460

A
~ "~

arths atmosphere is unique. No other planet in our solar system has an atmosphere with the
exact mixture of gases or the heat and moisture conditions necessary to sustain life as we know
it. The gases that make up Earths atmosphere and the controls to which they are subject are
vital to our existence. In this chapter we begin our examination of the ocean of air in which we all must
live. We try to answer a number of basic questions: What is the composition of the atmosphere? At
what point do we leave the atmosphere and enter outer space? What causes the seasons? How is air
heated? What factors control temperature variations over the globe?

FOCUS om CONCEPTS
,

To assist you i11 learning the important concepts in this chapter, focus on the following questions:
1: What is weather? How is it different from climate?
ti: What are the basic elements of weather and climate?
25> What are the major components of clean, dry air?
What is ozone and why is it important to life on Earth?
i;-*1 How do pressure and temperature change from Earth's surface to the top of the atmosphere?
What causes the seasons?
How do the noon sun angle and the length of daylight change between an equinox and a solstice?
What paths does solar radiation take once it is intercepted by Earth?
How is the atmosphere heated?
What causes temperatures to vary from place to place?

Focus on the Atmosphere

and blizzards, are collectively more frequent and more damaging in the United States than in any other nation. Beyond its direct

Weather inuences our everyday activities, our jobs, and our

health and comfort. Many of us pay little attention to the weather

impact on the lives of individuals, the weather has a strong effect

unless we are inconvenienced by it or when it adds to our enjoyment outdoors. Nevertheless, there are few other aspects of our

water resources, transportation, and industry.

Weather clearly inuences our lives a great deal. Yet it is also
important to realize that people inuence the atmosphere and its

physical environment that affect our lives more than the phe-

nomena we collectively call the weather.

Weather in the United States

The United States occupies an area that stretches from the tropics ofHawaii to beyond the Arctic circle in Alaska. It has thousands
of miles of coastline and extensive regions that are far from the

inuence of the ocean. Some landscapes are mountainous and

others are dominated by plains. It is a place where Pacific storms
strike the West Coast while the East is sometimes inuenced by
events in the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. For those in the center of the country, it is common to experience weather events trig-

gered when frigid southward-bound Canadian air masses clash

with northward-moving ones from the Gulf of Mexico.
Stories about weather are a routine part of the daily news.
Articles and items about the effects of heat, cold, oods, drought,

fog, snow, ice, and strong winds are commonplace. Of course,

storms of all kinds are frequently front-page news.
sr
provides some examples.
The United States has the greatest variety of weather of any
country in the world. Severe weather events such as tornadoes,
ash oods, and intense thunderstorms, as well as hurricanes

on the world economy by inuencing agriculture, energy use,

behavior as well. There are, and will continue to be, significant

political and scientific decisions that must be made involving

these impacts. Answers to questions regarding air pollution and

its control and the effects of various emissions on global climate
and the atmospheres ozone layer are important examples. So

there is a need for increased awareness and understanding of our

atmosphere and its behavior.

Weather and Climate

Acted on by the combined effects of Earths motions and energy
from the Sun, our planets formless and invisible envelope of air
reacts by producing an infinite variety of weather, which in turn

creates the basic pattern of global climates. Although not identical, weather and climate have much in common.
Weather is constantly changing, sometimes from hour to hour
and at other times from day to day. It is a term that refers to the
state of the atmosphere at a given time and place. Whereas
changes in the weather are continuous and sometimes seemingly

erratic, it is nevertheless possible to arrive at a generalization of

these variations. Such a description of aggregate weather conditions is termed climate. It is based on observations that have been
accumulated over many years. Climate is often defined simply as

Focus on the Atmosphere

461

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ii1i{.%'iiiti:ji "it?-.'ji There are few aspects of our physical environment that inuence our daily lives more than the weather. The United States
experiences 8. remarkable variety Of weather events. (Photo credits clockwise from left are Tomas del Amo/Photolibrary; G. Delaurentis; AP Photo/Michael Dwyer;
Eric Nguyen/Photo Researchers; NASA)

average weather, but this is an inadequate definition. In order to

more accurately portray the character of an area, variations and
extremes must also be included, as well as the probabilities that
such departures will take place. For example, it is not only necessary for farmers to know the average rainfall during the growing season, but it is also important to know the frequency of
extremely wet and extremely dry years. Thus, climate is the sum
of all statistical weather information that helps describe a place or

I}Fl*.-iTfil%.'E.i .i.t'i.;Z Graph showing daily temperature data for New York
City. In addition to the average daily maximum and minimum
temperatures for each month, extremes are also shown. As this graph
shows, there can be significant departures from average.
48
44

region.

Suppose you were planning a vacation trip to an unfamiliar

place. You would probably want to know what kind ofweather to
expect. Such information would help as you selected clothes to
pack and could inuence decisions regarding activities you might
engage in during your stay. Unfortunately, weather forecasts that
go beyond a few days are not very dependable. Thus, it would not
be possible to get a reliable weather report about the conditions
you are likely to encounter during your vacation.
Instead, you might ask someone who is familiar with the area
about what kind of weather to expect. Are thunderstorms common? Does it get cold at night? Are the afternoons sunny?
What you are seeking is information about the climate, the conditions that are typical for that place. Another useful source of
such information is the great variety of climate tables, maps, and
graphs that are available. For example, the graph in :i.7ig.t.Ei7-3 is.;?.
shows average daily high and low temperatures for each month,
as well as extremes for New York City.
Such information could no doubt help as you planned your
trip. But it is important to realize that climate data ccmnot predict
the weather. Although the place may usually (climatically) be
warm, sunny, and dry during the time ofyour planned vacation,
you may actually experience cool, overcast, and rainy weather.
There is a well-known saying that summarizes this idea: Climate
is what you expect, but weather is what you get."

Record
daily highs

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Average
daily highs

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462

CHAPTER 16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature

The nature of weather and climate is expressed in terms of

Concentration
in parts per
million (ppm)

the same basic elements, those quantities or properties that are

measured regularly. The most important are (1) air temperature,

(2) humidity, (3) type and amount of cloudiness, (4) type and
amount of precipitation, (5) air pressure, and (6) the speed and
direction of the wind. These elements are the major variables from
which weather patterns and climate types are deciphered.
Although you will study these elements separately at first, keep

Carbon dioxide

<0-Mi .i:r:. s~.:.>., 12:2.

lTAll others

(0.0389% or 389 ppm)

Methane (cl-1,) 1.5

Krypton (Kr)

1.14

Hydrogen (H2)

0.5

Oxygen
(20.946%)

in mind that they are very much interrelated. A change in any one

of the elements will often bring about changes in the others.

Nitrogen

(7s.0s4%)

l
n

CONCEPT cnscx 1 6. 1

..Ir" .

33):

0 Distinguish between weather and climate.

Q List the basic elements of weather and climate

'; _';-3;

?'
F Proportional volume of gases composing dry air.
Nitrogen and oxygen clearly dominate.

Composition of the
Atmosphere
Z-l n1 fl"!
Amg

Earths Dynamic Atmosphere

A Introduction to the Atmosphere

Air is not a unique element or compound. Rather, air is a mixture of

many discrete gases, each with its own physical properties, in which
varying quantities of tiny solid and liquid particles are suspended.

Major Components
The composition of air is not constant; it varies from time to time
and from place to place (Box 16.1). If the water vapor, dust, and

Water Vapor The amount ofwater vapor in the air varies considerably, from practically none at all up to about 4 percent byvolume. Why
is such a small fraction ofthe atmosphere so signicant? Certainly the
fact that water vapor is the source of all clouds and precipitation
would be enough to explain its importance. However, water vapor
has other roles. Like carbon dioxide, it has the ability to absorb heat
given offby Earth as well as some solar energy. It is therefore important when we examine the heating of the atmosphere.

When water changes from one state to another (see

Figure 17.2, p. 491), it absorbs or releases heat. This energy is
termed latent heat, which means hidden heat. As we shall see in
later chapters, water vapor in the atmosphere transports this latent
heat from one region to another, and it is the energy source that
helps drive many storms.

other variable components were removed from the atmosphere,

we would find that its makeup is very stable worldwide up to an

altitude of about 80 kilometers (50 miles).
As you can see in =
.1, two gases-nitrogen and oxygenmake up 99 percent of the volume of clean, dry air. Although
these gases are the most plentiful components of air and are of
great significance to life on Earth, they are of minor importance

Aerosols

The movements of the atmosphere are sufficient to

Air includes many gases and particles that vary significantly from
time to time and place to place. Important examples include
water vapor, dust particles, and ozone. Although usually present
in small percentages, they can have significant effects on weather

keep a large quantity of solid and liquid particles suspended

within it. Although visible dust sometimes clouds the sky, these
relatively large particles are too heavy to stay in the air for very
long. Still, many particles are microscopic and remain suspended
for considerable periods of time. They may originate from many
sources, both natural and human made, and include sea salts
from breaking waves, fine soil blown into the air, smoke and soot
from res, pollen and microorganisms lifted by the wind, ash and
dust from volcanic eruptions, and more (.
:r
Collectively, these tiny solid and liquid particles are called aerosols.
Prom a meteorological standpoint, these tiny, often invisible
particles can be significant. First, many act as surfaces on which
water vapor can condense, an important function in the formation
of clouds and fog. Second, aerosols can absorb, reect, and scatter incoming solar radiation. Thus, when an air-pollution episode
is occurring or when ash lls the sky following a volcanic eruption,
the amount of sunlight reaching Earths surface can be measurably reduced. Finally, aerosols contribute to an optical phenomenon we have all observedthe varied hues of red and orange at

and climate.

sunrise and sunset (Figure 16/IB).

in affecting weather phenomena. The remaining 1 percent of dry

air is mostly the inert gas argon (0.93 percent) plus tiny quantities

of a number of other gases. Carbon dioxide, although present in

only minute amounts (0.037 percent), is nevertheless an important constituent of air. Carbon dioxide is of great interest to meteorologists because it is an efficient absorber of energy emitted by
Earth and thus inuences the heating of the atmosphere.

Variable Components

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B.

FIrZi'i.'iIRE "text A. This satellite image from November 11, 2002, shows two examples of aerosols. First, a large dust storm is blowing across
northeastern China toward the Korean Peninsula. Second, a dense haze toward the south (bottom center) is human-generated air pollution.
(NASA Image) B. Dust in the air can cause sunsets to be especially colorful. (Photo by Steve Elmore/CORBIS/The Stock Market)

Ozone Another important component of the atmosphere is

ozone. It is a form of oxygen that combines three oxygen atoms
into each molecule (O3). Ozone is not the same as oxygen we
breathe, which has two atoms per molecule (O2). There is very
little of this gas in the atmosphere, and its distribution is not uniform. In the lowest portion of the atmosphere, ozone represents
less than one part in 100 million. It is concentrated well above the
surface in a layer called the stratosphere, between 10 and 50 kilometers (6 and 31 miles).
In this altitude range, oxygen molecules (O2) are split into single atoms of oxygen (O) when they absorb ultraviolet radiation
emitted by the Sun. Ozone is then created when a single atom of
oxygen (O) and a molecule of oxygen (O2) collide. This must happen in the presence of a third, neutral molecule that acts as a
catalyst by allowing the reaction to take place without itselfbeing
consumed in the process. Ozone is concentrated in the 10- to 50kilometer height range because a crucial balance exists there: The
ultraviolet radiation from the Sun is sufficient to produce single
atoms of oxygen, and there are enough gas molecules to bring
about the required collisions.
The presence of the ozone layer in our atmosphere is crucial
to those of us who dwell on Earth. The reason is that ozone
absorbs the potentially harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from
the Sun. If ozone did not filter a great deal of the ultraviolet radiation, and if the Suns UV rays reached the surface of Earth undiminished, our planet would be uninhabitable for most life as we
know it. Thus, anything that reduces the amount of ozone in the
atmosphere could affect the well-being of life on Earth. Iust such
a problem exists and is described in the next section.

