a nulling
amp sends balancing current to
restoring coil.
0. Og max
None
1.5 (min) to
8.0 mv/g,
depending
on transducer
material
3% max
2, 6,18, 29,
36, 47, 56, 57,
75,91
There are three basic designs

used in piezoelectrics: bending,
compression, and shear. The
piezoelectric material is usually
quartz, ceramic, or similar manmade composites. A selfgenerating electrical charge is
the result of pressure being applied to these materials and is
proportional to the force being
applied.
Continuous
---
Vendorse
Error
120 and 130
000 and up
CrossAxis
137
These transducers have high sensitivity. Fluid or gas damped.

This is usually a spring retained
mass which is the core of the
linear variable differential transformer.
Table XXIX.
List of Instrumentation Manufacturers
I.
Aero Research Instrument Dept.

9000 King Street
Franklin Park, Illinois 60131
2.
AGAC-Derritron Inc.
1332 N. Henry St.
Alexandria, Virginia 22314
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
13.
Cardion Electronics
A Unit of General Signal Corporation
Long Island Expressway
Woodbury, New York 11797
Alnor Instrument Company

Division of Illinois Testing Laboratories, Inc.
420 North LaSalle Street
Chicago, Illinois 606110
14.
C-E Electronics, Inc.

363 West Glenside Avenue
Glensidg, Pennsylvania 19038
15.
Celtic Industries, Inc.

14743 Oxnard Street
Van Nuys, California 91401
American Standard Inc.

Monrovia Instrument Department
Advanced Technology Division
1401 5. Shamrock Avenue
Monrovia, California 91016
16.
Climet Instruments, Inc.

1240 Birchwood Dr.
Sunnyvalei, California 94086
17.
B & F Instruments, Inc.

Cornwells Heights, Pennsylvania
19020
Conax Corporation
2300 Walden Avenue
Buffalo, New York 14225
18.
Consolidated Electrodynamics
1400 S. Shamrock Ave.
19.
Continental Sensing Inc.

1960 N. Ruby Street
Melrose Park, Illinois 60160
20.
Control Equipment Corporation

19 Kearney Road
Needham Heights, Massachusetts
02194
21..
Cresent Engineering & Research Co.

5440 North Peck Rd.
El Monte, California
22.
Daytronic Corporation
2875 Culver Avenue
Dayton, Ohio 45429
23.
The Decker Corporation

101 Monument Road
Bola-Cynwyd, Pennsylvania 19004
24.
Dentronics, Inc.
60 Oak Street
Hackensack, New Jersey 07801
25.
W.C. Dillon &Co., Inc.

14620 Keswick Street
B & K Instruments, Inc.

Bruel & Kjaer Precision Instruments
5111 West 164th Street
Beckman & Whitley Inc.
985 San Carlos Ave.
San Carlos, California
Belfort Instrument Company
4 North Central Avenue
Baltimore 2, Maryland
BLH Electronics, Inc.
Subsidiary of Baldwin-LimaHamilton Corporation
42 Fourth Avenue
Waltham, Mamachusetts 02154
10.
Bourns Inc.
Instrument Division
6135 Magjaolia Ave.
Riverside, California 92506
11.
Bytrex, Inc.
223 Crescent Street
Waltham, Massachusetts 02154
12.
Cambridge Systems, Inc.

50 Hunt St.
Newton, Massachusetts 02158
139
Table XXIX. List of Instrumentation Manufacturers (Continued)

26.
Dynisco
A division of Microdot Inc.
39.
20 Southwest Park
Westwood, Massachusetts 02090
27.
Edcllff Instruments
1711 So. Mountain Avenue
28.
ElectoSyn Technology Laboratories,

Inc.
480 Neponset Street
Canton, Massachusetts 02021
29.
High Temperature Instruments Corp.

225 W. Lehigh Ave.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Endevco Laboratories
A Division of Becton, Dickinson
and Company
1075 Stitrlin Road
Mt. View, California 94040
19133
40.
Humphrey Inc.
2805 Canon Street
41.
Hy-Cal Engineering
12105 Los Nietos Road
Santa Fe Springs, California 90670
42.
Instron Corporation
2500 Washington Street
Canton, Massachusetts 02021
43.
Instrumentation and Control Systems,

Inc.
129 Laura Drive
Addison, Illinois 60101

30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
Eon Instrumentation Inc.

15547 Cabrito Road
44.
Kahl Scientific Instrument Corporation

P.O. Box 1166
El Cajon, California 92022
Fairchild Controls
225 Park Avenue
Hicksville, L. I., New York 11802
45.
General Transducer Co.

2961 Corvin Dr.
Santa Clara, California
Kaman Nuclear
A Division of Kaman Aircraft Corp.
1700 Garden of The Gods Road
Colorado Springs, Colorado 80907
46.
Genisco Technology Corporation

18435 Susana Road
Compton, California 90221
Keystone Carbon Company

Thermistor Division
St. Marys, Pennsylvania
47.
Giannini Control Corp.

330 Madison Ave.
New York, New York
Kistler Instrument Corporation

8989 Sheridan Drive
Clarence, New York 14031
48.
Henry J. Green Instruments Inc.

2500 Shames Drive
Westbury, Long Island, New York
Kulite Semiconductor Products, Inc.

1030 Hoyt Avenue
Ridgefield. New Jersey
49.
Gulton Industries Inc.

1644 Whittier Ave., P.O. Box 2176
Larson Aero Development

P.O. Box 135
Concord, California
50.
W.&L.E9. Gurley
514 Fulton Street
Troy, New York 12181
Lebow Associates, Inc.

21820 Wyoming Avenue
Oak Park, Michigan 48237
51.
Lion Research Corporation

60 Bridge St.
Newton, Massachusetts 02195
Hastings-Raydist
Hampton, Virginia 23361
140
Table XXIX. List of Instrumentation Manufacturers (Continued)

52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
Lockheed Electronics Company

Houston Aerospace Systems Div.
Ele ctro-Mechanical Lab.
900 Gemini Avenue
Marin Controls Company
517 Marine View Avenue
Belmont, California 94002
Marlin Manufacturing Corporation
Research Instruments Inc. Division
12404 Triskett Road
Martin-Decker Corporation
1928 South Grand Ave.,
Santa Ana, California 92705
MB Electronics
A Textron Company
P.O. Box 1825
New Haven, Connecticut 06508
64,
Radiation Research Corp.

26 Thayer Road
Waltham, Massachusetts 02154
65.
RdF Corporation
23 Elm Avenue
Hudson, New Hampshire 03051
66.
Relco Products, Inc,

5594 East Jefferson Avenue
Denver, Colorado 80237
67.
Revere Electronic Division

845 North Colony Road
Wallingford, Connecticut 06492
68.
Robinson-Halpern
5 Union Hill Road
West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania
19428
69.
Rosemount Engineering Company

4900 West 78th Street
70.
Schaevitz Engineering
Metrix Instrument Co.
P.O. Box 36501

58.
Microdot Inc.
220 Pasadena Avenue
South Pasadena, California 91030
59.
Minco Products, Inc.

7300 Commerce Lane
60.
Nanmac Corporation
9 - 11 Mayhew St.
Framingham Centre, Massachusetts
01701
61.
Pennsylvania Electronics Technology, Inc.

1397 Frey Road
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15235
62.
Pyro Electric, Inc.

Walkerton, Indiana 46574
63.
U.S. Route 130 & Schaevitz Boulevard

Pennsauken, New Jersey
Pyrometer Company of America,

Inc.
600 East Lincoln Highway
Penndel, Pennsylvania
141
71.
Science Associates Inc.

230 Nassau St.
P.O. Box 230
Princeton, New Jersey 08540
72.
Sensor Technology and Instrument

Division
Scientific Advances, Inc.
1400 Holly Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 43212
73.
Servonic Instruments, Inc.

1644 Whittier Avenue
74.
Setra Inc.
12 Huron Drive
Natick, Massachusetts
01760
75.
Shure Bros. Inc.

222 Hartrey Ave.
Evanston, Illinois 60204
76.
Solid State Instruments, Inc.

2082 Lincoln Avenue
Altadena, California 91001
Table XXIX.
List of Instrumentation Manufacturers (Continued)
77.
H.E. Sostman & Co.

347 East Lincoln Ave.
Box 60
Cranford, New Jersey 07016
78.
Spartan Southwest, Inc.

Subsidiary of Sparton Corporation
9621 Coors Road, N.W.
P.O. Box
1 84
88.
TraJsducers, Inc.
11971 E. Rivera Road
Santa Fe Springs, California 90670
89.
Trans-Sonics, Inc.
P.O. Box 326
Lexington, Massachusetts 02173
90.
Tylan Corp.
91,
Unholtz-Dickie Corporation
2994 Whitney Avenue
Hamden, Connecticit 06518
92.
The United States Time Corporation

Eastern Sales: 375 Park Avenue
New York, New York
10022
Western Sales: 348 Tejon Place
Palos Verdes, California 90274
Verst Therm, Inc.
51 Toledo Street
Farmingdale, New York 11735
Albuquerque, New Mexico 87103

79.
Standard Controls
2401 South Bayview
80.
Statham Instruments Inc.

Aerospace Division
12401 West Olympic Blvd.
Los Angeles, California 90064
81.
Streeter Amet
Grayslake, Illinois 60030
82.
Systron-Donner Corporation
888 Galindo Street
Concord, California 94520
93.
83.
Teledyne Systems
Control Systems Division
200 N. Aviation Blvd.
El Segundo, California 90245
94.
95.
HarvardsDepon,Depot Road
Road
Harvard
Harvard, Massachusetts 01451
96.
85.
Thermal Systems Inc.

13920 S. Broadway
97.
86.
Thermo Electric
Saddle Brook, New Jersey 07662
87.
Thermo-Systems Inc.
2500 Cleveland Avenue North
St. Paul, Minnesota 55113
98.
99.
4203 Spencer St.

Torrance, California 90503
The Waters Corporation

P.O. Box 529
Rochester, Minnesota 55901
West Coast Research Corp.
2100-02 South Sepulveda Blvd.
Westberg Manufacturing Company
3400 Westach Way
Sonoma, California 95476
Whittaker Corporation
Instrument Systems Division
12838 Saticoy Ave.
N. Hollywood, California 91605
Winsco Data Sensors
1533 26th Street
Santa Monica, California 90404
Yellow Springs Instrument Co., Inc.
Yellow Springs, Ohio 45387
142
rtzzsJr
APPENDIX I
AEROSTATICS
1.
INTRODUCTION
A tethered balloon is first of all an aerostat.
Almost
without exception the size of a balloon is determined by the

number of cubic feet of lifting
gas required to lift
the balloon,
payload, tether line and "free lift"
to a given altitude in an
assumed calm, or zero wind condition.
Thus, aerostatics is the
first
basic science used in the analysis of balloon performance.
The simple perfect gas law is:
Pressure x Volume - gas zonstant x temperature
2.
STATIC LIFT
Archimedes made the observation that a body immersed in a

fluid is acted upon by a buoyant force equal to the weight of
All
the fluid displaced.
The force acts vertically upward.
problems in aerostatics reduce to this principle.
The lighter-than-air vehicle derives lift
primarily through
the principle of buoyancy; it can stay aloft although motionless
with respect to its
surrounding air.
This lift
is termed "static'"
An airplane must have motion relative to the air; a helicopter,
although stationary, nevertheless depends on the motion of the
rotor blades.
Lift generated by motion is "dynamic".
Many aerostats
are capable of generating appreciable amounts of dynamic
lift
in addition to the static
lift.
Aerodynamic coefficient
curves are presented at the end of this appendix.
3.
SPECIFIC LIFT
Counteracting the buoyant force is the total weight of the

body which, in the case of an aerostat, includes the weight of
the gas with which it is inflated.
Tethered balloons have the
tensile force (and weight) of the mooring line, also.
If a small
balloon of one cubic foot volume is assumed, the buoyant force
equals the weight of gas plus balloon weight, and the equation
may be written:
wa = wg + wT
(4)
where,
wa
weight of the one cubic foot of displaced air
wg - weight of the one cubic foot of gas

143
and
If
Wg is
total weight of the balloon including any bit of

weight that may need to be attached to the balloon
to keep it floating, without rising or descending;
i.e.,
to keep it "in equilibrium".
wT -
transposed,
wa
the equation becomes
wg - wT
(5)
coefficient, or speis variously called the lift

and (wa - w)
For "standard day" conditions of
of the gas.
cific or unit lift
Hg, wa - 0.0765 lb/cu ft and for pure helium
590F, and 29.92 in.
becomes 0.0659
Hence, the specific lift
w - 0.0106 lb/cu ft.
11/cu ft or roughly one ounce/cubic foot.
In actual practice the gas is never 100 per cent pure and a
Humidity has a minor effect.
"standard day" is an exception.
balloon or airHelium may be 99 per cent pure after the initial
ship inflation and will drop slowly thereafter since air passes
from the outside to inside through the envelope material at the
same time that the lifting
gas passes in the opposite direction.
The rate of purity decay depends upon the envelope material, conA "purity meter" is used to determine the
struction, and age.
gas condition.
and/or
In service the drop in purity depends upon facilities
In peacetime operations of Navy airships
available helium supply.
A supply of fresh or
were generally excellent.
the facilities
purified gas was available at the main bases and "purging" was
This consisted of adding high purity helium at
rather frequent.
the top of the envelope and simultaneously withdrawing impure
The withdrawn gas was processed through
helium from the bottom.
As a result the helium in Navy airships
a purifier and stored.
was kept at an average purity of at least 95 to 96 per cent and,
value of 0.063
since the impurity was mostly air, a specific lift
lb/cu ft for a standard day was selected as a basis for performance estimates in recent years.
Since the unit weight of the air and gas, wa and wg, are
similarly affected by temperature and pressure, it follows that
their difference,
wa - w 2
may be expressed:
cl
similarly affected.
, is
-I
lc
-,(6)
Or the equation
where the temperatures and pressures are absolute values.

ce
unit lixt
at pressure P2,
144
and temperature T2
ci
unit lift
at pressure Pl,
and temperature T1
In the preceding paragraph the temperatures and pressures of

the air and gas were assumed equal.
The temperatures are frequently dissimilar and it is then necessary to apply the appropriate values to Wa and wg, individually and before subtraction,
to obtain cl.
Any temperature differential between the air and
gas is commonly called superheat - positive when the gas is
warmer, and negative when colder.
As a rule of thumb in practical
operations, five degrees of superheat will change the gas lift
one
per cent.
AT
5R
Any lighter-than-air gas in a container but exposed to

atmospheric pressure at the bottom will have a pressure gradient
increasing from the bottom to the top - the opposite of water in
a pail.
But the average pressure is only a few inches of water,
compared to the atmospheric pressure of 34 feet of water, and is
ordinarily neglected in lift
estimates.
4.
HUMIDITY
Humidity has the primary effect of decreasing the unit weight

*of the air, Wa, since the molecular weight of water vapor is less
Sthan that of air. Of course, the less the weight of the displaced
'air, the less the buoyancy.
From the law of partial pressures the
effect of humidity is applied as a subtraction of the vapor pressure from the barometric pressure and, therefore, the correction
requires measurements of relative humidity and temperature.
The
corrections for saturated vapor, (100 per cent humidity), are
shown in the following table and for any other humidity are proportionally less.
TABLE XXX
WATER VAPOR PRESSURE AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE
AIR TEMPERATURE
OF
VAPOR PRESSURE,
Pv - IN.
0
10
20
32
40
50
60
70
80
90
0.0375
.0628
.1027
.1806
.2478
.3624
.5214
.7386
1 0314
1.421
145
100% R.H.
HG
AIR TEMPERATURE
OF
VAPOR PRESSURE,
Pv - IN.
100% R.H.
HG
1.931
2 594
3.444
100
110
120
A slight discrepancy is now introduced.

It has been stated
that the impurity mixed in the gas is always assumed to be air which,
in nature, is a mixture of gases including water vapor (reference
Section IV).
It has been observed that the amount of water vapor
within an aerostat varies, after some lag, with the change of
humidity in the ambient air.
But it is not convenient to measure
the amount in the helium and so it is assumed that the same relative humidity correction for the air weight is applicable to the
helium weight.
Therefore, whenever the humidity is to be included
in the estimate for specific (unit) lift,
it appears as a correction to both the air and helium and in the simple form of
(P - 0 Pv).
where
atmospheric pressure, in.

