PLANNING

AND DESIGN
OF
ROADS, AIRFIELDS, AND HELIPORTS
IN THE
THEATER OF OPERATIONSROAD DESIGN

DISTRIBUTION

RESTRICTION:

Approved

for public release;

distribution

is unlimited.

,.:
.
::
:.
:.
:.

FOREWORD

This publication
and contingency

may be used by the US Army

operations.

FREDERICK
M. FRANKS, JR
General, USA
Commanding
General
United States Army Training
and Doctrine Command

and US Air Force

during

training,

MERRILL
A. MCPEAK
General, USAF
Chief of Staff

exercises,

*FM 5-430-00- 1
+AFJPAM 32-8013. Vol I

--

Headquarters
Department of the Army
Department of the Air Force
Washington, DC, 26 August 1994

Field Manual
No. 5-430-00- 1
Air Force Joint Pamphlet
No. 32-8013. Vol I

PLANNING AND DESIGN OF ROADS, AIRFIELDS,

IN THE THEATER OF OPERATIONS-ROAD

AND HELIPORTS
DESIGN

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Volume I
Page
PREFACE

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..v

CHAPTER

1.

GENERAL

INFORMATION

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l- 1

General Information .......................................................

Basic Planning Considerations
in the Theater of Operations.
......................................................
Airfield Construction
Road Construction ........................................................
........................................................
EngineeringStudy
SITESELECTIONANDRECONNAISSANCE......

CHAPTER2.

......................

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-l

LocationFactors..........................................................2Reconnaissance ...........................................................
...........................................
Route and Road Reconnaissance.
.................................................
Engineer Reconnaissance.
...................................................
Airfield Reconnaissance
CHAPTER

3.

SURVEYS

AND

EARTHWORK

OPERATIONS

1
2-5
2- 11
2-14
2- 14
. . . . . . . . , . . . . . . , , . . . . . a . . . . 3-l
3- 1
-3-3
3-19

Construction Surveys, .....................................................

....................................................
ConstructionStakes..
.......................................................
TheMassDiagram

DISTRIBUTION

RESTRICTION:

Approved

1- 1
1- 1
l-2
l-2
l-3

for public release:

distribution

is unlimited.

*This publication together with FM 5-430-00-YAFJPAM

32-8013, Vol II, 29 September
1994 supersedes FM 5-165/AFR 86-13, 29 August 1975, FM 5-335,2 December 1985 and TM
5-33O/AFM 83-6, Vol 1, 8 September 1968.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFJPAM

CHAPTER

4.

CLEARING,

32-8013,

Vol I

GRUBBING,

AND

.......,...:..:.:.:.::...... . : ..:.: . ....

STRIPPING

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-l
4-l
4-2
4-4
4-6

...................................
Forest Types and Environmental
Conditions
Preparation
..............................................................
...................................................
Clearing Considerations.
...................................................
Performance
Techniques
CHAPTER

5.

SUBGRADES

AND

BASE

COURSES

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-l
5- 1
5-4
5-8
5-10

.....................................................
Design Considerations
Subgrades ...............................................................
.......................................
Select Materials and Subbase Courses.
BaseCourse
............................................................
CHAPI-ERG.

DRAINAGE......................................................6-1

SECTION

I.

Construction

Drainage

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-l
6- 1
6-4
6-9
6- 11
6- 11
6-22

.....................................................
Preliminary
Measures.
.......................................................
Drainage Hydrology
..........................................................
The Hydrograph
Drainage-System
Design ..................................................
.......................................................
Design Procedures
................................
Estimating
Runoff Using the Rational Method.
SECTION
Design
Design
Design

II.

Open-Channel

Design

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-38
6-38
6-45
6-46

........................................................
Factors..
....................................................
Considerations
.......................................................
Techniques

SECTION

III.

Culverts.

SECTION

IV.

Surface

Drainage

Design

in Arctic

and Subarctic

Fords, Dips, Causeways,

and Bridges. ......................................
........................................................
ErosionControl
.........................................
Nonuse Areas and Open Channels
.........................................................
Culvert
Outlets
7.

SOILS TRAFFICABILITY

6-59
6-84
6-89
6-92
Regions.

. . . . . . . . . . 6-102
6-107
6-114
6-l 15
6-124

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . 7-1

Basic Trafficability
Factors .................................................
Critical Layer ............................................................
......................................
Instruments
and Tests for Trafficability.
...................................................
Measuring
Trafficability.
Application
of Trafficability
Procedures
in Fine-Grained
Soils and Remoldable
Sands. .............................................

ii

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . 6-59

................................................
Culvert Types and Designs
...........................................................
PondingAreas
.................................................
Drop Inlets and Gratings.
Subsurface
Drainage .....................................................

CHAPTER

7-2
7-3
7-3
7-5
7- 11

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFJPAM

Self-Propelled,
Tracked Vehicles and All-Wheel-Drive
Vehicles Negotiating
Slopes. ..............................................
Operation
in Coarse-Grained
Soils ..........................................
Trafficability
Data. .......................................................
Soil-Trafficability
Classification.
............................................
CHAPTER
8. MAINTENANCE,
ROADS, AIRFIELDS,
AND

9.

ROAD

DESIGN

Vol

7- 11
7-26
7-27
7-36

REPAIR, AND REHABILITATION

OF
HELIPORTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-l

Maintenance
and Repair Considerations.
......................................
Maintenance
and Repair Operations.
.........................................
Road Maintenance
........................................................
Airfield and Heliport Maintenance.
..........................................
CHAPTER

32-8013,

8- 1
8-2
8-9
8- 17

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-l

Geometric Design .........................................................

VerticalAlignment
.......................................................
Structural
Design. .......................................................
Spray Applications
and Expedient-Surfaced
Roads .............................
Use of Polymer Cells (Sand Grid) to Build
Roads in Sandy Soils ...................................................
Surface Treatments
.....................................................
Construction
Methods
...................................................
General Road Structural
Design ...........................................

9-l
9-18
9-27
9-30
9-36
9-41
9-49
9-58

Volume II
CHAPTER

10.

PRELIMINARY

PLANNING

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . lo- 1

Mission Assignment
......................................................
Classlficatton ............................................................
............................................................
Construction
CI-IAPIER

11.

AIRCRAFT

CHARACTERISTICS

AND AIRFIELD

10-l
10-5
10-8
DESIGN.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 l-l

Aircraft Characteristics
...................................................
Correlation
of Army and Air Force Terminology.
...............................
Airfield Design ........................................................................................................
AidstoNavigation..
........................................................
SpecialAirffelds
CHAPTER

12.

AIRFIELD

PAVEMENT

DESIGN.

1 l- 1
11-l
.
..:*I:!~
y
11-50

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1

Airfield Structure Type.

Expedient-Surfaced
Airfields
..........................................................................................
Aggregate-Surfaced
Airfields
..............................................
Flexible-Pavement
Airfields
...............................................
Special Design Considerations.
............................................
Evaluation
of Airfield Pavements ...........................................
Pavement and Airfield Classification
Numbers ................................

12-1
: : : : 12-8
12-22
12-35
12-43
12-50
12-61

.. .

III

FM 54300OO-l/AFJPAM

CHAPTER

13.

DESIGN

32-8013,

..(
.,., ,.,,,_,
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::.:
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Vol I

AND CONSTRUCTION

OF HELIPORTS

AND

HELIPADS.

13-1
13-1
13- 15
13- 15
13-21
13-23
13-27
13-27
13-32

Types of Helicopters. .....................................................

Heliport vpes,
Design Criteria, and Layout. ..................................
Design of Heliport and Helipad Surfaces ....................................
Design of Unsurfaced Heliports. ...........................................
Mat- and Membrane-Surfaced
Heliports and Helipads. .........................
..............................................
Thickness Design Procedure
............................................
Special Design Considerations.
Marking and Lighting of Heliports and Helipads ..............................
Helipads in Heavily Forested Areas .........................................
CHAPTER

14.

FORTIFICATIONS

FOR PARKED

ARMY AIRCRAFT

14- 1

....................

14- 1
14-48

Aircraft Fortifications .....................................................

...................................
Maintenance.
Repairs. and Improvements
APPENDIX

A.

METRIC

CONVERSION

APPENDIX

B.

GEOTEXTILE

APPENDIX

C.

HYDROLOGIC

APPENDIX

D.

CONE

APPENDIX

E.

SOIL-TRAFFICABILITY

APPENDIX

F.

CURVE

APPENDIX

G.

FROST DESIGN

APPENDIX

H.

GEOTEXHLE

APPENDIX

I.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . .

FORMULAS..
AND

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . .

HYDRAULIC

TABLES

INDEX REQUIREMENTS

TABLES.

AIRFIELD

AND CURVES

. . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .

, . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

G-l

. . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

H-l

FOR ROADS

PENETROMETER

FLEXIBLE

APPENDIX

L.

MAT REQUIREMENT

APPENDIX

M.

BALLISTIC

EVALUATION
TABLES
TABLES

MEMBRANESANDMATS

APPENDIXP.
GLOSSARY

PAVEMENT

MAT REQUIREMENT

PAVEMENT

&

. . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-l

CURVES.

FOR AIRFIELDS
FOR HELIPADS

DYNAMIC

CONE

. . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . , , . . . . . K-l
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . , . L- 1
AND HELIPORTS

. , . . , , . . M-l

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..,....,,.....

CLASSIFICATION
DATA..

D- 1

F-l

K.

0.

C-l

. . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDIX

APPENDIX

B-l

E-l

AND APPLICATION OF DUALMASS

APPENDIX J. DESCRIPTION
PENETROMETER...............................................,....,....J-l

APPENDLXN.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A-l

TEST SET. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

DESIGN,

CONE

13-1

........

NUMBER

GRAPHS

. N-l

. . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O-l

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P-l

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . . . . Glossary-l

REFERENCES.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . , . . . , . , . . . . . . . . . References- 1

ii

..,....
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. . ,::.:.,.:,
. ....,.. . . ...../
,,:,.:
i,)i::

i :::.

:,,.:,:

,...,:

..;...,

T:,,y:::,j

::;:.,Y.

,.:.:.::.,,:..
...

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFJPAM

32-8013,

Vol I

PREFACE
Field Manual (FM) 5-430 is intended for use
as a training guide and reference text for engineer personnel
responsible
for planning,
designing,
and constructing
roads, airfields,
and heliports in the theater of operations

dardization
Program,
Parked Aircrajt.
.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

(NATO) Standardization
Agreement
(STANAG) 3 158 Airfield Markfng and
Lighting (AML) (Edition 4). Day Marking
of Airjleld Runways and Taxiways.

STANAG

2929, AirJieZd Damage

STANAG

3346 AML (Edition 4). Marking

Obstructions.

(To).
FM 5-430 is divided into two separate volumes to make it more user-fiend@.
FM 5430-00-1 /AFPAM 328013,
Vol 1, Road Design, encompasses
Chapters
1 through 9
and Appendices
A through H. FM 5-430-002/AFJPAM
32-8013, Vol II, Airfield and Heliport Design, encompasses
Chapters
10
through 14 and Appendices
I through P.
FM 5-430-00-l/AFPAM
32-8013, Vol 1 is a
stand-alone volume for the design of TO
roads.
This volume also serves as a detailed description
of fnformation
common to
both roads and an-fields, such as site selection, survey and earthwork,
clearing and
grubbing,
base and subbase courses, and
drainage.
FM 5-430-00-2/AFJPAM
328013,
Vol II
serves as the basis for airfield and heliport
design.
It discusses the complete process
of airfield and heliport construction
from
the preliminary
investigations,
through design criteria, to the final project layout and
construction
techniques.
It is not a standalone volume.
FM 5-430-00- 1 /AFPAM 328013, Vol 1 contains much of the information required to design the substructure
of
an airfield or a heliport.

Forti@ationfor

Repair.

and Lighting of Airjeld

.

STANAG 3601 Air Transport (TN) (Edition 3). Criteria for Selection and Marking of Landing Zones for Fixed Wing
Transport Aircraft.

STANAG 3619 AML (Edition

ment 2). Helipad Marking.

STANAG 3652 AML (Amendment

3). Helipad fighting, VisuaZ Meteorological
Condi tions (VMC).

STANAG

3685 AML, Air-eld

2) (Amend-

Portable

Marking.
This publication
applies to the Air National
Guard (ANG) when published
in the National Guard Regulation
(NGR) (AF) O-2.
This publication,
together with FM 5-430-002/AFJPAM
32-8013, Vol II: Airfield and Heliport Design (to be published),
will supersede TM 5-330/AFM
86-3, Volume II, 8 September 1968 and FM 5-165/AFP
86-13. 29
August 1975.

The material in this manual applies to all

levels of engineer involvement
in the TO.
The manual is intended to be used by
United States (US) Army Corps of Engineers
personnel.

The proponent
for this publication
is the
US Army Engineer School (USAES).
Send
comments
and recommendations
on Department of the Army (DA) Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications
and Blank
Forms) directly to-

The provisions
of this publication
are the
subject of the following international
agreements:

Commandant
US Army Engineer School
ATSE-TDM
Fort Leonard Wood, MO 65473-5000.

Quadripartlte
Standardization
Agreement (QSTAG) 306. American-BritishCanadian-Australian
Armies Stan-

Unless this publication

states otherwise,
masculine
nouns and pronouns do not refer
exclusively
to men.

..

. . . . . . ,. .. . .

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

. :

32-8013,

Vol 1

GENERAL INFORMATION

Army engineers plan, design, and construct airfields, heliports,

and roads in the TO. To ensure these facilities
meet proposed
requirements,
the responsible
engineer officer must coordinate
closely with all appropriate
ground and air commanders.
The
engineer depends on the appropriate
commanders for information on the weight and trancfrequency
of using aircraft, facility
life, geographic
boundaries
governing
site selection,
and the
time availablefor
construction
as dictated by the operation plan.
Detailed planning,
reconnaissance,
and site investigations
are
often limited by lack of time and by the tactical sttuation. However, when time and security permit, the engineer should conduct
normal ground reconnaissance
and on-site investigations.
If
this is not possible, the engineer should obtain photographs
of
the area.

BASIC PLANNING
Army engineers should
guides in the TO:
l

CONSIDERATIONS
OPERATIONS

use the following

IN THE THEATER OF

Keep designs simple. Simple designs require minimum skilled labor and spccialized materials.

Build one of two types of structures in

the TO: initial or temporary.
Initial
design life is up to six months; temporary design life is up to two years.

Use local materials whenever possible.