Ozone Depletion-A Global Issue

Although stratospheric ozone is 10-50 kilometers above Earths
surface, it is vulnerable to human activities. Chemicals we produce are breaking up ozone molecules in the stratosphere, weakening our shield against UV rays. This loss of ozone is a serious
global-scale environmental problem. Measurements over the past
three decades confirm that ozone depletion is occurring worldwide and is especially pronounced above Earth's poles. You can
see this effect over the South Pole in Figiire '_re.5.
Over the past 60 years, people have unintentionally placed the
ozone layer in jeopardy by polluting the atmosphere. The most signicant ofthe offending chemicals are known as chlorofluorocarborrs
(CFCs for short). Over the decades, many uses were developed for
CFCs: coolants for air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment,
cleaning solvents for electronic components, propellants for aerosol
sprays, and the production of certain plastic foams.
Because CFCs are practically inert (i.e. not chemically active)
in the lower atmosphere, some ofthese gases gradually make their
way to the ozone layer, where sunlight separates the chemicals
into their constituent atoms. The chlorine atoms released this way
break up some of the ozone molecules.
Because ozone filters out most of the UV radiation from the
Sun, a decrease in its concentration permits more of these harmful wavelengths to reach Earths surface. The most serious threat
to human health is an increased risk of skin cancer. An increase
in damaging UV radiation also can impair the human immune
system as well as promote cataracts, a clouding of the eye lens
that reduces vision and may cause blindness if not treated. 463

464

CHAPTER 16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature

Box 16.1 l
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Altering the
Atmospheres
ComposrtzonSources
and Types ofAir
Pollution
Air pollutants are airborne particles and
gases that occur in concentrations that
endanger the health and well-being of
organisms or disrupt the orderly functioning
of the environment. (Figure fl6.A). One category of pollutants, the primary pollutants,
are emitted directly from identifiable
sources. They pollute the air immediately
upon being emitted. The most significant

primary pollutants are carbon monoxide

(CO), nitrogen oxides (NOX), sulfur dioxide
(S02), volatile organic compounds (VOC),
and particulate matter (PM). Figure '16.B
shows percentages calculated on the basis
of weight. Important sources include industrial processes, electrical generation, solid
waste disposal, and transportation (cars,
trucks, trains, airplanes, etc.). In the United
States the tens of millions of cars and trucks
on the roads are the greatest contributors.
Sometimes the direct impact of primary
pollutants on human health and the environment is less severe than the effects of the
secondary pollutants they form. Secondary
pollutants are not emitted directly into the
air, but form in the atmosphere when reactions take place among primary pollutants.
The chemicals that make up smog are important examples, as is the sulfuric acid that
falls as acid precipitation. After the primary
pollutant, sulfur dioxide, is emitted into the
atmosphere, it combines with oxygen to produce sulfur trioxide, which then combines
with water to create this irritating and corrosive acid.
Many reactions that produce secondary
pollutants are triggered by strong sunlight
and so are called photochemical reactions.
One common example occurs when nitrogen
oxides absorb solar radiation, initiating a
chain of complex reactions. When certain
volatile organic compounds are present, the
result is the formation of a number of undesirable secondary products that are very
reactive, irritating, and toxic. Collectively,

Particulates

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Carbon Monoxide
62.9%
'-*- .

fa

FIGURE '.l.6.B Emissions estimates of

primary pollutants for the United States in
2008. Percentages are calculated on the
basis of weight. The total for 2008 was 124
II1illiOI1 1;O11S. (Data from the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency)

this noxious mixture of gases and particles

is called photochemical smog.
Between 1980 and 2008, emissions of the
five major primary pollutants dropped significantly. The aggregate decrease amounted to
about 54 percent. During that same span,
U.S. population increased by more than onethird, energy consumption was up by 29 percent, and vehicle miles traveled increased 91
percent (Figure 16.0). Despite this progress,
about 124 million tons of pollutants were
emitted into U.S. skies in 2008 and nearly 127
million people lived in counties where monitored air quality was unhealthy at times
because of high levels of photochemical
smog or one of the primary air pollutants.

140%

Vehicle
miles
traveled

120%
100%

li
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80%

91%

60%

40%
29%

34%

/in

0% ..

l
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U.S. population
\

Energy
consumption

-20%

FIGURE 'l6.A This crowded freeway

reminds us that the transportation category
is a major contributor to air pollution.
Emissions from an individual vehicle are
generally low, relative to the smokestack
image many people associate with air
pollution. However, in numerous cities across
the country, the personal automobile is the
single greatest polluter, when emissions from
millions of vehicles are added together. (Photo

FIGURE 16.C Between 1980 and 2008 vehicle miles traveled

increased 91 percent, energy consumption increased 29 percent,
and U.S. population increased 34 percent. During that same time
span, total emissions of the principal pollutants decreased 54

by Visions of America/Purestock/SuperStock)

percent. (After U.S. Environmental Protection Agency)

-40%
-60%
1980

._x

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Aggregate emissions

"

-54%
l

95 96 97 98 99 O0 O1 O2 03 O4 O5 O6 O7 O81

Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere

465

Vertical Structure
of the Atmosphere
gm

"":uZ--l F11. f

Earth's Dynamic Atmosphere

b Introduction to the Atmosphere

To say that the atmosphere begins at Earths

surface and extends upward is obvious. However, where does the atmosphere end and
outer space begin? There is no sharp boundary; the atmosphere rapidly thins as you travel
away from Earth, until there are too few gas
molecules to detect.
1979

Ozone (Dobson Units)_

Ipilnpln-q-Inn,

110 220 330

2999

Pressure Changes

440 550

To understand the vertical extent ofthe atmosphere, let us examine the changes in the
atmospheric pressure with height. Atmospheric pressure is simply the weight of the air
above. At sea level, the average pressure is
slightly more than 1,000 millibars. This corresponds to a weight of slightly more than 1 kilogram per square
centimeter (14.7 pounds per square inch). Obviously the pressure at higher altitudes is less (Fifl.i1* 16.43).

i?.itii;riii=.: 'ii5.5 These satellite images show ozone distribution in the Southern Hemisphere
in 1979 and 2009. The dark blue colors over Antarctica correspond to the region with the
sparsest ozone, called the ozone hole, which forms during the Southern Hemisphere spring.
In 2009 the ozone hole covered an area about the size of North America. (NASA)

Students Sometimes Ask...

Isnt ozone some sort of pollutant?
Yes, youre right. Although the
naturally occurring ozone in
the stratosphere is critical to
life on Earth, it is regarded as a
pollutant when produced at
ground level because it can
damage vegetation and be
harmful to human health.

Ozone is a major component in

a noxious mixture of gases and
particles called photochemical
smog. It forms as a result of
reactions triggered by sunlight
that occur among pollutants
emitted by motor vehicles and
industries.

F'irf.iili?IiE; .i6.If:I; Atmospheric pressure variation with altitude. The rate

of pressure decrease with an increase in altitude is not constant.
Rather, pressure decreases rapidly near Earths surface and more
gradually at greater heights.

as ----r

__

.- am.

__

l ll

F
l

onIv

In response to this problem, an international agreement

known as the Montreal Protocol was developed under the sponsorship ofthe United Nations to eliminate the production and use
of CFCs. More than 180 nations eventually ratified the treaty.
Although relatively strong action has been taken, CFC levels
in the atmosphere will not drop rapidly. Once in the atmosphere,
CFC molecules can take many years to reach the ozone layer, and
once there, they can remain active for decades. This does not
promise a near-term reprieve for the ozone layer.
According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the
ozone layer has not grown thinner since 1998 over most of the
world. Between 2060 and 2075 the abundance of ozone-depleting
gases is projected to fall to values that existed before the ozone
hole began to form in the 1980s.

I
28

,
F

l\3 C)

E.

-.:..
.

Q What are the two major components of clean, dry air?

Q Why are water vapor and aerosols important constituents of
Earth's atmosphere?
Q What is ozone? Why is ozone important to life on Earth?

N i(1o2j,soo;a)-

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466

CHAPTER 16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature

One half of the atmosphere lies below an altirude of 5.6 kilometers (3.5 miles). At about 16 kilometers (10 miles), 90 percent of the atmosphere
has been traversed, and above 100 kilometers (62
miles), only 0.00003 percent of all the gases making up the atmosphere remains. Even so, traces of
our atmosphere extend far beyond this altitude,
gradually merging with the emptiness of space.

,_
140

'90

130

89
I

120

70

110

I
100

Temperature Changes

By the early 20 century, much had been learned

about the lower atmosphere. The upper atmosphere was partly known from indirect methods.
Data from balloons and kites had revealed that the
air temperature dropped with increasing height
above Earths surface. This phenomenon is felt by
anyone who has climbed a high mountain and is
obvious in pictures of snowcapped mountaintops
rising above snow-free lowlands (li7llte
We
divide the atmosphere vertically into four layers
on the basis of temperature (Fiiiu'i;'e 16.8).