Hg
relative humidity
Pv - vapor pressure at 100% humidity,
in.
Hg
Many estimates omit the humidity factor entirely since other

inaccuracies, or unknowns, may far over-shadow the humidity effect.
5.
SIMPLIFIED LIFT EQUATION
Taking the unit weights of air and helium for standard conditions, applying the temperature, pressure, and humidity corrections as discussed, and including a factor for purity, the
specific lift
expression becomes:
O
ci
where
x L.0.
- 0 PvVp (7)
0 = purity
wa
wt/cu ft air at 29.92 in
and 59F -
.0765
lb/cu ft
0
w
wt/cu ft He at 29.92 in.
Ta
absolute
and 59OF -
.0106
lb/cu ft
temperature of air, std - 460 + 59 - 519OR
0
Ta
p
= absolute temperature of air, given - 460 + ta

- atmospheric pressure, in.
Hg
- relative humidity
Pv
ta
- water vapor pressure at saturation,

- ambient temperature, degrees F
146
in.
Hg
standard atmospheric pressure - 29.92 in.
Po
- absolute temperature of He,
Tg
M absolute temperature of He,
If Ta and T
reduces to:
ci
are equal,
(i.e.,
8
, 1 4 2 -T-
(P -
standard - Ta
given
no superheat),
0
Hg
-
519R
- 460 + tg
the equation
Pv)
This result would be sufficiently accurate for practically all

Even with the humidity effect (0 Pv)
engineering calculations.
This
eliminated the value suffices for most proposal estimates.
further simplified form
c
1.142
has often been presented in

for helium.
6.
(8)
e
graphical form as shown in
Figure 25
ELABORATED LIFT EQUATION

different equation for the specific lift
A still
of helium
This equation has been used in the evaluation of careful

exists.
weigh-offs of airships, fully inflated with helium, from which -
with a supposedly accurate actual weight - the actual exact
Weight engineers have used the folvolume is to be calculated.

lowing equation in such instances:
+ 3.5
(p + pg
(p - +.38ta 0 Pv) _ .18324 459.7
S[_1.3245 459.7
+ tg
wherein 8
p
relative humidity
Pv
water vapor pressure,
Pg
ta
tg
7.
purity
atmospheric pressure,
gas pressure, gauge,

air temperature, OF
gas temperature,
in.
Hg
saturated,
in.
0 pv)1(
J 9)
in.
Hg
Hg
OF
TOTAL STATIC LIFT
of one cubic foot of gas has been disSo far only the lift
of a balloon of any volume is:
The total static lift
cussed.
Lift
Volume of gas (Y) x specific lift

147
of gas (cl)
8,
EUPIRIAT
The avaiuatil, of superhat may be obtained by the inclusion

of air and gai temperatures in the foregoing formulas.
Even
mimpler, the rule of thumb in that each 5oF of superheat (t)
This holds only as long as the
changes the Mtatic lift 1% (*).
balloon is partially Inflatod, and is much less once the balloon
is full %nd the expallmiun causes the gas to be released through
the overprossure valve, The difference ts simply explained by
the basic formula for lift; i.e., total weight of displaced air,
WS, minus total weight of gas, WKS In the partially inflated
balloon increase in gas tomperature increases the gas volume, and
of' air. Since Wg remain
so displaces a greater volume and w Iht
erIIcally,
constant, Wa - Wa must incroase,
Li
where.
(Note:
"--
1(
(10)
T12 a final temperature of gas

initial temperature of gas (also - Tair
Tg
We
a initial weight of displaced air.
When the
causes gas to
displaced air
by the amount
assumed,
where W
"
balloon is full and a rise

be valved, the opposite is
remains constant while the
valved, Constant pressure
in gas
true weight
within
constant)
temperature
the weight of
of gas decreases
the balloon being
- initial total weight of gas in balloon.
In this case the weight of the helium-air mixture for Wg1

The presence of only 5% by weight of
must be used.
air in the mixture makes it 30% heavier than pure helium.)
148
PARTIAL
INFL.
Thus, if the gain in lift

with superheat for a balloon
partially and then fully
inflated were plotted it
FULL
INFL.]
AL
would be similar to Figure 75.
Actually the relative slopes

of the lines represent the
weight of the air and of the
inflation gas...
DEGREES OF SUPERHEAT
FIGURE 75.
9.
EFFECT OF SUPERHEAT
ON STATIC LIFT
EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
The effect of altitude is nothing more than the combined

effects of pressure and temperature which have already been
It is seldom possible to know in advance the exact
treated.
values of these at any altitude and time; and the relationships of
properties at one altitude to those at another are really not constant, particularly at lower altitudes. Nevertheless, "standard"
values have been agreed upon for temperatures, pressures, and the
corresponding air densities at altitudes up to several hundred
thousand feet. These are tabulated and the ratio of the density,
p, at any altitude to that at sea level,p 0 , is usually given.
This is a very convenient ratio for the engineer. This ratio
applies to the density of a cubic foot of the lifting gas as well
as the ambient air and, therefore, it applies to the difference of
the densities, or to the unit lift. Some of the values are given
in Table XXXI along with the unit lift, on the basis of 0.063 lb/
cu ft at sea level, as previously explained (a purity of 95.5%).
The problem in reaching the high altitudes, such as 100,000
feet, is quite evident - the density and unit lift are only 1.4%
of those at sea level.
149
TABLE XXXI
"DENSITY RATIO AND UNIT LIFT AS A FUNCTION OF ALTITUDE

HELIUM - 95.5% PURITY
ALTITUDE
ft
PO
Sea Level
1,000
2,000
5,000
10,000
20,000
50,000
100,000
1.000
.971
.943
.862
.738
.533
.153
.014
UNIT LIFT
lb/cu ft
.063
.0612
.0594
.0543
.0465
.0336
.0096
.0009
Since the densities of air and a gas vary with altitude

according to the above table, the specific volumes must vary in
the inverse manner.
In other words, one cubic foot of gas at
sea level will expand to
1
- 1.16 cu ft
0.-
for instance.
at 5,000 feet,
And, since it has been seen that the specific lift

is
reduced by the same factor of 0.862, the product of c x V is
constant for all
altitudes for a given aerostat if gas is neither
added nor valved.
Simpl%
ived:
cx
2
Hence,
POV
(13)
xV
22
10.
(12)
P0
(14)
NONSTANDARD CONDITIONS
Problems often require consideration of conditions other

than those described by the "standard atmosphere".
Interest may
be in a balloon launch altitude other than sea level and temperatures other than "standard".
There are tables for a "hot day
atmosphere", starting with a sea level temperature of 10.0;OF, but
these, too, are rather special (MIL-STD-210A).
Consider, for instance, that the problem requires the launch
altitude to be at 5,000 feet above sea level and at a temperature
of 95 0 F.
The first
requirement is a "standard day" table in which
150
I-
temperatures are given for various altit
lea an well as densities.
It frequently happens that estimators make the error of

(Note:
Of course,
correcting for density ratios and temperatures.
standard density ratios have the standard temperature effects
But to digress from the standard temperature,
already included.
At 5,000 feet:
an estimator must know -hat that temperature is.)
Standard temperature - 41F
Po
.86167
With the temperature of 95 0 F at 5,000 feet,

standard day pressure becomes:
460 + 41
x .86167 -
Sthe density ratio at
.7723
coefficient of 0.063 lb/cu ft

Therefore, with a helium lift
sea level, at 5,000 feet and 95OF at that altitude, the lift
coefficient would be:
.7723 x .063 11.
at
.04865 lb/cu ft
SUMMARY
Most aerostatic problems involve only three principal factors;

namely, the density of the air surrounding the aerostat, the
density of the gas within the aerostat, and the volume of this
respective temperature
gas.
Each of these is influenced by its
Altitude as a
and pressure and, to a lesser extent, by humidity.
The temperatures
numerical quantity never enters a calculation.
and pressures at an altitude may have been measured, assumed, or
case Standard Atmosphere Tables are
In the latter
calculated.
normally used in which the density ratios are equal to the ratios
of the products of pressure and temperature ratios.
Finally,
a few of the more common rules may be given.
(1)
Lift of an aerostat varies with the volume

other factors remain constant.
if all
(2)
Lift of a given volume of gas increases if

barometric pressure increases and vAce versa.
(3)
Lift of a given volume of gas decreases if

atmospheric temperature increases and vice
versa.
(4)
The higher the atmospheric humidity the

less the lift.
(5)
There is
no change in equilibrium if
the
Was is free to change its volume a-n TTSras'-an-- -aTr tem per'Cres and pressures
change by like amounts.
151
(6)
An aerostat in equilibrium at one altitude

will be in equilibrium at any other altitude
providing no weight is lost or gained and
the superh at value is not changed.
(7)
Barometric pressure will decrease about one

inch Hg for every 1,000 feet of ascent in
the lower atmosphere.
(8)
Atmospheric temperature will decrease approximately 10F for every 300 feet of ascent,
or 3 1/30 for every 1,000 feet ascent.
(9)
Gas volume and density are each changed, but

oppositely, about 1 per cent for every 5OF
change in gas temperature, at constant pressure.
(10)
Lift is changed about 1 per cent for each

5OF difference in temperature between gas
and air if the gas is free to expand but
below the pressure height of the aerostat.
AERODYNAMICS
1.
GENERAL
The preceding discussion has dealt with the aerostatics of

lighter-than-air vehicles.
Figure 76 presents the lift
and drag
coefficients for three tethered balloon shapes,
where:
Pt
Dynamic Lift-
Drag
C /C
v2~ (c)
Py2
7- (CL)
2/3
V,
and
2/3
The dynamic lift

to drag ratio, L/D is
for a given angle of attack; however,
giveR as:
Net Buoyant Lift + Dynamic Lift

Drag
152
equal to the ratio

the total L/D ratio is
o
(Ltotal
2,4
2.0
--
V IYEEE
ALLOON
1.6
"
.,,IS
0.4
000
-0.4
1.4
--
1.2
,1.0-
0.6
0-5
15
10
20
25
3I0
35
ANGLE OF ATTACK (DEGREES)
CLASSC
FIGURE 76
LIFT AND DRAG COEFFICIENTS VERSUS
ANGLE OF ATTACK FOR VARIOUS BALLOON CONFIGURATIONS
'I0.
II
II
I;
153
L1
APPENDIX II
HELIUM FACT SHEETS
The following summary is to familiarize the reader with
basic data regarding helium,
It covers, in capsule form, holiumh
properties, history, distribution, uses, consumption, production,
transportation and conservation.
This appendix is excerpted from information prepared by the
Helium Centennial Committee from Government and Industry.
1,
SUMMARY
Helium is the second lightest of the elements,

It is colorleso,
odorless, tasteless, non-toxic material occurring in a
gaseous state at all but extreme temperatures and pressures.
Helium is
cal activity.
inert, that is, it in completely lacking in chemi.

It will not burn nor explode,
Helium has the lowest liquefaction temperature (boiling

point) of any known substance - approximately -452 0 F.
Helium is found in trace amounts in air and in most natural
gases.
In most instances the helium content is less than a few
tenths of one per cent.
In some areas, large volumes of natural
gas contain more than 0.4 per cent, but generally less than 1 per
cent.
In a few instances, the helium content exceeds 2 per cent.
The highest content observed is about 9 per cent.
Helium is extracted from natural gas by a cryogenic process,
whereby the entire gas stream is cooled until most of it liquefies.
The helium, still
gaseous, is separated, and the liquid
natural gas is then regasified for transmission to market.
Annual present helium usage in
billion standard cubic feet.
this country is nearly one
Except for a small plant in Canada, the United States is the

only nation in the free world that extracts helium in commercial
quantities.
2.
HISTORY
J. Norman Lockyer, an English astrophysicist, is credited

with the discovery of helium in 1868.
He discovered new spectral
lines in the chromosphere of the sun.
Onnes, in 1911, discovered superconductivity.
Mercury at
the temperature of liquid helium had no electrical resistance.
154
d".
Helium for laboratory use in tho United States before World

War I was extracted from natural gas at a cost equivalent to
$2,000 per cubic foot,
Production of the first
helium gas in North America took
place at a small plant near Hamilton, Ontario, in 1918.
Under
the direction of Professor John C. McLennan, Canadian physicist,
of the University of Toronto, its
purpose was to produce helium
for observation balloons.
In 1918, three helijm extrrntion plants were constructed in
the United States under the technical direction of the Bureau of
Mines - - two at Fort Worth and one at Petrolia, Texas.
These
plants extracted 200,000 cubic feet of helium - - slaced for
observation balloons in France.
At the war's end, the plants
were closed, and a larger extraction plant was constructed north
of Fort Worth in 1921 under sponsorship of the U. S. Navy.
Linde
Air Products Company was the contractor for design, installation,
and operation.
In December, 1921, the Navy's C-7 made the first
airship flight from U. S. Navy Air Station, Hampton,
Bolling Field, District of Columbia.
helum-filled
Virginia, to
In January, 1923, Professor (Sir) John C. McLennan, liquefied helium at the University of Toronto, the first
time it was
done on the American Continent.
On July 1, 1925, by an Act of Congress, the Government's
helium program was placed under the Bureau of Mines.
Work by the Bureau of Mines, in 1925, showed the usefulness
of helium as a breathing mixture with oxygen for deep sea divers.
Helium-oxygen mixtures were first
used by Navy divers In the
salvage of the U. S. Submarine S-51 in July, 1926, from 132 feet
of water.
She had sunk September 25, 1925, with loss of all
hands.
On June 25, 1926, Onnes first
solidified helium in his laboratory.
He reached a temperature of -457.5 0 F, but helium
remained a liquid.
Solidification was accomplished by applying
pressure to the liquid helium.
The popularity of airships hit its
peak in the 1930's, following the global passenger and freight-carrying feats of
Germany's giant dirigible Hindenburg and by the nationwide
flights of the U.S.S. Akron and Macon.
The crash of three
American dirigibles - - the Shenandoah in 1923, the Akron in 1933,
and the Macon in 1935 - - set back the American dirigible program.
These crashes, followed by the hydrogen-filled Hindenburg fire on
May 6, 1937, put an end to the dirigible program in the United
States.
155
Congress authorized sale of helium from Bureau plants to

industry and for scientific and miedical purposes in L937, and
also airected the Bureau to purchase the Helium Company's plants
and properties.
In 1939, helium-oxygen mixtures were used by Navy divers to
raise the U. S. Submarine Squalus from 240 feet of water where
she sank off Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
Of the 59 man crew, 33
were saved.
In 1942, the Amarillo Helium Plant was expanded to meet
World War II needs for helium.
Helium-filled blimps were built
until i5 squadrons were in service for antisubmarine patrol and
to escort ship convoys.
At the peak of operations, Navy airships patrolled an area
of three million square miles off the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts and in the Mediterranean Sea.
Between 1942 and 1945, the
airships escorted 89 thousand ships loaded with millions of
troops and billions in military equipment and supplies without
the loss of a single ship.
3.
HELIUM'S USES
Estimated use of helium (gas and liquid) during 1966, in the

