Article Number - CB2823452157

Vol.9(5), pp. 413-419 , May 2015

DOI: 10.5897/AJEST2014.1827
ISSN: 1996-0786
Total Views: 2716
Downloaded: 267

Full Length Research Paper

Assessment of physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of

drinking water at sources and household in Adama Town, Oromia
Regional State, Ethiopia

Temesgen Eliku

Hameed Sulaiman

Received: 17 November 2014 Accepted: 12 March 2015 Published: 20 May 2015

Copyright 2015 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article.
This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0

ABSTRACT
Water quality is a critical factor affecting human health and welfare. This study aimed at examining the
physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of drinking water in Adama town. A total of 107 triplicate
water samples were examined; 1 from inlet point (raw water), 1 from outlet (the water after treatment,
1 from reservoir (treated water stored), 52 from pipe water and 52 from systematically selected
households containers. Six physico-chemical parameters namely temperature, turbidity, pH, free
chlorine residual (FCR), nitrate, fluoride and three bacteriological parameters: total coliform (TC), fecal
coliform (FC) and fecal streptococci (FS) were analyzed. Temperature was average of 23.30, 21.23 and
22.57C at the inlet, outlet and reservoir sampling points, respectively, which were above WHO and
national standard limits of <15C. Concerning FCR, at the outlet, FCR was 0.78 mg/l which was in the
WHO recommended limit of 0.6-1 mg/L and at reservoir sampling point, the FCR was 0.35 mg/l which
was in the WHO and national standard limit of 0.2-0.5 mg/L. The average concentration of TC, FC and
FS at the inlet point was 196, 142 and 117 cfu/100 ml, respectively. On the other hand, at the outlet
and reservoir sampling points, no indicator bacteria were found. In all pipe water samples, pH values
were within the recommended limit (6.5-8). In the pipeline, 82.7 and 92.3% of sampling sites were
found acceptable based on WHO and National standard for FC and FS counts, respectively. In household
water container, 55.8 and 71.1% were in the acceptable limit of WHO and National standard for FC and
FS, respectively. Pearson correlation analysis indicates that a significant positive correlation between
TC/temperature (r = 0.809063) and a significant negative correlation exist between TC and FCR (r =
-0.689336) in tap water samples. Using Pearsons correlation coefficient, TC was found to be positively
and significantly related to FC (r = 0.836887) and FS (r = 0.674766), FC was found to be positively and
significantly correlated to FS (r = 0.84345) in household water.
Key words: Physico-chemical parameter, bacteriological quality, pipe water, household water, total
coliform (TC), fecal coliform (FC), fecal streptococci (FS).

INTRODUCTION

Water is the vital resource for development and essential for all economic activities. It is a
very precious resource of this planet as it is an established source of life. Water is considered
as one of the nutrients, although it yields no calories, yet it enters into structural composition
of cell and is an essential component of diet.
A correct balance in the sensory, physical, chemical and bacteriological qualities of water
makes it drinkable. In order to be used as healthful fluid for human consumption, water must
be free from organisms that are capable of causing diseases and from minerals and organic
substances that could produce adverse physiological effects. Drinking water should be
aesthetically acceptable; it should be free from apparent turbidity, color, odor and from any
objectionable taste. Drinking water should also have a reasonable temperature. Water meeting
these conditions is termed potable meaning that it may be consumed in any desirable
amount without concern for adverse effects on health (AWWA, 1990).
The quality of water for drinking has deteriorated because of the inadequacy of treatment
plant, direct discharge of untreated sewage into rivers and inefficient management of piped
water distribution systems (UNEP, 2004).
Water quality is a critical factor affecting human health and welfare. Studies showed that
approximately 3.1% of deaths (1.7 million) and 3.7% of disability-adjusted-life-years
(DALYs) (54.2 million) worldwide are attributable to unsafe water, poor sanitation and
hygiene (WHO, 2005). Ethiopia is one of the countries in the world with the worst of all
water quality problems. It has the lowest water supply and sanitation coverage in sub-Saharan
countries is only 42 and 28% for water supply and sanitation, respectively (MOWR, 2007).
For this reason, 60-80% of the population suffers from water-borne and water-related
diseases (MOH, 2007). The problem is the backward socio-economic development resulting
in one of the lowest standard of living, poor environmental conditions and low level of social
services (UNWATER/WWAP, 2004).
Adama, like other cities in Africa, lacks adequate sanitation services. The sanitation coverage
of the city was only 51%, from which more than 75% is pit latrine (AWSSS, 2008). The
sanitation and hygiene situation, particularly in low income areas is very poor. The poor
sanitation systems and practices and the environmental pollution result in direct and indirect
threats to the public health. Just a third of the sludge is collected, to be dumped in a pond near
Adama. The rest of the sludge is leaked into the drainage system and infiltrates to the ground
water; polluting both the surface and ground-water.
Previously, no study has been done on physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of
drinking water from the source, disinfection point, main distribution system (Reservoir), tap
water and households. The aim of this study was therefore to determine the physico-chemical
and bacteriological parameters that deteriorate the quality of drinking water at their sources to
household level in Adama town.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Description of the study area