This helps eliminate construction
delays
associated with a long communications
and logistics line.

Whenever possible, phase construction

to permit the early use of the facility
while further construction
and improvements continue.

Use existing facilities whenever possible. This helps avoid unnecessary construction.

Generally avoid sites with dense brush,

timberland, and rolling terrain that require heavy clearing or grading.

Take care to prevent destruction of

natural drainage channels, culverts,
and roads. Repairs require time and
labor far exceeding that needed to
prevcn t damage.

Remember that safety factors in design

are drastically reduced in the TO because of time constraints and the inhercnt risks of war.

General lnforma tion

1- 1

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

j:;,:j:j:j;j:j.:

Vol 1

AIRFIELD

CONSTRUCTION

The plannfng
and construction
of Air Force
bases in the TO is a joint responsibility
of
Army and Air Force personnel
as outlined in
Army
Regulation
(AR)
415-30/Air
Force
Regulation
(AFR) 93-10.
A summary of each
services responsibilities
follows:

ARMY RESPONSIBILITIES
The Army
construction

will provide
the following
support to the Air Force:

troop

Development
of engineering designs,
standard plans, and material to meet
Air Force requirements.

AIR FORCE RESPONSIBILITIES

The Air Force
l

provides

Emergency
bases.

the following

support:

repair of war-damaged

Reconnaissance,
survey, design, construction, or improvement
of airfields,
roads, utilities, and structures.

air

Rehabilitation
of Air Force bases and facilities beyond the immediate emergency recovery requirements
of the Air
Force.

Force bed down of Air Force units and

weapon systems. excluding Army basedevelopment
responsibilities.

Construction
management
of emergency
repair of war damage and force beddown.

Operation and maintenance

facilities and installations.

Crash rescue

Supply of materials and equipment to

perform Army engineering
missions.

Construction
of temporary
base facilities.

of Air Force

standard

air

Repair management of war damage and

base development,
including supervision of Army personnel.
The Air Force
base commander will set the work priorities.

and fire suppression.

Supply of material and equipment to

perform Air Force engineering missions.

Road and an-field construction.

ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Engineer
construction
units,
under
the
appropriate Army command, have the following
responsibilities:

Reconnoiter

roads and bridges.

l

l-2

Recommend

traffic-control

General Information

procedures.

Construct and install signs and other

route-marking
materials.
Regulate traffic at locations where engineer work is being performed.
Assist vehicles to keep traffic moving on
main supply routes regardless of
weather, enemy activity, or other difficulties.

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

ENGINEERING
ACLU- lllc specific rcqllirctllcnts
for roads,
airfields. anti hclipor(s
have town
dclcrmlr~cri. cliginccrs
should I)rcparc tlir
facililics for use as soon as possible.
In
most casts. 111cnccrt is critical bccausc Lhc
accomplishrncn
1 of a mission dcpcnds on

32-8013,

Vol 1

STUDY

using certain airfields and roads.

To obtain
Lhcsc facililics quickly, an adcqllaLc
invc*sLigation of each silt and a careful
study 0r Llic design dclails arc csscnlial.
This is cxplaincd
in grcalcr dclail in
Chapter 2 of this nianual.

General Information

l-3

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

SITE SELECTION AND

RECONNAISSANCE

This chapter outlines the location, layout, and design of military

roads and airfields.
The first steps in constructing
a road or
airfieid are determining
the best location for the facility
and
formulating
the essential
areas and construction
features.
Throughout the preconstruction
phase, problems can be avoided
by a well-planned
site selection.

LOCATION FACTORS

Construction
of a road or airfield initially
consists of providing a prepared subgrade
and base course according to design
criteria.
Airfield runways require more
transverse areas than roads.
Although the
governing criteria and dimensions for roads
and airfields differ, the basic approach to
their location and layout is the same. Engineers should USC the factors listed below
to locate and lay out all construction
projects.

MISSION
The most important factor in selecting a
site is to ensure it will fulfill mission requirements.
Lines of communication
(LOCI
must bc built to accomplish
a specific mission in the most direct and efficient manner
possible.
All location factors must be
evaluated to support the mission.

EXISTING

FACILITIES

Use all existing facilities.

The wartime missions of engineer troops are so extensive
and the demand for their services so great
that new construction
should be avoided.
Extensive roadnets of varying quality and
capacity already exist in most areas of the

world. Where possible, use these roadnets

to the fullest extent.
In many cases, expansion and rehabilitation
of existing facilities
is adequate for mission accomplishment.
Except in highly developed areas, existing
airfields are seldom adequate to handle
modern, high-performance
aircraft.
However, with minimum rehabilitation
these airfields can usually be made adequate to accommodatc them. They may serve as the
nucleus for larger fields that meet the requirements of high-performance
aircraft.
Helicopters and light planes can often
operate from existing roads, pastures, or
athlctlc fields.

LOCATION AND DESIGN

To the greatest extent possible, the location
and design for a facility must provide the
best response to all requirements.
Alternative road and airfield plans can be
evaluated, from the standpoint of total
earthwork and drainage structure requirements, to reduce construction
effort.
Try to construct airfields in an area that
will serve existing and future requirements.
Consider the future needs of military units

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

2-1

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

and facilities, such as depots and hospitals,

when locating roads. Soil type and
incumbent pavement structure
requirements, rock formations, and
vegetation should also be considered in
locating roads. A given road segment to be
constructed or improved should be
considered in view of its contribution to the
overall network. Similarly, an airfield
should be evaluated for its ability to
enhance an airfield network.

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Locate all roads and airfields on terrain
having the best possible subgrade soil
conditions. This will decrease construction
effort and result in a better facility. The
subgrade should be compacted under
conditions allowing it to support the design
loads. Conduct a basic soils investigation
prior to construction to provide data needed
to ensure good construction decisions.
Refer to FM 5-4 10 for soils information and
FM 5-530 for soil survey procedures.

DRAINAGE
Locate roads in areas that are easily drained and where drainage structures are
minimized. Drainage is a more critical
factor in locating airfields than roads.
Because of the wide areas involved in
airfield installations, water must be diverted
completely around the field or long drainage
structures that are difficult to maintain
must be constructed. This topic is further
discussed in Chapter 6 of this manual.
Avoid the low points of valleys or other
depressed areas because they are focal
points for water collection, Many airfields
are constructed across long, gentle slopes
because of the relative ease of diverting
water around the finished installation.
Avoid construction on unprotected floodplains and alluvial fans, if possible, due to
the flood hazard. Alluvial terraces are often
ideal locations for airfields. They offer flat
expanses that are above the river floodplain
and are normally protected from flooding.

2-2

Site Selection

and Reconnaissance

.C
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Avoid constructing facilities in areas of high

water tables. Although it is possible to construct subsurface structures that will
remove part of this moisture, maintaining
routes through these areas presents a
continual problem. If it is impossible to
avoid constructing a road or airfield in this
type of terrain, the water tables must be
lowered during construction to reduce the
adverse effect of water on the strength of
the supporting subgrade and base course.

GEOLOGY
Before locating any lines of communication,
carefully analyze the geology of the area.
Sizeable quantities of rock anywhere along
a construction project will cause a large
removal problem, slow construction, and
increase the construction effort. Engineer
troop units require special equipment and
training to excavate rock.
Rock outcroppings are more common in
hilly terrain than in flat or rolling country.
In areas where the preliminary design
indicates that cutting is required to reach
final grade, take enough borings to
determine the location of the rock.
Identify the type of rock material for
evaluation as a suitable construction
aggregate. Determine the structural
orientation of the rock mass to properly
design road cuts and ensure rock-slope
stability. In sedimentary rocks it is best to
align road cuts perpendicular to the strike.
If this is not possible, use the safe-slope
ratios shown in Figure 2- 1.

TOPOGRAPHY
Construct all roads and airfields within
maximum grade specifications.
The
specifications depend upon the facilitys
construction standard. Thus, avoid
excessive grades and steep hills when
locating these routes. If steep hills must be
negotiated, the route should run along the
side of the hill rather than going directly
over it. This may result in a longer route,
but it is generally more economical and
avoids excessive grades.

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

-When dip toward

road is

0 - 18

Ia-

35

35 - 75

7Y

- 9o

Then slope ratio should

be (horizontakvertical)

Figure 2- 7. Safe-slope

EARTHWORK

_-

The largest single work item during construction of LOC is earthwork

operations.
Any step that simplifies
earthwork
operations will decrcasc required work and increase job efficiency.
Generally,
when cutting and filling on a project, earth handling
is reduced by using the material excavated
to construct
required embankments.
This
balancing
must be within the haul
capabilities
of the available equipment.
Even though earthwork
should be balanced
throughout
a project, if the haul distance
becomes excessive,
it may be more practical
lo open a nearby borrow pit or establish
spoil areas.
Balancing
cannot be done

where the excavated material is not acccptable for USC in an embankment.

ALIGNMENT

Keep the number of curves and grades at a

minitnum for efficient traffic flow over
roads.
All vehicles have difficully
in
negotiating
sharp curves; even gentle curves
decrease traffic capacity.
Lay all routes
with minitnum curves by making the tangent lines as long as possible.
Locating
long tangents is influenced
primarily by the
terrain and limited by the following
principles of efficient location:
minimizing
earthwork,
avoiding excessive grades, and

ratio

obtaining
suitable fill malerial.
Align runways in the direction of the prevailing
wind
bccausc
aircraft usually land and take off
into the wind.

OBSTACLE

CROSSINGS

Whenever a route crosses a major obstacle,

such as a river, a ravine, or a canal,
bridges or other structures
are required.
Construction,
is time-consuming
and requires materials that may be in short supply. Avoid these obstacles whenever
possible.
It will be advantageous
to forego
many of the other location principles
lo
dccreasc the number of obstacle crossings.
Use existing structures
to decrease total
work requirements.
This tnay require only
the strcngthcning
of an existing bridge or
no bridging work at all. When possible, the
road should not cross a particular
obstacle
more than once.

BRIDGE APPROACHES
When locating routes, carefully evaluate construction rcquirctnents
for approaches
to
obstacles.
Construction
of approaches
over
marshes or floodplain
arcas can cause
greater requirements
than the obstacle
crossing itself.
Approach
conditions
may be
the prime faclor in obstacle crossing and

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

2-3

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

may dictate route location.

Consider the approach with the obstacle when establishing
the optimum route.

GROUND COVER
All routes should avoid heavily wooded
areas that requirc extensive clearing.
If
this is not possible, the route should pass
through areas having the least vegetation.
Precede all earthwork by stripping unsuitable material.

REQUIRED AREAS
Airfields need large areas of relatively flat
land to efficiently accomplish their mission.
This usually restricts the number of sites
that can be considered for airfield construction. Advance location and layout will
avoid cramping necessary facilities.
Frequently, the airfield must be spread over a
large section to obtain the required area.
This results in the construction
of a complex network of taxiways and service roads.
When this is the case, keep in mind the
ability to construct
this connecting network
to appropriate specifications.
Roads built on rolling or flat terrain seldom
require large. lateral areas.
Roads constructed in deep cuts or fills require proportionately greater lateral areas to account for
slopes.

ACCESSIBILITY TO MATERIALS AND

UTILITIES
The efficient operation of airfields requires
the use of electricity, water, gas, and sewer
systems.
Locating new airfields near existing utility systems can avoid the construction of new facilities or long transmission
lines. A nearby railhead will help the construction effort.
Consider the quality and availability of construction materials when locating a facility.
Obtain suitable base-course
materials from
existing pits and quarries whenever possible
because much planning and effort are required to open a new quarry.
The quality

2-4

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

: .

,:

..

,,

: :.,. .;

7:

-,

when locating roads.

Prevailing winds will
carry snow, rain, and sand onto the roadway, if the orientation of the road Is undesirable.
Protective snow or sand fences
should be oriented to take into account the
prevailing winds.

TACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Frequently,
it is necessary to construct
temporary roads or heliports or to improve landing strips to move personnel and materials.
When this is the case, consider the following tactical factors:
Defilade. Locate all roads in a defilade
position on the reverse side of a hill or
ravine to avoid enemy observation and to
provide cover from direct artillery or mortar
fire.
CamoufIage. When constructing
a road or
airfield in an exposed area, take advantage
of all natural camouflage and concealment.

Defense. Airfields in forward areas are

prime targets for enemy air and ground attacks.
When designing the airfield, dis-

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

perse the facilities to minimize the effects of

bombing or strafing attacks.
It may be
necessary to use ground troops in defensive
positions against enemy ground action.

FUTURE EXPANSION
Due to the unpredictability
of military operations, engineer troops are often required to
modify and expand previously completed
construction.
The road that is adequate for
todays maneuvers may be inadequate for
tomorrows operations.
AirfIelds built for
small aircraft with a limited evacuation mission may have to be modified to meet more
stringent design criteria for accommodation
of high-performance
aircraft.
Improvement
and expansion are a continuing job on all
military construction.
Try not to construct
a road or airfield in a
restricted area where there is no possibility
of expansion.
Design basic facilities so that
they can be used as part of the expanded
facilities.
The ability to expand an existing
route or facility will conserve personnel and
material and permit rapid completion of future projects.

RECONNAISSANCE
Reconnaissance
operations vary with the
operational environment;
the assigned mission: and the size, type, and composition of
the reconnaissance
element.
An aerial,
map, or ground reconnaissance
is necessary
to determine the best existing or best possible location for a future road or airfIeld.

The final construction

plans and schedules
are made with regard to the tactical and
logistical situation and the construction
time available.
The reconnaissance
report,
submitted by personnel conducting the investigation, must be complete, comprehensive, and sufficiently detailed to permit careful analysis.

MISSION

The primary mission of a reconnaissance

party is to find a site meeting most requirements, to recommend a general layout and
construction
plan, to estimate the work required to construct
the facility, and to obtain the data needed to determine a completion date and detailed construction
schedules. When the reconnaissance
mission is
complete, the reconnaissance
report serves
as the basis for tactical plans and construction schedules.

RECONNAISSANCE-PARTY
CAPABILITIES
Thorough reconnaissance
requires qualified,
trained, and experienced personnel.
The
quality of the reconnaissance
is directly related to the abilities of the party accomplishing it. This is especially true in airfield
reconnaissance,
which requires broader engineering judgment than any other engineer
Even a qualified civil
reconnaissance.