60

90
so 59

__,

Metor

'ght
He
km) ow~.IQca

Fmper
afure

_ 59

__

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--

l3

my

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50
40 _
30 _
_ Maximum ozone
20

Stratopause
I
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__ 30

I
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He
ght
mes)
I

I
_
~ 20
10

. which
.
Tro p olaause
IE
Troposphere The bottom layer 1n
we
lo _
_
Mt Everest
live, where temperature decreases with an
\ t
increase in altitude, is the troposphere. The term
-100 9|0 -80 -7'0 -50 ?0 -4'0 -SEIJ -2: -10 0 1'0 2'0 3'0 3E0 50C
I 420
I 400
I _80 _6O _40I _20
l
literallymeanstheregronwhereair turnsoven
440
O 20i (40I
60l
80I 100
120': 1
a reference to the appreciable vertical mixing of
32
r
air in this lowermost zone. The troposphere is the
Tamperature
chief focus of meteorologists, because it is in this
layer that essentially all important weather phe- Fit;iII'_ii~i?i
Thermal structure of the atmosphere.
nomena occur.
The temperature decrease in the troposphere
is called the environmental lapse rate. Its average value is 6.5 C
per kilometer (3.5 F per 1,000 feet), a gure known as the normal
mental lapse rate is not a constant, but rather can be highly varilapse rate. It should be emphasized, however, that the environable, and must be regularly measured. To determine the actual
environmental lapse rate as well as gather information about vertical changes in pressure, wind, and humidity, radiosondes are
II

iiiilitl
16.? Temperatures drop with an increase in altitude in the

u$9d- The mdwsonde is an instrument Package that is attached to

troposphere. Therefore, it is possible to have snow on a mountaintop

a balloon and transmits data by radio as it ascends through the

and warmer, snow-free lowlands below. (Photo by David Wall/www

atmosphere (}?i.;'i1E3 19,9)

.DanitaDeli1nont.com)

The thickness of the troposphere is not the same everywhere; it varies with latitude and the season. On the average, the temperature drop continues to a height of about
12 kilometers (7.4 miles). The outer boundary of the troposphere is the tropopause.
Stratosphere Beyond the tropopause is the stratosphere. In the stratosphere, the temperature remains constant to a height of about 20 kilometers (12 miles) and then
begins a gradual increase that continues until the
stratopause, at a height of nearly 50 kilometers (30 miles)
above Earths surface. Below the tropopause, atmospheric
properties like temperature and humidity are readily transferred by large-scale turbulence and mixing. Above the
tropopause, in the stratosphere, they are not. Temperatures
increase in the stratosphere because it is in this layer that
. the atmospheres ozone is concentrated. Recall that ozone

EarthSun Relationships

467

speeds, the temperature is very high. But the gases are so sparse
that, collectively, they possess only an insignificant quantity of
heat. For this reason, the temperature of a satellite orbiting Earth
in the thermosphere is determined chiey by the amount of solar
radiation it absorbs and not by the high temperature ofthe almost
nonexistent surrounding air. If an astronaut inside were to expose
his or her hand, it would not feel hot.

CONCEPT cnscx 1 6 .3
Q The atmosphere is divided vertically into four layers on the
basis of temperature. List the names of these layers in order
(from lowest to highest) and describe how temperature
changes in each layer.
Q What is the environmental lapse rate and how is it determined?
Q VVhy do temperatures increase in the stratosphere?

EarthSun Relationships
8.

l -T

i
A lightweight package of instruments, the radiosonde,
is carried aloft by a small weather balloon. Radiosondes supply data
on vertical changes in temperature, pressure, and humidity. The
orange object beneath the balloon is a small parachute that deploys
after the 138110011 b1.1IStS. (Photo by Michael Burnett/Photo Researchers, Inc.)

absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. As a consequence, the

stratosphere is heated.
Mesosphere In the third layer, the mesosphere, temperatures
again decrease with height until, at the mesopause, more than 80
kilometers (50 miles) above the surface, the temperature
approaches 90 C ( 130 F). The coldest temperatures anywherein the atmosphere occur at the mesopause. Because accessibility is difficult, the mesosphere is one of the least explored
regions ofthe atmosphere. The reason is that it cannot be reached
by the highest research balloons nor is it accessible to the lowest
orbiting satellites. Recent technological developments are just
beginning to fill this knowledge gap.
Thermosphere The fourth layer extends outward from the
mesopause and has no well-defined upper limit. It is the
thermosphere, a layer that contains only a tiny fraction of
the atmospheres mass. In the extremely rarefied air of this outermost layer, temperatures again increase, owing to the absorption of very short-wave, high-energy solar radiation by atoms of
oxygen and nitrogen.
Temperatures rise to extremely high values of more than
lOO0 C in the thermosphere. But such temperatures are not comparable to those experienced near Earths surface. Temperature is
defined in terms of the average speed at which molecules move.
Because the gases of the thermosphere are moving at very high

gmA 5;Z-\

Earths Dynamic Atmosphere

P Heating Earth's Surface and Atmosphere

x
I-.1 IT!

Always remember that nearly all of the energy that drives Earths
variable weather and climate comes from the Sun. Earth intercepts only a minute percentage of the energy given off by the
Sun-less than one two-billionth. This may seem to be an insignificant amount until we realize that it is several hundred thousand
times the electrical-generating capacity of the United States.
Solar energy is not distributed evenly over Earths landsea surface. The amount of energy received varies with latitude, time of
day, and season ofthe year. Contrasting images ofpolar bears on ice
rafts and palm trees along a remote tropical beach serve to illustrate the extremes. lt is the unequal heating of Earth that creates
winds and drives the ocean's currents. These movements, in turn,
transport heat from the tropics toward the poles in an unending
attempt to balance energy inequalities. The consequences ofthese
processes are the phenomena we call weather. If the Sun were
turned off, global winds and ocean currents would quickly cease.
Yet as long as the Sun shines, the winds will blow and weather will
persist. So to understand how the atmospheres dynamic weather
machine works, we must rst know why different latitudes receive
varying quantities of solar energy and why the amount of solar
energy changes to produce the seasons. As you will see, the variations in solar heating are caused by the motions of Earth relative
to the Sun and by variations in Earths land-sea surface.

Earth's Motions
Earth has two principal motionsrotation and revolution.
Rotation is the spinning of Earth about its axis. The axis is an
imaginary line running through the poles. Our planet rotates once
every 24 hours, producing the daily cycle of daylight and darkness. At any moment, half of Earth is experiencing daylight, and
the other half darkness. The line separating the dark half of Earth
from the lighted half is called the circle of illumination.

468

CHAPTER 16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature

Revolution refers to the movement of Earth in its orbit around

; June 21-22

the Sun. Hundreds of years ago, most people believed that Earth
was stationary in space and that the Sun and stars revolved

Longest day

around our planet. To day, we know that Earth is traveling at nearly

113,000 kilometers (70,000 miles) per hour in an eliptical orbit

about the Sun.

Seasons
We know that it is colder in winter than in summer. But why?
Length of daylight certainly accounts for some of the difference.
Long summer days expose us to more solar radiation, whereas
short winter days expose us to less.
Furthermore, a gradual change in the angle of the noon Sun

above the horizon is quite noticeable (.

as

E._

Sun
angle

at

'

.--.-.;-|..-

"

.__. S

A. Summer solstice

" 1). At midsum-

March 21-22
September 22-23

mer, the noon Sun is seen high above the horizon. But as sum-

Day and
night equal

mer gives way to autumn, the noon Sun appears lower in the sky
and sunset occurs earlier each evening. Vlfhat we observe here is
the annual shifting of the solar angle or altitude of the Sun.
The seasonal variation in the altitude of the Sun affects the
amount of energy received at Earths surface in two ways. First,
when the Sun is high in the sky, the solar rays are most concentrated (you can see this in . -2
1... ). The lower the angle, the

it

it

ITI /

more spread out and less intense is the solar radiation reaching

the surface (Figure l6.1lB, C). To illustrate this principle, hold a

ashlight at a right angle to a surface and then change the angle.

Second, and of lesser importance, the angle of the Sun determines the amount of atmosphere the rays must penetrate
.13). When the Sun is directly overhead, the rays pass

Sun angle
500

..-.-at--.

_S

iv

B. Spring or fall equinox

December 21-22

Shortest day l

through a thickness of only 1 atmosphere, whereas rays entering

at a 30-degree angle travel through twice this amount, and

5-degree rays travel through a thickness roughly equal to

11 atmospheres. The longer the path, the greater the chances for
absorption, reection, and scattering by the atmosphere, all of
which reduce the intensity at the surface. The same effects
account for the fact that we cannot look directly at the midday

Sun, but we can enjoy gazing at a sunset.

It is also important to remember that Earth has a spherical
shape. Hence, on any given day only places located at a particular latitude receive vertical (90-degree) rays from the Sun. As we
move either north or south of this location, the Suns rays strike at
an ever decreasing angle. Thus, the nearer a place is to the latitude
receiving vertical rays of the Sun, the higher will be its noon Sun
and the more intense will be the radiation it receives.

Earths Orientation

Sun angle

N ,

l 261/2

"S 1

W
C. Winter solstice

* F ' '= * "l _ . if Daily paths of the Sun for a place located at 40N
latitude for A. summer solstice, B. spring or fall equinox, and C.
winter solstice. As we move from summer to winter, the angle of the
noon Sun decreases from 7 3 % to 2 6 % degreesa difference of 4'7
degrees. Notice also how the location of sunrise (east) and sunset
(west) change during a year.

Vilhat causes the uctuations in the Sun angle and length of day-

light that occur during the course of a year? They occur because
Eartlzs orientation to the San corztiaually changes as it travels along
its orbit. Earths axis is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit
around the Sun. Instead, it is tilted 23% degrees from the perpendicular, as shown in . I
~ 1 . This is called the inclination of
the axis. As you will see, if the axis were not inclined, we would

have no seasonal changes. In addition, because the axis remains

pointed in the same direction (toward the North Star) as Earth
journeys around the Sun, the orientation of Earths axis to the
Suns rays is constantly changing (Figure 16.13).

For example, on one day in June each year the axis is such
that the Northern Hemisphere is "leaning" 23% degrees toward
the Sun. Six months later, in December, when Earth has moved

to the opposite side of its orbit, the Northern Hemisphere leans

23% degrees away from the Sun. On days between these

extremes, Earths axis is leaning at amounts less than 23% degrees

to the rays of the Sun. This change in orientation causes the spot
where the Suns rays are vertical to make an annual migration
from 23% degrees north of the equator to 23% degrees south of

the equator.

EarthSun Relationships

469

*"~.\>\

//H

90

\.

<i>

\.

T 45
~<->

1 unit

1.4 units

2*}?!

--

- ,1

lg
pl
' "-\.

!.-" " "-.,

'

-Q;

F!"

_.

<_<--_ _

-<--i>

2 units

\.

30

A.

urn

B.

F .

C.

"1-4 1 _
1 I. Changes in the Suns angle cause variations in the amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface. The
higher the angle, the more intense the solar radiation.

In turn, this migration causes the angle of the noon Sun to

vary by up to 47 degrees (23% + 23%) for many locations during

the year. For example, a mid-latitude city like New York (about 40
degrees north latitude) has a maximum noon Sun angle of 73%
degrees when the Suns vertical rays reach their farthest northward location in lune and a minimum noon Sun angle of 26%
degrees 6 months later.

Solstices and Equinoxes

Historically, 4 days a year have been given special significance
based on the annual migration of the direct rays ofthe Sun and its
importance to the yearly weather cycle. On Iune 21 or 22, Earth is
in a position where the axis in the Northern Hemisphere is tilted
23% degrees toward the Sun
-t
At this time the ver-

1>1-. Notice that rays striking Earth at a low angle (toward

the poles) must travel through more of the atmosphere than rays
striking at a high angle (around the equator) and thus are subject to
greater depletion by reection and absorption.

Q1/2 N
Atmosphere

tical rays of the Sun strike 23% degrees north latitude (23% degrees
north of the equator), a latitude known as the Tropic of Cancer.
For people in the Northern Hemisphere, Iune 21 or 22 is known

as the summer solstice, the first official day of summer.

Six months later, on about December 21 or 22, Earth is in an
opposite position, with the Suns vertical rays striking at 23%
degrees south latitude (Figure l6.14B). This parallel is known as
the Tropic of Capricorn. For those in the Northern Hemisphere,
December 21 and 22 is the winter solstice, the first day ofwinter.
However, at the same time in the Southern Hemisphere, people
are experiencing just the opposite: the summer solstice.
The equinoxes occur midway between the solstices. September 22 or 23 is the date of the autumnal equinox in the Northern
Hemisphere, and March 21 or 22 is the date of the spring equinox.
On these dates, the vertical rays of the Sun strike the equator (0
degrees latitude) because Earth is in such a position in its orbit
that the axis is tilted neither toward nor away from the Sun
(Figure 16.14C).