United States, Canada, and countries of import, shown as percentage of total of 954 million cubic feet.
Use is specifically
for gas, unless LHe (liquid He 4 ) is noted.
Per cent
of total
(1)
(2)
Launch vehicles and rockets (NASA

programs)
and Air Force

56
a.
As an "ullage& medium, to displace fuels and

oxidizers withdia%,n from storage tanks or
forced into the combustion chambers by helium
pressure
b.
To purge fuel and oxidizer system in

support work for iaunch
c.
LHe - to pre-cool pumps on liquid-hydrogenfueled space vehicles, to increase payload

and accuracy
Metallurgical
a.
ground-
applications
14
In shielded-arc welding of magnesium,

titanium, aluminum, copper, staitless
and other metals
156
steel,
Per cent
of total
(3)
b.
To provide an inert atmosphere for growing

crystals of germanium and silicon in
transistor and diode manufacture
c.
In furnaces for metal treating, and production of titanium and other metals
d.
To sparge dissolved gases from molten metals

during purification
Nuclear and atomic energy applications

program)
(AEC
12
a.
In high temperature, gas-rooled reactors

as a heat-transfer, protective atmosphere,
and coolant medium for nuclear reactors
b.
As artifically-accelerated
projectiles for
nuclear reactions
c.
(4)
LHe and LHe 3 -
for bubble chambers
Miscellaneous
a.
For detecting leaks in high-vacuum equipment and pressure containers
b.
In analytical chemistry,
in chromatography
c.
LHe - to provide an environment and

necessary cooling for superconducting
apparatus of all
types - magnets,
dynamos, transformers, gyroscopes, etc.
d.
In mixtures with other gases,

neon, for lasers
e.
as a carrier gas
For gas-lubricated bearings
especially
in
high-speed
photography
f.
In luminous signs,
advertising
g.
In optical instruments,
between lenses
h.
In geological dating
of "neon"
to fill
157
type,
for
space
Per cent
________________________________________
i.
(5)
(6)
(7)
of total
To provide an inert environment for

preservation of historical documents
As a lifting
gas
a.
Weather balloons,
research
b.
Research balloons, for astronomical and

astrophysical studies, such as highaltitude telescopic photographs of the
sun, etc.
c.
A few commercially
airships
d.
"Kite-type" balloons to move timber in

logging operations
e.
Toy balloons, including larger balloons

for advertisting
f.
A few balloons for sport flying
Aerodynamic
in
meteorological
owned non-rigid
and space research
a.
In wind tunnels and shock tubes to study

design of airfoils,
etc.
b.
LHe - for cooling masers in

astronomy
c.
LHe - to produce high vacuum systems by

"cryopumping" techniques for space
simulation chambers
radio
Low-temperature research
a.
LHe and LHe 3 - in research aimed at

reaching absolute zero
b.
LHe 3 - to provide refrigeration in the

region 0.3 to 3 0 K for any purpose where
this temperature is needed (such as the
storage of free radicals)
c.
Life and LHe 3 - in theoretical studies

of the liquid state, to explain superfluidity and to provide fundamental
information on systems following Bose
and Fermi statistics
l5g
Per cent
of total
(8)
4.
Medical applicaLions
a.
In mixtures with oxygen, as a breathing

atmosphere, in the treatment of asthma and
respiratory diseases, and in the recovery
room for "easy" breathing
b.
In mixtures with oxygen, as a breathing

atmosphe.'e, in space and oceanographic
programs
c.
Same as b:
for divers to prevent
"nitrogen narcosis" (rapture of the deep)
d.
LHe - to quick-freeze living cells to

promote their viability in cancer and
other medical research
HELIUM EXTRACTION,
PURIFICATION
The extraction of the helium constituent of natural gas is

done by making the mixture progressively colder until almost
everything turns to liquid, excepting helium, which remains a
gas.
This cooling is done by repeated cycles of' compression,
removal, and expansion of the natural gas, until at -275 0 F,
everything has been condensed as a liquid except a gaseous
helium-nitrogen mixture called crude helium.
heat
The crude helium is then purified through activated charcoal

cooled with liquid nitrogen.
The purified helium - - designated Grade A - - has a purity
of 99.995 per cent, or maximum impurities of 50 parts per million.
5.
TRANSPORTATION
Helium is shipped as a compressed gas in

one of three ways:
(1)
(2)
(3)
pressure vessels
in specially constructed railway tank cars

in specially constructed highway semitrailers
(see Figure 77)
in standard gas cylinders
159
FIGURE 77. MODERN HELIUM TRACTOR TRAILER (128,230
CUBIC FEET)
The Federal Government owns the only railway tank cars; the
active fleet totals 239.
An average tank car has a capacity of
about 275,000 cubic feet of helium when filled to a pressure to
4,000 psig.
The tank cars are made o1 multiple forged-steel
pressure vessels, and have a net weight of about 240,000 pounds.
When filled to capacity, the helium cargo increases the car
weight only by about 2,900 pounds.
Highway semitrailers have capacities ranging up to 150,000
cubic feet of helium, with filling
pressures of about 2,600 psig.
Construction is similar to railway tank cars.
Some semitrailers
are dusigned for "piggyback" service, i.e.,
for long-distance
transport on railway flat
cars.
A "standard" cylinder has a capacity of about 240 cubic feet
of helium at a pressure of up to 2,400 psig.
Liquid helium is shipped in "dewars" of various sizes and in
special, insulated over-the-road semitrailers.
Dewars contain
from 25 to 7,000 liters
of liquid helium.
They can be flown to
destination, transported by truck or rail. The capacity of some
semitrailers in liquid helium transportation ,jervice is 10,000
gallons each, which is equivalent to about one million cubic feet
of gaseouS helium.
6.
RESERVES
Ninety-three per cent of the western world's known reserves

of helium are located within a 300-mile radius of Amarillo, Texas.
It is found as a constituent of natural gas.
The Texas and
160
Oklahoma Panhandles,
<
together with northeastern Arizona,
north-
western New Mexico, and Kansas are the best known sources of
supply.
All present helium plants are located in these states.
Helium is also present as a constituent of natural gas in Canada,
and in a few other parts of the world, but these sources are
minor in importance compared to the volume available in the
United States.
Other natural gas fields containing helium in the United
States are known to exist in Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona,
New Mexico, Utah, and Aichigan.
American gas fields contain a
known total reserve of about 200 billion cubic feet of helium in
concentrations greater than .3 per cent.
The world capacity to convert gaseous helium to liquid
helium is about 12.2 million liters
per year, equiivalent to 325
million cubic feet of 99.995 per cent gaseous heiium.
In the United States, although one natural gas source containing 8 per cent helium has been discovered, the average
percentage is much lower, generally ranging less than 1 per cent.
In Canada, the richest helium bearing gases have been found in
Saskatchewan, where the natural gas sources contain about 2 per
cent helium.
Helium used in other areas of the free world is imported
Current exports from the
from the United States or Canada.
United States are at the rate of about 12 million cubic feet a
year.
Major purchasers are Canada, the United Kingdom, France,
Japan, and West Germany.
161
SFrom
i
7.
CONSUMPTION
the time it
was discovered in 1868,
to the outbreak of
World War I, helium was extracted in only a few scientific laboratories, and the world's total production did not exceed 100
S
cubic
The cost was $2,000 to $3,000 per cubic
feet.
foot.
By contrast, the volume consumed in the United States in

1966, which does not include the volume extracted and stored in
the Bureau of Mines conservation program, was 954 million cubic
feet.
The Bureau of Mines sale price to commercial customers
was 3 1/2 cents per cubic foot.
A clearer picture of helium's
rate of growth can best be obtained from these Bureau of Mines
helium consumption figures.
Year
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
By 1970,
Cubic Feet
(000,000)
81
109
145
158
190
236
267
310
Year
Cubic Feet
(000,000)
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
352
375
475
551
630
662
713
760
954
consumption is expected to reach 1.2 billion cubic
feet, a 60 per cent increase over 1965.

8.
CONSERVATION
A helium conservation program was authorized by the Helium

Act Amendments of 1960 (Public Law 86-777), and subsequent
legislation established the annual funding level of the program
at $47.5 million.
Helium is extracted
The concept of the program is simple.
from helium-bearing natural gas after the gas is produced but
before it reaches its ultimate market.
This helium is then
gathered from various plants and stored underground in a partially depleted natural gas-bearing formation in the Cliffside gas
When needed, the helium will be
field near Amarillo, Texas.
withdrawn, purified, and sold to federal agencies or commercial
customers.
Concurrently with the construction of' the five plants, the
Bureau of Mines built a 425-mile pipeline system, Lieing the
plants - - as well as the Bureau-owned plants at Otis,
Keyes, Oklahoma; Exell, Texas; and Amarillo, Texas,

(See map, Figure78)
Cliffside gas field.
162
Kansas;
to the
SGOVERNMENT-OWNED
COSEBMVN
PLANTS
PRIVATE INDUSTRY CONS. PLANT
NORTHERN HELEX CO.,BUSHTON, KANSAS
CITIES SERVICE HELEX, INC.,ULYSSES, KANSAS

NATIONAL HELIUM CORP., LIBERAL, KANSAS
PHILLIPS PET. CO., SHERMAN, TEXAS
PRIVATE INDUSTRY PLANT
SHELIUM-BEARING
UP3
N
GAS FIELDS
PHILLIPS PET. CO., DUMAS, TEXAS

KANSAS REFINING HELIUM CO., OTIS, KANSAS
P2S ALAMO CHEM. CO., ELKHART, KANSAS
@_
I
OTIS, KANSAS
KEYES, OKLAHOMA
EXELL PLANT, MASTERSON, TEXAS
NAVAJO PLANT, SHIPROCK, NEW MEXICO
FIGURE 78.
KERR-McGEE CORP., NAVAJO, ARIZONA

CANADIAN HELIUM, LTD., SWIFT CURRENT,
NSASKATCHEWAN (NOT SHOWN)
04
HELIUM CONSERVATION MAP
First delivery of conservation hilium occurred in December,

By mid-1967, nearly 15 billion cabic feet of helium had
1962.
been purchased by the Bureau of Mines and stored in the Cliffaide
field.
The Bureau of Mines acquired the Cliffside field in 1929, as
a source of helium-bearing gas to supply the Bureau's Amarillo
serves this function as well as being
It still
Helium Plant.
utilized as a storage reservoir for the conservation of helium.
163
MOMo~
m
0
00.
0; CIO;
.;
ccc
F4
c~oo
0000
*04
oI
pq
'c'
P-4
N
(7) m M
wo
vIInT
0 m
Ch
M0
co-l
4)
14
0
k
P4~ F-4
0
011
v0 v
mo
coCCo
CO
C;f
4J
00
Vs
014
I
co
df40
v
P0 41
t 0
U)I C.)* 0
01iA
a
IIk o
0 ow w
.~'(A
00
04
Si~U
U)
0U)
P-4~
A4-
04
ef
CV
4
cUU c i~c~U
C9
UJ
06
11
M)4 N ad a4
XC
0 P-44U
$4~~
~
P-4
0
( n rq --0
(D
ujJ
U -
0 Cd V
(AU)
(530
co
*"
w0to
4Jq
.
00.
4
Cl
11644
1FoL
-
.-
49
tv
Prior to the conservation program, estimates indicate that

more than 6 billion cubic feet of helium was being wasted each
year when helium-bearing natural gas was produced and consumed.
Helium use is expected to increase to about 2 billion cubic
The present program is expected to meet
feet a year by 1985.
year 2000.
the
beyond
these needs
A unique feature of the federal helium program is its fiThe program is financed by a special fund, into which
nancing.
all revenue from the sale of helium and related activities by
The fund is supplemented as
the Bureau of Mines is deposited.
The
necessary by borrowings from the United States Treasury.
authorizing legislation provides that all monies borrowed from
the Treasury be repaid, with interest, in not lore than 35 years.
The Bureau of Mines sales price of helium, applicable to both
federal agencies and private companies, is designed to generate
sufficient revenue over the time period to repay the Treasury
loans.
165
iCt
~4
~g.4
m
0
t%
-~
v1
V WE
to
-
4)
00
0)(7
0
00
%
t-
04
-M.
4.4.
aa
400
o4 N
160
APPENDIX III
TETHERED BALLOON SITES
1.
GENERAL
The selection of an area from which to fly a tethered balloon

will depend on the function or mission of the balloon system.
This appendix will point out some of the fundamental considerations.
The appendix also includes a listing of a number of areas
which are restricted to air traffic and could with proper authorization and scheduling permit a tethered balloon flight within
their boundaries.
Permission to list
these areas was granted at
the time of publication and may change in the future.
In all
cases the user must notify the responsible person or office well
in advance of the proposed balloon flight to obtain proper authorization and scheduling.
2.
CLIMATOLOGY
Before any balloon flight area is selected, a knowledge of

the operating environment is essential.
The minimum required data
includes wind conditions and the temperatures over an extended
period of time.
The data should cover not only ground conditions
but also conditions for all altitudes through which the tethered
balloon will be operated.
Most of the climate information can be
taken from Weather Bureau reports.
In some areas special problems
may exist, necessitating a specific study of climate information.
3.
REQUIRED PHYSICAL CONDITION OF LAUNCH SITE

The minimum requirements for a launch site are a bedding down
area, winch area and an area for either a permanent or mobile

supply of lifting gas.
The area should, when possible, allow the
balloon to head into the prevailing wind.
When practical, the
bedding down area can be behind a large hill or buildings at a
distance to afford some weather protection.
4.
PERTINENT FAA REGULATIONS
Launch sites for tethered balloons must meet with the

approval of the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA).
The FAA is
responsible for keeping to a minimum the number of hazards to
which the aircraft using this airspace are subjected.
In order to obtain FAA approval to conduct a test, three
different approaches are possible: Meet all existing FAA regulations; meet as many existing regulations as feasible and obtain
waivers from FAA on those which cannot be met; choose for the
launch site an area over which the airspace is restricted through
the highest required altitude.
167
In every case approval must be obtained from the resident

surface authority.
Federal Aviation Regulations pertaining to tethered balloons
can be found in "Federal Aviation Regulations", Part 101, Subpart
The regulations govern the operB, Moored Balloons and Kites.
ation in the United States of any balloon that is moored to the
surface of the earth or an object thereon and has a diameter of
more than 6 feet or a gas capacity of more than 115 cubic feet.
If the balloon is to be operated within a restricted area, only
requirements of section 101.19 (Rapid Deflation Device), with any
limitations imposed by the using or controlling agency, apply.
The operating limitations of a moored balloon are as follows:
(1)
The balloon must be not less than 500 feet

from the base of any cloud.
(2)
The balloon must be not more than 500 feet

above the surface of the earth.
(3)
The balloon must not be in an area where the

is less than three miles.
ground visibility
(4)
The balloon must not be within five miles of

the boundary of any airport.
These limitations do not apply if the operation of a balloon

is below and within 250 feet of any structure; in that case,
operation must not obscure any lighting on the structure.
At least 24 hours before beginning an operation, the following information must be provided to the FAA Air Traffic Control
(ATC) facility nearest to the place of intended operation before
any moored balloon that is more than 6 feet in diameter or 115
cubic feet in volume is flown more than 150 feet above the surface
of the earth:
(1)
The names and addresses of the owners and

operators.
(2)
The size of the balloon.
(3)
The location of the operation.
(4)
The height above the surface of the earth at

which the balloon is to be operated.
(5)
The date,
time,
and duration of the operation.
All tethered balloons that are flown in unrestricted airspace

must be marked and lighted according to Federal Aviation Regulation 101.17, "Lighting and Marking Requirements", and the
Federal Aviation Agency publication "Obstruction Marking and Lighting".
168
The requirement states that no person may operate a moored

balloon or kite by day unless its mooring lines have colored pen.nants or streamers attached at not more than 50-foot intervals,
beginning at 150 feet above the surface of the earth, and visible
Flags used for daytime marking should be
for at least one mile.
not less than 2 feet on a side and aviation orange in color.
When lights are used for night obstruction marking, the flashing
frequency should be not more than 40 flashes per minute, nor less
than 12 flashes per minute, with a period of darkness equal to
approximately one-half the luminous period.
The intensity of
fixed obstruction lights should be not less than 10 candles of
aviation red light.
Some of these requirements may vary for special conditions.
Specification A-11 in the FAA publication "Obstruction Marking
and Lighting" contains the following statement:
"Towers and similar obstructions which are more than
1500 feet in overall height above ground, or water
if so situated, will be given special aeronautical
study to determine the proper manner in which to
obstruction light them to provide adequate protection for air commerce."
In this case, contact your local FAA representative for
proper tethered balloon marking requirements.
All tethered
balloons must incorporate a device that will automatically and
rapidly deflate the balloon if it escapes from its
moorings.
If
the device does not function properly, the operator shall immediately notify the nearest ATC facility
of the location and time of
the escape and the estimated flight path of the balloon.
When a tethered balloon flight is scheduled, application for
certificate of waiver or authorization (FAA Form 400) should be
made in triplicate
and sent to the ATC facility
nearest to the
location of the tethered balloon flight.
When a tethered balloon flight is scheduled in a restricted
airspace, compliance with section 101.19 (Rapid Deflation Device)
and permission and complianc
with the regulations set up by the
using agency of that restricted airspace are required.
5.
AVAILABLE SITES
The following pages list

the restricted areas which, with
proper authorizations and scheduling, will permit tethered balloon
flights.
Each area is described briefly, along with the address
of the person or ,.11!ce to be contacted for permission or information as to ubct of the area.
Figure 79 shows the approximate
geographical location of each site
which responded affirmatively
as to their availability for tethered balloon flights.
169
rI
aca
AJ
of;sU
U-
o
c
UU
o17
8~
RESTRICTED AREA R-2303A - Fort Huachuca,

Fort Huachuca,
Arizona
Arizona 85613
LOCATION:
Libby Army Airfield,
OPERATOR:
U.S.
ADDRESS:
Russell N. Dragoo
Installation Airspace Office, SCCH-AF
Libby Army Airfield
Fort Huachuca, Arizona 85613
Telephone:
(602) 538-4158, 538-3031
Army,
Fort Huachuca
AVAILABILITY REQUIREMENTS:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Who may use it - All DOD sponsored projects

Priorities - DOD
Scheduling - Must be arranged
Time limitations - None
ALTITUDE LIMITATION:
a.
b.
c.
Launch Altitude - 4,500 ft.