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

2-5

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

engineer with civilian or military experience

requires special training for this activity.
It
is unusual for one person to be proficient
in all the items a thorough reconnaissance
Therefore, the assignment
of
must include.
personnel to the party must provide for its
overall efficiency as a unit. The party must
be selected with regard to the conditions it
may confront.
Factors to be considered include the roadnet, the general nature of the terrain, the
weather, the prevalence of land mines, the
attitude of the civilian population, and the
amount of enemy resistance
the party may
expect.
These factors also influence the
equipment assigned to the party. The equipment should include all items necessary for
soil and topographic surveys, mobility,
security, and good communication.
The success of the mission depends on proper personnel and equipment.
One without the
other will not accomplish
the needed
results.
If available, a soils or terrain
analyst is a valuable member of the reconnaissance party. If an analyst is not available, obtain soil samples for later analysis.

STEPS IN RECONNAISSANCE
Reconnaissance
low.

involves the steps that fol-

Planning
Planning is concerned with the formation of
a reconnaissance
mission.
It involves the
coordination
of reconnaissance
efforts by appropriate headquarters,
the estimation of
needs, and the assignment
of a reconnaissance mission.
Both ground and aerial
methods should be integrated.
This is a
responsibility
of the engineer brigade, the
group, or the b a tt a li on, not the individual
reconnaissance
party. Reconnaissance
missions are based on user requirements
as
governed by ground forces.
Maintain close
liaison with all headquarters
to achieve
proper coordination.
Improper coordination
results in duplication of effort in some
areas and inadequate reconnaissance
in
other areas.

2-6

.:.

Vol 1

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

Briefing
The briefing tells the reconnaissance
party
exactly which site or area is to be reconnoitered, what is already known about the
area or site, and what information the party
is expected to obtain.
Details concerning
the time or methods of reporting the information will be included in the briefing.
The
party must also know the type of facility for
which it is reconnoitering.
If a site has
been tentatively selected or if some information has already been determined from a
preliminary study, the party must be informed. Otherwise, time and effort will bc
A soils or terrain analyst should
wasted.
brief the reconnaissance
party, if such an
expert is not able to accompany the party.
If available, aerial photos should be used in
the briefing.
The following information is necessary for a
full understanding
of a particular reconnaissance mission and should be covered in the
briefing:
The general area to be covered, if an
area reconnaissance
is to be conducted:
or the exact location of the site or
facility to be investigated, if a specific
reconnaissance
is to be done.
The nature of the proposed facility: the
types of vehicles or aircraft scheduled to
use it; the length of time such use is anticipated; and the minimum requirements concerning dimensions, grades,
and clearances.
(These items are
covered by reference to the applicable
standard layout and specifications
published by the joint force commander in
the theater. They are usually familiar
to the reconnaissance
officer but should
be kept for reference.)
The anticipated vehicle traffic and number of aircraft and personnel to be initially accommodated at the proposed
facility. (When dealing with airfields,
figures are often given in terms of the
number and type of aviation units to be
assigned to the installation.
Strength
and equipment figures should also be
available for reference.)

,:.I

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,,,

.: j y .,t :

,,

i.,:jj.,:,,.: :

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The minimum amount of aircraft service, repair facilities, and special requirements needed.

The expected
new facility.

future expansion

about

The essential details concerning the

report and how, when, and to whom the
report should be made.

When the reconnaissance

party is to be
away from its parent unit for a lengthy, continued reconnaissance,
the following additional instructions
must be covered in the
briefing:
l

The location where rations, clothing,

and equipment replacements
can be
drawn.
The source from which petroleum, oils,
and lubricants (POLI supplies can be
drawn.
The service facility where vehicle maintenance can be obtained.
The form of communications
to be arranged; for example, radio, messenger,
or telephone.

When ground reconnaissance

Is ordered
ahead of forward ground-force
elements, the
following additional instructions
are necessary:
l

*
l

Friendly-force

situation.

Known enemy-force

situation.

Location of adjacent

friendly units.

The following instructions

are applicable
only to parties engaged in air reconnaissance:

Alternative
structions.

32-8013,

and emergency-landing

Location of available
supplies.

Location of the forward flying line.

of the

The expected construction

time available for building support facilities.
Information previously obtained
the proposed project.

FM 5-4309OO-l/AFPAM

Preliminary

Vol 1

in-

aviation petroleum

Study

The preliminary study consists of studying

the information obtained during the briefing, conducting a map reconnaissance
of
the area involved, studying aerial photos,
delineating soil boundaries,
assembling
other available preliminary information,
and
planning and preparing for the actual reconnaissance.
Sources of information that may be useful
in the preliminary planning of reconnaissance missions and in the preliminary
study of a specific mission are discussed
below. Such information must be verified
by ground reconnaissance.
Intelligence dossiers that provide planning data and other information on a
particular airfield site or route that may
already exist. These dossiers are the
result of previous reconnaissance
or
reconnaissance
plans and can usually
be obtained if adequate coordination is
maintained with higher headquarters
and other units engaged in reconnaissance. Similarly, reports of aerial reconnaissance that were conducted in anticipation of later ground reconnaissance may be available from adjacent or
higher units.
Strategic and technical reports, studies,
and summaries on specific areas of actual or potential military importance are
prepared by the Office of the Chief of Engineers and subordinate agencies.
These reports provide the best data
available at the time they were printed.
Topographic, geologic, and soil maps, as
well as data on the climate and
groundwater tables, are usually included. These reports may contain information on water supply, construction

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

2-7

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

materials, vegetation,
cal phenomena.
l

2-8

32-8013,

.;.:y:. ..

Vol 1

and special physi-

Army and Air Force periodic intelligence

reports are important, reliable sources
of information.
Intelligence reports are
usually prepared in the interior zone,
but periodic intelligence reports are
field-prepared reports of all-around
force elements.
They include facts
learned by prisoner-of-war
interrogations, tactical data, reports, records,
and interrogation of local inhabitants.
Intelligence reports are used to prepare
strategic and technical reports.
Road, topographic, soil, vegetation, and
geologic maps published by friendly or
enemy governments and agencies are
sources of information.
Maps showing
the suitability of terrain for various
military purposes may be of considerable value in planning roads and airfields.
Aerial photographs show the approximate amount of gradlng and excavation required, the total area and extent of promising sites, the extent of
necessary clearing, the presence of
flying hazards (for airfields), and the
area and local drainage conditions.
If time and facilities are available,
topographic maps should be prepared
from aerial photographs.
Weather reports published by
governmental agencies and the Air
Force Air Weather Service are used to
determine critical factors for runoff
determination,
prevailing winds, and
cloud cover which will affect construction and future operations.
Aeronautical reports and charts provide
an overview to help plan aerial reconnaissance.
Indigenous governmental agencies may
provide valuable information on a great
diversity of subjects.

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

Air Reconnaissance
Air reconnaissance
involves a general study
of the topography, drainage, and vegetation
of the area. The construction
problems,
camouflage possibilities,
and access routes
should be visualized.
Usually the specific
ground-reconnaissance
procedure is
planned by selecting, from the air, areas
that need investigating and by determining
what questions need answering.
Air reconnaissance can provide valuable negative information by eliminating unsuitable
sites,
but it cannot be solely relied on for positive
information.
Ground Reconnaissance
While air reconnaissance
can effectively
reduce the amount of ground reconnaissance, it cannot replace ground reconnaissance.
It is on the ground that most queslions are answered or that questions tentatively answered from the air are verified.
Often ground and air reconnaissance
are
not separate missions.
A continuing air
reconnaissance
may be interspersed
with
specific ground reconnaissance.

REPORTING
The reconnaissance
party must always submit its report on time. Reports are submitted for all sites investigated,
even if the
reconnaissance
party considers the site unsuitable.
Full details on the method, place, and time
of submitting reconnaissance
reports
should be included in the instructions
given
to the reconnaissance
party. Reconnaissance reports can be submitted in writing
or by radio. A radio report should be followed by a detailed written report.
Standard reconnaissance
reports are preferred.
They ensure full coverage of needed information and allow a comparative evaluation of
two or more sites.
Standard formats are
helpful in comparing sites which have been
reconnoitered
by different parties.
They
simplify each partys work in preparing
reports.

.:

,..

.i

. .

.,
::,:

:.;.,.:

..:.

,.,.., ..,.

.:.

..:

::

.,:;:..,:

Military roads and road networks are

defined according to location and use.
They are classified according to width, surface, and obstructions.
Terms and formulas approved by the member nations of
the NATO, the Southeast
Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), the United States, the
United Kingdom, the Canadian and
Australian Armies Nonmaterial Standardization Program, and other treaty nations are covered in FM 5-36.
Abbreviations,
symbols, and notations used
in route reconnaissance
(described in FM 536) may also be used in airfield reconnaissance.
Information given in road reconnaissance reports is useful in reporting on access roads to airfield and heliport sites.

AIR RECONNAISSANCE
An air -reconnaissance
team generally consists of only two members:
the pilot and
the engineer observer.
Having the officer in
charge of the ground-reconnaissance
party
act as the engineer observer is advantageous and should be arranged when
possible.
Time is saved and errors of omission are minimized when a report from the
engineer observer to the officer in charge of
the ground-reconnaissance
party is not
necessary except as a matter of record.
The pilot can also assess the site and make
the appropriate recommendations.
Two-place, fixed-wing ah-craft or two-place
helicopters are suitable for most air-reconnaissance
missions. Reconnaissance
of
enemy-occupied
ah-fields is best accomplished with modified tactical aircraft.
Effective air reconnaissance
the following information:
l

Determination
Description
Evaluation

should

,..::::

FM 5-4300OO-l/AFPAM

.,,,.;.

sources

of

Discussion

of cover and concealment.

RECONNAISSANCE

The composition of the ground-reconnaissance party depends on the scope and extent of the tnission and the nature of the
terrain it must traverse.
The composition
depends upon the probability of contact
with the enemy, the attitude of the civilian
population, and the prevalence of mines in
the area to be reconnoitered.
Table 2-1,
page 2-10, provides a list of personnel
suitable for an airfield reconnaissance.
The
list can be modified to meet the particular
needs of the situation.
All personnel involved should be trained in
ground reconnaissance.
It is important
that the person in charge and the assistant
be well versed in all aspects of reconnaissance.
All equipment needed to carry out the assigned tasks should be taken.
The equipment varies as the composition of the party
varies.
A typical list of equipment suitable
for the party is listed in Table 2-2, page
2-10.
Map and air studies are not substitutes
for
ground reconnaissance;
they only reduce
the amount of ground effort required.
Ground reconnaissance
should determine
the following information:
l

of obstacles.
of LOC.

Assessment of suitability of the area for

various types of construction.

of available

Supply evaluation of construction

materials in the area of operations.

GROUND

provide

of terrain features.

identification
water.

Vol 1

32-8013,

Estimated

grades to be encountered.

Estimated amount of clearing involved.

This includes trees, tree stumps, and
Sometimes objects such as
boulders.
buildings and concrete foundations are
included.
Consideration of debris generated
during clearing operations.
In some

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

2-9

FM 5-4300OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Table 2-1.

Grade
w

Vol 1

Typical airfield

Pr lmary

ground-reconnaissance

General reconnaissance

Officer

Command

Sr NC0

Second

EM

Technical

EM

Plane-table

EM

Terrain intelligence

EM

Airphoto

EM

DriverlRTO

Assistant

EM

Driver/RTO

Wheel-vehicle

Suggested

Party

in command
Engineer

Machine gunner

man

Machine gunner

equipment

personnel,

Machine gun, 7.62

Pedestal,
Binocular,

7.62

Soils analyst

list for airfield

armored
mm

mm machine gun mounted

7 x 50

machine gunner

mechanic

ground-reconnaissance

Quantity

1 l/4 ton

*Carrier,

Rodman

analyst

Interpreter

Hem
Truck,

party

Secondary Duty

Duty

Table 2-2.

: .,;i:j:$g;:

.., .:

party

Item

Clinometer

Panel marking

Pioneer

to&

Towing

chain

1
sets

2
1 set/vehicle
2

Material for marking,

Quantity

fording,

As required

and swimming

sites
plastic

Improvised

Radiacmeter,

IM-WUD

Measuring

Radiacmeter,

IM-174/PD

Three-man

Vehicular

Goggles,

Detector

II

kit, chemical agent, AN-M256

Paper,

chemical agent detector,

MOPP

gear

MB

1 book
As required

means of measuring

water depths

tape

pneumatic reconnaissance
first-aid

boat

kit

FM 5-34

Reconnaissance

report forms

and formats

As required

Radio set, mounted in truck

Adequate map and aerial photo coverage

As required

Flashlight

Tracing

As required

Lensatic

Camera
*Desirable

2-10

sun,

(Polaroid)

with film

when operating

in support

of mechanized

tape (tape, textile)

compass

forces or in northern

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

areas

:::.

.,

..,

: ,.

. .,

:.

.:.,

,.

.,

.,
:

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

Vol 1

Estimated amount of earthwork necessary, the approximate balance between

cut and fill, and the necessity for long
hauls of earth material.

cases, the trees removed may be used in

the construction
operation.
Details of
clearing operations are discussed in
Chapter 4 of this manual.
.

32-8013,

Nature of soil encountered,

field determination of gradation, percentage of
fine-gradient materials, and plasticity
characteristics.

Errors or discrepancies
on the maps
from which the site was tentatively
selected and the effects of such errors
on the selection.

Conditions of streams at crossing sites;

width, depth, and velocity of the stream:
condition of the banks and streambed;
and indications of high water levels.

Local rainfall data and other pertinent

information about seasons and weather
obtained through local inhabitants or
other sources.

Presence or absence of local construction materials, including possible sources of sand, gravel, cement. tar, asphalt
culvert pipe, and lumber. Local construction capabilities and labor conditions are included.

Information or observations
the final facility location.
Relationship

which affect

with the local population.

ROUTE AND ROAD RECONNAISSANCE

-.

Thorough reconnaissance
is essential in the
selection of roads.
It starts with a study of
available maps and aerial photographs.
Aerial reconnaissance
provides valuable information.
Detailed information,
however,
can be obtained only by ground reconnaissance.
Reconnaissance
performed in connection with military LOC is route reconnaissance.
Reconnaissance
to che&k exfsting roads is road reconnaissance.
Reconnaissance
to determine the location for a
new road is location reconnaissance.

ROUTE RECONNAISSANCE

Route reconnaissance
includes gathering information about roads, bridges, tunnels,
fords, waterways, and natural terrain features that may affect the movement of
troops, equipment, and supplies in military
operations.
Route reconnaissance
may be
hasty or deliberate.
A hasty route reconnaissance
is conducted to determine the immediate trafficability
of a specified route
and is limited to critical terrain data. It
may be adequately recorded on a map overlay or sketch and be supplemented
by
reports about various aspects of the terrain.