The length of daylight versus darkness is also determined by

Earths position in orbit. The length of daylight on lune 21, the
summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, is greater than the

length of night. This fact can be established from Figure 16. 14A by
comparing the fraction of a given latitude that is on the day side
of the circle of illumination with the fraction on the night side.

The opposite is true for the winter solstice, when the nights are
longer than the days. Again for comparison let us consider New
York City, which has 15 hours of daylight on lune 21 and only 9
Sun's
rays

3
|

hours on December 21 (you can see this in Figure 16.14 and

Table 16.1). Also note from Table 16.1 that the farther you are north

.,_
'

of the equator on Iune 21, the longer the period of daylight. I/Vhen
you reach the Arctic Circle 66%N, the length of daylight is 24
hours. This is the land of the midnight Sun," which does not set
23/2

for about 6 months at the North Pole

.3
;
During an equinox (meaning equal night), the length of
daylight is 12 hours everywhere on Earth, because the circle of

illumination passes directly through the poles, dividing the latiS

tudes in half.

470

CHAPTER '16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature

_ _
Arctic CIIClG
Tropic of Cancer my -Equator -iyf

22

Equinox
March 21-22
Sun vertical at equator

_
' 5

Tropic of Capricorn

l
1

Sun
Solstice
June 21-22
Sun vertical at
Latitude 23/2 N

Solstice
December 21-22
Sun vertical at
Latitude 23/2 S

C\-

Equinox
September 22-23
Sun vertical at equator
';i-r5."'i.ii Earth-Sun relationships.
.'_,_ _
4.
,.1:

f=.t':i..'i4 Characteristics of the solstices and equinoxes.

23%

._ 24 hrs.

_z

r7 ,

75/7 -

/Q .

.-

4/7/-S

2374

Sun's

Ye 74 /ks

rays

0/2 5,8
9 /7rs.

hrs

94/I
r

9-

9316..
661/0

A. June Solstice
(Northern Hemisphere summer)

B. December Solstice
(Northern Hemisphere winter)

N
6

*;'__'

61/2

!;

__..#25?
_ ,__
F ,.;;-ii.
2; .4 tr . '
,-s':2~=

' 1

539'

23/2

/7r'3_

Sun's
rays

7
9/7rs ._ .-s

-. as 13 \

8/7!'3_
M
L-5-1|?

7'59hrs

I
C. Spring/Autumnal Equinox

EarthSun Relationships

471

TABLE 16.1 Length of Daylight

i Latitudei(diegreies)(
0

11

if

L-J

21
2

2 if 2

Winter Solstice

1211
'
12 11 35 min

12h

1 C

11: E2 ml}?-'

*5c_12

s0__
7o

U _

NM

12
Y

12
12

9 11 os min
l72h42min

W 216 ll 13 min 2*

is 11 27 min
24 11 (101 2 mo)

5h33min

12
H

212
2

12

O h O0 min

12

80

24 h (for 4 mo)

0h0OInin

12*

90

24 h (for 6 mo)

OhO0 min

12

As a review ofthe characteristics ofthe summer solstice for the

Northern Hemisphere, examine Figure 16.14A and Table 16.1 and
consider the following facts:
1. The solstice occurs on lune 21 or 22.
2. The vertical rays of the Sun are striking the Tropic of Cancer (23% degrees north latitude).
3. Locations in the Northern Hemisphere are experiencing
their greatest length of daylight (opposite for the Southern
Hemisphere).
4. Locations north of the Tropic of Cancer are experiencing
their highest noon Sun angles (opposite for places south
of the Tropic of Capricorn).
5. The farther you are north of the equator, the longer the
period of daylight, until the Arctic Circle is reached, where
daylight lasts for 24 hours (opposite for the Southern
Hemisphere).
The facts about the winter solstice are just the opposite. It
should now be apparent why a midlatitude location is warmest in
ifitjitiitii

10 h 48 flmm
' I ll

10 h 04 min

14

50

Equinoxes
12h

__11
h_2
I
if m1n___
'
I

13115mil1

Q9c_Jc. >

.Summer Soilstice

the stunmer. It is then that the days are longest and the Suns altitude is highest.
In summary, seasonal variations in the amount of solar energy
reaching places on Earths surface are caused by the migrating
vertical rays of the Sun and the resulting variations in Sun angle
and length of daylight.
These changes in turn cause the month-to-month variations
in temperature observed at most locations outside the tropics.
fit_1i1r'e 116.16 shows mean monthly temperatures for selected cities
at different latitudes. Notice that the cities located at more poleward latitudes experience larger temperature differences from
summer to winter than do cities located nearer the equator. Also
notice that temperature minimums for Southern Hemisphere
locations occur in Iuly, whereas they occur in Ianuary for most
places in the Northern Hemisphere.
All places at the same latitude have identical Sun angles and
lengths of daylight. If the EarthSun relationships just described
were the only controls of temperature, we would expect these
places to have identical temperatures as well. Obviously this is

Multiple exposures of the midnight Sun in late June or July in high northern latitudes-Alaska, Scandinavia, northern Canada,

etc. (Photo by Brian Stablyk/Getty Images, Inc.Stone Allstock)

-5

@-

'
-,.

.
-4-'
*..
._

-11

N
J

-r 1..n,\I-"i;<rli

e_I

\-.>
-r

lwMr11-3:""l F

*r*.1

v-I

:"2'

_- ,

472

CHAPTER 16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature

and therefore more difficult to describe. For our purposes we
40
36

St. Louis,
|V|i$5;0UTi
39 N

s2.

define energy simply as the capacity to do work. We can think of

2100
Iquitos, Peru
4 3

work as being accomplished whenever matter is moved. You are

likely familiar with some of the common forms of energy, such as

~90

thermal, chemical, nuclear, radiant (light), and gravitational

energy. One type of energy is described as kinetic energy, which

24

20 A

..-~

~.

16

2,,

'
i

12
8

_-

Capetown,
South Africa
34 S

(C

rature

_, 50
A

i 40

._4 I

Tempe

-169

-30

Winnipeg,

T 20

Tem

Manitoba

-12
-16 , /,..
-20
24

-2s j

DON
.
Point Barrow,
Alaska

71 N

10
_0

I
1

'10

_@_20

-2
3JFMAMJJASOND
Month
1.-4. 1;: Mean monthly temperatures for six cities located at
different latitudes. Note that Capetown, South Africa, experiences
winter in June, July, and August.

not the case. Although the altitude of the Sun is an extremely

important control of temperature, it is not the only control, as you
will see.

CONCEPT cnscx 1 6 .4
Q Use a simple sketch to show why the intensity of solar radiation
striking Earths surface changes when the stm angle changes.
Q Briey explain the primary cause of the seasons.
Q What is the significance of the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic
of Capricorn?
Q After examining Table 16.1, write a general statement that
relates the season, the latitude, and the length of daylight.

Energy, Heat, and Temperature

Z*,&?

mm OI. H"!
Rm ->6

Heat is a term that is commonly used synonymously with

thermal energy. In this usage, heat is energy possessed by a material arising from the internal motions of its atoms or molecules.
Vilhenever a substance is heated, its atoms move faster and faster,
which leads to an increase in its heat content. Temperature, on
the other hand, is related to the average kinetic energy of a mate-

rial's atoms or molecules. Stated another way, the term heat generally refers to the quantity of energy present, whereas the word
temperature refers to the intensity, that is, the degree of hotness.

(F
perature

_8

is energy of motion. Recall that matter is composed of atoms or

molecules that are constantly in motion and therefore possesses

kinetic energy.

Earth's Dynamic Atmosphere

t Heating Earth's Surface and Atmosphere

The universe is made up of a combination of matter and energy.

The concept of matter is easy to grasp because it is the stuff we
can see, smell, and touch. Energy, on the other hand, is abstract

Heat and temperature are closely related concepts. Heat is

the energy that ows because of temperature differences. In all

situations, heat is iransferredom warmer to cooler objects. Thus,

if two objects of different temperature are in contact, the warmer
object will become cooler and the cooler object will become
warmer until they both reach the same temperature.
Three mechanisms of heat transfer are recognized: conduction, convection, and radiation. Although we present them separately, all three processes go on simultaneously in the
atmosphere. In addition, these mechanisms operate to transfer
heat between Earths surface (both land and water) and the
atmosphere.

Mechanism of Heat Transfer: Conduction

Conduction is familiar to all of us. Anyone who has touched a
metal spoon that was left in a hot pan has discovered that heat
was conducted through the spoon. Conduction is the transfer of
heat through matter by molecular activity. The energy of mole-

Students Sometimes Ask...

The "official" first day of winter isn't until December 21
or 22. Realistically, doesn't winter start sooner?
The most publicized dates for
the seasons are based on the
astronomical definition, which
uses the dates of the solstices
and equinoxes as the "first
day" of each of the seasons.
Because the weather phenomena we normally associate
with each season do not coincide well with this definition,
meteorologists prefer to divide
the year into four 3 month periods based primarily on temper-

ature. Thus, winter is defined

as December, January, and
February, the three coldest
months of the year in the
Northern Hemisphere. Summer
is defined as the three
warmest months, June, July,
and August. Spring and
autumn are the transitional
periods between these two
seasons. This definition is
more useful for meteorological
purposes.

Energy, Heat, and Temperature

;_ _____ __-_

Conduction

Convection

__._--Zi

in : .
1

_'-*j:~.._

2-'J','C-1'

_,

__-"J'":" l _-

.
A -

.- '1

J- I

I
.

-_-

'
_.

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- -:

-1"
ta ,.

K
_1
7 ,)__.__

Radiation

.
2

'7

-#.,"1' =5 ~
-

'

-.___

5.
'"
_ j____;
,

____

_._

when you are on the carpeted

oor. Even at room temperature (20 C or 68 F) objects that
are good conductors can feel
chilly to the touch. (Remember,
body temperature is about
98.6 F.)

The difference you feel is due

mainly to the fact that oor tile
is a much better conductor of
heat than carpet. Hence, heat
is more rapidly conducted from
your bare feet when you are
standing on the tile oor than

J'-

In the morning when I get out of bed, why does the tile
flooring in the bathroom feel much colder than the
carpeted area, even though both materials are the same
temperature?

______

0 r- '"
_
,-.
'- ".1. -I;-. -3
_-. ,3
F_% 30
. A , "1.
{._._.. .2"'-Q _,
.-3 -< T11-0
i.-I3
'

'
--:1
r'~ " ri
-
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__

Students Sometimes Ask...

,.

'__

'

'

473

:" i -i
' The three mechanisms of heat transfer: conduction,
convection, and radiation.

and the frigid poles. This important process is discussed in detail

in Chapter 18.

cules is transferred through collisions from one molecule to

another, with the heat owing from the higher temperature to the

lower temperature.
The ability of substances to conduct heat varies considerably.
Metals are good conductors, as those of us who have touched hot
metal have quickly learned (i.i:ii,;,=
Air, conversely, is a very
poor conductor of heat. Consequently, conduction is important
only between Earths surface and the air directly in contact with
the surface. As a means of heat transfer for the atmosphere as a
whole, conduction is the least signicant.