MSL
Flight Level - Surface to 35,000 ft.
Restrictions - Continuous - IFR/VFR
MSL
WEATHER CONDITIONS:
a.
b.
"c.
Temperature (approx.)
winter low
10 0 F
Avg 45 0 F
summer high 105OF
Avg 73 0 F
Wind (surface)
high
50 knots
Avg 5-10 knots
General
Of the 13 inches of annual rainfall, the
majority falls
during the months of June
thru September.
Violent thunder storms
during this period generate heavy rains
with high winds.
The remainder of the
year is generally fair, with light winds
and low humidity.
REMARKS:
Instrumentation Available Tracking, surveillance and height finding radar,
telemetry, cinetheodolities, antenna pattern
measurement, spatrol resolution facility,
automatic data processing data reduction, radar spoke
(for measuring range accuracy, range and azimuth
resolution between 1 and 512 motors, of ground
and airborne radars in fixed mode of operation).
171
Moving target Indicator (MT1) timing central,

real time display of telemetry information and
air to ground UHF communication.
Photogr.%phic equipment is available from speedgraphi;. to cinetheodolitee and can be arranged.
Office space is available but 1i limited to one
or two desks.
Hangar space is at a premium.
No manpower or engineers are available.
Meteorologics. information is available from weather
forecasters at Libby Army Airfield.
172
NCAR Balloon Launch Site, Page, Arizona

Arizona
LOCATION:
Glen Canyon Dam, Page,
OPERATOR:
NCAR
ADDRESS:
Alvin F. Morris, Manager

Scientific Balloon Facility
National Center For Atmospheric Research
Box 1470
Boulder, Colorado
AVAILABILTTY REQUIREMENTS:
Page has the same availability requirements as Palestine.
However, Page is primarily used during the winter months
due to the direction of the high altitude prevailing
winds.
ALTITUDE LIMITATIONS:
a.
b.
c.
Launch Altitude - 4,250 ft. MSL

Flight Level - see remarks
Restrictions - see remarks
WEATHER CONDITIONS:
Not available.
REMARKS:
The Page, Arizona site is not I.n restricted airspace,
therefore, all FAA regulations must be adhered to if
a waiver cannot be obtained.
Page is primarily a
free balloon launch site and is suited for such an
operation.
Page has two great advantages:
(1)
The natural, 700 ft. deep shelter provided

by the canyon below the Glen Canyon Dam
is eminently suitable for static launch
of very large balloons and delicate
payloads which cannot tolerate the
accelerations of a dynamic launch.
(2)
The location is well away from established

airlanes.
The permanent winter launch facilities at the airport

would consint of an 80 by 40 ft. prefabricated metal
building to contain offices, workshop and staging areas,
and a graded and stabilized launching area measuring
750 ft. square and locatod at the northeast corner of
173
the airport.
The projected development of the canyon
site would comprise a 150 x 700 ft. paved launch area,
a staging building, and an elevator.
174
RESTRICTED AREA R-2306B
Yuma West Proving Ground, Arizona
LOCATION:
Yuma Proving Ground,
OPERATOR:
U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Command
ADDRESS:
Commanding General
U.S. Army Test and Evaluation Command
Attn: AMSTE-PO-O
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 21005
Telephone: Ext. 4394
Yuma,
Arizona 85364
a.
b.
e.
d.

Priorities - DOD
Time limitations - 0001 to 2400 hours, MST daily,
Monday thru Sunday
a.
Launch Altitude - 1200 ft. MSL (approx.) mountain

peaks to
2800 ft. MSL
Flight Altitude - Surface to 80,000 ft. MdL
Restrictions - 0001 to 2400 hours, MST daily,
Monday thru Sunday
b.
c.
WFATHER CONDITIONS:
a.
b.
Temperature (approx 6 )
winter low 30 F
summer high 118 0 F
Winds (surface)
High - 60 knots
Avg
Avg
Avg
560 F
930F
4 knots
REMARKS:
Instrumentation available - Cinetheodolite, Telemetry Radar, Doppler,
and data reduction.
Photographic equipment available - high speed,
air-to-air, ground-toair, and still.
Hangar and office space is available but is limited
at times and could be coordinated.
All services
including manpower, meteorologists and engineers
are in critical shortage and must be scheduled
175
if needed.
Additional information pertaining to the
area may be obtained by calling the Airspace and Range
Office, Ext. 2586, Yuma Proving Ground, Arizona.
176
S.. .... .. . .... . .
RESTRICTED tRZA R-2510 - El Centro, California

OPERATOR:
United States Air Force, Navy,
ADDRESSt
Air Force Flight Test Center (FTOP)

Edwards Air Force Base
California, 93523
(also send information copy to - )
USAF 6511th Test Group (FTNP)
Naval Air Facility
El Centro, California 92243
and Army
a.
Who may use it
b.
c.
d.
Priorities - DOD
Time Limitation - Sunrise to sunset, Monday
through Friday, from 20,000 ft.
MSL to 500,000 ft. MSL.
- All Military services, National

Aeronautics and Space Administration and industrial organizations.
a.
Launch Altitude
b.
Flight Level -
surface to 500,000 ft. NSL
c.
Restrictions -
Continuous, surface to 20,000 ft.

MSL; sunrise to sunset, Monday
through Friday, 20,000 ft. to
42 ft. MSL
500,000 ft. MSL

WEATHER CONDITIONS:
a.
b.
winter low
400F
summer high 120OF
Avg
Avg
0
65 F
900F
Winds (surface)
high 2-knots
Avg
0-5 knots
REMARKS:
El Centro is basically a test and recovery test
center.
It is equipped with all type of instrumentation. The range has cinetheodolites (to 30 frames
per second) telescopic cameras, telemetry receiving
station (fixed and mobile), radio communications
(UHF, VHF, FM), and tracking radar.
It has test
vehicles instrumented with FM/FM telemetry and
177
El Centro has several

mechanical tensiometers.
types of photography equipment on hand; ground-tobomb bay-to-air, and boat-to-air.
air, air-to-air,
The data processing capabilities are as follows:
Scientific Data System 930 digital compueter,
Benson Lehner Bosear N. cinetheodolite film reader
Control Data
and associated card punch equipment.
and
system,
computing
Corporation G-15 digital
El Centro
Electronic Associates Plotter No. 3300.
is located on a 9,500 foot, hard-surface, lighted
If further informarunway at a -42 feet elevation.
is required contact:
tion about the facilities
Commander
6511 Test Group (FTNP)
El Centro, California
178
92243
I~tl
RESTRICTED AREA R-2801
Bethany Beach,
LOCATION:
Bethany Beach, Delaware
ADDRESS:
The Adjutant General

State of Delaware
10th and Du Pont Streets
Wilmington, Delaware 19899
Telephone:
(302) 654-7761
Delaware
The area is used for artillery firing by the Delaware
Army National Guard approximately forty days per year.
Use of the area must be arranged in advance.
a.
b.
c.
MSL
Flight Level - surface to 23,5000 ft. MSL
Restrictions - June 1 through September 30
Launch Altitude - 0 ft.
Monday through Friday, 8:00 A. M. to 6:00 P. M.

October 1 through May 31, Saturday
local time.
A. M. to 4:00 P. M., local time.
8:00
Sunday,
and
WEATHER CONDITIONS:
a.
b.
c.
0OF Avg 30F
winter low
Avg 80oF
summer high 100OF
Wind (surface)
50 knots
Avg 15 knots
high
General
The area is characterized by high humidity and
frequent and sudden changes of weather.
REMARKS:
The area is primarily used for artillery firing and no
other facilities are available.
179
RESTRICTED AREA R-2902A
Cape Kennedy,
Florida
LOCATION:
Patrick Air Force Base, Florida
OPERATOR:
U. S. Air Force,
ADDRESS:
Commander, Air Force Eastern Test Range

Range Control Section (ETOOT-l)
Patrick AFB, Florida
(305) 853-5941
Telephone:
Patrick Air Force Base
- All DOD sponsored projects
a.
Who may use it
b.
c.
d.
Priorities - DOD
Time limitations - None
ALTITUDE LIMITATION:
a.
b.
c.
Launch Altitude - 9 ft. MSL

Flight Level - Unlimited
Restrictions - Continuous
WEATHER CONDITIONS:
a.
b.
Temperatures (approx.)
57 0 F
winter low
0F
87
high
summer
Wind (surface)
15 knots
high
Avg
Avg
64 0 F
81OF
Avg
10 knots
REMARKS:
Radar, telemetry, command, and a large variety of minor
Photographic equipment,
instrumentation is available.
hangar and office space, and manpower, engineers,
types and varieties are available.
meterologists of all
Tethered balloon experiments have been conducted on
Cape Kennedy Air Force Base.
180
Camp Grayling,
LOCATION:
Grayling Military Reservation,
OPERATOR:
State of Michigan
ADDRESS:
Adjutant General, State of Michigan

Attention:
LTC Howard G. Brunette
Airspace Utilization Offices
Abrams Airport P.O. Box 109
Grand Ledge, Michigan 48837
Telephone:
(517) 627-6954
Michigan
Grayling,
Michigan
a.
b.
c.
d.

Priorities - DOD
Time Limitations - See remarks
a.
b.
c.

MSL
Flight Level
North Portion
June through August to 29,000 feet
September through May to 20,000 feet
South Portion
June through August to 9,000 feet
September through May - not a restricted area
Restriction
June through August - 24 hours
September through May - Sunrise to sunset.
WEATHER CONDITIONS:
a.
b.
winter low
-41oF
summer high
1060F
Wind (surface)
high
40 knots
Avg
Avg
23 0 F
61OF
Avg
15 knots
REMARKS:
There are no facilities
available other than the
restricted area.
The area is used extensively during
the months of June through August by National Guard
units from Michigan, Indiana, and Ohio.
During spring
and fall of the year used on numerous weekends by Air
National Guard for strafing runs and also used by
Artillery and Mortar units of Army National Guard ground
forces.
Very little
activity during winter months.
181
Camp Shelby,
McLaurin,
Mississippi
Mississippi
LOCATION:
Camp Shelby,
OPERATOR:
Mississippi National Guard
ADDRESS:
LTC Warwich B, Beane

Installation Airspace Officer
Camp Shelby, McLaurin, Mississippi 39401
Telephone:
(601) 582-2364, (601) 582-2365
AVAILABILITY:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Priorities - DOD
Scheduling - Advance notification required
Time Limitations - None
a.
b.
c.

MSL
Flight Altitude R-4401 Alpha - Surface to 4000 ft.
MSL
R-4401 Bravo - 4000 ft.
to 18,000 ft.
MSL
R-4401 Charlie - 18,000 ft.
to 29,000 ft.
MSL
Restrictions
Area activated by NOTAM to Houston.
Must state
type activity, times of use, altitudes, marking
of tether, etc.
All flights must stay within
boundary of R-4401, unless approved by FAA.
WEATHER CONDITIONS:
a.
b.
December, January and February:
Normal daily temperature 60F max., 39 0 F
Average days 320F or below - 27
Days with precipitation
- 32
- 45
Clear or partly cloudy
June, July and August:
Normal daily temperature 930F max., 70OF
Average days temperature 90OF or above Days with precipitation
Clear or partly cloudy
Wind - not given
min.
min.
73
27
70
REMARKS:
Instrumentation, photographic equipment, and services
are not available.
Office space in various buildings
is complete with basic utilities,
ofiice furniture,
telephones, etc., off and on post are available.
Tethered balloon have been flown from Camp Shelby.
182
RESTRICTED AREA R-4809 - Tonopah Test Range,
Nevada
LOCATION:
Tonopah Test Range,
OPERATOR:
Sandia Corporation for Atomic Energy Commission
ADDRESS:
Sandia Corporation
Attention:
Mr. S. A. Moore,
Tonopah Test Range
Box 871
Tonopah, Nevada 89049
Telephone:
(702) 986-0390
Tonopah,
Nevada
Manager
When not required for AEC tests, the range is available
on a reimbursable basis to other government agencies or
contractors.
In this role the range provides regular
support for Air Force, Navy and Strategic Air Command
(SAC) operational and test groups, and for NASA and some
Defense contractors.
a.
b.
c,
Launch Altitude - 5,300 ft.

Flight Level - Unlimited
MSL
WEATHER CONDITIONS:
a.
b.
c.
winter low
-10OF
Avg 35F
summer high
100OF
Avg 70F
Winds (surface)
high
30 knots
Avg 5 - 10 knots
General
The alluvial desert valley in which TTR is
located is an area of low precipitation, averaging six inches yearly, with generally gnod
visibility
and minimum cloud coverage.
The
Sierra Mountain Range to the west blocks most of
the Pacific-originated storms and the desert area
to the east exhausts moisture from storm clouds
moving from that area.
When storms do reach the
area from the west they generally deposit little
moisture but cause a high cloud cover which is
usually of short duration.
The few storms which
deposit moisture and remain in the area for some
period of time usually move in from the southwest.
REMARKS:
TTR is
a well-instrumented
183
test facility.
The range,
not
lfl('ut diig ,jotint-ust, a v'L,aH, Im al)oti t 2.1 mile widt !).y 26

mile 11ong with a total land aR'ua ol' 3(1),2H0 aucrem.
Thu
,)oint -LSCI
Lar ta tX tX.lldM ill
It 1Or(1th S IVy ll cli,l'r
t ton
f'rom thu mainl rnllge alta and iN appio'rximately 25 mile su
wicIo and 75 riatio, long.
Hangi' tracking sys tem.i divide
into two categories, optical a,.nd elect'ronic.
Tho bulk
of the equlipmelnt ror both ;ategori's is iuistitllod at
permanent stations but somr mobile equipment is availaIble
'or movement to tiemporary posittions.
This mobile
equlipmelt is used to supplement regular range coverage
and I'or data accumulation from isolated locations.
All
stations, including mobile, arv .suipplied (by landline
or radio link) with timing signat,.,
range-to-target
information, and communication and acquisition
inf'ormation.
184
RESTRICTED AREA R-5107 - IHolloman Alit, Nt'

LOCATION:
AFMDC,
OPERATOR:
Dotachment I AFCRL operates two tethered balloon

are
AFCRL facilities
sites near Polloman AFB.
is on
site
One
site.
either
at
use
for
available
air base property, btit use i1 limited by handling
The other
and proximity of :vunways.
facilities
is va White Sands Missile Range and is
site
approximately 95 highway miles north northwest of
Holloman AFB.
ADDRESS:
Dot I, AFCRL (CREH)

Holloman AFB, New Mexico 88330
AVAILABILITY:
a.
b.
c.
d.
llolloman AFB,
Mexico
Both Sites

Priorities - DOD
Scheduling - DOD and WSMR
Time Limitations - None
a.
b.
c.
Now Mexico
Holloman AFB

Flight Altitude - 5600 ft. MSL (max.)
Restrictions - Daylight only
WSMR
a.
b.
c.