A deliberate route reconnaissance

is
detailed.
It provides the data necessary for
a thorough analysis and classification
of significant features along a route, including
repair or demolition procedures,
if required.
An overlay is used to point out exact map
locations, and enclosures
are attached to
the overlay. The enclosures
are DA Reconnaissance
Report forms that provide a permanent record and ensure enough detail is
recorded.
The use of these forms is explained in FM 5-36.

ROAD RECONNAISSANCE
Road reconnaissance
is conducted to determine the traffic capabilities
of existing
roads and to provide more detailed information than is needed for route classification.
It may include enough information
to
develop work estimates for improving the
road to certain standards of trafficability.
DA Form 1248, shown in Figure 2-2, pages
2-12 and 2-13, is used to record this inforMaps, overlays, and sketches are
mation.
used as necessary.

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

2-11

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

29
SECTION

32-8013,

II -

DETAILED

ou5

ROAD INFORMATION

,W~n.xc

DA FORM 1248.1 JUL 60

Figure 2-2.

2-12

Vol 1

PREVIOUS

Sample

EDITION

I
IS OSSOLETE

Road Reconnaissance

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

Report,

DA Form

1248

FM 50430-OO-i/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

r
.I

m-

:oa)Bu~tt-up

area[wostfehf)-

Bd 749.3

m kb

(08)

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!weep

Grede

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ALL MEASUREMENTS

IN METERS

REVERSE OF DA FORM 1248; 1 JUL 60

Figure 2-2.

Sample Road Reconnaissance

Report, DA Form 1248 (continued)

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

2-13

FM 5-430-OOWAFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

The most

construction.
Existing
roads should be surveyed at the earliest opportunity to determine their condition and
capacity.
Time is saved by improving an existing road rather than
a new
one.
Periodic road reconnaissance
is conducted
to obtain information about the road situation in a specific area. A situation map is
prepared and kept current to show the condition of roads, the density of traffic, the
need for maintenance
work, and the results
of
Periodic reconnaissance
is
important during wet or unusually dry

ENGINEER

RECONNAISSANCE

Tentative airfield sites are selected within

enemy territory using map and aerial

2-14

When a new road is necessary,

the first
step is the location reconnaissance.
This requires reconnaissance
of all possible routes
to ensure selection of the best route. The
main objective of a location reconnaissance
is to locate a new road that will withstand
anticipated traffic and provide the best possible operating conditions.

materials, resources,
terrain features, and
facilities that have engineer implications.
Special engineer reconnaissance
obtains
detailed information regarding an investigation of a specific site or evaluates the potential use of an undeveloped facility such as
an airport or heliport.
DA Form 1711-R is
a required enclosure to the route reconnaissance, as specified in FM 5-36.

RECONNAISSANCE

Airfield reconnaissance
differs from roadlocation reconnaissance,
described in FM
5-36, in the scope of information.
An airfield project involves more personnel,
machine-hours,
and material than a road
project.
Air traffic imposes more severe
limitations on its traffic facilities than
vehicular traffic.
Consequently,
the site
selected must be the best site available.

PLANNING AIRFIELD

LOCATION RECONNAISSANCE

RECONNAISSANCE

Engineer reconnaissance
is often conducted
in conjunction
with deliberate route reconnaissance to determine route conditions (including work estimates] and to locate construction materials to improve or maintain
It is either a general or special
the route.
reconnaissance.
General engineering reconnaissance gathers engineering information
of a broad nature within the operational
area to locate and evaluate construction

AIRFIELD

weather to determine the effects of these

conditions.
Maintenance
based on periodic reconnaissance
must be
coordinated with the agencies using the
roads to ensure proper standards of maintenance and to avoid work on roads no
longer needed.

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

photograph reconnaissance,
supplementing
data from reports of aerial observers or inThese sites may be untelligence sources.
developed potential sites or operating enemy
installations.
Reconnaissance
should begin
as soon as possible.
For an undeveloped potential site, the object of the reconnaissance
is to verify or
amend tentative selections and layouts and
to estimate the material, equipment, and
troop requirements
for the construction
planned.
If it is a captured enemy airfield,

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a decision is needed on whether to use the

captured field or develop a completely new
site. Estimates of the engineering effort necessary to restore the airfield may also be required .
New airfields added to an area in which our
aircraft are already operating can be developed in the following manner:
l

Select the best available map of the area

in which the new airfields are to be located. Draw a 5-mile-diameter circle
around existing airfields and shade
them. Note all high-tension, electric
transmission lines and shade a 2-milewide strip centered on these lines. Locate and shade all similar obstructions
on the map. Assault or hasty airfield selection is discussed in Chapter 10 of FM
5-430-OO-2/Air Force Pamphlet
[AFPAM) 32-8013. Vo12.
Confine the study for potential airfields
to the unshaded parts of the map. Look
for sites of sufficient area, preferably
flat with good natural drainage, unobstructed air approaches, and accessibility to routes of communication. Assign
the most likely sites to reconnaissance
parties for appropriate air and ground
investigation.

SELECTING

RUNWAY LOCATION

A convenient way of selecting a runway location at a site that meets glide-angle requirements is to prepare and use the airfield-siting template illustrated in Figure 2-3, page
2-16. This template can be drawn on acetate or heavy cellophane for use on any
map to meet specifications for flight way,
horizontal approach, and glide angle. When
placed on the map, the template shows land
forms and natural or manufactured obstacles that are in or above the plane of the
glide angle.
In Figure 2-3, any hill within the approach
zone at a distance of 8,000 feet from the
end of the overrun and having an elevation
of more than 160 feet above that of the end
of the proposed runway, is in a 5O:l glide

.............i.

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.,

,.

,.

,.,. .

. .. ..,.. FM 5-430-001l/AFP

:.:. :+: :,:. ,:.:..

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93-4, Vol I

angle. This runway location is unsuitable

according to the specifications. The template is useful to the reconnaissance officer
and to the preliminary planning group. Prepared templates can measure distances in
feet, yards, miles, and kilometers by placing
gradations along their edges.

PROCEDURES FOR AIRFIELD AIR

RECONNAISSANCE
The general procedure for an air reconnaissance follows:
En route to a particular site or a general
area, the engineer notes open borrow pits,
large stockpiles of construction material,
rail and road accesses to the site, and errors on maps that have been studied. The
pilot plays an important role on the reconnaissance team. Besides chauffeuring the
engineer officer, the pilot considers approaches, mental hazards, and physical obstructions related to tactical aircraft that
may use the proposed installation. A pilot
who is familiar with operational requirements and the performance characteristics
of tactical aircraft is more valuable than
one who is not.
The engineer observer assesses possible construction problems at a potential site. The
engineer selects tentative sites and directs
questions to the ground reconnaissance
party. The engineer receives the pilots suggestions concerning the flying-related characteristics of the sites investigated and modifies estimates according to these recommendations.
To be effective as an engineer observer, the
officer should possess the following qualifications:
l

Knowledge of road and airfield requirements and construction procedures and

experience in airfield work.
Immunity to airsickness. An airsick officer cannot effectively accomplish air reconnaissance. Any tendency of the engineer observer to become airsick is
greatly enhanced by the continual concentration on a particular site and by

Site Se/e&ion and Reconnaissance

2-15

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

.. :.

Vol 1

MAPS

OF OESIRED

0:

Runway length= 6,000ft

Overrunlengths= 500 ft
Horizontal
approach= 45 ft
Heightof obstacle
above
Runway = tangentvertical
angle x distance

2O:l q
3O:l =
4O:l =
5O:l =
6O:l =

the steep turns

tial to continued
l

and maneuvers
observation.

Sample

essen-

Proficiency
in map reading.
Upon approaching
a designated
or tentatively
selected site lor reconnaissance,
the normal altitude for the first circuit is approximately
300 feet. Nothing more
than orientation
can be accomplished
in
this circuit.
Sometimes
a site tentatively selected during an area search can be
eliminated
during this circuit or the
next few passes.

Similar second and third passes are flown.

During these circuits,
obstructions,
main
slopes, and general features
are noted.
The
pilot begins to formulate
an estimate
of the
flying-related
characteristics
of the field.
Pinpoints
for the ends of the runway are

2-16

I
I

0.L

SCALE

\
OL

O*

2"52
l"55'
lo26
1009
O"57

Figure 2-3.

TEMPLATE

.IRFIEI.O
POR

...:

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

.
c+ NOTES:
1. Figurer shown in rp roach zones
Indicate permlsrlbk he Pghts of obstructions
ab?ye runway for glide angels of 4O:l and
r@rotmctor
lndlcatw direct reading of
runway bearing taken from Notih-South grid
llnes on map.
3. Glide angles are measured from outer
end of overrun.

airfield-siting

template

made on the map, but additional

should be flown across the area,
sary.

trips
if neces-

After the runway

has been selected,
an initial low pass is made at about 50 yards to
one side of the proposed
centerline.
A
second pass in the opposite
direction
is
flown on the other side of the centerline.
Both of these flights should be made at a
constant
air speed so the runway
length
can be estimated
by multiplying
the air
speed by the average flight time.
NOTE: The length usually is overestimated when flying at low air speeds if a
strong wind is blowing along the centerline. This can be decreased if the distances obtained by two passes in opposite

FM 514301OO-l/AFPAM

directions
along the centerline
are
averaged (assuming
the wind is constant).

A final circuit is then flown at approximatcly 200 feet. During this trip, the ends and
centerline of the runway are given a final
check, and the pilot completes the appraisal
of the fields flying suitability.
In departing, the observer reviews dispersal
areas and again checks access roads. Additional passes over the site are made if questions arise as a result of this last check.
An air reconnaissance
report similar to Figure 2-4, page 2-18, may be used.
An area reconnaissance
then proceeds by
similar inspection of other possible sites.
Complete notes must be kept to avoid
reviewing sites already checked: however, a
reinvestigation
of the final site selected and
any selected alternative sites may sometimes be necessary.

-.

PROCEDURES FOR AIRFIELD

RECONNAISSANCE
The general procedure
sance follows:

GROUND

for ground reconnais-

The ground-reconnaissance
phase is
preceded by map and air reconnaissance
to
discover what specific sites and questions
warrant ground investigation.
En route to the site or sites to be investigated on the ground, the reconnaissance
party should properly record the general
condition of roads and bridges, the location
of usable or repairable railheads, the locally
available materials and equipment, and the
potential water points.
When reconnaissance of a definite site is involved, a more
detailed observation of the access route
should be made. A check must be made of
bridge capacities,
overhead clearances,
and
features that might hinder the movement of
construction
equipment to the site, as well
as the suitability of railheads and sidings
for use in construction.
A detailed report
of the quantity and quality of materials
available at quarries, pits, and stockpiles
must be prepared.

32-8013,

Vol 1

When the site to be surveyed is reached,

the most likely locations for a runway must
be investigated.
If the terrain is open
enough to permit good observation,
these
locations may be quickly determined.
Locations for runways are traversed by vehicle
or on foot. A rough survey of each selected
runway is carried out immediately.
Lengths
are paced, critical slopes are measured with
a clinometer, and directions are determined
with a magnetic compass.
The type of soil
is noted and observations
of a few samples
are made. A preliminary check of a possible runway can be made in 15 minutes, if
the country is reasonably clear and open.
If the country is rough and is not sufficiently open to permit a quick selection of runway locations, a detailed search must be
made on foot. The reconnaissance
officer,
accompanied
by necessary personnel, follows the centerline of the area for the runway and dispersal areas.
The reconnaissance officer notes on a large-scale
map or
sketch all obstacles that cannot readily be
eliminated, such as gullies, rock outcrops,
and swampy areas.
Examination
of the
results discloses the possible runway locations.
The best runway location is selected by considering these centerline investigations
with
prevailing wind direction, air approaches,
glide angles, groundwater conditions,
discharge areas for collected runoff, clearing,
grubbing, and earthwork.
If a suitable runway does not exist, a negative report on the
site is submitted.
Once the selection of a potential runway is
made, a careful and detailed walk of the
centerline of each runway is made to
recheck its suitability.
Stakes are driven at
each end of the runway and prominent features are properly referenced to later expedite the location of the selected runway
by construction
unit surveyors.
The survey sergeant of the reconnaissance
party stakes out the centerline of the runway and runs a ground profile of it at the
centerline and at each shoulder line.
Levels are taken at 500-foot intervals and

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

2-17

FM 5430-OO-l/AFPAM

Excellent
7.

Natural

~
Surlace

Flymg

FM

Poor

Aurcraft

Access

Good

Relect

Poor

Fair

POW

c/

Moderale

E tcesslve

D~rpersal

Adequate

Inadequate

Roads

Adequate

Figure 2-4.

Inadequate

Air Reconnaissance

at intermediate
breaks or slope changes.
In
flat country,
this interval
may be increased
to as much as 1,000 feet.
If an alternative
runway
is selected,
a similar survey is conducted for that runway,
if time permits.
The soils analyst
conducts
a field investigation of the soil conditions
at the site.
Refer
to Chapter
7 of this manual
for more information about soil conditions.
Previously
acquired
information
is checked
at the site for accuracy.
Errors, including
discrepancies
on maps and mistakes
in
aerial photograph
interpretations,
are in-

2-18

Dramage,

Average

Unlimtted

11

__/

Clearing:

Light

10.

Vol 1

Approaches.

Excsllent

9.

Good

Good

Excellent

8.

32-8013,

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

Report

cluded in the report.

A suggested
mat is shown in Figure 2-5.

report

for-

When possible,
local inhabitants
are interviewed to check information
already obtained and to obtain more information.
Several opinions
should be obtained.
Questions should be phrased
to provide the best
comparison
of answers,
Information
must
be weighed carefully
with regard for the
credibility
of each person questioned.
The reconnaissance
of a designated
site
should be accomplished
in one day, unless

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

-_

32-8013,

Vol 1

FM 5_43()_(-)()_1/AFPAM
324013, Vol 1

;,I.....:T,:..~<.
.. :;...:...

hostile forces delay the work. A specific

reconnaissance
of a captured enemy airfield
is somewhat different from that outlined
above. Detailed information about the existing facilities and their condition is desired.
The specific information needed is indicated
on the suggested form for reconnaissance
reports of captured enemy airfields shown
in Figure 2-6.