Mechanism of Heat Transfer: Radiation

The third mechanism of heat transfer is radiation. As shown in
Figure 16.17, radiation travels out in all directions from its source.
Unlike conduction and convection, which need a medium to
travel through, radiant energy readily travels through the vacuum
of space. Thus, radiation is the heat-transfer mechanism by which
solar energy reaches our planet.
Because the Sun is the ultimate source of energy that creates
our weather, we consider the nature of solar radiation in more
detail. From our everyday experience we know that the Sun emits
light and heat as well as the ultraviolet rays that cause suntan.
Although these forms of energy comprise a major portion of the
total energy that radiates from the Sun, they are only part of a large
array of energy called radiation or electromagnetic radiation.
This array or spectrum of electromagnetic energy is shown in
=1 All radiation, whether X-rays, radio waves, or heat
waves, travel through the vacuum of space at 300,000 kilometers

Mechanism of Heat Transfer: Convection

Much of the heat transport that occurs in the atmosphere is carried on by convection. Convection is the transfer ofheat by mass
movement or circulation within a substance. It takes place in uids (e.g., liquids like the ocean and gases like air) where the atoms
and molecules are free to move about.
The pan ofwater in Figure 16.17 illustrates the nature of simple convective circulation. Radiation from the fire warms the bottom of the pan, which conducts heat to the water near the bottom
(l86,000 miles) per second and only slightly slower through our
of the container. As the water is heated, it expands and becomes
atmosphere.
less dense than the water above. Because of this new buoyancy,
the warmer water rises. At the same
time, cooler, denser water near the
iii
The electromagnetic spectrum, illustrating the wavelengths and names of various
top of the pan sinks to the bottom,
types of radiation.
where it becomes heated. As long as
._ 1, __._:;_ L
the water is heated unequallythat
0,4
1.P .-* _'.-.'1n. -.?(ti
.
i.' '7?-.1? I-'-l-1"
__
is, from the bottom upthe water
0
will continue to turn over, producsible
"
FMrad'o
ing a convective circulation. In a simrad'o
light
ilar manner, most of the heat
dAM
radbandst
,__,

..,,.__

acquired in the lowest layer of the

On a global scale, convection in

the atmosphere creates a huge,
worldwide air circulation. This is
responsible for the redistribution of
heat between hot equatorial regions

vson

__-

dar adca
Stan Bro Long radio waves

-1

atmosphere by way of radiation and

conduction is transferred by convective ow.

__-_._

Tee
Gamma rays TL

X rays

i
K

Xi

_
U
troet
av

Infrared

Microwaves

0.001 micrometer 1 micrometer 1000 micrometers

Y
Short-wave radiation

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474

CHAPTER 16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature

It helps to understand radiant energy by picturing ripples

made in a pond by tossing in a pebble or by observing ocean
waves. Like these waves, electromagnetic waves, as waves of radiant energy are called, come in various sizes. For our purpose, the
most important difference among electromagnetic waves is their
wavelength, or the distance from one crest to the next. Radio
waves have the longest wavelengths, ranging to tens of kilometers. Gamma waves are the shortest, being less than a billionth of
a centimeter long.
Visible light, as the name implies, is the only portion of the
spectrum we can see. We often refer to visible light as white light
because it appears white in color. However, it is easy to show
that white light is really a mixture of colors, each corresponding
to a specific wavelength (Figure 16.19). By using a prism, white
light can be divided into the colors of the rainbow, from violet
with the shortest wavelength0.4 micrometer (1 micrometer is
0.0001 centimeter)to red with the longest wavelength0.7
micrometer.
Located adjacent to red, and having a longer wavelength, is
infrared radiation, which we cannot see but which we can detect
as heat. The closest invisible waves to violet are called ultraviolet
rays. They are responsible for the sunburn that can occur after
intense exposure to the Sun. Although we divide radiant energy
into groups based on our ability to perceive them, all forms of
radiation are basically the same. When any form of radiant energy
is absorbed by an object, the result is an increase in molecular
motion, which causes a corresponding increase in temperature.
To understand better how the atmosphere is heated, it is
useful to have a general understanding of the basic laws governing radiation.
1. All objects, at whatever temperature, emit radiant energy.
Thus, not only hot objects like the Sun but also Earth, including its polar ice caps, continually emit energy.
2. Hotter objects radiate more total energy per unit area than
do colder objects.
3. The hotter the radiating body, the shorter the wavelength of
maximum radiation. The Sun, with a surface temperature
of nearly 6000 C, radiates maximum energy at 0.5 micromFit'iiiitli. 16.'iii Visible light consists of an array of colors we commonly
call the "colors of the rainbow." Rainbows are relatively common
optical phenomena produced by the bending and reection of light by
drops Of water. (Photo by Michael GiarmechinifPhoto Researchers, Inc.)

eter, which is in the visible range. The maximum radiation

for Earth occurs at a wavelength of 10 micrometers, well
within the infrared (heat) range. Because the maximum
Earth radiation is roughly 20 times longer than the maximum solar radiation, it is often called long-wave radiation,
and solar radiation is called short-wave radiation.
4. Objects that are good absorbers ofradiation are good emitters as well. Earths surface and the Sun are nearly perfect
radiators because they absorb and radiate with nearly 100
percent efficiency for their respective temperatures. On
the other hand, gases are selective absorbers and radiators.
Thus, the atmosphere, which is nearly transparent to (does
not absorb) certain wavelengths of radiation, is nearly
opaque (a good absorber) to others. Our experience tells
us that the atmosphere is transparent to visible light;
hence, it readily reaches Earths surface. This is not the
case for the longer wavelength radiation emitted by Earth.

CONCEPT cmtcx 1 6. 5
Q Distinguish between heat and temperature.
Q Describe the three basic mechanisms of heat transfer. Which
mechanism is least important as a means of heat transfer in
the atmosphere?
Q Describe the relationship between the temperature of a radiating body and the wavelengths it emits.

The Fate of Incoming Solar

Radiation
gm

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Earth's Dynamic Atmosphere

> Heating Earth's Surface and Atmosphere

1/Vhen radiation strikes an object, there are usually three different

results. First, some of the energy is absorbed by the object. Recall
that when radiant energy is absorbed, it is converted to heat, which
causes an increase in temperature. Second, substances such as
water and air are transparent to certain wavelengths of radiation.
Such materials simply transmitthis energy. Radiation that is transmitted does not contribute energy to the object. Third, some radiation may bounce off the object without being absorbed or
transmitted. Reection and scattering are responsible for redirecting incoming solar radiation. In summary, radiation may be
absorbed, transmitted, or redirected (reected or scattered).
Figure 16.20 shows the fate of incoming solar radiation averaged for the entire globe. Notice that the atmosphere is quite
transparent to incoming solar radiation. On average, about 50
percent of the solar energy reaching the top of the atmosphere is
absorbed at Earths surface. Another 30 percent is reected back
to space by the atmosphere, clouds, and reective surfaces such
as snow and water. The remaining 20 percent is absorbed by
clouds and the atmospheres gases.
What determines whether solar radiation will be transmitted
to the surface, scattered, reected outward, or absorbed by the
atmosphere? As you will see, it depends greatly on the wavelength
of the energy being transmitted, as well as on the nature of the
intervening material.

The Fate of Incoming Solar Radiation

A. Reflection

FIGURE 16.20 Average distribution of incoming solar radiation by

percentage. More solar energy is absorbed by Earth's surface than by
the atmosphere. Consequently, the air is not heated directly by the
Sun, but is heated indirectly from Earth's surface.

Reection and Scattering

Reection is the process whereby light bounces back from an
object at the same angle at which it encounters a surface and with
the same intensity (Figure 16.21A). By contrast, scattering produces a larger number ofweaker rays that travel in different directions. Although scattering disperses light both forward and
backward (baclcscattering), more energy is dispersed in the forward direction (Figure l6.21B).
Reection and Earth's Albedo Energy is returned to space
from Earth in two ways: reection and emission ofradiant energy.
The portion of solar energy that is reected back to space leaves
in the same short wavelengths in which it came to Earth. About 30
percent of the solar energy reaching the outer atmosphere is
reected back to space. Included in this gure is the amount sent
skyward by backscattering. This energy is lost to Earth and does
not play a role in heating the atmosphere.
The fraction of the total radiation that is reected by a surface
is called its albedo. Thus, the albedo for Earth as a whole (the
planetary albedo) is 30 percent. However, the albedo from place
to place as well as from time to time in the same locale varies considerably, depending on the amount of cloud cover and particulate matter in the air, as well as on the angle of the Suns rays and
the nature of the surface. A lower Sun angle means that more
atmosphere must be penetrated, thus making the obstacle
course longer and therefore the loss of solar radiation greater
(see Figure 16.12, p. 469). Figure 16.22 gives the albedo for various
surfaces. Note that the angle at which the Suns rays strike a water
surface greatly affects its albedo.

475

B. Scattering

FIGURE 16.21 Reection and scattering. A. Reected light bounces

back from a surface at the same angle at which it strikes that surface
and with the same intensity. B. When a beam of light is scattered, it
results in a larger number of weaker rays, traveling in all different
directions. Usually more energy is scattered in the forward direction
than is backscattered.

Scattering Although incoming solar radiation travels in a

straight line, small dust particles and gas molecules in the annosphere scatter some of this energy in all directions. The result,
called diffused light, explains how light reaches into the area
beneath a shade tree, and how a room is lit in the absence of direct
sunlight; Furthermore, scattering accounts for the brightness and
even the blue color of the daytime sky (see Box 16.2). In contrast,
bodies like the Moon and Mercury, which are without atmospheres, have dark skies and pitch-black shadows, even during
daylight hours. Overall, about half of the solar radiation that is
absorbed at Earth's surface arrives as diffused (scattered) light.
FIGURE 16.22 Albedo (reectivity) of various surfaces. In general,
light-colored surfaces tend to be more reective than dark-colored
surfaces and thus have higher albedos.
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476

CHAPTER 16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature

Box 16.21, '7r. "I. _

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blue light, which is the wavelength more

readily scattered by the atmosphere.
Conversely, the Sun appears to have an
orangish-to-reddish tint when viewed near
the horizon (Figure 16.1)). This is because
solar radiation must travel through a greater
thickness of atmosphere before it reaches
your eyes. As a consequence, most of the
blue and violet wavelengths will be scattered out, leaving light that consists mostly
of reds and oranges. The reddish appearance of clouds during sunrise and sunset
also results because the clouds are illuminated by light from which the blue color has
been subtracted by scattering.
The most spectacular sunsets occur
when large quantities of fine dust or smoke
particles penetrate into the stratosphere. For
3 years after the great eruption of the

Blue Skies
and Red Sunsets
Gas molecules more effectively scatter the
shorter wavelengths (blue and violet) of visible light than the longer wavelengths (red
and orange). This fact explains the blue
color of the sky and the orange and red
colors seen at sunrise and sunset (see
Figure 16.4B). Remember, sunlight is composed of all colors. When the Sun is overhead you can look in any direction away
from the direct Sun and see predominantly

Indonesian volcano Krakatau in 1883, brilliant sunsets occurred worldwide. The European summer that followed this colossal
explosion was cooler than normal, a fact that
has been attributed to the greater loss of
radiation caused by backscattering.
Large particles associated with haze, fog,
or smog scatter light more equally in all
wavelengths. Because no color is predominant over any other, the sky appears white
or gray on days when large particles are
abundant
In summary, the color of the sky gives an
indication of the number of large or small
particles present. Lots of small particles produce red sunsets, whereas large particles
produce a white sky. Furthermore, the bluer
the sky, the cleaner the air.