Flight Altitude - Unlimited
Restrictions - None
WEATHER CONDITIONS:
Holloman AFB and Granjean Tethered Balloon Sites
a.
b.
Temperature Range - The mean minimum and maximum

temperatures for the coldest and warmest months are
28F and 93 0 F for Holloman AFB and are 19 0 F and 92 0 F
for Granjean.
Climatic Conditions
1.
Seasonal Limitations - The use of the Holloman
AFB and Granjean launch sites is limited from
mid-June to mid-September by frequent afternoon
thunderstorms accompanied by gusty surface winds.
2.
Temperature - Both sites have a desert climate.
The mean annual temperatures for Holloman AFB
and Granjean are 611F and 57 0 F, respectively.
3.
Moisture - Both areas are dry with an annual
rainfall of 7 inches for Holloman and 10 inches
185
Tilt, av.ag,
for Grlr ,joal,
llol I oman i.S 34 i.Cr ,, 1t,
r4,1 11
t-, humi di ty
Ior
to'r both
Iat ion - Theilt, c Imat
.1, Cl imaltic Classil Iv
si1tes is anl Iiiland type with most8 (I thv pro1.VlSUmmer mon t hs.
occurring during the
c ipitation
5.
Winds - Surface winds at Holloman AFI and
Granjean arv generally light from 2000 until
The afternoon
about 0900 the year rouind.
surface winds are strong in the spring and gusty
during the summer mon Lhs in the vicinity of'
thunderstorm activity.
FACILITIES AND SERVICES:
Each investigator is expected to be completely selfThe start and equipment is directed toward
contained.
is not
The site
operational phases of balloon flight.
equipped to accommodate the infinite variety of services
Similarly, the White Sands
each experiment may require.
MissiLe Range is equipped to provide IRIG data acquisition services but cannot supply personnel or equipmenit
for direct. use by the investigator.
The following is
a.
b.
a general
list
of what is
available:
Office Space - Minimum office and assembly space are

available at Holloman AFB.
Machine Shop - Service is limited to emergency
Facilities for machine
repair of' heavy equipment.
work to higher orders of tolerance is extremely
limited.
S,. Photo Equipment - For use by experimenter is not

motion and processing
available.
Documentary still,
service provided.
Several
Environmental Equipment - Service provided.
d.
Largest size 8 feet wide by
chambers arc available.
Altitude range is sea
8 feet high by 11 feet long.
Temperature range is minus
level to 220,000 feet.
Humidity (,.an be controlled.
1000 F to plus 2000F.
el
Electronic Test Equipment - Not available.
1'. Launch Equipment (Winches, Cables, Trucks, Storage)
See Section V.
g.
Tracking Aircraft - Provided by the Air Force, if
required.
Standard Telemetry and Command Systems - UHF
hi.
command receivers, telemetry transmitters and sensors
Compatible IRIG command transare not available.
mitter service and IRIG telemetry checkout and
recording service are available.
i.
Helium storage and transportation to sites is
available.
j.
Meteorological - W';MR has permanently installed
rawinsonde facilitieb at Jtolloman AFB and Stallion
186
L.m.
F m,
"I
Site, approximately 12 miles from Granjean.

In
addition, four other fixed rawinsonde facilities
and six automatic surface weather recording facilities are located on the range.
AFCRL has complete
meteorological data receiving ,q..ttpment and forecast capability at Detachment 1.
Arrangements can
be made, for real time enviroamental data and post
flight data reduction.
SERVICES AVAILABLE:
a. Consulting - Consulting services are available prior
b.
c.
to flying at Headquarters, AFCRL.

Meteorologists,
Instrumontation Engineers, and Balloon Design personnel are available for consultation.
Contact Mr.
Thomas Danaher, phone (617) 274-6100, extension 3005.
Technicians are available for balloon launching,
tracking and recovery.
No electronic technicians
are available to the user.
Purchasing Service - Helium, balloons, and balloon
associated equipment are available on a refundable
basis.
Normally all requirements for a given year
are pooled and a single purchase initiated.
Miscellaneous - Cinetheodolites are available for

position data, and first
and second derivatives of
position are available through WSMR data reduction
facilities.
187
RESTRIr'TED AREA
R-53111
Fort
M .1titry
NII
Bl'ag',
Nort i Caroliina
LOCATION:
,'or t
OPERATOR:
;'VTI1 Airbornt, Corps an(d Fort. Bragg
ADDRESS:
Comimanding Gnvr, 1l
XVIII Airborne Corps and For t Bragg
Attention:
Post. Range Officer'
Fort Bragg, North Carol. ina 82307
Telephone:
62170/66772/62900
AVAILABILITY
a.
b.
c.
d.
lragg
lvt'svvat~isioni,
Nortli 0tv(olina
28:9)7
REQUIREMENTS:

Priorities
- DOD
Scheduling - Request submitted six weeks in
Time limitationsNone
advance
a.
b.
c.
Launch Al ti tude - 280 it.

Flight AltitudeSurface
MSI
to 29,000
f't.
MSL
WEATHER CONDITIONS:
a.
b.
c.
winter low
220F
Avg
42F
summer high
100 0 F
Avg
85F
Wind (surface)
high
20 knots
Avg
6 - 10 knots
General
Generally clear, sonic early mrnuiiiig ground
haze in winter and frequeiii. scattered alternoon thur .Jr shower. from L t *T'',n
throL'gh
mid-August.
REMARKS:
Tethered balloons have been flown at Fort Bragg in thte
past.
Based upon those past experiences,
the flying
of tethered balloons for experimental purposes could
oe accommodated.
No facil.ties,
instrumentation,
photographic, or services are available to maintain
balloons, equipment, and personnel.
188
RESTRICTED AREA R-5502 - Lacarne,

Lacarne,
Ohio
Ohio
LOCATION:
Camp Perry,
OPERATOR:
Ftate of Ohio
ADDRESS:
Col. F. W. Conard
Superintendent Camp Perry
Port Clinton, Ohio 43452
(419) 732-3501
Telephone:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Who may use it - DOD sponsored projects

Priorities - DOD
Time limitations - 0800 to 1600 local time
a.
b.
c.
MSL
Flight Level
April 1 to May 31
MSL
surface to and including 5000 ft.
June. 1 to July 31
MSL
surface to and including 34,000 ft.
August 1 to November 30
MSL
surface to and including 5000 ft.
Restrictions
0800 to 1600 local time Saturday and Sunday
April 1 through May 31
0800 to 1600 local time daily June 1
through July 31
0800 to 1600 local time Saturday and Sunday
August 1 through November 30
Other dates, times and altitudes (not to
MSL) by NOTAM, published at
exceed 23,000 ft.
least 48 hours in advance.
WEATHER CONDITIONS:
a.
b.
-21OF
winter low
summer high 1040F
Wind (surface)
high
70 knots
Avg
Avg
29OF
71OF
Avg
10 knots
REMARKS:
Camp Perry is
L.
It
not a research and development area.

189
is use'd pr imati y for r('st'rvt tirain i iag Camp.

I argi' Ila t, open a rva I ov1teld Oti t he shore ol
190
It
is
it
Lake Eric.
NCAR Scientific
Balloon Flight Station,
Palestine,
LOCATION:
Palestine,
OPERATOR:
Winzen Research,
ADDRESS:
Alvin L. Morris, Manager

Scientific Balloon Facility
National Center for Atmospheric Research
Box 1470
Boulder, Colorado 80302
Texas
Texas
Incorporated
for NCAR
The facilities
and services are generally available to
scientists from federal agencies, universities, and nonprofit research organizations whose projects require
balloon flights.
The facilities
are also available for
company-sponsored test programs designed to improve
scientific ballooning provided the results of such tests
will be made available to NCAR and the balloon community.
a.
b.
c.

MSL
Flight Level - See remarks
Restrictions - See remarks
WEATHER CONDITIONS:
a.
b.
winter low
15OF
summer high
1lOOF
Winds (surface)
Not available
Avg
Avg
40F
920 F
REMARKS:
The NCAR facility is not a restricted area.
Therefore,
all FAA regulations must be adhered to in order to fly
a tethered balloon.
The NCAR facility is used extensively for free balloon launchings.
Types of Support - Service to inuividual investigators
who wish to take advantage of NCAR's complete services.
NCAR provides launch, tracking, and recovery services
from its
fixed launch site.
It also provides work
space at the launch site,
standard command and telemetry
equipment, and balloon and helium purchasing service.
The costs for facilities
and services are borne by NCAR
excepting for certain costs which are directly assignable
to the investigator.
These assignable costs are usually
limited to the balloon and helium, but long-distance
191
and special services requested by an invesphone calls

may also be charged to his project.
tigator
Service to balloon operations groups of recognized
competence, flying experiments for qualified invesThese groups normally provide the launch,
tigators.
tracking and recovery services required for their
but limited tracking service can be provided
flights,
are provided by NCAR and
Facilities
by NCAR on request.
the
costs are allocated to these groups on virtually
same basis as to individual investigators.
when
Services to private companies operating for profit
program designed to
a company wishes to carry out a test
The company must satisfy
ballooning.
improve scientific
in improved
is likely to result
NCAR that the test
scientific
ballooning and must make the results
available
to the scientific
ballooning community as soon as possible after
the test.
Company projects which qualify
ore supported on the same basis as non-profit research
flights.
Consulting Services - NCAR personnel at Palestine are
available to discuss ballooning requirements with
scientists.
They review each request for ballooning
service with the prospective user.
They then advise
how and when the flight
can best be accomplished, what
type and size balloon should be used, what auxiliary
equipment (i.e.,
telemetry, stable platforms, etc.) will
be necessary, and what the approximate cost will be to
the user.
NCAR personnel will help select tile appropriate balloon
vehicle for the scientist's
program by reviewing his
proposed fliglht profile and requesting bids and specifications from balloon manufacturers.
After reviewing the
bids and specifications, the NCAR staff
will recommend
to the scientist
the halloon which tihey bel]ieve will
provide the most reliable
vehicle for the flight.
I1Vlium - llelium is available at tihe site through an
in dependent contractor who invoices the scientist's
parve? I. orgall iza t ion directly.
HI ight Priorities
-. As a general rule, field programs
Ht1--i-ving the iargest number of personnel and having
IW Mc,'r I -Villgellt.
operationa I and ,;ciontific rCqu ireuten Is
11"', given scheduling priority.
Actual flight
11 '1,il'ily at, the st'aLion is dutLcimi nud by the Su)erilll1'11,,, (ol thlie basis of' treAid ess and suitLable weather
',,'il .1IVe'l
f I igh.t.
192
For further
information,
call
or write:
Superintendent
NCAR Scientific
Balloon Flight, Station
P.O. Box 1175
Palestine, Texas 75801
Telephone:
(217)
729-6921
193
RESTRICTED AREA R-60041 - Chincolteague
Inlet.,
Virginia
LOCATION:
Threr a",as on Atlantic Coast o.

the Delmarva
Denilsu la :
1.
The Main Base
2.
Tie Wallops Island Launching Site
3.
Tile Wallops Island Mainland
OPERATOR:
Wallops
ADDRESS:
Director, Mr. Robert L. Krieger

Wallops Station
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Wallops Island, Virginia 23337
AVAILABILITY
a.
Island
is
operated
by NASA
REQUIREMENTS:
Who may use it and priorities

- NASA programs
normally do not need authorization.
Non-NASA should contact Director,
to request authorization.
Wallops
Station
USAF or their
contractors request authorization
through Air Force, Systems Command Liaison Office
at Langley Air Force Base, Hampton, Virginia
b.
Scheduling All users with authorization should

notify Wallops Station of their
plans as far in
advance as possible
c,
Time Limitation -
Test station
is
available
year
round.
a.
Launch Altitude - 0 it.
MSL
1). Flight Altitude - unlimited from MSL up
c.
Restrictions - authorization and schedulin1g
WEATHER CONDITIONS:
aL.
b.
c.
Tempera ture (approx.)

winter low
-6 0 F
Avg
58OF
summer high
98F
Avg
63 0 F
Winds (surface)
high
100 knots
Avg
10 knots
The wind direction is southerly during the summer
and northwest during the winter.
General - The average annual precipitation
is 37.03
inches.
The clinate
is technically known as a
"humid
temperat(, climate with hot summers and no
distinct
dry sea,.ons".
194
REMARKS:
Wallops Station, the only range fac4lity completely
owned and operated by NASA, is ana operational base for
launching vehicles as part of scientific experiments.
The station is completely Instrumented and has the
facilities
for almost evory need.
Wallops Station
personnel can assist the teams of experimenters in
f'thiht preparation.
It is primarily set up for rocket
launchings and does not posses specific facilities
for
balloon launching, or equipment such as winches, cables,
and helium.
If specific equipment is necessary, Wallops
Station should be contacted.
195
Churchill ],-search Range,
Manitoba,
Canada
LOCATION:
Northeastern tip o1' Manitoba,

West shore of Hudson Bay
Canada -
OPERATOR,
The Churchill Research Range (CRR) is at present

jointly funded by the National Research Council of
Canada (NRC) and the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration of the United States (NASA).
The
onus of management of the range rests with NRC.
ADDRESS:
Chief ofeDefense Staff

Canadian Armed Forces Headquarters
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Copy to:
Chief of Plans and Operations

Churchill Research Range
National Research Council
Fort Churchill, Manitoba
Canada
Telephone:
(204) 675-2215
Approval for use of CRR is controlled by a Joint Range
Policy Committee (JRPC) on which NRC and NASA are
represented.
The JRPC meets as required.
a.
b.
c.

MSL
Flight Level - See remarks
Restrictions - See remarks
WEATHER CONDITIONS:
a.
b.
winter low
-57 0 F
summer high
95 0 F
Winds (surface)
high
120 knots
Mean direction
NW 27
Avg -25 0 F
Avg 630 F
Avg
14 knots
REMARKS:
Fort Churchill is not a restricted area, therefore,
operators must comply with the Air Regulations in
Canada, or obtain exemptions from the Minister of
Transportion.
The purpose of CRR is to operate, maintain
and develop a rocket range to support approved scientific

agencies with comprehensive launch, instrumentation and
data recovery facilities.
Ground based observations and

196
research are also carried out at CRR.

The range also
supports scientific balloon launches on a non-interference basis.
Instrumentation Available - Comprehensive tracking,
telemetering, communication, auroral observation,
meteorology, workshop, photography, computer, office
and rocket launching facilities
are available.
However,
facilities
are geared toward rocket-borne and ground
observation research and are available for balloon
support on a strictly
non-interference basis only.
Photographic Equipment -
16mm operating at 8 - 64 fps

4 x 5 speed graphic
4 x 5 Linhoff
8 x 10 and 35mm cameraw equipped with lenses of
various focal lengths
Dark room
Laboratory and office space is

scientific agencies.
available to approved
All services are available on a non-interference basis.