When the reconnaissance

parties are operating at a considerable
distance from the
headquarters
directing the reconnaissance,
it is imperative that an initial report reach
headquarters
without delay. Use organic
radio equipment and the suggested message

2-20

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

::. ..;:c>.:
.:...:..i:~.:,i;,.
.. : ..;..::; ,:

format in Figure 2-7. page 2-22.

The tactical situation may dictate the amount of information transmitted.
Unit standing
operating procedures (SOPS) should indicate
what information is critical for radio
reports.
A complete, written report should
follow the radio report.
The formats illustrated in Figure 2-4, page
2- 18; Figure 2-5, page 2-19; and Figure 26, are suggested for written reports.
The
reports should include the same items of information shown on these forms. Suitable
sketches should be attached to all written
reconnaissance
reports.
Figure 2-8, page 223, is a typical sketch.

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ji.:

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.,

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32-8013,

Vol 1

REPoAr

RECONNAISSANCE
CAPTURE0

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

ENEMY

AIRFIELD

--

Figure 2-6.

Ground Reconnaissance

Report - Captured Enemy Airfield

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

2-21

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

vd

........
1:.
,:::::
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:.:
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....
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..............
...
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AIRLANDINGAREAREPORT

Air landing Sites

letter daicnath

A
B

Date and time of collectinn of infermalion

location (grrd nlercncesl

Runwry
Ill Bclnng
(21 lenfith and width

(31 Gradrnls exceeding dandrrds

(4) Rough appraisal d earth work

(Q fcas4brJily of runway extension
Drainage
Mw

obstacles to flymg

(11Witha the approach zone

(21 Oubde Ihe approach zone but within

miles

lrpe of soll

Whether surtabfe area for dispersk

can be found

LOCJ resources

I
I

Approach roads

Airstn~s (Runways)
Letter da,anabon

bplanatron

1 Maoshctc(sl

Cl

cd~ct1011

of information

Oimcnaons

Any othrc mformatmn such as work rquired. in

houn. to make the wrstnp sewiceab!e t sustained
or limited opcrahows

I
Report

Dateand bme of

air landing

letter designation
reported.

areas by serial number. The appropriate

must precede each category of information

Figure 2-7. Air Landing Area Report

2-22

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

. .
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FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

.;

.:

32-8013,

Vol 1

-_

Figure 2-8. Typical sketch to accompany

airfield

reconnaissance

report

Site Selection and Reconnaissance

2-23

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

SURVEYS AND EARTHWORK

OPERATIONS

32-8013,

Vol 1

CHAPTER

Construction
surveys are initiated when new construction
is
necessary.
These surveys reveal the kinds of stakes to be used;
provide data for earthwork estimation,
including which method
of estimation
to use; and provide information for use on the
mass diagram.
Thefmished
survey books should befiled
with
the construction
project records of the Operations
and Training
Ofiicer (US Army) (53).
Earthwork operations are one of the most important construction
aspects in road and airfield construction.
Earthwork
requires
the greatest amount of engineering effortfrom
the standpoint
of
personnel
and equipment.
Therefore, the planning, scheduling,
and supervision
of earthwork
operations
are important
in obtaining an efliciently operated construction
project.

CONSTRUCTION
Construction surveying is the orderly
process of obtaining data for various phases
of construction activity. It includes the following surveys: reconnaissance, preliminary, final location, and construction layout. The reconnaissance and preliminary
surveys are used to determine the best localion. The remaining surveys are conducted
after a location has been established.

The purpose of construction surveys is to

control construction activities. The number
and extent of surveys conducted is
governed by the time available, the standard of construction desired, and the
availability of personnel and materials. In
the combat zone, roads and airfields are
constructed with only minimum preplanning and construction control activities.
However, extensive surveys may be con-

SURVEYS
ducted for a deliberate project in the communications zone. The quality and efficiency of construction is directly proportional to
the number and extent of surveys and other
preplanning activities. The principles and
techniques of field surveying are discussed
in detail in technical manual (TM) 5-232
and FM 5-233.
After completing a thorough construction
survey, transfer the design information from
paper to the field by construction stakes.
These stakes are the guides and reference
markers for earthwork operations.
Mark the stakes so that the construction
will conform to the planned line and grade
of the road or airfield and the information
on the stakes wlll be properly interpreted
by construction crews.

Surveys and Earth work Operations

3-l

FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM

RECONNAISSANCE

32-8013,

Vol 1

SURVEY

reconnaissance
survey provides the
basis for selecting acceptable
sites and
routes and furnishes
information
for use on
subsequent
surveys.
If the location cannot
bc selected on the basis of this work, it
must be determined
by the preliminary
surThe

VIZS.

PRELIMINARY

SURVEY

The preliminary
survey is a detailed study
of a location tentatively
selected on the
basis of reconnaissance,
survey information, and recommendations.
It consists of
running a traverse along a proposed route,
recording
topography,
and plotting results.
For roads, it may bc necessary
to conduct
several preliminary
surveys if the reconnaissancc party has investigated
more than one
suitable route.
Establish,
station, and
profile lhc route centerline
with horizontal
and vcrlical control points set. Take crosssection readings to allow rough calculations
of the earthwork
involved.
(Sometimes
cross sections may be taken during the
reconnaissance
survey if the conditions
warrant.)
If the best available route has not
been chosen, select it at this time.
The airfield survey consists of establishing
controls, noting terrain features, measuring
glide-angle
clearance,
making soil profiles,
and investigating
drainage
patterns and approaches.
Accurately
establish the final
ccn Lcrline during the survey.

FINAL LOCATION SURVEY

When 11mc permits, conduct a final location
Establish
permanent
bench marks
survey
for vertical control and well-marked
points
for horizontal
control.
These points are
called hubs because of the short, square
On most surveys, the hub is
stake used.
driven flush with the ground, and a tack in
its top marks the exact point for angular
and linear measurements.
The hub location is indicated by a flat guard stake extcndcd above the ground and driven at a
slope so its top is over the hub. Hubs are

3-2

Surveys

and Earthwork Operations

2 inches by 2 inches and the guards are

flat stakes, about 3/4 inch by 3 inches.

Horizontal Control
The purpose of horizontal
control is to accurately determine points for the various
facilities of an engineering
project.
Establish permanent,
well-marked
points for
horizontal
control and reference them at the
site before construction
begins.
On a large
facility, establish a grid network and use it
for this control.
Tie the network into the
military grid system in the particular
area,
if such a system has been established.
On
an airfield, place control points beyond the
These points define the centerclear zone.
line of the runway and other important
sections of the airfield.
As the taxiways and other facilities are laid
out, establish and reference new control
points.
In laying out the centerline,
place
target boards at each end of the runway so
the instrument
person can make frequent
checks on alignment
while the line is being
staked out. Target boards may be set up
on any line that requires precision alignment.
Reference control stakes to ensure
replacement,
if they are disturbed
or lost.
Locate the target board just beyond the out-

ermost

control-point

stake.

Vertical Control
Vertical control methods determine
the difference in elevation between points.
If available, establish a level reference surface or
datum from a known bench mark.
Differences in elevation, with corrections,
are subtracted from or added to this assigned
value, resulting in the elevation of the
points.
Take the datum of the bench mark
system from a known elevation or
barometer
reading or make an arbitrary assumption.

CONSTRUCTION

LAYOUT SURVEY

The construction
layout survey is the final
preconstruction
operation.
It provides alignments, grades, and locations that guide construction operations.
The survey includes
determining
exact placement of the

FM 5-430-00-l

.. .

-,

centerline;
laying out curves; setting all
remaining stakes, grades, and shoulders:
staking out necessary structures;
laying out

The primary functions of construction

stakes are to indicate facility alignment, control elevations, guide equipment operators,
and eliminate unnecessary
work. They also
determine the width of clearing required by
indicating the limits of the cut and fill at
right angles to the centerline of a road.
Mark and place construction
stakes to conform to the planned line and grade of the
proposed facility.
Use colored marking
crayons to mark the stakes.
Use a uniform
system so the information on the stakes
can be properly interprctcd by the construction crew.
Construction
*

stakes

32-8013,

Vol 1

culvert sites; and performing other work reContinue this

quired to begin construction.
survey until construction
is completed.

CONSTRUCTION
Use construction
stakes for centerline,
slope, offset, shoulder, grade, reference,
ditch, culvert, and intermediate
stakes and
for temporary bench marks.
The stakes
should be approximately
1 inch by 3 inches
by 2 feet. Use finished lumber when possible. If it is no1 possible to USC finished
lumber, use small trees or branches blazed
on both sides and cut to length.
Finished
grade stakes and temporary bench marks
are 2 inches by 2 inches by 12 inches.
Place stakes using a three- to five-person
crew equipped with transit, level, rod, tape,
ax, sledgehammer,
and machete.

/AFPAM

STAKES
l

The horizontal distance from the centerline to the stake location.

* The side-slope
stakes.

ratio used on slope

The number and location of stakes used differ bctwccn roads and airfields.
A typical
set of construction
stakes consists of a
centerline stake and two slope stakes and
is referred to as a three-point
system.
Point one is the centerline of the facility.
Points two and three are the construction
limits of the cut and fill at right angles to
the ten terline.

CENTERLINE

OR ALIGNMENT

STAKES

The centerline or alignment (hub) stakes,

shown in Figure 3- 1, are placed on the
centerline of a road or airfield and indicate
its alignmenl, location, and direction.
They
are the first stakes placed and must be located accurately.
These stakes are used as
reference points in locating the remaining
stakes.
Centerline stakes are placed at lOOfoot (or 30-meter) intervals.
On rough
ground or sharp horizontal and vertical

indicate-

The stationing or location of any part of

the facility in relation to its starting
point. If the stake is located at a critical point such as a point of curvature
(PC), point of intersection (PI), or point
of tangency (PTl of a curve, note this on
the stake.

Front

Back

The height of cut or fill from the existing

ground surface to the top of the subgrade for centerline stakes or to the
shoulder grade for shoulder or slope
stakes.
Figure

3-1.

Centerline

stakes

Surveys and Earth work Operations

3-3

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

closer together.
On horizontal curves, also stake the PC, PI,
and PT. On vertical curves, also stake the
point of vertical curvature (PVC!), the point
of vertical intersection
(PVI). the point of vertical tangency (PVT), and the low point (LPI
or high point (HP) of the curve.

,.:::

curves, place the stakes

Place centerline stakes with the broad sides

perpendicular
to the centerline.
The side of
the stake that faces the starting point is
the front. Mark the front of the stake with
aq for centerline and, if applicable, PC, PI,
or PT. Also mark on the front the distance
from zero or the starting point in lOO-foot
stations and the fractional part of a station,
if used. For example, 6 + 54= marked on
a stake indicates it is 654.22 feet from the
origin of the facility and is known as the
station of this point. Stations are used in
locating sections
of construction
and in
preparing
reports.
Place the amount
of cut or fill required
at
the station on the reverse side of the stake.
A cut is marked C; a fill, F. A centerline
stake, placed at station
78 t 00 and requiring a fill of 6.0 feet to bring this station up
to the final grade line, would be placed and
shown as indicated
in Figure 3-1, page 3-3.
The amount
of cut or fill indicates
the difference between
the final grade line and the
ground line where the stake is emplaced.
A
point on the stake is seldom used as the
line of reference
to the final grade.
To prevent
misinterpretation
of the amount
of cut or fill, mark decimal parts of a foot,
as shown in Figure 3- 1. The decimal part
is written smaller,
raised, and underlined.
Facing the direction
of increasing
stations,
the centerline
forms the dividing line between the right and left sides of the area to
be graded.
When facing either side of the
centerline,
it is customary
to refer to the
areas as the right or left side.

SLOPE STAKES
Slope stakes, shown in Figure 3-2, define
the limits of grading work.
When used in
read work, they can be used as guides in

3-4

Surveys and Earth work Operations

k-

16.0 -

I
I

Figure 3-2.

Front

Marking

Back

and placement
stakes

of slope

determining the width of clearing necessary.

The area to be cleared usually extends 6
feet beyond the slope stakes.
Set slope
stakes on lines perpendicular
to the centerline (one on each side). at points where the
cut and fill slopes intersect the natural
ground surface.
Stakes at points of zero
cut or fill are placed sloping outward from
the ten terline.
Sloping the stakes outward
allows the equipment to work to the stake without
removing
it. The slope indicates
the direction
of the
centerline
of the road and enables
the equipment operators
to read the stakes more easily. Place slope stakes at lOO-foot intervals
on tangents
and at 50-foot intervals
on
horizontal
or vertical curves.
Whenever
a
sharp break in the original ground
profile
occurs,
it should be staked.
The front of a slope stake is the side facing
the centerline.
On this side of the stake,
mark the difference in elevation between
the natural ground clevalion at this point
and the finished grade at the cdgc of the

FM 5430=00=1/AFPAM

Vol 1

shoulders.
Under this figure, place another
figure that indicates the horizontal distance
from the centerline of the road to the slope
stake.
Place the station number on the
other side of this stake.
Below the station
number, indicate the appropriate slope
ratio. Figure 3-2 shows the proper markings for a slope stake in a typical situation.

OFFSET STAKES
Equipment used on a cut or fill section may
destroy or remove many of the grade (centerline, shoulder, or slope) stakes.
To prevent
loss of man-hours
and repetition of survey
work. caution construction
crews to protect
grade stakes whenever possible.
Place offset stakes beyond construction
limits to
avoid resurveying portions of the road to
relocate these stakes.
Figure 3-3 shows offset stakes used to relocate the original
stakes.

.-_

32-8013,

Place offset stakes on a line at right angles

to the centerline of the facility.
From
these, the slope stakes can easily be located.
After relocating a slope stake, relocate the centerline stake by measuring
toward the centerline of the road the
horizontal distance indicated on the slope
stake and placing the new centerline stake
there.
An offset stake contains all the information
given on the original slope stake plus the
difference in elevation and horizontal distance from the original slope stake to the
offset stake.
Mark the offset distance on
the front of the stake and circle it to indicate it is an offset reference.
If the offset
stake is at a different elevation from the
slope stake, the cut or fill value must be incrcascd or decreased by the difference in
elevation.
An offset stake placed a horizontal distance of 10 feet from and 1 foot
above the right slope stake would be placed
and marked as shown in Figure 3-3. Coordination between the surveyor and grade supervisor concerning
the meaning of the
markings is most important regardless of
the type of marking used.

2
:.:.
.I.

Front

Figure

3-3.