Midday sun

Sun at sunset

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FIGURE 16.D Short wavelengths (blue and violet) of visible light are scattered more effectively than are
longer wavelengths (red, orange). Therefore, when the Sun is overhead an observer can look in any
direction and see predominantly blue light that was selectively scattered by the gases in the
atmosphere. By contrast, at sunset, the path that light must take through the atmosphere is much
longer. Consequently, most of the blue light is scattered before it reaches an observer. Thus, the Sun
appears reddish in color.

Absorption
As stated earlier, gases are selective absorbers, meaning that they
absorb strongly in some wavelengths, moderately in others, and
only slightly in still others. When a gas molecule absorbs light

waves, this energy is transformed into internal molecular motion,

which is detectable as a rise in temperature.

Nitrogen, the most abundant constituent in the atmosphere,

is a poor absorber of all types of incoming radiation. Oxygen and
ozone are efficient absorbers of ultraviolet radiation. Oxygen
removes most of the shorter ultraviolet radiation high in the
atmosphere, and ozone absorbs most of the remaining ultravio-

let rays in the stratosphere. The absorption ofUV radiation in the

stratosphere accounts for the high temperatures experienced

Heating the Atmosphere: The Greenhouse Effect

there. The only other signicant absorber of incoming solar radiation is water vapor, which, along with oxygen and ozone,
accounts for most of the solar radiation absorbed within the
atmosphere.
For the atmosphere as a whole, none of the gases are effective absorbers ofvisible radiation. This explains why most visible
radiation reaches Earths surface and why we say that the atmosphere is transparent to incoming solar radiation. Thus, the
atmosphere does not acquire the bullc of its energy directly from
the Sun. Rather, it is heated chiey by energy that is rst absorbed
by Earths surface and then reradiated to the sky.

CONCEPT cnscrc 1 6.6

Q Prepare and label a simple sketch that shows what happens
to incoming solar radiation.
Q What factors cause albedo to vary from time to time and from
place to place?

Heating the Atmosphere:

The Greenhouse Effect
53>"'2:2-4n1 l'|'|

Earth's Dynamic Atmosphere

} Heating Earth's Surface and Atmosphere

hm

Approximately 50 percent of the solar energy that strilces the top

of the atmosphere reaches Earths surface and is absorbed. Most
of this energy is then reradiated skyward. Because Earth has a
much lower surface temperature than the Sun, the radiation that
it emits has longer wavelengths than solar radiation.

The atmosphere as a whole is an efficient absorber of the

longer wavelengths emitted by Earth (terrestrial radiation). Water
vapor and carbon dioxide are the principal absorbing gases.
Water vapor absorbs roughly five times more terrestrial radiation than do all other gases combined and accounts for the warm
temperatures found in the lower troposphere, where it is most
highly concentrated. Because the atmosphere is quite transparent to shorter-wavelength solar radiation and more readily
absorbs longer-wavelength terrestrial radiation, the atmosphere
is heated from the ground up rather than vice versa. This explains
the general drop in temperature with increasing altitude experienced in the troposphere. The farther from the radiator, the
colder it becomes.
When the gases in the atmosphere absorb terrestrial radiation, they warm, but they eventually radiate this energy away.
Some travels skyward, where it may be reabsorbed by other gas
molecules, a possibility less likely with increasing height because
the concentration of water vapor decreases with altitude. The
remainder travels Earthward and is again absorbed by Earth. For
this reason, Earths surface is continually being supplied with heat
from the atmosphere as well as from the Sun. Without these
absorptive gases in our atmosphere, Earth would not be a suitable habitat for humans and numerous other life-forms.
This very important phenomenon has been termed the
greenhouse effect because it was once thought that greenhouses
were heated in a similar manner (Figure 16.23). The gases of our
atmosphere, especially water vapor and carbon dioxide, act very
much like the glass in a greenhouse. They allow shorter-wavelength solar radiation to enter, where it is absorbed by the objects
inside. These objects in turn reradiate the heat, but at longer wavelengths, to which glass is nearly opaque. The heat therefore is
trapped in the greenhouse. However, a more important factor in

FIGURE 16.23 The heating of the atmosphere. Most of the short-wavelength radiation from the Sun passes through the
atmosphere and is absorbed by Earths landsea surface. This energy is then emitted from the surface as longer-wavelength
radiation, much of which is absorbed by certain gases in the atmosphere. Some of the energy absorbed by the atmosphere will be
reradiated Earthward. This process, called the greenhouse effect, is responsible for keeping Earths surface and lower atmosphere
much warmer than it would be otherwise.

__

477

478

CHAPTER 16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature

keeping a greenhouse warm is the fact that the greenhouse itself

prevents mixing of air inside with cooler air outside. Nevertheless, the term greenhouse ffCl is still used.

comcsrr cuscx 1 6. '7

Q Explain why the atmosphere is heated chiey by radiation
from Earth's surface rather than by direct solar radiation.
Q Which gases are the primary heat absorbers in the lower
atmosphere? Which one is most important?

For the Record: Air

Temperature Data
gm

Z-1 n1 ITI

Earths Dynamic Atmosphere

> Temperature Data and the Controls of Temperature

Temperature is one of the basic elements ofweather and climate.

When someone asks what it is like outside, air temperature is often
the rst element we mention. At a weather station, the temperature is read on a regular basis from instruments mounted in an
instrument shelter (Figiii-e
The shelter protects the instruments from direct sunlight and allows a free ow of air. In addition to a standard mercury thermometer, the shelter is likely to
contain a thermograph to continuously record temperature and
a set of maximum-minimum thermometers. As their name
i'iGi.lRi; 13.6.2;-<3 This modern shelter contains an electrical
thermometer called a thermistor. A shelter protects instruments from
direct sunlight and allows for the free ow of air. (Photo by Bobb
Christopherson)

implies, these thermometers record the highest and lowest temperatures during a measurement period, usually 24 hours.
The daily maximum and minimmn temperatures are the bases
for many of the temperature data compiled by meteorologists:
1. By adding the maximum and minimum temperatures
and then dividing by two, the daily mean temperature is
calculated.
2. The daily range of temperature is computed by finding
the difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures for a given day.
3. The monthly mean is calculated by adding together the
daily means for each day of the month and dividing by the
number of days in the month.
4. The annual mean is an average of the 12 monthly means.
5. The annual temperature range is computed by nding the
difference between the highest and lowest monthly means.
Mean temperatures are particularly useful for making comparisons, whether on a daily, monthly, or annual basis. It is common to hear a weather reporter state, Last month was the hottest
Iuly on record, or Today Chicago was 10 degrees warmer than
Miami. Temperature ranges are also useful statistics because they
give an indication of extremes.
To examine the distribution of air temperatures over large
areas, isotherms are commonly used. An isotherm is a line
that connects points on a map that have the same temperature (iso = equal, therm = temperature). Therefore, all points
through which an isotherm passes have identical temperatures
for the time period indicated. Generally, isotherms representing
5 or 10 temperature differences are used, but any interval may
be chosen. it=igi..u:e 'io.ii~s illustrates how isotherms are drawn on a
map. Notice that most isotherms do not pass directly through the
observing stations, because the station readings may not coincide with the values chosen for the isotherms. Only an occasional
station temperature will be exactly the same as the value of the
isotherm, so it is usually necessary to draw the lines by estimating the proper position between stations.
Isothermal maps are valuable tools because they clearly make
temperature distribution visible at a glance. Areas oflow and high
temperatures are easy to pick out. In addition, the amount of temperature change per unit of distance, called the temperature gradient, is easy to visualize. Closely spaced isotherms indicate a
rapid rate of temperature change, whereas more widely spaced
lines indicate a more gradual rate of change. You can see this in
Figure 16.25. The isotherms are closer in Colorado and Utah
(steeper temperature gradient), whereas the isotherms are spread
farther in Texas (gentler temperature gradient). Without
isotherms, a map would be covered with numbers representing
temperatures at dozens or hundreds of places, which would make
patterns difficult to see.

CONCEPT cuscx 1 6.8

Q How are the following temperature data computed: daily
mean, daily range, monthly mean, annual mean, annual
range.
Q What are isotherms and what is their purpose?

Why Temperatures Vary; The Controls of Temperature

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fetal Temperature distribution using isotherms. Isotherms are lines that connect points of equal temperature. Showing
temperature distribution in this way makes patterns easier to see. On television, and in many newspapers, temperature maps are
in color. Rather than labeling isotherms, the area between isotherms is labeled. For example, the zone between the 60 and 70
isotherms is labeled 60s."

Why Temperatures Vary:

The Controls of Temperature
t-n

-.2or, .

Earth's Dynamic Atmosphere

P Temperature Data and the Controls of Temperature

A temperature control is any factor that causes temperature to vary

from place to place and from time to time. Earlier in this chapter

we examined the most important cause for temperature variationsdifferences in the receipt of solar radiation. Because variations in Sun angle and length of daylight depend on latitude, they
are responsible for warm temperatures in the tropics and colder
temperatures at more poleward locations. Of course, seasonal
temperature changes at a given latitude occur as the Suns verti-

Students Sometimes Ask. ..

What's the hottest city in the United States?
It depends on how you want to
define "hottest." If average
annual temperature is used,
then Key West, Florida, is the
hottest, with an annual mean
of 25.6 C (78 F) for the 30year span 1971-2000. However, if we look at cities with
the highest July maximums
during the 19'7l2000 period,

then the desert community of

Palm Springs, California, has
the distinction of being
hottest. Its average daily high
in July is a blistering 42.2 C
(108.3 F)! Yuma, Arizona
(41.7 C/107 F), Phoenix, Arizona (41.4 C/106 F), and Las
Vegas, Nevada (40 C/104.1 F)
aren't far behind.

cal rays migrate toward and away from a place during the year.
However, latitude is not the only control of temperature. If it
were, we would expect all places along the same parallel of lati-

ature. In the next sections, we examine these other controls, which

tude to have identical temperatures. This is clearly not the case.

include differential heating of land and water, altitude, geographic

For example, Eureka, California, and New York City are both

position, cloud cover and albedo, and ocean currents.

coastal cities at about the same latitude and both have an annual
mean temperature of 11 C (52 F). However, New York City is
9 C (l6 F) warmer than Eureka in Iuly and 10 C (l8 F) cooler in
Ianuary. In another example, two cities in EcuadorQuito and
Guayaquilare relatively close to each other, yet the annual mean
temperatures of these two cities differ by 12 C (2l F). To explain
these situations and countless others, we must realize that factors other than latitude also exert a strong inuence on temper-

Land and Water

The heating of Earths surface controls the heating of the air above
it. Therefore, to understand variations in air temperature, we must
examine the nature of the surface. Different land surfaces absorb
For a discussion of the effects of ocean currents on temperature, see Chapter 15.