If any further information is required, write to:
Chief of Plans and Operations
Churchill Research Range
National Research Council
Fort Churchill, Manitoba
Canada
or
Department of Transport
Assistant Deputy Minister (General's Office)
Hunter Building
Ottawa, Ontario
Canada
197
REFERENCES
F. S., Aeronautics in the Union and Confederate
Vol. 1; Baltimore, Johns-Hopkins Press, 1941.
1.
Haydon,
Armies,
2.
The German Air Weapon

Cuneo, J. R., Winged Mars, Vol. I:
1870 - 1914, Iarrisburg, Pa. Military Service Publishing
The Air Weapon 1914 - 1916p 1947.
Co., 1942; Vol. II:
3.
Moedebeck, H. W. L., Pocketbook of Aeronautics,

by W. M. Varley; London, Whittaker & Co. 1907.
4.
Dollfus, C.,
Press, 1960.
5.
War Department Technical Manual 1-325 Aerostatics,
6.
Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Standard Atmosphere,

1962, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
7.
Brown, I.S.H. & Speed, L.A., Ballonet Kite-Balloon Design,

Construction and Operation, R.A.E. Report No. Mech. Eng.
24 July 1962.
The Orion Book of Balloons,
198
translated
New York,
Orion
1940.
B IBL IOGRAPHY
AERODYNAMICS
Abbott, Ira H.: Airship Model Tests in the Variable Density
Wind Tunnel. Report No. 37C, LangleyF Memorial Aeronautical
taioratoFy-, January 1931.
Air Corps: Test of 1/36-Scale Model of Goodyear Barrage
Balloon for Both Deflated a-nd inflatea Envelopes witn Large
and small Fins. Technical Report No. 4744, March 1942.
Air Corps Material Division: Test olf 1/37.5 Scale Model of
Material Center Design Barrage Balloon N.X42Kl783.
Technical Report No. 4624
Allen H.J.: Estimation of the Forces and Moments Acting on
Inclined Bodies of Revolution of RIgh Fineness Ratio. NACA
RIWA91Zt6.
Anderson, A.A., Erickson, M.L., Froehlick, H.E., Henjuin, H.E.,
Schwoebel, R.L., Stone, V.H., and Torgeson, W.L.: LighterThan-Air Concepts Study. General Mills, Inc., Minneapolis,
Minnesota, Revis'ea March' 1960, Contract Nonr 1589(07),
AD-23 6988.
Bairstow, L.
Applied Aerodynamics. London, Longman, Green
and Co.; 1920 . Discusses static equilibrium of kite balloons
with fixed or running rigging, and derives equations of
motion and cable derivatives.I
Bairstow, L., Relf, E.F., and Jones, R.: The Sablt of
Kite Balloons: Mathematical Investigation-. -Xa
iso
committee For Aeronautics (E-nglana) Repo-rts and Memoranda No.
208, December 1915.
Bateman, H. and Jones, L.J.: Forces and Moments on Kite
Balloon Models Fitted with Various Types of Pins. Of. gr~it.,
ARC T. 3293(270); 9 August l932. Basis For the-modern
British kite balloon; extensive comparative data. AD-223 734.
Bateman, H.: The Inertia Coefficients of an Airship in a
Frictionless Fluid.
Ca~Irornia instITUTe or Tecnnoiogy
Report Nso. 104, Naional Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,
1923.
Bishop, Robert P.: Flight Characteristics of the Type J-10
Balloon for use with Retransmission Antenna Syutem..
Uynetronics 75c., O5rlanao, Florida, August Twb5.
199
Blackburn, W.E.:
Interim Engineering Report on Basic
Performance on Non-Powered, Tethered Lighter-Than-Ai-r Vehicles
for Antenna Support. Kaman Aircraft Corp., Bloomfield, Conn.,
Report No. G-62, May 1954, Contract No. AF 30(602)-675,
AD-41526.
Boatwright, D.W.: An Investigation of the Effect of Induced
Nns ymmetric Pressure Distribution on the Aerodynamic
Stability-of an Airship Form. Aerophysics Dept.,
Mississippi state Universit-y, Office of Naval Research Controct
NONR 978(02), Research Report No. 36, August 1961, AD-2622552.
Brown, D.W.: A Recording Technique for Kite Balloon Yaw
Behaviour and Accelerations, and Some Experimental Results.
Gt. Brit., R.A.E. Tech. Note No. Mech. Eng. 343; November 1961.
includes results of rigging at various incidence angles, and
use of nose spoiler ring, enlarged vertical fins and ventral
sail fin. AD-275 073.
Brown, TI.S.H.: Notes of Stability of Kite Balloons. Royal
Aircraft Establishment, Farnbotbugh Department Memo ME 173,
October 1957.
Durand, W.F.: Aerodynamic Theory -V~ol. VI.
Springer, Berlin, 1935.
Published by:
Eckstrom, C.V.:
Investigation of the Flight Characteristics
of Free Flying Characteristics of Free rlying Aerociynamicau!
Shaped al~oons. schijeldahl Co. for NASA CH-6609, 1965
contract NASI-S271 NASA.
Emslie, A.G.: Balloon Dynamics.
Office of Naval Resea.rchi, 1961.
Technical Report #1 to
Etkin, Bernard and Mackworth, Jean C.: Aerodynamic

Instability of Non-Lifting Bodies Towed Beneath an ircraft.
UnIversity of Torontu Report UTIA TN65, January 19fi3.Goodyear Aerospace Corporation, Akron, Ohio.: Tow-Model Tests
(Quarter Scabn) LTA-Support Vehicle for "Skyline" Project,
GZ 347. General Eiec~tric Purchase Order 'So. 211-524-25019,
MR=
T441, October 1961.
Havill, Clinton H.: The Drag of Airships, Technical Note
No. 247. National Advisory committee for Aeronautics
(1923-1925) .
Hesis, Joseph: Statistics of Parameters Affecting Tethered
Hal-loon Flights. Air Force Surveys In Geophysics No-. 1912.
AFC'RL, Ju-ne 1IJ66.
200
Hoerner,
1951,
Sighard F.:
Aerodynamic Drag.
Published by Author,
Journal of Aeronautical Sciences, Volume No. I.:

Air.
Drag Determined by Coasting Through Still
Sphere
Interim Engineering Report on the

Kaman Aircraft Corp.:
Response of a Kytoon to vertical and Horizontal Gusts. "
Report No. U-68, Contract AF30(60d)-675;
Bloomfield, Conn.
Report, declassified 1966)
(Confidential
1954.
August 12,
AD-57 119.
(RADC T.N. 54-347)
Response of a Kytoon to Vertical
Kaman Aircraft Corporation:
Contract No.
and Horizontal Gusts: Bloomfelld, conn.
AF30(602)-675, August, 1954, AD-57119.
Law, E.H.: The Longitudinal Equations of Motion of an Airborne Towed Vehicle Incorporating an Approximation of Cable
U.S.N. Air Development Center,
Drag and Inertia Forces.
Johnsville, Report ES7, 1964.
Lum: A Theoretical Investigation of the Body Parameter
Affecting the open Loop Pitch Response of a Submerged Towed
M.GM
Way. DavId Taylor Model Hasin Report 138u,
Study of Sphere Motion and
MacCready, Jr. and Jex, H.R.:
NASA TM X7-=3=9, July 1964.
Balloon Wind Sensors.
The Aerodynamic Forces on Airship Hulls.
Munk, Max M.:
Nationai Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,
Report No. 184.
1924.
Notes on Aerodynamic Forces - I Rectilinear
Munk, Max M.:
National Advlsory Committee
Technical Note No. 104.
Motion.
1922.
Y-r-Kronautics, July
Notes on Aerodynamic Forces - II Curvilinear
Munk, Max M.:
Nations1 Advisory Committee
Motion.
YtXironautics, July, 1922.
Murk, Sanger M., Jr. and Ware, Goriu M.: Static Aerodynamic
Characteristics of Three Ram-Air-InIlatud Low-Aspect-Ratio
Fabric Wings. LWP-254, Langley Re'eal'ch Cnter, July 1Tub.
Self Induced Balloon Motions.
Murrow, H.N. and Henry, R.M.:
Fifth Conference on Applied Meteorology, Atlantic city, N.J.,
March 2-6 1964 Paper.
201
Pannell, J.R.: Notes on French and Italian Aeronautical

Practice with Particular Regard to Airships.
Gc. Brit'., ARC,
Includes about a page on French
R&M M92; March 1919.
expanding-gore kite balloons.
Patton, K.T. and Schram, J.W.:
E uations of Motion for a
Towed Body Moving in a Vertical Plane.
Underwater Sound
Laboratory, USN Report 736, June 1966.
Potter, R.C.:
The Stability of Captive Balloons for Instrument
Flying, Including Analysis of Multi-Cable Configurations.
Wyle Labs - Research Staff Report WR 65-28, Contract NAS8-5384;
November 1965.
Excellent analysis, but leaves solution to a
computer trial-and-error scheme with subsequent interpolation.
N67-11729.
Rizzo, Frank:
A Study of Static Stability of Airships.
National Advisory committee for
Aeronautics, September 1924.
Scholkemeier, F.W.:
Six Components Measurements on a Balloon
with Two Various Tails.
Report ATIZD-41b; 20 April 1943.
Translated German Technical Report on type K WW II barrage
balloons.
Scoggins, J.R.: "Spherical Balloon Wind Sensor Behavior"
Journal of Applied Meteorology, February 1965.
Sherburne, Paul A.:
Wind Tunnel Tests of Natural Shape
Balloon Model.
Goodyear Aerospace Corp., Akron, Ohio.
AFCRL Contract No. F19628-27-C-0145.
AFCRL No. -68-D123,
March 1968.
Simonds,
M.H.:
Low Speed Wind Tunnel Tests on a Kite Balloon
Model.
G. Brit., Ministry of Aviation, A.R.C. Current Papers
-75=.43; November 1961 (published 1963).
Static forces and
moments and some stability
derivatives.
Tuckerman, L.B.:
Notes on Aerodynamic Forces on Airship Hulls.
National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics, March 1928.
University of Detroit, Aeronautical Laboratory.:
Wind Tunnel
Test of the General Mills Aerocap Model.
Part I, T1, and
Project J14.
March, lH60i.
Warner. Edward P.
York, 1926.
Aerostatics.
202
The Ronald Press Co.,
New
Waters, M.H.L.: Proposed Experiments on the Behaviour of

Kite Balloons. Gt. Brit. R.A.E. Tech. Note No. Mec7i.
306;
December 195-9. Similitude requirements for experiments on
inflatable models in free air (towing tests). AD-234 633.
Waters, M.H.L.: Some Observations on the Wander of a Kite
Balloon. Gt. Brit. R.A.E. Tech. Note No. Mech. Eng. 303;
December 1959. Camera obscura observations, with results for
velocity, accelerations, and side-slip angles. AD-235 480.
Watson, C.D.: Auto-stabilization of Kite Balloons. R.A.E.
V~ep%'L. Memo No. M.E. 192 (Restricted) R.A.E. Great Uritain,
May, 1958.
Wieselsberger, C.: Further Information on the Laws of Fluid
Resistance. Technicai Note No. 121, National Advisory
cmittee for Aeronautics, December 1922.
Winny, H.F.: Vortex System Behind a Sphere Moving through

Viscous Fluid. Aeronautical Research tommittee Reports and
MemoranfatNloe.
1531, September 1932.
Young, D.W.:
Test of Material Division Barrage Balloon Model

Report NO. 4b0b.
No. 23 (5 F. Tunn
Ma terial Division, Dayton, Ohio,
1941. AT137264.
with Three Different Tail Arrangements.

Tecs
May,
Zahm, A.F.,
Smith, R.H. and Hill, GoC.:
The
Lag
ofC
Class Airship Hull with Varying Length of'IyinarFW1Ydships.

Respotanoe. 130, Bureauo7 cons truction ana Repairdvyo
Department, National Advisory Committee
Zahm, A.F.:
for Aeronautics.
Flow and Drag Formulas for Simple

Muadrics.
National Advisory Commitatee for Aeronautics,
::
eprs
Memrand
No.1531,Septmber1932
203
q'
BALLOON APPLICATIONS
Banks, William 0. Capt. USAF.:
Low-Level, Fine-Scale Wind
Determination by Captive BalloonTs.7-A0G
Tech. Doc. Rep.
No. APGC-TDR-64-24, May 1964, AD 601944.
Burns, A.:
Power Spectra of' the Vertical Component of
Atmospheric Turbuenc? obtained From Concurrent Measurement
of an Aircraft ana at Fixed Points. Royal Aircraft
Estar1irshment (FainborougET ec
. Note Structures 325,
January 1963, AD-406118.
Compressed Air Magazine:
p. 11 (article)
"'l1lJlooning for Tuna".
March 1966,
Goodyear Aerospace Corporation, Akron, Ohio:

Preliminary
Study of Fixed Base Installations For Balloon Antenna support.
April 1V2.
GER IUbiN, Seq. No. 44939.
Hall, M.P.M. and Gardiner, G.W.:
"A Psychrometer Radiosonde
Developed for Determining Radio Refractive Index As A Function
of Height".
Journal of Scientific Instruments (Journal of
Physics E) 1968, Series 2, Vol. 1, pp 401-405 (article)
Kaman Aircraft Corp.:
Interim Engineering Report on Basic
Performance of Non-Powered, Tetnered Llghfter-than-air vehicles
for Antenna support.
Bloomfield, Conn. Report No. G-82,
Contract AF30(902)-675; May 7, 1954.
(Confidential report,
declassified 1966).
Includes tripod-tether results.
AD-41 526.
Keay, C.S. and Gray, R.E.:
"A Simple Balloon Technique for
Measuring the Radiation Patterns of Radio Aerials"
Electronic
Engineering, Vol 36, pp 322-325, May 1964.
Kretow, Michael, S.: Application of a Tethering System to a
Specific Requirement
in 195-4 Symposium Proceedings.
Tripodtether balloon for Surveyor drop tests at H550oman PFB.
Leppert, M.L., Shanahan, F.J., and #orsley, D.A.:
BalloonElevated Antennas.
Naval Research Lab. Report 4490;
TO Feyruary 1955. 100 ft emergency antenna tests on icebreakers in Arctic, using Dewev & Almy Kytoon, Goodyear
single-hull balloon, and one or two Jalbert JX-7s. AD-56 660.
Litton Systems, Inc.:
Lightweight Flexible VHF Tree-Top
Antenna with Inflatable Mast. Applied Science "DIvsion Report
No. Z4u; 26 February lug
Final Report on Contract
DA28-043-AMC-00335(E).
In spite of title,
the major part
of report deals with a VHF antenna supported by an AEROKITE
balloon, with favorable field test results.
AD-633 254.
204
MacFadden, John A.: Tethered Balloons - Their Uses in

G. T. Schjeldahl Company,
Industrial Applications.
12-th National SAMPE Symposium, AIAA.
Northfield, Minn.
Menke, James A.: Capabilities of Captive Balloon Systems,
in Proceedings of the AFCRL Scientific Ba~loon Symposium,
1963:
Air Force Surveys in Geophysics No. 154, AFCRL-63-919;
Gives aerostatic and aerodynamic characterisDecember 1963.
tics of Viron tethered balloons of Navy Class-C shape.
Discusses support equipment, operating considerations, and
tandem balloons.
AD-614 065.
Pohl, Russell A.: The Applications of Hot-Air Balloons to
Scientific Programs, Haven Industries, Inc., Sioux Falls,
South DaKota.
AFCRL-63-919, Dec. 1963.
Samuels, David W.:
Analysis of Balloon-Borne Communications
Systems.
U.S. Army Limited War Lab. Tech. Memorandum 64-u4:
Discusses various VHF transmission lines as
Se-pembr 1964.
AD-448 720.
tethers for small balloons at about 500 feet.
"Spectacular Air Rescue By Skyhook".
Shamburger, Page:
Air Progress, February 1968, pp 33-36 (article).
Silbert, Mendel N.:
Use of a Captive Balloon in the AeroNASA Wallops station, wallops
palynologic Survey Project.
Tsland, Virginia, AFCHL Tethered Balloon Workshop, October
1967.
Steele, J. G.:
Measurement of Antenna Radiation Patterns
Using a Tethered aaloo.Ti T. EE Transactions on Antennas
ana Propagation, VOl. AP-13, No. 1, pp. 179-180, January
1965.
Strom, C. A. and Lawrence, C.N.:
Balloon-Supported Platforms in Communications
in 1964 Symposium Proceedings.
Both tethered and tree-floating balloons are discussed as
supporting platforms for both active and passive radio
repeater stations.
Sumner, P. H. Capt.:
The Science of Flight and Its Practical
Application.
Vol. I, Airships and Kite Balloons, London,
crosoy, Lockwood & Son. 1926.
Much more limited than Chandler
of same date.
Winker, James A.: Technologica.l Applications of the Modern
Montgolfier.
Raven Industries, Inc., Sioux Falls, south
"Raota, AIAA68-20908.
205
Final Report, Balloon Borne Radio Cummunioation System.

to April 1wdo,
Ma,5. Army UonlOP% Team In vIOenm, IFor
Otfticial Use Only.
Field results using a number of 400-cubic
toot Vee-Dalloons. AD-466 186.
206
BALLOON SYSTEMS
Artuso, N., Mason, H., Towless, R., Wezner, F., and Krevsky, S.:
Tactical Jungle Communications Study.
Surface Communications
Systems Laboratory, Interim Report DA-36-039-AMC-00011(E),
March 1963, AD-445943
Brown, I.S.H. and Speed, L.A.:
Ballonet Kite Balloons Design,
Construction and Operation.
Royal Aircraft Establishment,
Report Mech. Eng. 24, July 1962, AD290-765
Brown, I.S.H.:
Development of the Ballonet Kite Balloon.
Gt.
Brit. R.A.E., Tech. Note No. Mech. Eng. 328; October 1960.
Technical history, to some extent included in Speed's Workshop
paper.
AD-250 553.
Continental Electronics Manufacturing Co.:
Tethered BalloonAntenna System Flight Operations Summary Report.
Sub Contract
70551 G.T. Schjeldahl Company Inv. No. 10742, February 1967.
Davies, V.A., and Watson, C.D.:
Balloon Suspension Characteristics.
(U) Gt. Brit. R.A.E. Departmental Memorandum No.
H 92; March 1955.
(Confidential-MHA and U.K. Restricted)
Design of a tandem balloon and cable for supporting a weighted
shell at a particular altitude in winds up to 60 mph steady
with gusts to 85 mph.
AD-302 716L.
Dimmig, Howard L.:
Service Test of Kytoon.
APGC Eglin AFB,
Report PN-3-47-6; 20 August 1947.
Concludes that kytoon is not
functionally superior to M-278 balloon for supporting antenna
of Radio Set AN/CRT-3 in life
rafts.
ATI-64-269.
Edwards, C.P.:
Boundary Layer Profile Measurement System.
E. Bollay Associates, Inc., Boulder, Colorado, NCAR Technical
Note NCAR-TN-16, March 1966 and NCAR Technical Note NCAR-TN-17,
March 1966.
Elliot, Sheldon D., Jr.:
Tethered Aerological Balloon System.
Technical Progress Report 398, U.S. Naval Ordnance Test station,
China Lake, California, September 1965, AD621959.
Engineer Board, Fort Belvoir, Va.:
Photographic Report of the
Projects of the Barrage Balloon Branch from April 1942 to
Project No. BBS-670, October 1943
September 1943.
207
Ferguson, William R., Capt., USAF:

AFCRL Tethered Balloon
Programs.
AFCRL Bedford, Massachusetts, Proceedings, AFCRL
Bcienti'fic Balloon Workshop 1965, AFCRL-66-309, May 1966
Special Report No. 45.
Communications Systems Final Progress Report.
DA-18-001-AMC-638(X),
Balloon Borne
Contract
GER-II987.