Marking

and placement
stakes

FINISH-GRADE

of offset

STAKES

Use wooden stakes, 2 inches by 2 inches,

with tops colored red or blue, for finishgrade stakes.
Blue or red tops, as they are
called, indicate the actual finished elevation
of the final grade to which the completed
facility is to be constructed.
They are used
when the grade is within a short distance
of the final elevation.
Do not use these
stakes in combat road construction
except
in areas with steep slopes.
This type of
stake normally requires a guard stake to
protect it and indicate its location.
On
large projects, it may be impractical to use
guards with each stake.
There are no markings on finish-grade
stakes other than the color on the top.
These stakes may be set for use with the
top of the stake exactly at the finished
grade or with the top of the stake above the
finished grade, as decided upon by the surveyor and construction
foreman.

Surveys and Earthwork Operations

3-5

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

With the stakes set and marked at a

predetermined
distance
above the finished
grade, stretch
a string between
two stakes
across the work and use a graduated
ruler
or stick to check the elevation.
On an airfield layout, place these stakes along the
centerline,
edge of pavement,
intermediate
lines, shoulder
lines, and ditch slopes.
For
road work, place stakes along the centerline
and the edge of the shoulder:
they may or
may not be placed on the slopes.

REFERENCE

STAKES

Many hubs marking

the location of highways and airfields are uprooted
or covered
during construction.
They must be
replaced,
often more than once, before construction
is completed.
As an aid in relocating a point which may become hidden by
vegetation,
or as a means of replacing
points which may have been destroyed,
measurements
are made to nearby permanent or semipermanent
objects.
This
process is known as referencing
or wftnessIng a point.
On many surveys,
permanent
objects may not be available
as witnesses.
In such cases, additional
stakes may be
driven.
These stakes usually are approximately
2 Inches by 2 inches by 18 inches.
There are no markings
on a reference
stake.
A point can be referenced
by a known distance and a known angle or by two known
distances.
A transit
must be used in the
first case and may be used to advantage
in
the second.
The method of using two
known distances
can be used, however,
when a transit
is not available.
Place two
points at measured
distances
from the point
Use two tapes to relocate
to be referenced.
the original point or stake.
Hold the zero
end of one tape on one reference
point and
the zero end of the other tape on the other
reference
point.
The point of intersection
of
the two tapes at the respective
distances
gives the location
of the point in question.

:. .;. :...:,.

:. :

..

3-6

Surveys

and Earthwork Operations

::

,;

sect at approximately
right angles.
Place
them outside the construction
limits, and indicate their location by blazing trees or additional stakes.
Normally,
the location of the
reference
stakes can be obtained
from the
surveyors
notebook.

CULVERT STAKES
Culvert stakes are located on a line parallel
to and offset a few feet from the centerline.
The information
required
on the culvert
stakes includes
the distance
from the stake
to the centerline,
the vertical distance
to the
invert, and the station number.
Once the
survey crew has finished staking out the culvert, the construction
supervisor
can place
the pipe accurately
by using batter boards.

BENCH MARKS
Vertical control of a road or airfield must be
maintained
during construction.
To do this,
points of known elevation
must bc established.
Obtain elevations
from permanent
monuments,
known as bench marks, established by geodetic surveys.
From these
bench marks, run a line of lcvcls and set
temporary
bench marks (TBMsl.
On small
projects the TBMs frequently
are set by runnlng the levels from a point of assumed
This is especially
true of construcelevation.
tion in combat areas.
Usually, TBMs are placed at 500- to l,OOOfoot (or 150- to 300-meter)
intervals
and are
placed off the limits of construction.
Stakes
2 inches by 2 inches, solidly emplaced
in
the ground,
may be used for this purpose.
However, a nail driven into a tree, a manhole cover, or a pipe driven into the ground
may also be used.
Frequently,
reference
points serve as TBMs. The TBMs are set
before setting the centerline
stakes because
vertical control must be established
before
construction
begins.

EARTHWORK
To be of most value in replacing
a missing
station or point, the reference
stakes or witnesses will be less than 100 feet from the
point and, if possible,
the arcs should inter-

:.

ESTIMATION

Earthwork
computations
involve the calculation of earthwork
volumes,
the determination of final grades, the balancing
of cuts

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

and fills, and the planning

of the most
economical
haul of material.
The exactness
with which earthwork
computations
are
made depends
upon the extent and accuracy of field measurements,
which in
turn arc controlled
by the time available
and the type of construction
involved.
To
plan a schedule,
the quantity
of earthwork
and the soil and haul conditions
must be
known so the most cfficicnt
type and quantity of earthmoving
equipment
can be
chosen and the appropriate
time allotted.
When time is critical,
the earthwork
quantities are estimated
either very roughly or
not at all. When time is not critical,
higher
construction
standards
are possible and
earthwork
quantities
are estimated
and controlled by more precise methods.

FUNDAMENTAL VOLUME
DETERMINATION

The volume of a rectangular

object may be
determined
by multiplying
the area of one
end by the length of the object.
This
relationship
can be applied to the dctermination
of earthwork
by considering
road
cross sections
at the stations
along the
road as the end areas and the horizontal
distance
between
cross sections
as the
lengths.
The end arcas of the cross sections must bc computed
before volumes can
be calculated.

Figure 3-4.

When the centerline

of the construction
has
been located,
measurements
are taken in
the field from which the required
quantities
of cut or fill can be computed.
A crosssectional
view of the land is plotted from
these measurements.
The cross sections
are taken on vertical
planes at right angles
to the centerline.
Where the ground
surface is regular,
cross sections
are taken at
every full station
(100 feet). Where the
ground
is irregular,
they must be taken at
intermediate
points as determined
by the
surveyor.
A typical cross section is shown
in Figure 3-4.

Vol 1

fill cross section

Plot ground elevations

from the surveyors
Make a sectional
template
of the
notes.
subgrade
that shows the finished
subgrade
and slopes plotted to the same scale as the
cross sections.
Superimpose
the template
on the cross section and adjust
it to the correct centerline
elevation.
Trace the template and extend the side slopes to intersect
the original ground.
If the section
involves
both cut and fill, draw only the appropriate
lines of each template.
When the sections
are completed,
begin the end-area
measurements, then determine
the volume.
Of the
several satisfactory
methods
of measuring
the end areas, only the trapezoidal,
stripper, double-meridian
(triangular),
and
planimeter
methods
will be described
in
this manual.
The method chosen
will
depend
upon the time available,
the accuracy desired.
the aids at hand, and the
engineers
prefercncc.
Trapezoidal

METHODS OF END-AREA
DETERMINATION

Typical

32-8013,

Method

The trapezoidal
method
is widely used to
determine
end areas. The computations
are
tedious,
but the results
are accurate.
In
using the trapezoidal
method,
the area of
any cross section is obtained
by dividing
the cross section into triangles
and
trapezoids,
computing
the area of each part
separately,
and taking the total area of the
verticals
to the ground
line (Figure 3-5,
page 3-8) in order to divide the cross section into two triangles
and two trapezoids.
Make the assumption
that the ground
is
perfectly
straight
between
these selected
points on the ground line.
While this is
not usually
correct,
the assumption
is
within the accuracy
normally
required.

Surveys and Earthwork Operations

3-7

FM

5_43&0&1/AFpAM

32-8013,

Vol

: :..:. ..

j :

,,

.:: .:;.: : .: . . . . :..

.. .

j:

sides of the bases (bl and bz) are crossed

by a line perpendicular to each, the distance between the two bases along this perpendicular line is the altitude (h) of the
trapezoid. The area of any trapezoid can be
expressed as the average length of the
bases multiplied by the altitude. This
relationship can be expressed by the formula:
*

_ (bl

+ b2)

/-I

Figure 3-5.
verticals

Cross section in cut with

drawn at critical points

Basic Formulas. Before the area of the

cross section can be computed, the basic
formulas for the computation of the areas
of triangles and trapezoids must be understood. If a line is drawn, as shown in Figurc 3-6, from one of the vertices of a triangle perpendicular to the side or base (b)
opposite this vertex, the line formed represents the altitude (h) of the triangle. The
arca of any triangle can be expressed as
the product of one-half the base multiplied
by the altitude. This relationship is expressed by the formula:

A = v2bh

Y-l

/m
Figure 3-7. Trapezoid base and height
dimension locations
Computation of Areas.
The first step in computing areas by the trapezoidal method is
to break the cross-sectional area into triangles and trapezoids by drawing verticals,
as shown in Figure 3-5. Then determine
the area of these small figures by the appropriate formula.

To determine the appropriate dimensions,

Figure 3-6. Triangle

dimension

base and height

locations

A trapezoid is a four-sided figure having

two sides parallel but not equal in length,

as shown

3-8

in Figure 3-7.

If the two parallel

Surveys and Earthwork Operations

the notes taken by the surveyors must be

known. The cross-section notes taken in
the field are in fractional form. The figure
below the line indicates the horizontal distance from the centerline to that point on
the ground. The figure above the line indicates the ground elevation of that point.
Points on the grade line of the proposed
road are written in a similar manner and
are obtained by computations from the final
grade line to be established, as shown in
Figure 3-8. Thus, the note 32.0/21 indicates a point that is at elevation 32.0 and
2 1 feet from the centerline of the road. If

FM 5.4301OO-l/AFPAM

.-

the cross section is divided into triangles

and trapezoids
by erecting verticals, obtain
notes for the centerline,
shoulders,
and end
of slopes to solve for the area.

Figure

3-8. Cross-section
cut showing
distances and elevations

To solve the triangles and trapezoids

formed, consider the bases of these figures
to be vertical and the altitudes to be
horizontal.
All vertical bases are found by
subtracting
elevations,
and all horizontal
altitudes are found by subtracting
horizontal
distances
from the closest vertical in the
direction of the centerline.

to Figure 3-8, area al, and subin the formula for the area of a tri-

/2bh
=
(35.0 - 29.0)(27-21)
= l/2(6.0)(6) = 18.0 square feet

CL1 =

Rcfcrring
to Figure 3-8, area a2, and substituting in the formula for the area of a
trapezoid:

a2

V2(b1

= (35.0

bzjh
- 29.0)

= l/2(6.0 t 4.01(21)

+ (34.0
2

- 30.01 (21-O)

= 105.0 square

Find the areas of the remaining

and triangle in the same way.

feet

trapezoid

Vol 1

Method

The stripper method is a variation of the

trapezoidal
method.
To use this method,
consider a section such as that shown in
Figure 3-9.

Figure 3-9. Fill cross section arranged

show the stripper method

to

Example:
If vertical lines are drawn at equal distances apart, then by the trapezoidal
formula,
the end area, A, will be given by the following computation:
A

Factor

Examples:
Rcfcrring
stituting
angle:

Stripper

32-8013,

Mblw
t l/z (bl + b2jw +
+ Vz(b3 + b4)w
+ 1/2(b4 t b5)w t Vitb5w
in and combine

A = Vzw(2bl

+ 2bz

l/2

(bz t b3)w

terms:

+ 2b3

+ 2b4

+ 2bs)

A = wQbj

First, measure (graphically)

each length (b)
and multiply the sum by the width (w) (constant).
The distance between vertical lines,
w, may be any value, but it must be constant throughout
the cross-section
area.
In
rough terrain the vertical lines should be
closer together to ensure greater accuracy.
One of the easiest and most convenient
ways to measure the vertical lines (b) is
with a strip of paper or plastic.
Lay the
strip along each vertical line in such a manner as to add each in turn to the total.
The strip will show the sum of all vertical
lines in the same scale that the cross section is plotted.
This figure, multiplied
by
the value of w, will give the area of the
cross section.

Surveys and Earthwork Operations

3-9

FM 5-4309OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

:,,.:..:. ::.:,...

Vol 1

Inaccuracies
result when either a triangle
or trapezoid falls within the limits of w or
when the area is curved.
However, the
method is rapid, and the accuracy is adequate under urgent conditions.
Figure 3- 10
shows a typical cross section with a strlpper marked to show the total length of all
vertical lines and the value of w. The stripper indicates that the sum of all vertical
lines is 21.7 feet: w is given as 10 feet. Applying these figures to the formula, thenA

= (Cbjw

= 21.7

Figure

x 10 = 217 square

Strippk

21.7

upon completion

140

8.8

feet tsq ft)

4.2

3-10. Cross section with the sum of all

vertical lines added on the stripper

Figure 3-l 1. Cross-section

3-l 0

,,. ,.

. . ,.,,:...

Double-Meridian

..

Triangle Method

The double-meridian
method explained in
Chapter 13 of TM 5-232 gives a more,
precise value for a cross-section
area than
the stripper method.
However, it involves
more time.
With this method, shown in Figure 3-1 1.
the area is subdivided into two series of
trapezoids using the elevations of adjacent
points and their projections on the centerline (the distances).
These trapezoids have
bases equal to the horizontal distance of
the respective points from the centerline,
and heights equal to their differences in
elevation.
Where the difference in elevation
is plus, the area of the trapezoid is plus;
where the difference is minus, the area of
the trapezoid is minus.
The component
areas are added algebraically.
Because this
procedure uses the sum of the bases of the
trapezoid, the area obtained is double the
true area and must be divided by 2. The
computation
is simple arithmetic:
subtract
adjoining elevations, multiply by the distance from the centerlfne, add the multiplied results and list plus and minus quantities, add these quantities,
and divide by 2.

area by the double-meridian

Surveys and Earthwork Operations

: ;::.: .,

method

--

.;;,.,,...
: .: :.: .,,.,.

:. :

..

.A:..: ::j:::: ,:+,,: ii::;:::,:

,::.~:..~,:.::~.~::~:~:~:~:~~:;~:~:.:::~.:~:~:~~~,:~,~::.~..:.,~
.: ,j .:..i :_,:,l::,li:::i:i,:,~,.:

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

j. ,t j: ;::>,,,:i:..i ,,

The steps for completing the procedure for

the double-meridian triangle method follow
(refer to Figure 3- 11).
1. Start at the centerline ground or grade
elevation, whichever is lower (A). Work
from the centerline in a clockwise direction
to the left (A), 031, (C), (D), (E), (F); and
counterclockwise to the right (A), (G), (H),
(I), (F), to the centerline ground or grade
elevation, whichever is higher (F).
2. Working from point to point, multiply
the difference in elevation between each adjacent pair of points by the sum of their dis-

32-8013,

Vol 1

tance from the centerline. Point (F) to

point (A) is not considered because the sum
of their distances from the centerline is
zero. Going from a lower to a higher elevation gives a plus quantity, while going from
a higher to a lower elevation gives a minus
quantity. Place plus quantities in one
column and minus quantities in another.
3. Divide the algebraic sum of the plus
and minus quantities by 2 to obtain the
area of the cross section in square feet (sq
ft). In sections having both cut and fill,
treat each part as a separate section.