480

CHAPTER '16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature

Pacific Ocean are much lower. The peaks of the Sierra Nevada,
still capped with snow, form a cool blue line down the eastern
side of California.
In side-by-side areas of land and water, such as those shown
in Figure 16.26, land heats more rapidly and to higher temperatures than water; and it cools more rapidly and to lower temperatures than water. Variations in air temperatures, therefore, are
much greater over land than over water.
Among the reasons for the differential heating of land and
water are the following:

-43

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Temperature (O C)
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34

53

73

34

45

56

93

113

133

Temperature (F)
Fllliiiiii 16.26 The differential heating of land and water is an
important control of air temperature. In this satellite image from the
afternoon of May 2, 2004, water-surface temperatures in the Pacific
Ocean are much lower than land-surface temperatures in California
and Nevada. (NASA)

varying amounts of incoming solar energy, which in turn cause

variations in the temperature of the air above. The largest contrast, however, is not between different land surfaces, but between
land and water. Figure class illustrates this idea nicely. This satellite image shows surface temperatures in portions of Nevada, California, and the adjacent Pacic Ocean on the afternoon ofMay 2,
2004, during a spring heat wave. Land-surface temperatures are
clearly much higher than water-surface temperatures. The image
shows the extreme high surface temperatures in southern California and Nevada in dark red. Surface temperatures in the

Students Sometimes Ask...

1. The specic heat (amount of energy needed to raise 1 gram

of a substance 1 C) is far greater for water than for land.
Thus, water requires a great deal more heat to raise its temperature the same amount as an equal quantity of land.
2. Land surfaces are opaque, so heat is absorbed only at the
surface. Water, being more transparent, allows some solar
radiation to penetrate to a depth of many meters.
3. The water that is heated often mixes with water below,
thus distributing the heat through an even larger mass.
4. Evaporation (a cooling process) from water bodies is
greater than that from land surfaces.
All these factors collectively cause water to warm more slowly,
store greater quantities of heat, and cool more slowly than land.
Monthly temperature data for two cities will demonstrate the
moderating inuence of a large water body and the extremes associated with land (Figure 163?). Vancouver, British Columbia, is
located along the windward Pacific coast, whereas Winnipeg,
Manitoba, is in a continental position far from the inuence of
water. Both cities are at about the same latitude and thus experience similar Sun angles and lengths of daylight. Winnipeg, howiit;;iii~fiit 6.2? Mean monthly temperatures for Vancouver, British
Columbia, and Winnipeg, Manitoba. Vancouver has a much smaller
annual temperature range owing to the strong marine inuence of
the Pacific Ocean. Winnipeg illustrates the greater extremes
associated with an interior location.

20

T 70

16
12~

-60
1
-50

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What are the highest and lowest temperatures ever

recorded at Earth's surface?
The world's record-high temperature is nearly 59 C (136 F).
It was recorded on September
13, 1922, at Azizia, Libya, in
North Africa's Sahara Desert.
The lowest recorded temperature is -89 C (129 F). It

should come as no surprise

that this incredibly frigid temperature was recorded in
Antarctica, at the Russian Vostok Station, on August 24,
1960.

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Realize that when a land surface is hot, the air above is cooler. For example, the surface of a
sandybeach can be painfully hot, but the air temperature above the surface is more comfortable.

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Why Temperatures Vary: The Controls of Temperature

ever, has a mean Ianuary temperature that is 20 C lower than

32

Vancouver's. Conversely, Winnipeg's Iuly mean is 2.6 C higher

Quito

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Altitude

energy by the ground surface.

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Recall that temperatures drop an average of 6.5 C per kilometer in the troposphere; thus, cooler temperatures are to be
expected at greater heights (see Figures 16.7 and 16.8, p. 466). Yet,
the magnitude of the difference is not explained completely by
the normal lapse rate. If the normal lapse rate is used, we would
expect Quito to be about 18 C cooler than Guayaquil, but the difference is only 12 C. The fact that high-altitude places such as
Quito are warmer than the value calculated using the normal
lapse rate results from the absorption and reradiation of solar

lg

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annual temperature variations in the water-dominated Southern

Hemisphere as compared with the Northern Hemisphere.

meters (9,200 feet).

"

,____ 16

-4

perature ( 1' 1" "1.

). Both cities are near the equator and relatively close to one another, but the annual mean temperature at
Guayaquil is 25 C (77 P) compared to Quitos mean of 13 C
(55 F). The difference may be understood when the cities elevations are noted. Guayaquil is only 12 meters (40 feet) above sea
level, whereas Quito is high in the Andes Mountains at 2,800

"

20

Figure 13.1, p. 383). Table 16.2 portrays the considerably smaller

The two cities in Ecuador mentioned earlierQuito and

Guayaquildemonstrate the inuence of altitude on mean tem-

__ g_ g _ __

24 ;

ern and Southern hemispheres are compared. In the Northern

Hemisphere, 61 percent is covered by water, and land accounts for
the remaining 39 percent. However, in the Southern Hemisphere,
81 percent is covered by water and 19 percent by land. The Southern Hemisphere is correctly called the water hemisphere (see

28

than Vancouvers. Although their latitudes are nearly the same,

Winnipeg, which has no water inuence, experiences much
greater temperature extremes than does Vancouver. The key to
Vancouver's moderate year-round climate is the Pacific Ocean.
On a different scale, the moderating inuence of water may
also be demonstrated when temperature variations in the North-

481

0
Guayaquil .

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Graph comparing monthly mean temperatures at
Quito and Guayaquil, Ecuador. Because Quito is high in the Andes, it
experiences much cooler temperatures than Guayaquil, which is near
sea level. Although Guayaquil is not far from Quito, it is near sea
level and therefore significantly warmer.

coast) experiences considerably different temperatures than does

a coastal location where the prevailing winds blow from the land
toward the ocean (a leeward coast). In the rst situation, the windward coast will experience the full moderating inuence of the
oceancool summers and mild winterscompared to an inland
station at the same latitude.
A leeward coast, on the other hand, will have a more continental temperature pattern because the winds do not carry the
oceans inuence onshore. Eureka, California, and NewYork City,

the two cities mentioned earlier, illustrate this aspect of geographic position. The annual temperature range at New York City
is 19 C (34 F) greater than Eurekas (T;-1 3%
Seattle and Spokane, both in the state of Washington, illus-

Geographic Position
The geographic setting can greatly inuence the temperatures
experienced at a specific location. A coastal location where pre-

vailing winds blow from the ocean onto the shore (a windward

trate a second aspect of geographic position-mountains that act

as barriers. Although Spokane is only about 360 kilometers (220
miles) east of Seattle, the towering Cascade Range separates the
cities. Consequently, Seattles temperatures show a marked

marine inuence, but Spokanes are more typically continental

i.
. ; "

TABLE 16.2 Variation in Annual Mean Temperature Range

(C) with Latitude
Latitude
0

Northern Hemisphere

Southern Hemisphere

15

30

13

45

23

60

30

1'1

75*

32

26

90

40

31

Spokane is 7 C [13 F) cooler than Seattle in Ianu-

ary and 4 C (7 F) warmer than Seattle in Iuly. The annual range

at Spokane is 11 C (20 F) greater than at Seattle. The Cascade
Range effectively cuts Spokane off from the moderating inuence

of the Pacific Ocean.

Cloud Cover and Al.bedo

The extent of cloud cover is a factor that influences temperatures
in the lower atmosphere. Cloud cover is important because many
clouds have a high albedo and therefore reect a significant portion of the sunlight that strikes them back to space. By reducing
the amount of incoming solar radiation, daytime temperatures

482

CHAPTER 16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature

24,

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New York City

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Monthly mean temperatures for Eureka, California,
and New York City. Both cities are coastal and located at about the
same latitude. Because Eureka is strongly inuenced by prevailing
winds from the ocean and New York City is not, the annual
temperature range at Eureka is much smaller.

;--ii; .:;.:=-_.t_.- The graph shows the daily temperature cycle at Peoria,
Illinois, for two July daysone clear and the other overcast. On a clear
day the maximum temperature is higher, and the minimum temperature
is lower than if the day had been overcast. On an overcast day, the
daily temperature range is less than if it had been sunny.

will be lower than if the clouds were absent and the sky was clear

to reduce the daily temperature range by lowering the daytime

maximum and raising the nighttime minimum.
Clouds are not the only phenomenon that increase albedo
and thereby reduce air temperatures. We also recognize that
snow- and ice-covered surfaces have high albedos. This is one
reason why mountain glaciers do not melt away in the summer
and why snow may still be present on a mild spring day. In addition, during the winter, when snow covers the ground, daytime
maximums on a sunny day are less than they otherwise would be
because energy that the land would have absorbed and used to
heat the air is reected and lost.

At night, clouds have the opposite effect as during daylight.

They act as a blanket by absorbing outgoing terrestrial radiation
and reradiating a portion of it back to the surface. Consequently,
some of the heat that otherwise would have been lost remains
near the ground. Thus, nighttime air temperatures do not drop
as low as they would on a clear night. The effect of cloud cover is
I
Monthly mean temperatures for Seattle and Spokane,
Washington. Because the Cascade Mountains out off Spokane from
the moderating inuence of the Pacific Ocean, its annual temperature
range is greater than Seattle's.

CONCEPT cnscx 1 6.9

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Seattle, 'Washington

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Spokane,
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Temper
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Q List the factors that cause land and water to heat and cool
differently.
Q Quito, Ecuador, is located on the equator and is not a coastal
city. It has an average annual temperature of only 13 C (55 F).
What is the likely cause for this low average temperature?
Q In what ways can geographic position be considered a control
of temperature?
Q How does cloud cover inuence the maximum temperature
on an overcast day? How is the nighttime minimum inuenced by clouds?

. ii; r. C
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World Distribution
of Temperature

Take a moment to study the two world isothermal maps

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it and
From hot colors near the equator to cool
colors toward the poles, these maps portray sea-level tempera-

World Distribution of Temperature

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483

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FIGURE 16.32 World mean sea-level temperatures in January in degrees Celsius.

tures in the seasonally extreme months of January and Iuly. On

these maps you can study global temperature patterns and the
effects of the controlling factors of temperature, especially latitude, the distribution ofland and water, and ocean currents. Like
most isothermal maps of large regions, all temperatures on these
world maps have been reduced to sea level to eliminate the complications caused by differences in altitude.
On both maps, the isotherms generally trend east and west
and show a decrease in temperatures poleward from the tropics.

They illustrate one ofthe most fundamental aspects ofworld temperature distribution: that the effectiveness ofincoming solar radiation in heating Earth's surface and the atmosphere above it is
largely a function of latitude.
Moreover, there is a latitudinal shifting oftemperatures caused
by the seasonal migration of the Suns vertical rays. To see this,
compare the color bands by latitude on the two maps. For example, on the Ianuary map, the hot spots of 30 C are south of the
equator, but in Iuly they have shifted north of the equator.