The study area is Adama town located in eastern Showa in the Oromiya Region (Figure 1). It
is one of the largest and most populated towns in Oromiya National Regional State, the third
largest urban center in Ethiopia and is located about 100 km south east of Addis Ababa.
Geographically, the town is located on longitude 39 27 E and latitude of 8 54 N at an
altitude of 1720 M.A.S.L. The town is in the Great Rift Valley of East Africa on the flat low
land between two mountain ridges (Ketchama and Kafagutu). Adama has a total area of about
13,000 hectares, which has been subdivided into 16 urban kebele (least administrative
structure) administrations. The mean annual ambient temperature in Adama town is between
19 and 22C. Adama drinking water treatment plant provides treated water to the residents of
Adama town. The treatment plant is found 17 km in the southern part of the town near the
Awash River (raw water source) and was established in July 2003. The treatment plant has a
capacity of pumping 17,000 m3 water per day (Technical Staff in Adama Town Water Supply
and Sewerage Service, AWSSS). The coverage level of the treated water is about 323 km and
the treatment plant supply about 95% treated water to the town population (AWSSS). The
plant used calcium hypochlorite for disinfection and aluminium sulphate and polyelectrolyte
(organic compound) for coagulation and clarification purpose.

Water samples and sampling points

Triplicate water samples were collected from one sample from each of inlet (raw water),
outlet (the treated water) and reservoir sampling points; 52 water samples from water taps,
likewise, 52 water samples were collected from selected household containers from May to
July, 2008. The selected households were the ones that use the protected water sources for
their drinking and domestic purposes.
The method of sample collection from each water tap was according to the WHO (2004c)
guidelines for drinking water quality assessment. Convenience (non-probability) sampling
was applied to select samples from water taps based on convenience and logistic ground of
the thirteen main distributions network systems that are found in the four directions of the
town (AWSSA). Each of these thirteen main distribution networks are stratified into four
distributions sub-networked area of the four directions of the town. Therefore, a stratified
random sampling was used for the selection of fifty two water samples for tap water (WHO,
2004c). Systematic random sampling method was used to select representative sample
households from each of sixteen kebeles (least administrative structure) (Daniel, 1995).
Water samples from each site were collected by using a sterile glass bottles with capacity of
500 ml containing sodium thio sulphate for complete neutralization of residual chlorine (1 ml
of 10% Na2S2O3), labeled and kept in icebox (4C) during transportation to Oromiya Water
Laboratory, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The bacteriological tests were undertaken within 6 h of
collection to avoid the growth or death of organisms in the sample (Monica, 2002). With
regard to physico-chemical analysis, all physical parameters were evaluated immediately at

the site during the period of sample collection, while the rest of the analyses were carried out
at Oromiya Water Laboratory.

Physicochemical analysis
Temperature and pH were measured by portable 370 pH meter on site. Turbidity was
measured calorimetrically using a spectrophotometer (DR/2010 HACH, Loveland, USA) at
the laboratory following HACH instructions. FCR test was performed on site during sample
collection by using N,N-diethyl-1,4-phenylenediamine (DPD1) HACH chlorine test kit.
Nitrate was measured calorimetrically using spectrophotometer (DR/2010 HACH, Loveland,
USA) by following HACH instructions (1998). Fluoride concentrations in water samples
were determined by spectrophotometer by using SPADNS reagent (DR/2010 HACH,
Loveland, USA) by following HACH instructions (1998).

Bacteriological analysis of water samples

Samples for microbial indicators (TC, FC and FS) were analyzed by 100 ml membrane
filtration technique, using 0.47 mm diameter, 0.45 m pore size filters (Gelman Sciences
sterilized membrane) as specified in standard methods (APHA, 1998). For TC and FC
membrane, lauryl sulfate (mLS) medium (PARK) was used and incubated at 35 and 44.5C
for 24 h, respectively; and all yellow colonies were counted as TC and FC. FS was detected
using M Entrococcus agar which was prepared according to APHA (1998); plates were
incubated at 44C for 24 to 48 h. All black colonies were counted as FS.