Example:
The area of the cross section shown below is computed as follows:
Plus quantities:
(Al
(C)
(D)
(E)
(G)
(H)
(I)

to
to
to
to
to
to
to

(81
(D)
(E)
(F)
(H)
(I)
(F)

(64.4
(65.2
(66.2
(67.7
(64.4
(66.2
(67.7

- 64.3) x ( 5 + 0) = 0.1 x 5
- 63.3) x (34 t 20) = 1.9 x 54

- 65.2) x
- 66.2) x
- 63.5) x
- 64.4) x
- 66.2) x

(30 t 34)
( 0 + 30)
(37 t 15)
(30 t 37)
( 0 t 30)

=
=
=
=
=

1.0
1.5
0.9
1.8
1.5

x
x
x
x
x

64
30
52
67
30

Total of plus quantities

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

0.5
102.6
64.0
45.0
46.8
120.6
45.0

= 424.5

Minus quantities:
(B) to (C) (63.3 - 64.4) x (20 t 5) = 1.1 x 25
(A) to (G) (63.5 - 64.3) x (15 + 0) = 0.8 x 15
Total of minus quantities

= -27.5
= -12.0
= -39.5

Algebraic sum = 424.5 - 39.5 = 385.0

Area of section = 385.0 divided by 2 = 192.5 sq ft

Surveys and Earth work Operations

3- 11

FM 5-4301000l/AFPAM

Planimeter

32-8013,

Vol 1

Method

A polar planimetcr
is an instrument
used to
mcasurc
the area of a plotted figure by tracing its perimeter.
The planimeter,
shown in
Figure 3- 12. touches
the paper at three
points:
the anchor
point, P; the tracing
point, T; and the roller, R. The adjustable
arm, A, is graduated
to permit adjustment
to the scale of the plot.
This adjustment
provides
a direct ratio between
the area
traced by the tracing
point and the revolutions of the roller.
As the tracing
point is
moved over the paper, the drum, D, and the
disk, F, revolve.
The disk records
the
revolutions
of the roller in units of tenths;
the drum. in hundredths;
and the vernier,
V, in thousandths.

NOTE: Always measure cut and fill areas

separately.
Check the accuracy
of the planimeter
as a
measuring
device to avoid errors from
temperature
changes
and other noncompensating factors.
A simple method
of testing
its consistency
is to trace an area of 1
square
inch with the arm set for a 1: 1
ratio.
The disk, drum, and vernier
combined should read 1.000
for this area.

Figure 3-12.

3-12

Before measuring
a specific
area, determine
the scale of the plot and set the adjustable
arm of the planimctcr
according
to the
chart in the planimeter
case.
Cheek the setting by carefully
tracing
a known area,
such as five large squares
on the crosssection
paper, and verifying
the reading
on
the disk, drum, and vernier.
If the reading
is inconsistent
with the known area, readjust the arm settings
until a satisfactory
reading
is obtained.
To measure
an area, set the anchor
point of
the adjusted
planimeter
at a convenient
position
outside
the plotted area.
Place the
tracing
point on a selected
point on the
perimeter
of the cross section.
Take an initial reading
from the disk, drum, and vernier.
Continue
by tracing
the perimeter
clockwise,
keeping
the tracing
point carefully on the lines being followed.
When the
tracing
point closes on the initial point,
take a reading
again from the disk, drum,
and vernier.
The difference
between
the initial reading
and the final reading
gives a
value proportional
to the area being
measured.

Polar planimeter

Surveys and Earthwork Operations

in use

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

Make two independent

measurements
to ensure accurate results.
The first is performed as discussed
above.
The second
mcasurcment
is made with the anchor
point again placed outside the area being
measured
but on the opposite side of the
area from its position in the first measurement.
This procedure
gives two compensating readings,
the mean of which is more accurate than either.
To measure plotted areas larger than the
capacity of the planimeter,
divide the area
into scclions and measure each section
separately,
as outlined above.

Computer-Aided

Design (CAD)

Very accurate measurements

can be made if
cross sections arc digitized using CAD.
Cross sections can be placed on a digitizing
pad, points plotted into the computer
and,
with one command.
the area calculated.

METHODS
-

OF VOLUME

DETERMINATION

An engineer can accomplish

the necessary
earthwork
computations
by using the following methods:
average-end-area,
prismoidal
formula, average-depth-of-cut-or-fill,
grid,
or con tour.

Average-End-Area

Method

The average-end-arca
method is most commonly used to determine
the volume bound
ing two cross sections or end areas.
Use
the formula:

whcrcV is the volume, in cubic yards (cy) (1 cy =

27 cubic feet (co), of the prismoid between
cross sections having areas in square feet
of A 1 and A2, separated
by a distance of L
feet.

-,

If cross sections are taken at full lOO-foot

stations, the volume in cubic yards between
successive
cross sections AI + A2, in square
feet, may bc found by the formula:

V = 1.85 (Al

32-8013,

Vol 1

+ AZ)

In either form, the formula is only accurate

when Al and A2 are approximately
the
same shape.
The greater the difference
in
shape between the two end sections, the
greater the possibility
of error.
However,
the method is consistent
with field methods
in general.
In most cases, the time required for a more accurate method is not
justified.

Prismoidal-Formula

Method

The prismoidal
method is used where either
the end areas differ widely in shape or a
more exact method of computing
volume is
Its use is very limited because it
needed.
requires more time than the average-endarea method and gives greater accuracy
than is required for most road and airfield
construction.
The prismoidal

formula

is-

V=;(A1+4A,+A&
whereV
L

= volume
= distance
Al and
Am = area of
Ai and

(cy)
between end sections
A2
section midway between
A2

Determine
Am by averaging
the corresponding linear dimensions
of Ai and A2 and
then determining
its area, rather than
averaging
the areas of A1 and AP.

Average-Depth-of-Cut-or-Fill

Method

With only the centerline

profile and final
grade established,
earthwork
can be estimated with the average-depth-of-cut-or-fill
method.
Estimate the average depth of cut
or fill between lOO-foot stations and obtain
the volume of material from Table 3- 1, page
3- 14. The accuracy of this method depends
on the care given to establishing
the
centerline
profile, the instruments
used,
and the accuracy of field reconnaissance.

Surveys and Earthwork Operations

3- 13

FM 5-430-000l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Table 3-1.

Earthwork

average

cut or fill

This table shows the number of cubic yards of earthwork that are in a lOO-foot-long
a known average depth. To use this table you must know the following:

section

of cut or fill having

1, Width.

2.

a.

Cut section

- the width of the base of the cut, including ditches.

b.

Fill section

- the width of the top of the fill.

Average

amount

of cut or fill.

3. Slope ratio. Column 2 gives the correct amount of earthwork when the side slopes are 1:l.
slope ratio is other than l:l, an adjustment must be made (see column 4).

When the

NOTE: The final answer obtalned from the table is for a section 100 feet long. lf the actual length of
the cut or fill Is not 100 feet, an adjustment must be made. (For an W-foot section, multiply by 0.85;
for a 50-foot section, multiply by 0.50, and so on.)

Width of the base oft

However, the volumes obtained

method are generally adequate
military construction.

by this
for most

The ccntcrline profile of a road is typical of

the cntirc transverse section because of the
narrow widths.
Because of the greater
width required on an airfield runway, the
ccnlcrline profile may be misleading as to
the typical conditions across the entire
Lransvcrsc width at that point. Therefore,

3- 14

Surveys and Earth work Operations

earthwork quantities for airfields should be

estimated mainly from cross sections.
However, in the absence of sufficient time, the
average-cut-or -fill method is better than
none at all.
Determine
3-l:
l

the following before using Table

Average amount of cut or fill.

.,,. ..

Width of the base of the cut or the top

of the fill in 2-foot increments between
26 feet and 44 feet.
Quantity to be added to the figure in
column 2, if the width of the base or top
of the fill is an odd number of feet.
Quantity to be added if the slope ratio
on both sides is 1.5: 1 or 2: 1.

NOTE: The table is based upon a length

of 100 feet between cross sections and a
slope ratio of 1: 1.
Follow these steps

to use the table:

1. Enter column 1 and read down to the

average amount of cut or fill for the length
cancer ned.

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

squares must be of such size that no significant breaks, either in the original
ground surface or in the pit floor, exist between the corners of the square or between
the edges of the excavation and the nearest
interior corner.
By taking elevation readings at the stakes
before and after excavation, data is obtained to compute the volume of borrow
taken from the pit. Figure 3- 13 shows a
borrow pit over which 25 squares were
staked.
To identify the various intersecting
points, label lines in one direction by numbers and in-the other direction by letters.
Thus the intersection
of lines C and 3
would be labeled C3.

2. Read horizontally to the right and obtain the figure under the appropriate base
of the cut or top of the fill in column 2.

Outlfne squares falling completely within

the excavation with a heavy line. Within
that line, determfne the volume of excavation for each square in the following manner:

3. Make corrections
to this figure from
columns 3 and 4, if they apply.

1. Label the points on one square,

shown in Figure 3- 14, page 3- 16.

as

4. If the length is not 100 feet between the

points considered, adjust the answer proportionately.
Grid Method
When the quantity of material within the
limits of the cut sections is not enough to
balance the fill sections, material must be
borrowed.
The most convenient method is
to widen the cuts adjacent to the fills where
the material is needed.
Compute the
volume by extending the cross sections.
However, where this is not possible, locate
borrow pits at some other area. The grid
method is a convenfent method of computing the borrow material available in a given
borrow pit.
In this method, first stake out over the area
a system of squares referenced to points
outside the limits of work. The dimensions
of these squares depend on the roughness
of the original terrain, the anticipated roughness of the final surface, and the accuracy
desired.
Rougher terrain requires smaller
dimensions to get accurate results.
The

Figure 3-13.

Computation grid system for a

borrow pit

2. Points a, b, c, and d arc on the original

ground line, while al, b, cl, and d are on
the final ground line. The volume of the

Surveys and Earth work Operations

3- 15

FM 5-430~OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

84

c4

Vol 1

an hl, bb is an hp, dd is an ha and cc1 is

an h4. (Refer to Figure 3-13, page 3-15
and Figure 3- 14.) The total borrow-pit
quantity also includes the wedge-shaped
volumes lying between the complete solids
and the limits of excavation.
For these
volumes, use proportional surface areas.
Use the formula:

55
a

A grid is illustrated in Figure 3- 15. The

length of the sides of each square is 50
feet. Therefore, given-

1
v

.....,.
:...,....
.,...
,.,..
. :,c::s;i
i:.~::i,::
.;,:,
:.,:j:;:,i::;:
,,:,:,:
,.:,.,+;

...
..v:.c
:...
. .,. . ... ....,.

A (hl

t 2h2 + 3h3 + 4h4)

4 x 27

v = 50 x 50 x 492 = 1 1 388 cy
4 x 27
Figure 3-14.

Excavation

volume

for one square

resulting form is the product of the right

cross-sectional
area A and the average of
the four corner heights aa. bb. ccl, and
dd, in cubic yards.
v

(aa + bb

A
27

+ cc1 + dd)
4

3. The volume represented

by each square
might be computed by the preceding
method and all volumes added. However,
when a number of such volumes adjoin one
another, it is quicker to use the following
relation which gives the total volume, represented by all complete squares:

An alternative method is to compute the

total of all cuts at each corner (123 feet),
compute the average cut across all squares
(123/25 = 4.921, and then multiply by the
length of the sides of the figure.
v = 4.92

Original - 80
Final -I80

x 250 x 250
4 x 27

V =

&#u

+2xhz

+ 3Cf.o + 4Ch4)
(corner cuts)

83

82

85

86

85

82
f

This could be approximated

corner cuts and multiplying

85

82

89

82

82

80

80

85

78

76

87

80

8.

88

84
86

88

89

82
84

87

81

76

76

82
87

76
so

88

80

82

88

85

cy

87
89

87

85

by adding all
by A, or

= 11,333

86

78

81

8,

86 82

84
84

b
z
II
$

84

87

--I

z
v)

84

V=$h
801

In the preceding formula, A is the right

cross-sectional
area of one rectangular
solid, hl is a corner height found in one
solid, hz is a corner height common to two
solids, ha is a corner height common to
three solids, and h4 is a corner height comrns3n to four solids.
As an example, aa is

3-76

Surveys and Earthwork Operations

87

83
180

87
87

83

85
87

85

84

I
L---

Figure

3-15.

~~

5 at

Sample

50

= 250

grid-system

work sheet

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

--

FACTORS INFLUENCING EARTHWORK

CALCULATIONS
On many projects, one objective of the
paper location study is to design the grade
line so the total cut within the limits of the
work equals the total fill. The uncertain
change of volume of the material make this
difficult. It is usually more economical to
haul excavated material to the embankment
sections, thereby eliminating borrow and
waste.
Shrinkage

Shrinkuge has occurred when 1 cubic yard

of earth, as measured in place before excavation, occupies less than 1 cubic yard of
space when excavated, hauled to an embankment, and compacted. This difference
is due to the combined effects of the loss of
material during hauling and compaction to
a greater-than-original
density by the heavy
equipment used in making the embankment.

_-

Shrinkage is small in granular materials

such as sand and gravel, and is large in ordinary earth containing appreciable percentages of silt, loam, or clay.
Shrinkage is very high (possibly 70 percent)
for shallow cuts containing humus, which
is discarded as unsuitable for embankments.
These shallow cuts (usually 4 to 8 inches
deep) are called stripping.