Tethered Balloons.
June 1967, ARD-10699.
Dynamic Lift

Flight and Shed
Test on 6000 cu. ft.
Balloon.
October 1950, G0 2319, Seg."
No. 12439Goodyear Aerospace Corporation, Akron, Ohio:
Instruction
Manual for the Captive Balloon Borne Communications System.
Fori
U.S. Army Limited War Laboratory
Goodyear Aerospace Corporation, Akron,
Handling Instructions for 6000 cu. ft.
April 19'68, G'R 1'3820..
Ohio:
Operation and
Balloon (Single Hull
. .

Operation and
Handling Instructions Fort Monmouth 8000 cu. ft.
VEE-BllToon.
August 1967, GER-1343.Goodyear Aerospace Corporation, Akron, Ohio:
Operation and
Maintenance Instructions Mobile LTA Vehicle (TVLF) Model GZ349.
Contract NObsr 93355, January 1966 Report, GER 12586.
Tandem Barrage
Balloon Tests, Part I.
II.
III, GER 1185, Seg7NO. 30440, Air
Corps Contract No. W53sac23601, 1942.
300 Cubic Foot
Model 'VEE-Balloon'
Flight Tests with Launch-Area Screen.
Seg. No, 45674, June 1962.
Goodyear Aerospace Corporation,
Report GER 11082, August 1963.
Akron,
Ohio:
VEE-Balloon.
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio:

Erection, Operation,
and Maintenance Handbook - Navy Model ZK2G Captive Balloons.
February 1946.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., Akron , Ohio:
Handbook of Operation and Service Instructions for the Type D-7 Low Altitude
Barrage Balloon.
Seg. No. 31941, Air Corps. Contract W535ac
24563, 19422
208
Honeywell Aeronautical Division:

Balloon Borne Oil Field
Surveillance System.
Proposal 48-3-150,
1962.
Johnson, J.M.:
Balloon Engineering Design Manual.
General
Mills, Inc., Aeronautical Research Laboratory, Minneapolis,
Minnesota, ATI 179-857.
Laursen, H.G.:
Operation ROLLER COASTER Project Officers
Report -- Project 2.7. Balloon Support.
POR-2510(WT-210);
May 1960.
Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, N.M.
Very similar
to Laursen 's Workshop paper.
AD-462 450.
Ledokhovich, A.A.:
Balloon-Borne Electric Meteorograph.
Leningrad.
Glavnaia Geofizicheskala Observatorila, Trudy 9
No. 154:
105-108, 1964.
Translated by American Meteorological
Society for AFCRL; Dec. 1965.
The design of this balloon-borne
meteorograph includes a special cable that transmits the data
directly to the ground.
AD-630 688.
Leppert, M.L., Shanahan, F.J., and Worsley, D.A.:
BalloonElevated Antennas.
Communications Branch Radio Division,
Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C., NRL Report 4490,
February 1955, AD-56660
Lewis, Glenn W.:
Balloon Borne Radio Communication System.
Army Concept Team InVietnam, APO 143, San Franciscoo
California, April 1965, AD-466 186.
Longden, G.B., M.A.:
Some Characteristics of Kite Balloons as
Targets for Guided Weapons.
Royal Aircraft Establishment
(Farnborough), Technical Note G.W. 242, April 1963 (Confidential)
AD-12542.
Martin, Gruver H.:
Feasibility Study of a Balloon Skyhook.
United States Naval Ordnance Lab., white Oak, Maryland
NOL TR 67-191, December 1967, AD-827280.
Menke, James A.:
Capabilities of Captive Balloon Systems.
Viron Division G.C.A., AFCRL Sclentiric Balloon Symposium,
September 1963.
Navy Department, Bureau of Construction and Repair:
The Type
'M' Kite Balloon Handbook.
Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C., 1919.
Payne, James C.: Balloon Recovery System.
Proceedings, AFCRL
"Scientific Balloon Workshop 1956 ", AFCRL Report No. 66-309,
May 1956.
Samuels, David W.: Analysis of Balloon-Borre Communications
Systems.
U.S. Army Limited War Lab., Technical Memorandum
.U-ISeptember1964, AD-448 720.
209
Special Air Warfare Center, Eglin AFB, Florida:

Evaluation
of the Ground-To-Air Balloon Station Recovery System - Phase II
-With
C-47 Type Aircraft.
Report No. SAWC-TDR-V3-V,
September 1963, AD-420811.
Struble, Dewey: Project NIP Final Report on the Dual Diagnostic
Balloon Arrays for the AJAX Event.
By: Sea-Space Systems, Inc.,
Report SSS 4-069, December 1966.
Tsaig, M.:
Vol.
17,
No.
Barrage Balloons.
23-24; Dec.
Samolet (The Aeroplane) USSR,
9O, pp.
30-32.
R.T.P.
Translation
No. 1289, issued by Ministry of Aircraft Production.

History
and descriptions of foreign types, photos of British, French,
and German balloons, WWII.
U.S. Army Air Corps Technical Regulations No. 1170-215:
Balloons and Accessories.
Washington, May 20, 1929.
Mainly
on standard C-3 observation balloon (type R Caquot).
Weidner, George E.:
Balloon.
Report No.
July-Tn44.
Ballonet Type, Very Low Altitude Barrage

839, The Engineer Board, Fort Belvoir,
Widmer, Emil J.: Military Observation Balloons (Captive and

Free),
Van Nostrand (New York), 1918.
Based on Balloon
manual of the German Army, dealing mainly with Drachen type.
Winker,
Inc.,
James A.:
Sioux,
Tethered Hot Air Balloons.
South Dakota,
Engrg.
Tech.
Raven Industries,
Note 50,
October 1967.
Paper given at 1967 AFCRL Tethered Balloon Workshop.

Fulton Aerial Recovery System for C-123 Aircraft.
1 CAG Project 2D-7,
TAC TR-64-24,
June 1965.
Operational Test and Evaluation Recovery Balloon Deflation

Sstems. TAC TR-66-1-M-1, 1 CAG Project 2D-33, April 196I.
210
CABLES
Alekseev, N.I.:
"On the Equilibrium Shape and Tension of a
Flexible String Acted Upon by External Forces That Are
Functions of the Orientation of the String in Space".
PMM, v 28, n 5, pp 949-951; 1964.
Translated as Journal
of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics.
General three-dimensional solution (in quadratures) for, e.g., string in a
space curve in wind and gravity field.
Anderson, G.F.:
"Optimum Configuration of a Tethering Cable"
Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 4 - No. 3, May-June 1967, pp. 261 263.
British Advisory Committee for Aeronautics:
The Form of a
Heavy Flexible Cable Used for Towing a Heavy Body Below an
aroplane.
Reports and Memoranda, 19z. February 1934.
Brown, I.S.H.:
Development of an 18 Ton Wire Rope Enclosing
an Electrical Power cable. (U), ot. Brit. R.A.Z. TeCh. Note
No. Mech. Ing. 3o7; January 1960.
(Confidential-MBA report)
Successful development of a wire cable carrying heavy power
leads with good strength/weight and fatigue life.
AD-317 047L.
Bryant, L.W., Brown, W.S. and Sweeting,
Researches on Kites and Towed Gliders.
N.E.: Collected
Rand M 232,190.
Burton, Michael B. and Passmore, Harry, III.:

On the
Stability of Airborne Towed Vehicles.
U.S. NavIT-XT
Development Center, JohnsvIlle, Pennsylvania Report No.
May 1962.
Contract N62269-1369.
607,
Steady-State Motion of Cables

Claassen, R.W. and Thorne, C.J.:
in Fluids.
Part 2 Tables of Cable Functions For vertical
Plane Motion. Test Data Division, Pacific Missile Range,
August 1963, AD-429873.
Cushman, G.S.: Cable Fairing Phase Regort.
Training and Experimenzation, January 194w.
Naval Airship
DeFoe, George L.: Resistance of Streamline Wires. Technical

Notes No. 279.
Langiley Memorlal Aeronautical Laboratory,
March 1928.
Genin, I. and Cannon, T.C.:
"Equilibrium Configuration and
Tensions of a Flexible Cable in a Uniform Flowfield"
Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 4 - No. 3, May-June 1967, pp. 200202.
211
The Stability of a Body Towed by a Light Wire.

Glauert, H.:
Rand M 1312 (Ae4-M), Feoruary Ivi3.
On the Action of Wind on Flexible
Great Briton Report:
Cables, with Application to Cables Towed ;elow Aeroplanes and
Great Britain Report and Memorandum 054,
Balloon Cables.
October 1V15.
Mechanical Testing of Glass-Epoxy and Steel
Hanna, G.L.:
Monsanto Research Corp., for WrightCables - Final Report.
Contract No. NrF33615-67patterson AFB, Ohio, October 1967.
C1315.
Fluid Dynamic Drag.
Hoerner, S.F.:
Midland Park, New Jersey, 1953.
Published by Author.
Composite Thermoplastic/Glass
Hofer, P. H., Nalepa, H.J.:
Filament Reinforcement For Buoyant submarine Cables
evelopment
1
Wesearch ana
R0-371XN-1)3U ana Ro-37stM-M)/U.
union carbIae cemicals and Plastics Division, Bound
BOep.t,
February 15, 1968.
Brook, New Jersey.
Etude sur le Ballon Captif et
Lafon, Charles, Commandant:
les Aeronefs Marins. Gauthie"-vzilars et Cie (Paris), 1Z.
inciuaes wind force on catle and effects of motion of
tethering points,
i.e.,
rin a naval vessel.
Laudweber, L. and GrJiminger, G.: Orientation and Position

of a Heavy Body Suspended in a Uniform Current by a Flexible
Report R-T7, August 1941.
C-513. Im
"The Shape and Tension of a
Landweber, L. and Protter, M.:
Journal of
Light Flexible Cable in a Uniform Current".
Applied Mechanics, June 1947, pp. A-121-A-126 also, DTMB
Report 533, October 1944.
Tether for a High Balloon.
McKee, R.B., Jr. and Herzog, S.H.:
12th National SAMPE Symposium, AIAA o...
Merritt, P.H., 1st Lt. USAF and Cunningham, D.K. 1st Lt. USAF:
Some Aerodynamics Characteristics of Tow Targets and Towlines.
Air Proving Ground Center, Eglin AFB, Floriaa AD-471540.
U.S. Naval
Technical Note Towed Bird Dynamic.
Moore, G.T.:
Air Development center, Report so. NALC AW--N-M1ll, October
1961, AD-267879.
212
Morgan, P.O.: A Note on the Drag Force on Wires.

Science Research, sec. A a, ie5..
Applied
NAVWEPS Report 9051: Development of a Glass-Reinforced ResinBonded Cable of Continuous Length, Supplement 1.
NOTS, China
Lake; June 19o.
Supplement 1, NOTS TP 4133.
Merits of
using "cake" single-end glass fiber are discussed, and production of lengths up to 96,000 feet.
AD-811 339.
Neumark, S.: Equilibrium Configuration of Flying Cables of
Captive Balloons, ano cale.
Derivatives for ZtabliIty
calcuMations. G. BrIt. Min. of Aviation, ARC RtM NO. 3333;
3une lvgr (pub. 1963).
Carries Pippard's derivation through
non-lifting (spherical balloon) and no-change-of-incidence
(kite balloon) cases, and indicates natural modes for a
general-case coupled-mode solution, including effects of cable
drag.
AD-365 331.
Ohio Brass Co.: Summary of Voltage Tests in GLASTRAN Cable:
Wet and Dry 60-c p., 2Uu0u.u+ Volts Flashover-Tracktin Report.
For: Facuara ziectric Viviston, Ueneral Motors Corporation,
Warren, Ohio, August 22, 1966.
Packard Electric Division, General Motors Corporation:
Electrical Leakage or Tracking of GLASTRAN Cables. Warren, Ohio
May 1, 197.
GLASTRAN Cables on Pulley Tests Under Cyclic Reversing and
Drop-Load Impact.
warren, Ohio, Apr1i 12, 1967.
IGLASTRANt Urethane Jackets and Their Outdoor Aging Characteristics. warren, Ohio, May 1, 1M57.
Patton, Kirk T., and J.W. Schram.: Equations of Motion for
a Towed Body Moving in a Vertical Plane.
u.s. Navy Underwater. 3ounG Laboratory Report No. 736; 15 June 1966.
Independent derivation, includes cable mass and derivatives
and forcing motion at towing point, gives simple computer
program for solutions.
A number of useful references to the
underwater-towing literature.
AD-635 214.
Phillips, W.H.: Theoretical Analysis of Oscillations of a
Towed Cable.
NACA TN 17M5, January 194w.
Pode, Leonard: A Method of Determining Optimum Lengths of
Towing Cables.
V1 Report 717, April 195O. (supplement
in
march, 1956.)
puolished
213
Tables for Computing the Equili brium ConfiguraPode, Leonard:

PTMO3 Report UU7,
tion of a Flexible Ca'le In a Uniform stream.
March 1U1. (Supplement Published in Septemler 1955).
Potter, R.C.:
The Stability of Captive Balloons for Instrument
Flying, Including Analysis of Multi-Cable Configurations.
wyle Laboratories - Research Staff. Report No. W.R. Ai5-28,
November 1965.
Reid, Walter P.:
Stability of a Towed Object. U.S. Naval
Ordnance Laboratory.
Mathematics Department Report No. M52,
October 1964, AD-'447154.
'rests on Smooth and Stranded
Relf, E.F. and Powell, C.H.:
Wires Inclined to the Wind Diruction, and a Comparison of
Aeronautical
Results on Stranded Wires in Air and water.
Research Committee RandIV307, January 191l.
Ring]eb,
Impact".
F.O.:
"Motion and Stress of an Elastic Cable Due to
Journal of Applied Mechanics, March 1957, pp 417-425.
Evaluation of Titanium Alloy Cables

Rust, T. and Jopson, H.B.:
NADC Johnsville Report N, NTADC-XM-6709;
for Aircraft Use.
Tested in fatigue for use as aircraft control
17 Maarch 1957.
cable or helicopter hoist cable; one alpha-beta and two allAD-811 897.
Limited
had poor fatigue life.
beta cables all
distribution.
Report of Mochanical Tr.~ls on
Schjeldahl, G.T. Company:
P..; 61-388199.
GLASIRAN Balloon Antenna-Type Cable.
For: Packard Electric Division, General Motors Corp.,
Warren, Ohio, . t uly 1967.
Dynamic Analysis of the Tethering Cable Portion
Soldate, A.:
of a High Altitude Tethered Balloon System under Fully
NaItonal Engineering Science Co.,
Deployed Conditions.
Final Report on Contract
Report S-344; October 1966.
Computer study: tentative
N00014-66-C0187, Order No. 756.
conclusion is that 100,000 ft glass-fiber/resin type cable
is suitable.
AD-651 024.
Soviet:
Glazed Frost and Ice Formation on Cables Within the
Translations of Soviet-Bloc Scientific
Territory of the USSR.
and Tochnical Literature, July 28, 1964, AD-603535.
"An Analysis of Critical
Starkey, W. L. and Cress, H.A.:
Stress and Mode of Failure of a Wire Rope". "Journal of
Engineering for Industry',' Page 307, November 1959, ASME.
214
Stevens, G.W.fl.:
lia~l~m5
Factors AffectIng the Desl n of a System
arnborough),
(fl
*pem ir
09,
AD-296137.
Taylor, David. Model Basin: A Fortran Program for the