Statistical analysis
Data was analyzed by Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16.0 and
Pearsons correlation (r) values were determined by Microsoft Excel version 2010.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Physico-chemical analysis of inlet, outlet and reservoir sampling points

A total of fifty five water samples were analyzed from the sample points of inlet (the raw
water sources, Awash River), outlet (site of disinfection and treated water leaves the treatment
plant), reservoir (site of treated water stored) and water taps. A water sample from inlet point
was taken before water entering into the water treatment plant. There was a high turbidity of
197.67 NTU at the inlet point than the outlet (4.50 NTU) and in the reservoir (4.57 NTU)
(Table 1).

At the outlet, the treatment plant effectively reduces the turbidity level and the treated water
met WHO and national standard limit. This is because the water passes through a number of
treatment processes. Clarification followed by coagulation helps to reduce suspended solids
and can remove significant numbers of harmful organisms from polluted water (WHO,
2004c).
The temperature of the three sampling points were found to be 23.30, 21.23 and 22.57C for
inlet, outlet and reservoir, respectively which are above the permissible limit of 15C
recommended by WHO (1996). Since Adama town is found in the central rift valley area, the
climatic condition of the area is responsible for high temperature. The average pH values of
the inlet, outlet and reservoir were 8.10, 7.43 and 6.80, respectively. The addition of chlorine
as a disinfecting agent in the treatment process lowers the pH at the outlet point. The pH
values of the inlet, outlet and reservoir sample point were within the acceptable limit of WHO
and National standards which is from 6.5 to 8.5 (WHO, 2004b). The concentration of nitrate
at the inlet, outlet and reservoir water samples were 17.38, 2.71 and 3.05 mg/l, respectively,
which comply with both the WHO and National standard. The fluoride values of the outlet
and reservoir were within acceptable limit of WHO (1996) and National standard but the inlet
average fluoride was beyond the recommended limit of WHO. As shown in Table 1, the mean
free chlorine residual (FCR) at the outlet sample point was 0.78 mg/l. At the outlet sample
point, free residual chlorine (FCR) was within the recommended limit of 1 or 0.6-1 mg/l for
disinfection practice (WHO 2004b, c). This was due to adequate disinfection practice for the
treatment plant. An increase of 1 mg/l in free chlorine residual resulted in a decrease of about
0.36 and 0.18 in the mean total coliform and fecal coliform counts, respectively. This
indicates that a chlorine residual of about 1 mg/l when water leaves the treatment plant is
needed for health reason (Mombal and Kaleni, 2002). The fluoride concentration of analyzed
samples of inlet is 2.71 mg/l, outlet 1.23 mg/l and reservoir 1.27 mg/l. The fluoride values of
the outlet and reservoir were within acceptable limit of WHO (1996) and National standard
but the inlet average fluoride was beyond the recommended limit of WHO. At the outlet and

reservoir sampling points, no indicator bacteria were found which comply with both WHO
and National standard.

Physico-chemical and bacteriological analysis of tap water samples

As shown in Table 2, out of 52 pipe water sample investigated, the turbidity of 12 (23.1%)
water samples were above the standard and 40 (76.9%) within the WHO and National
standard limits of <5. All pipe water samples had pH levels within WHO and National
standard limits of 6.5-8.0 and 6.5-8.5, respectively. Regarding the temperature, all pipe water
samples were beyond recommended limit of WHO <15C (WHO, 2004c); this is due to the
climatic condition of the rift valley area making the temperature of the water to be high.
Nitrate concentration of all the 52 (100%) samples of tap water met the WHO 45 mg/l
(WHO, 2004C) and National standard limits of 50 mg/l (ES, 2001). All pipe water samples
had fluoride concentration within WHO and National standard limits of <1.5 and 3 mg/l,
respectively. The amount of FCR in the pipe water recommended value of WHO and
National standard (0.2-0.5 mg/l). In the study area, 40 (76.9%) of water samples met the
acceptable level, and 12 (23.1%) of water samples were below the standard.