FIGURE 16.33 World mean sea-level temperatures in July in degrees Celsius.

T

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484

CHAPTER 16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature

our analysis could end here, but this is not the case. The added

must endure hotter summers and colder winters than a coastal

location. Consequently, outside the tropics the annual tempera-

effect of the differential heating of land and water is clearly

ture range will increase with an increase in continentality.

If latitude were the only control of temperature distribution,

reected on the Ianuary and July temperature maps. The warmest

and coldest temperatures are found over landnote the coldest
area, a purple oval in Siberia, and the hottest areas, the deep
orange ovalsall over land. Consequently, because temperatures
do not uctuate as much over water as over land, the north-south
migration of isotherms is greater over the continents than over
the oceans.
In addition, it is clear that the isotherms in the Southern
Hemisphere, where there is little land and where the oceans predominate, are much more regular than in the Northern Hemi-

sphere, where they bend sharply northward in Iuly and southward

in Ianuary over the continents.
Isotherms also reveal the presence of ocean currents. Warm

CONCEPT cnrzcrc 16. 1 O

Q Why do isotherms generally trend eastwest?
Q Why do isotherms shift north and south from season to
season?
Q Where do isotherms shift most, over land or water? Explain.
Q VVl1ich area on Earth experiences the highest annual temperature range?

currents cause isotherms to be deected toward the poles,

whereas cold currents cause an equatorward bending. The horizontal transport of water poleward warms the overlying air and
results in air temperatures that are higher than would otherwise

be expected for the latitude. Conversely, currents moving toward

the equator produce cooler than expected air temperatures.
Figures 16.32 and 16.33 show the seasonal extremes of tem-

perature, so comparing them enables us to see the annual range

of temperature from place to place. Comparing the two maps
shows that a station near the equator has a very small annual
range because it experiences little variation in the length of daylight and it always has a relatively high Sun angle. A station in the
middle latitudes, however, experiences wide variations in Sun

angle and length of daylight and hence large variations in temperature. Therefore, we can state that the annual temperature
range increases with an increase in latitude.
Moreover, land and water also affect seasonal temperature
variations, especially outside the tropics. A continental location

Students Sometimes Ask...

Where in the world would I experience the greatest
contrast between summer and winter temperatures?
Among places for which records
exist, it appears as though
Yakutsk, in the heart of Siberia,
is the best candidate. The latitude of Yakutsk is 62 north, just
a few degrees south of the
Arctic Circle. Moreover, it is far
from the inuence of water. The

GIVE IT SOME THOUGHT

1. Determine which statements refer to weather and which refer to climate. (Note: One statement
includes aspects of both weather and climate.)
a. The baseball game was rained out today.
b. Ianuary is Omahas coldest month.
c. North Africa is a desert.
d. The high this afternoon was 25 C.
e. Last evening a tornado ripped through central Oklahoma.
f. I am moving to southern Arizona because it is warm and sunny.
S . Thursdays low of 20 C is the coldest temperature ever recorded for that city.
h. It is partly cloudy.

January mean at Yakutsk is a

frigid 43 C _(-45 F), whereas
its July mean is a pleasant 20 C
(68 F). The result is an average
annual temperature range of
63 C (1l3 F), among the highest anywhere on the globe.

World Distribution of Temperature

485

The accompanying photo shows the explosive 1991 eruption of

Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines. How would you expect global
temperatures to respond to the ash and debris that this volcano
spewed high into the atmosphere?
Refer to Figure 16.6 to answer the following questions.
a. If you were to climb to the top of Mt. Everest, how many

breaths of air would you have to take at that altitude to

equal one breath at sea level?
b. If you are ying in a commercial jet at an altitude of 12 kilometers, about what percentage of the atmospheres mass is
below you?
If you were ascending from the surface of Earth to the top of the
atmosphere, which of the following would be most useful for
determining the layer of the atmosphere you were in? Explain.

3- D0PPl<-31' radar

(US Geological Survey) -

b. Hygrometer (humidity)
c. Weather satellite
d. Barometer (air pressure)
e. Thermometer (temperature)
The circumference of Earth at the equator is 24,900 miles. Calculate how fast someone at the equator is rotating in miles per hour. If the rotational speed of Earth were to slow down, how might this
impact daytime highs and nighttime lows?
If you were to see the Sun directly overhead in New York City (40 N lat.) on the summer solstice, at
what angle would Earths axis be tilted? If Earth were inclined at this angle, what might the seasons

be like?
The Sun shines continually at the North Pole for 6 months, from the spring equinox until the fall
equinox, yet temperatures never get very warm. Explain why this is the case.
Rank the following according to the wavelength of radiant energy each emits from the shortest
wavelength to the longest.
a. A light bulb with a filament glowing at 4000 C
b. A rock at room temperature
c. A car engine at 140 C
Figure 16.20 shows that about 30 percent of the Suns energy is reected and scattered back to space.
If Earths albedo were to increase to 50 percent, how would you expect average surface temperatures
to change?
The accompanying graph shows average monthly high temperatures for Urbana,
90,
Illinois, and San Francisco, California. Although both cities are located at about the
same latitude, the temperatures they experience are quite different. Which line on
the graph represents Urbana and which represents San Francisco? How did you fig-

ure this out?

On which summer day would you expect the greatest temperature range? Which
would have the smallest range in temperature? Explain your choices.
a. Cloudy skies during the day and clear skies at night
b. Clear skies during the day and cloudy skies at night
c. Clear skies during the day and clear skies at night
d. Cloudy skies during the day and cloudy skies at night
Refer to the chapter-opening photo. Describe how latitude, altitude, and the differential heating of land and water inuence the climate of the place in the image.

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486

CHAPTER 16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature

Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a particular place for

a short period of time. Climate, on the other hand, is a generalization of the weather conditions of a place over a long
period of time.
The most important elements, those quantities or properties
that are measured regularly, ofweather and climate are (1) air
temperature, (2) humidity, (3) type and amount of cloudiness,
(4) type and amount of precipitation, (5) air pressure, and
(6) the speed and direction of the wind.
If water vapor, dust, and other variable components of the
atmosphere were removed, clean, dry air would be composed
almost entirely of nitrogen (N), about 78% of the atmosphere
by volume, and oxygen ( O2) about 21%. Carbon dioxide
(CO2), although present only in minute amounts (0.036%), is
important because it has the ability to absorb heat radiated by

a consequence, Earth"s orientation to the Sun continually

changes. The yearly uctuations in the angle of the Sun and

length of daylight brought about by Earth"s changing orientation to the Sun cause the seasons.
The three mechanisms of heat transfer are (1) conduction, the
transfer of heat through matter by molecular activity; (2) convection, the transfer of heat by the movement of a mass or
substance from one place to another; and (3) radiation, the
transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves.

Electromagneticradiation is energy emitted in the form of

rays, called electromagnetic waves. All radiation is capable of

transmitting energy through the vacuum of space. An important difference among electromagnetic waves is their wavelengths, which range from very long radio waves to very short

gamma rays. Visible light is the only portion of the electro-

Earth and thus helps keep the atmosphere warm. Among the
variable components of air, water vapor is very important
because it is the source of all clouds and precipitation and,
like carbon dioxide, it is also a heat absorber.
Ozone (O3) the triatomic form of oxygen, is concentrated in

magnetic spectrum we can see. Some of the basic laws that

the 10- to 50-kilometer altitude range of the atmosphere, and

is important to life because of its ability to absorb potentially

(4) objects that are good absorbers of radiation are good

emitters as well.
The general drop in temperature with increasing altitude in
the troposphere supports the fact that the atmosphere is
heatedfrom the ground up. Approximately 50 percent of the
solar energy that strikes the top of the atmosphere is ulti-

harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.

Because the atmosphere gradually thins with increasing altitude,
it has no sharp upper boundary but simply blends into outer
space. Based on temperature, the atmosphere is divided vertically into four layers. The troposphere is the lowermost layer. In
the troposphere, temperature usually decreases with increasing
altitude. This environmental lapse rate is variable, but averages

govern radiation as it heats the atmosphere are (1) all objects

emit radiant energy; (2) hotter objects radiate more total

energy than do colder objects; (3) the hotter the radiating

body, the shorter the wavelengths of maximum radiation; and

mately absorbed at Earths surface. Earth emits the absorbed

radiation in the form of long-wave radiation. The atmospheric absorption of this long-wave terrestrial radiation,

about 6.5 C per kilometer (3.5 F per 1,000 feet). Essentially all
important weather phenomena occur in the troposphere. Above
the troposphere is the stratosphere, which exhibits warming

primarily by water vapor and carbon dioxide, is responsible

for heating the atmosphere.
The factors that cause temperature to vary from place to

because of absorption of ultraviolet radiation by ozone. In the

mesosphere, temperatures again decrease. Upward from the

place, also called the controls oftemperature, are (1) differences in the receipt ofsolar radiationthe greatest single
cause; (2) the unequal heating and cooling of land and water,
in which land heats more rapidly and to higher temperatures
than water and cools more rapidly. and to lower temperatures
than water; (3) altitude; (4) geographic position; (5) cloud
cover and albedo; and (6) ocean currents.
Temperature distribution is shown on a map by using
isotherms, which are lines that connect equal temperatures.
Differences between Ianuaty and luly temperatures around

mesosphere is the thermosphere, a layer with only a tiny fraction

of the atmospheres mass and no well-dened upper limit.

The two principal motions of Earth are (1) rotation, the spinning of Earth about its axis, which produces the daily cycle of
daylight and darkness; and (2) revolution, the movement of

Earth in its orbit around the Sun.

Severalfactors act together to cause the seasons. Earths axis is
inclined 23 % from the perpendicular to the plane of its orbit
around the Sun and remains pointed in the same direction

(toward the North Star) as Earth journeys around the Sun. As

the world can be explained in terms of the basic controls of

temperature.

Mastering Geology

487

Key Terms
aerosols (p. 462)
air (p. 462)
albedo (p. 475)
autumnal equinox (p. 469)
circle of illumination (p. 467)
climate (p. 460)
conduction (p. 472)
convection (p. 473)
diffused light (p. 475)
electromagnetic radiation (p. 473)
element (ofweather and climate) (p. 462)
environmental lapse rate (p. 466)

greenhouse effect (p. 477)

heat (p. 472)
inclination of the axis (p. 468)
infrared (p. 474)
isotherm (p. 478)
mesosphere (p. 467)
ozone (p. 463)
radiation (p. 473)
reection (p. 475)
revolution (p. 468)
rotation (p. 467)
scattering (p. 475)

spring equinox (p. 469)

stratosphere (p. 466)
summer solstice (p. 469)
temperature (p. 472)
thermosphere (p. 467)
Tropic of Cancer (p. 469)
Tropic of Capricorn (p. 469)
troposphere (p. 466)
ultraviolet (p. 474)
visible light (p. 474)
weather (p. 460)
winter solstice (p. 469)

Examining the Earth System

1. Give an example or two of how the Earth system might be
affected if Earths axis were perpendicular to the plane of
its orbit instead of being inclined 23%?

2. Speculate on the changes in global temperatures that might

occur if Earth had substantially more land area and less
ocean area than at present. How might such changes inuence the biosphere?

Mastering Geology
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