Calculating of the Equilibrium configuatiofll of a Flexible
Molle in a Uniform U tream. Report 1805e, march 1954.
Wald and Quentin: interim Engineeringf Report on an Analysis
ec to Wnd and rayiz
e
of the Forces ina 7111 Va *ou
ie~port' NO. U-011
Connecticut,
KmAnA Alrcrarf corp., nlrooEM313l,
April 1954.
Walton, T.S. and Palacheck,H.: Calculation of Nfonlinear
Transient Motion of Cables: Davla Tayjor Voaci Basini xeport
1 co~aensea paper is given In "Mathematics of
129 199
Computation" (The Siam Review) No. 69-72, 1960, pp 27-46.
Whicker, L.F.: 'The Oscillatory Notion of Cabled-Towed Bodies.
University of Callror511. inst itute or Ingine-ering research,
Berkeley, California. May 1, 1957, AD135265.
Woodward, W.C.: Aerial Tow Target System Studies Final Regort.
U.S. Naval Air Dev~eopmenz Center, donnnvziii-,- Pennsylvania
June 1966. Report No. NADC-ED-8640.
213
HIGH ALTITUDE TETHERED BALLOONS

Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique:
High-Altitude Measure-
ments on Natural Radioactivity (Mesure do I& RadlOac-yvite

W'aturelle 33 j'Air en Alftiude a l'Aide 4'un gallon ca-ptif
Cirenoble (France). Centre dwEtudes Nuclsalres. 3 p in
French; 1965. N67-23731.
Conley, William F.: High Altitude Tethered Balloon Design.
Goodyear Aerospace Corporation, AKron, VEio, 6ooay-ear
Engineering Report GER-l3501, October 1967.
Conley, William F.: High Altitude Tethered Balloon System
Study. Goodyear Aerospace corporation, AMRo, Onio, Task
ie-port No. 3 GER-13667, ARPA Contract F19628-67-C-0l45,
January 1968.
Doyle, George R. Jr.: Mathematical Model for the Ascent and
Descent of a High Altitucle-Tetnere Balloon. Goodyear
Aerospace Corporation, WKon, unto, GuRn-1
04,July 1968.
Prepared for Second Aerodynamic Deceleration Systems Conference of AIAA at El Centro, Calif.
Elliot. Shelden D., Jr.: Tethered Aerological Balloon System,
U.S. Naval Ordnance Toot SaTIzon, China LIaxe, caziiornia,
Technical Progress Report 398, September 1965, AD 621-959.
Goodyear Aerospace Corporation, Akron, Ohio: Configuration
Trade-Off Study for a High Altitude Tethered Balloon System.
For Sylvan uinabury, tLta., new Yorl City, NIow TSorx, 'sii-1360,
March 1968.
Goodyear Aerospace Corporation), Akron, Ohio: FeasbilitZ
Study High-Altitude Tethered B~alloon System for Avanced
ResercnProect Agn X
Teftji'fLIT Report GIN-11lS57,
=contract V- 9, October 1963.
Menke, James A.: High-Altitude Tethered Balloon Systems Study

Goodyear Aerospace Corporation, Axron, Onlo, TasK Report N.L
GER-13260l ARPA Contract F19628-67-C-0145, May 1967.
216
Molded Latex Products, Inc., Patterson, New Jersey:

High Altitude Balloon Research and Development - Fourth
Quarterly Report." Signal Corps Contract No. DA-36-039-ac-4,
Project no. 17z-B, July 1950.
Vitro Laboratories Division of Vitro Corporation of America:
One-Hundred-Thousand Foot Tethered Balloon Feasibility Study
(U). Technical Report TROH530.Ol-1, ARPA Contract 3DZ01,
(Confidential)
October 1963.
Concept for an Extremely High Altitude
Vorachek, Jerome:
Gooayear Aerospace Corporation,
Tethered Balloon System.
Arcron, Ohio, GER-13852, July 1968.
High Altitude Tethered Balloon System
Vorachek, Jerome:
Goodyear Aerospace corporation, Axron, Onlo, Task
Study.
Ieport No. 2, GER-13552, ARPA Contract F19628-67-C-0145,
November 1967.
High Altitude Tethered Balloon Systems
Vorachek, Jerome:
Study. Goodyear Aerospace Corporation, Axron, Ohio,
eport No. 5 GER-13790, ARPA Contract F19628-67-C-0145,
as
March 1968.
217
LOWOIiN
BALLOONS
Goodyear Aerospace Corporation:

Balloon Logging Systems:
Phase I - Analytical Study; Phase 11 - Logitlcs
iStud-. 1964.
Vontract
1V-40
wItI, Forest service, u.S. Dept. or Agriculture.
Thorough analysis and discussion in two volumes.

Compares
single-hull and Vee-Ballo)n technically and logistically.
Ooodyear Aerospace Corporationt
Logging Balloon Configurations.
Analysis for U. S. Forest Service Proposea Ynase III Program.
OER-11823, November 1964.
Lyion., Hilton H. et al.: Logging Test of a Sinle.-Hull

Balloon.
U.S. Forest Service Kesearcii
7F per Fw-30; INS,6.
TrITFlests,
time study,
conclusions.
Mann, Charles N.:

Forces in Balloon Logging,
U.S. Forest
Service Research Note PM-28; August 103. Brief analysis of
static,
aerodynamic, and inertia loads.
Pohl, Russell A.: The Use of a Tethered, 15,000 Pound Gross
Lift Natural Shaped Balloon ror Remote Logging operations.
maven naus'tries, Inc., Sioux Falis, Soutn DaKota, october, 1967.
Paper given at 1967 AFCRL Tethered Balloon Workshop.
Stein, D.E. and Shindo, S.: A Wind Tunnel Test of a Single
Hulled Balloon at Extreme Angle o? Attack. University or
wasnington Aeru,.autical Lab.
UWAL VD1, February 1968.
Swarthout, Colburn D,:
Aerodynamic Forces on Logging dalloon.
MS Thesis, U. of Washington, 1V07. Sponsored Dy U.S. Forest
Service.
Drag, lift,
and moments from wind-tunnel tests of
Vee-Balloon and Class-C balloon models, and longitudinal and
vertical added masses from water oscillations tests.
Wood,
1967,
Nat:"Factory in
pp 20-29.
the Forest".
218
Machine Design,
November 9,
MISCELLANEOUS
Bird, W.G.: The influence of Atmospheric Hum!!4ity-a
fioiai
The7T
-i~z
f.ir
Un.LM 6'XTirsi
Factors Upon th
Aer~blautical Society, 1593.
ther
Electra-Mechanics Company, Austin, Texas: Balloon Handling

Contract No. AF 30(602)-1884, N-ovember l93ow
Tehise
Project No. 4840, Task No. 45166, interim Report No. 1.
Ferguson, W.R.: AFCRL Tethered Balloon Programs. AFCRL66-309, Air Force Cambrlage ResearcH Ea~oratories, May 1966.
Green, Roger Z.; U.S. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries:
"Balloons For Marine Observations". Sea Frontier, pp 130-137.
Haydon, 1F. Stanuburg: Aeronautics In the Union and
Confederate Armies. with a survey or muiliary aeronautics
Prior to 2561, T5e Johns Hopkins Press, 1941.
Hess, Joseph; Statistics of Parameters Affecting Tethered
Balloon Flights'. July, 1906. Air yorce Surveys in 05opnysics,
NO. 15W, AYGHE66-480. Climatological statistics of parameters
aftecting tethered balloon flights are presented for a proposed tetnered balloon project at Key West, Florida.
AD 637853.
High Voltage Lab., General Elbc~t~ric Company, 'No. Pittsfield,
Mass.: A FailtyStudy of improved Lightning Protection
LaV., Contrac? No0.sstems. U.M. NavlV!Civi nie~riii~
NffZ7'60, Report No. 64PT146, August 1964, AD-451034.
Ingram, David M., Major USA3Y and Uullion, Jimmie L, T. Sgt.
USAF: Estimated Frequencies of Potential Icini Conditions
at Speclried Altitudes. Air weafnier s3er-vice tHATS; WAIF,
Tech. Report 132, September 1964, AD-446047.
Kelly, T.W., editor: ProceedingsAFCRL Tethere~d Balloon
Workshop. AFCRL-68-0OUT ir F7oTtiiT~jir3iiT-eii7rbWLabo-ratorles, March, 1968.
JLymons, Hilton H.: Compatibility of Balloon Fabrics with
Ammonia. Forest anld fange V~p-eri61if^sT&afon,' Fortlang,
Oregon, U.S. Forest Service Research Paper, PNW-42,
September 1966.
229
Ross, R.S.: A New Material Capability for the Balloon Field.

in Proceedings 1904 AFGHL Scientific Bai~on OympoNIUM; Air
Force Surveys in Geophysics No. 167, AFCRL-65-486; July 1965.
Diticusses use of Goodyear AIRMAT in tethered balloons, inter
alia. AD-619 695.
Ruffenach, Gene: CorngatibilitZ of Balloon Fabrics with
Ammonia. OCA Viron Div. Report 3-ii77.0; regbruary IMF5.
Fin'a. eport on Forest Service contract 19-50. Neoprenenylon fabric and neoprene-adhesive seams had good life in
NH3 at 100% relative humidity.
Schrivner, John H. Jr, Captain USAF: The Military Use of
Balloons and Dirigibles in the United States 1793 - I
Thesis ror uni1versity or olcianoma 15raduafe C~ollege, 198T.
Smalley, Justin H.: Balloon Design Data in Gore Length Units.
AFCRL 65-447, June 1915..
U.S. Air Forces Historical Division: BraeBalloon
Development In the United States Army AIFir orisT9=- 1942.
By Assisanx unier or Air Staff, intelligence, Historical
Division, Army Air Forces Historical Studies; No. 3,
Dec. 1943.
Upson, Ralph H., Chandler, Charles deForest: Free and Captive Balloons. New York, The Ronald Press, 1926.
y1
covers fecn-noiogt
to its date, but without much detailed
aerodynamic or mk
.~.I.atica1 detail. Includes extensive
section on fabric for gas envelopes.
Weidner, George E.: Flying Accessories, TandemI B.B. V.L*A*
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 73or; Belvoir, Va., Kepol 137.
795, Feb. 15, 1944, ATI 9e455.
Wilcox, R.C.: Report on Generation of Hydrogen for Barrae
Balloons. National Derense ijesear-cn V555m~zuiee, Office oRe
15clentlric Re varch and Development, Serial No. 228,
April 1942, AT!.
Young, Edward F., Captain USAF: Tethered Balloons: Present
and Future. AIAA 2nd Aerodynamic Deceierition Systems,
Conference-, El Centro, Calif., AXAA Paper No. 68-941,
Sept. 25, 1968.
220
Lnclassified
wurity Ctoleustifcton
IORIGINATING
eueflff)
ACTIVItV ( *Ipose
4 CIRICRIPTIVE NOTES (7Ypo94,

of.pot
-.
cientifio.
I. AUJTHOR(S) (Piteh
and IneDuel,.
Final.
dAatea96
1.May 198-
r0IIt6IkRIVC A0%
tAtIO
31 December 1968. Approved 7 Feb. 1969
naln,. middle Inijtjil, Iasi n~e)
Philip 4. M~yers
~70.
N'veb~
Tjovemb~r
is.
CONTRACT ON GRANT NO.
jq 9626-68-C-0311
It.PROJECTNoatr85k
No., Work Unit No.
6665-07-01
c-'i 6Lenient 63140917F

d.Doi) Subelement 636000
TOTAL NO. OF PAGES1
741.NO. or NitrS
602287
go. OPRIGINATOR's
RapouRT NUMBeR(S)
rIER 1Llhl2
____________________
ob. OTHSR REPORT NO(S) (Any of.., nisaiboie $11tMAY 66 Assigned
AFica-69-0017(I
01I1TRINUTION GTATEMSNT
of this document is unlimited. It may be released to the

Y aringhouse, Department of Commerce# for sale to the general public.
-9LJ atribution
II,
.. :h~n~
OE
TC#OTHER
III.
AOSTACT
111,, SPONSORING MILITARY ACTIVITY
Air Force Cambride Research

Laboratories (CREr
oL.Q
HancomField
Bdod
13
jscuet
The 'Tetherod b~alloon Hiandbook is a single volume reference covering the

history, development, applications, and listings of available modern
equipment for tat~hered balloon activities of an engineering or scientific
nature*
DD I OV$0.1473
Unclassified
5.CwMY, Clhmfification
Ua"
II
I~IO
_ _
__0101
V4
"tit.
N
.-
--
Aerostatics
balloons
balloon
Jalloon
Lalloon
LAlloon
Cables
Captive
Lnvelope Materials
Handling
Instrumentation
Jperating Sites
Balloons
IKite Jalloons
Lifting a)sees
Tethered Balloons
Te there
1.4inches
Unelasufaied
securty Clasificettion
0~l
'Ai

Tethered Bailoon Handbook

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Tethered Bailoon Handbook

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Tethered Bailoon Handbook

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AFC RL -69-0017(l)/

TETHERED BAILOON HANDBOOK (REVISED)

I May 1968 - 31 December 1968

Contract Monitor: Edward F. Young, Captain, USAF

Distribution of this document is unlimited. It may be released to the

AVAILABLE. TIM COPY

BEST AVAILABLE COPY

THIS DOCUMENT CONTAINED

Qualified requestors may obtain additional copies fro)m the Defense

IiALi)ON IIANDBOOI(K (IIVTSICI))

1 May 1968 - 31 December 1968

Contract Monitor: Edward F. Young, Captain, USAF

Distribution of this document is unlimited. It may be released to the

ENVELOPE MATERIALS. .................

Available Winches ...........

BALLOON HANDLING .............

HELIUM FACT SHEETS ............

TETHERED BALLOON SITES ..............

Double Tethered Balloon, Early French, 1795

Lowe's Balloon Washington Aboard the Custis During Americaj

German Drachen Towed by Torpedo Boat (Smithsonian Institutio,,i) ....

Handling a Balloon Aboard Navy Ship (Wingfoot Lighter-Than-Air

Goodvear Aerospace Vee-Bailoon

Balloon Drag Coefficient at Zero Angle of Attack Versus

External Dilation Conf igu ration

bIternal ilallonet Configuration

Typical Balloon -Logging Systra.

Tandem Balloon Sk homnes.

General Arrangement of Tandum liall.)ons.

Balloon With Internal Nose Girder and Surge C'urtain....

Fulton Skyhook 1allooti - Personnel Hericue System)

Effect of Intercept Altitude on t-oad Trzajectoiry lm- Fulton Skyhook

'4 riace -to-Air

Typical Balloon Manufacturar's Inquiry Sheet ..

Strength to Weight Comparisons - Film Cloth Versus

Bedded-Down Natulral Shape Balloon.

Specific Lift of Games at Various Altitudes ..

Lift of Dry Hydrogen Versus Temperature, Pressure, and Purity

Specific Lift Versus Altitude

Gross Lift Versus Diameter for Hot-Air Balloon.

Dry Helium Versus Temperature, Pressure, and P~urity

Constant Balloon Temperature ..

Stress-Strain Curves for Nylon, Dacron. and Cotton Yarn.

Goodyear Boomerang Balloun

Maximum Authorized Operating Limits for Raven S-50 Balloon

Hot-Air Balloon Envelope Dimplng Limits .....

Internal and Skin Temperature Profile of Hot-Air Balloon

Electrical-Driven Helium Compressor .....

Air-Dropped Inflation Gear Kit for 750 CuLic Foot Balloon

Hydrogen Processed by the Acid-Metal Process During the

Giffard's Captiv.'e Balloon (25, 000 Cubic Meters) and Steam

AFCRL Balloon Tethering Site - WSMR, New Mexico ..

Types of Winch Installations ..........

Basic Tethered Balloon Winch System Components .

Largest Winch at Holloman AFB, 1968 .......

Fleet Az.gle ....................

American Chain and Cable Co. Retrieving Winch ...

Smith-Berger Winch at Holloman AFB .....

Data Sheet for Capstan Type Winches

Glastran Elongation No. 1 for Various Diameters .....