Of the 52 water samples collected from tap water, 8 had FC concentrations ranging from 1-10
cfu/100 ml, one sample had FC concentration ranging from 11-20 cfu/100 ml, and 43 samples

were found to have zero FC per 100 ml which is in the acceptable limit of WHO and National
standard. Regarding FS, 4 samples were in the range of 1-10 cfu/100 ml, and 48 samples had
no FS cfu/100 ml which meets the acceptable limit of WHO and National standard. The
bacteriological test for the samples from water taps contains some fecal coliform and fecal
streptococci. This is due to fact that the water treatment plant is far away from the town,
mainly some kebele which are about 21 km away from treatment plant, so that the
interconnections between the site of production and the tap, up to the home of the consumers
may accumulate pathogenic organisms by formation of biofilms (Skraber et al., 2005). A
study conducted by Mengestayhu (2007) showed that out of 35 tap water sample, 6 (17.1%)
and 11(31.4%) were in the acceptable limit of WHO and national standard for TTC
and FS counts, respectively.

Bacteriological analysis of household container water samples

From 52 household water containers, 22 (42.3%) samples had TC concentrations above

WHO and National standard limit whereas 30 (57.7%) were within the standard limit of 10
cfu /100 (Table 3). 29 (55.8%) samples had FC concentrations within the recommended level
of WHO and National standard limit of zero FC per 100 ml and 23 (44.2%) above the
standard limits. In the case of FS, 37 (71.1%) water sample satisfy the WHO and National
standard limits of zero FS per 100 ml and 15 (28.9%) samples above the recommended limits
(Table 3). Water used for domestic purposes in household container is of poor quality
(microbiologically) and the contamination is possibly due to poor management of water and
existence of poor sanitation The study conducted in South Africa and Zimbabwe indicated
that, more than 40% of the survey households using improved sources had water samples that
were unsafe at the point of use (Gundry et al., 2006).

Results on Pearson correlation analysis are presented in Table 4. A significant positive

correlation was between TC/temperature (r = 0.809), FS/FC (r = 0.979), FC/TC (r = 0.763),
FS/TC (r = 0.658), TC/turbidity (r = 0.536), temperature/turbidity (r = 0.518). Increasing

temperature enhance the metabolic activity of indicator bacteria. A significant negative

correlation exist between TC and FCR (r = -0.689), FC and FCR (r = -0.558), FS and FCR (r
= -0.518), Turbidity and FCR (r = -0.542). Free residual chlorine has dominant effect for the
decrease of indicator bacteria. Thus, increasing the chlorine concentration has an important
implication to reduce or eliminate pathogens in the water.

Statistically, using Pearsons correlation coefficient, TC was found to be positively and

significantly related to FC (r = 0.837) and FS (r = 0.675), FC was found to be positively and
significantly correlated to FS (r = 0.843) (Table 5). Similar study conducted by Khalil et al.
(2013) revealed that total coliform bacteria are significantly correlated with fecal streptococci
(r = 0.983).

CONCLUSION

A combination of safe drinking water, adequate sanitation and hygienic practices are a prerequisite for reduction of water quality related diseases. To reduce the incidence and
prevalence of water-borne diseases, improvements in the availability, quantity and quality of
water is required.
In this study, it was shown that in tap water, 3 (5.8%), 9 (17.3%), 4 (7.7%) had TC, FC and
FS concentration, respectively, which are above WHO and National standard. The
temperature of water sample was above the permissible level of WHO and National standard.
The majority of tap water (76.9%) has turbidity within the recommended limit of WHO and
National standard and some (23.1%) are above the WHO and National standard. From
household water container, 29 (55.8%) samples had FC concentrations within the
recommended level of WHO and National standard and 23 (44.2%) above the standard limits.
In the case of FS, 37 (71.1%) water sample satisfy the WHO and National standard limits and
15 (28.9%) samples above the recommended limits. Based on the research findings, the
following recommendations can be drawn:
1. Periodic estimation of at least some important parameters like bacterial load especially
indicating fecal pollution (coliforms, fecal coliforms), free residual chlorine, turbidity and pH
both at the source and consumers ends should be carried out.
2. Treatment procedures are required to be better and well managed, that is, filters should be
checked and replaced if required and chlorination should be according to WHO norms, that
is, application of chlorine to achieve a free residual chlorine at least 0.5 mg/l in terms of
bacterial inactivation.
3. Further study is needed to determine the seasonal variations in the contamination level of
the water sources.

CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors did not declare any conflict of interest.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors highly acknowledge their colleagues (Tewodros Bekele and Gashaw
Mulu), Environmental Science Program (AAU), Oromiya Water Laboratory, and Adama
Drinking Water and Sewerage Services, Adama Treatment Plant Technical staff.

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