32-8013,

Vol 1

Loose and swell refer to a condition which

is the reverse of shrinkage. The earth assumes a larger volume than its natural
state when stockpiled or loaded into a
truck. This factor ranges from 10 to 40 percent swell and is usually uniform for a
given material.
Shrinkage, however, varies with changes in
the soil constituents and with changes in
moisture content and the type of equipment
used. Consequently, a percentage allowance assumed in design may eventually
prove to be 5 percent or more in error. A
common shrinkage allowance is 10 to 30
percent for ordinary earth.
Settlement refers to subsidence of the completed embankment.
It is due to slow additional compaction under traffic and to
gradual plastic flow of the foundation
material beneath the embankment.
Net Volume

Calculation

Compute the volume of cut and fill and the

net volume between any two points on the
construction project. The net volume is the
difference between the volume of cut and
the volume of fill between any two specified
stations. The net volume may apply to the
entire project or to a few stations. Net
volume may be described in a compacted,
inplace, or loose state. Table 3-2 provides
conversion factors used to find the net
volume. All calculations are recorded on

Table 3-2 Soil conversion

factors

Soiltype

Sand

Sun/e ys and Earth work Operations

3- 17

FM 5-4309001l/AFPAM

the earthwork
3-3.

volume

32-8013,

sheet

shown

Vol 1

in Table

Earthwork Volume Sheet

The earthwork
volume sheets
allow you to
systematically
record
this informalion
and
make the ncccssary
calculations.
They provide a means of labulaling
earthwork
quantities for use in tllc mass diagram
discussed
later in this chapter.
The earthwork
volume calculation
shctri, shown in Table
3-3, is divided into columns
for recording
and calculating
information.
Stations
(column
I). List in column
1 all
stations
at which cross-sectional
areas have
been plotted.
Normally,
these areas are
taken at all full stations
and at intermediate
stations
that are required
to fully
represent
the actual
ground conditions
and
earthwork
involved.
Area of Cut [column
2).
Record in column
2
the computed
cross-sectional
areas of cut
at each station.
Thcsc areas may bc computed by one of the commonly
used
methods,
depending
on the degree of accuracy required.
Area qf Fill (column
in the same manner
show cross-sectional

3). Complete
column
as column
2, except
arcas of fill.

Volume of Cut [column 3). Complete

the
volume of cut material
between
adjacent
stations and record
it in column
4. The most
common
method
for computing
volumes
is
the average-end-arca
method
(or the
earthwork
table based on this method).
This volume represents
only the volume of
cut between
the stations
and the volumes
reflected
as in-place
yardage.
Volume of FilZ (column
5 in the same manner
show fill volumes.
Fill
pacted yardage
rather

Complete
column
as column
4, except
volumes
reflect comthan in-place
yardage.

5).

Stripping Volume in Cut [column 61. Before

actual
earthmoving
operations
begin,
rcmovc the layer of humus
or objectionable
material
thal lies on the ground surface.

3-18

Surveys and Earthwork

Operations

This layer varies in depth but is usually

4
to 6 inches
deep.
This material
must be
wasted because
it is not satisfactory
to
place in an cmbankmcnt.
Indicate
in
column
6 the volume between
stations
of
this humus
material
over scclions
of cut.

Stripping Iolrrrrw in Fill (column 7). Before

an embankment
can bc constructed,
the
same layer of llu~llus must bc removed
and
the volume replaced
with satisfactory
material.
Incliratc
in colrlmn
7 the volume
of this material
bclwccn
stations
over sections of fill.
Net Volume of Cut (column 81. Indicate
in
column
8 the volume of cut material
between stations
that is available
for embankment.
Column
8 is column
4 minus
column
6, because
the total cut must be
decreased
by the amount
of material
wasted
in stripping,
including
the organic
material.
Adjusted
Volume of Cut (column 9). One
cubic yard of material
in its natural,
undisturbed state occupies
approximately
1.25
cubic yards whcll removed
and placed in a
truck or stockpile.
The same
1 cubic yard,

when placed in an embankment

section and
compacted,
occupies
a volume of approximately
0.9 cubic yards.
In planning
operations,
convert
these various volumes
to the same state so the comparisons
can
be made.
Changes
in volume of earthwork
arc discussed
in this chapter,
and Table
3- 1, page 3- 14, provides
the necessary
conversion factors.
Column 9 is column
8 multiplied by the appropriate
conversion
factor
(in this case, 0.9) to convert it from inplace yardage
to compacted
yardage.
Total Volume of Fill (column
10). Indicate
in
column
10 the amount
of compacted
material
required
between
stations
to complete needed embankments.
Column
10 is
column
5 plus column
7, plus the amount
necessary
to replace
the quantity
removed
by stripping.
This figure represents
the fill
required
to achieve
the original
ground line.
Algebraic
Sum (column
I 1). Column
1 1 is
the diffcrcncc
between
column
10 and
column
9. This indicates
the volume of

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

Table 3-3.

Earthwork

volume

calculation

32-8013,

Vol 1

sheef

Mass
brdinate

(12)
-89
-329
-680
I

2 t 50 1 64

-744

1 30

-633
-234
t494
6 t 00

+1,053

51

tl,lll
t991
t334
-215

--

Notes:
1. BCY:
2. CCY:

ardage
Banked
cubic
cu x*IC yardage
Compacted

material that is available (plus) or required

(negative) within the station increment after
the intrastation
balancing has been done.
Mass

cates

Ordfnate (column
12). Column
the total of column 11 starting

12 indiat sta-

tion 0 t 00. While passing through a

stretch where cutting predominates,
this
column increases in value. While passing
through a stretch where embankment
is required, this column decreases.

THE MASS DIAGRAM

The first step in planning earthmoving
operations is the estimation of earthwork
quantities involved in a project.
This can
be done accurately by one of several
methods, depending upon the standard of
construction
preferred.
With these estimates. the engineer can prepare detailed
-

plans for economical and efficient

tion of the earthmoving mission.

comple-

The mass diagram is one method of analyzing earthmoving operations.

This diagram
can tell the engineer where to use certain
types of equipment, the quantities of
materials needed, the average haul

Surveys and Earth work Operations

3-l 9

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

distances and, when combined with a

ground profile, the average slope for each
operation.
This permits the preparation of
dclailed management
plans for the entire
project.
The mass diagram is not the complete answer to job planning, and it has
limitations that restrict its effectiveness
for
ccrlain types of projects.
However, it is one
of the most effective engineer tools and is
easily and rapidly prepared.

CONSTRUCTION
OF THE MASS
DIAGRAM
IJsing column I (station) and column 12
(mass ordinate, cumulative total) of a complctcd earthwork volume sheet, a mass
diagram can hc plotted as shown in Figure
3-16.
Plot the mass diagram on scaled graph
paper with the stations indicated horizontally and the mass indices (column 12)
denoted vertically.
Connect all plotted
points to complete the mass diagram as
shown in Figure 3- 16. Positive numbers
arc plotted above the zero datum line, negative numbers below.

PROPERTIES

OF THE MASS DIAGRAM

Figure 3- 17 shows a typical mass diagram

with the actual ground profile and final
grade line of the project plotted.
Note that
both USC the same horizontal axis (stations). The ground profile is placed above
the mass diagram to facilitate the calculation of. the average grade over which equipment will work. The horizontal axis is the
only thing lhcsc graphs have in common.
The mass diagram is a running total of the
quantity of earth that is in surplus or deficient along the construction
profile. If at
one station more material is being cut than
filled, you have a cut operation at that station. The quantity or uohme of surplus
material will be increasing as cutting operations continue through the station, producing an ascending mass diagram curve line.
Cutting is occurring from stations A to B
and stations D to E in Figure 3-17.
The

3-20

Surveys

and Earthwork

Operations

total volume for the cut at station A to B is

obtained by projecting the points on the
curve line at stations A and B to the vertical axis and reading the volume (8).
Conversely, if at one station more material
is being filled than cut, you have a flZZ
operation at that station.
The quantity or
volume of deficient material will be increasing as filling operations continue through
the station, producing a descending massdiagram curve line. Filling is occurring
from stations B to D in Figure 3- 17. The
total volume for the fill at stations B to D is
obtained by projecting the points on the
curve line at stations B and C to the vertical axis and reading and adding the
volumes above and below the zero datum
line.
The maximum or minimum point on the
mass diagram, where the curve changes
from rising to falling or vice versa, indicates
a change from cut to fill or vice versa. This
point is referred to as a transition point
(TP). On the ground profile, the grade line
crosses the ground line at the TP, as illustrated at stations B and D.
When the mass diagram crosses the datum
line or zero volume, as at station C, there
is exactly as much material filled as there
is material cut, or zero volume excess or
deficit at that point. The section of the
mass diagram, from the start of the project
at station A to a point of crossing the zero
volume line, is known as a node. Each
crossing point on the zero volume line indicates another node. The last node may or
may not return to the zero datum line.
Nodes are numbered from left to right.
The final position of the mass diagram line,
above or below the datum line, indicates
whether the project was predominately
cut
or fill. In Figure 3- 17, where the mass
diagram ends at station E, the operation
was cutting; that is, surplus material was
generated by cutting and must be hauled
away (waste operation).
Borrow operations
occur when the final position of the mass
diagram is below the zero volume line.

FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Mass d agram

Earthwork volume
sheet

3t75

ziii5*25
Eiii -400
6+75-380
7+50 -200

I I
otoo

Figure

4t50

3too

lt50
3-16.

Plotting

7t50

6tOO

the mass diagram

Mass diagram

I
A

\ _

y&/

I
I-

Station

----_--------_------I

TP

Figure 3-l 7. Properties

of a mass diagram

Surveys and Earthwork

Operations

3-21

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

PROJECT ANALYSIS
Once Lhc basic properties
of the mass
diagram arc understood,
the cnginccr
can
conducl
a detail&
analysis
to determine
where dozers,
scrapers,
and dump trucks
will operate.
This is accomplished
by using
balance
lines.
A balance
line is a line of
specific length drawn horizontally,
intersecling the mass diagram
in two places.
The
specific length of the balance
lint is the
recommended
working or maximum
haul
distance
for differcnl
pieces of equipment.
The term muximum haul distance
i s used
because
operating
the equipment
beyond
this point would not be efficient.
The maximum haul distances
(balance-line
lengths)
areMaximum
Distance
Dozer

Up to 300 feet

Scraper

301 to 5,000 feet

Dump Truck

5,001
miles

feet to several

Average haul

These lengths arc measured

using the
horizontal
scale (stations
measured
in
hundreds
of feet).
Always use lhc maximum haul dislancc
(Icnglh) of each piece of
cquipmcnt,
provided
the project or node is
Start excavating
each
at least lhal length.
node with the dozer followed by the scraper
and dump truck.
Figure 3- 18 shows a balance
line drawn on
a portion of a mass diagram.
If this was a
dozer balance
line, the distance
between
stations A and C would be 300 feet.
Cut equals fill between
the ends of a
balance
line. The mass line returns
to exactly the same level, indicaling
that the
input and the expcnditurcs
of earth have
In Figure 3-18, this occurs bebeen equal.
lween stations
A and C. There has been an
exact balance of earthwork.
In Figure 3-18, the amount
of material
made available
by cutting
between
stations
A and B is measured
by the vertical lint
marked Q. This is also the amount
of cmbankmcnt
malerial
rcquircd
bctwecn
sta-

distance

Balance line
(Maximum

haul distance)

Figure 3-18. Mass diagram with a balance line

3-22

Surveys

and Earthwork Operations

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

tions B and C. This is described

balanced
quantity
of earthwork.

to

In accomplishing
balanced
earthwork
operation between
stations
A and C, some of the
haul distance
would be short, while some
would approach
the maximum
haul distance.
The average
haul dfstance (AHDI is
the length of the horizontal
line placed midway between
the balance
lint and the top
or bottom point (transition
point) of the
curve (Figure 3-181 and is found by dividing
the vertical distance
of Q in half.

The mass diagram

is a useful indicator
of
the amount
of work expended
on a project.
By definition,
work is the energy expended
in moving a specified
weight a given distance.
It is the product
of weight times distance.
Because
the ordinate
of the mass
diagram
is in cubic yards (which represents
weight) and the abscissa
is in stations
or
distance,
an area on the mass diagram repIn Figure 3-20, page 3-24, if
resents
work.
equipment
is used to do the balanced
earthwork
between
the ends of the balance
lines as drawn, the work expended
is equal
to the area between
the mass line and the
balance
line.

If the curve is above a balance

line, the
direction
of haul is from left to right.
The
converse
is true when the curve is below a
balance
line.
Figure 3- 19 shows a part of a mass
diagram
on which two balance
lines

Vol 1

been drawn.
The same principles
apply for
the area between
the lines as with only one
balance
line. The quantity
balanced
is the
vertical distance
between
the balance
line,
while the horizontal
bisector
is the average
haul distance.
The longer balance
line is
the maximum
haul distance,
and the
shorter
balance
line is the minimum
haul
distance.
The haul distance
depends
upon
the position
of the curve with respect
to the
balance
lines.

as the

If equipment
was used to do the balanced
earthwork
between
stations
A and C, the
maximum
distance
that earth would have
be moved would be the length of the
balance
line AC.

32-8013,

have

Profile

Mass

diagram

Scraper balance line

Maximum haul distance

Figure 3-19. Mass diagram with two balance lines

Surveys and Earth work Operations

3-23

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Figure

Vol 1

3-20.

Work

Another item calculated

from the mass
diagram is average grade. This value is
used when computing equipment scheduling and utilization.
Figure 3-21 and Figure
3-22, page 3-26, illustrate a portion of the
mass diagram on which the average grade
has been determined.

USE OF THE MASS DIAGRAM

The mass diagram is used to find the cost
of a project in terms of haul distance and
yardage, to locate the areas for operation
for various types of equipment, to establish
the requirements
for borrow pits and waste
areas, and to provide an overall control of
required earthmoving operations.
However,
the means used to analyze the mass
diagram will follow the same principles
regardless of the end result desired.
The
analysis of the mass diagram is based upon
the proper location of balance lines.
Because the lengths of balance lines on a
mass diagram are equal to the maximum or
minimum haul distances for the balanced
earthmoving operation between their end
points, they should be drawn to conform to
the capabilities
of the available equipment.
Equipment planned accordingly will operate

3-24

Surveys and Earthwork Operations

.. ..:

in earthmoving

operations

at haul distances that are within its best

Figure 3-2 1 illustrates
range of efficiency.
a portion of a mass diagram on which two
balance lines have been drawn:
300 feet to
conform to dozer capabilities
and 5,000 feet
for the scraper.
The following job analysis can be made
from the diagram in Figure 3-2 1:
Use dozers between stations C and E. The
maximum haul distance is 300 feet; the
average haul distance is the horizontal
bisector shown. The amount that will bc
cut between stations C and D and filled
between stations D and E is the length of
the indicated vertical lines.
Use scrapers for cutting from stations A to
C and filling from stations E to G. The
minimum and maximum haul distances are
301 and 5,000 feel, respectively.
The
average haul distance is the horizontal line
midway between the balance lines. The
amount of earthwork is indicated by the
vertical line.
To determine the average grade for either
the scraper or dozer work area, use the following procedure:

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Average haul for dozers

Yardage for dozers
300 balance line
w

Dozer balance line

Average haul for scrapers

_----

Scraper balance line

Figure

3-21.

Balance

lines for equipment

1. Draw on the profile a horizontal line

through the work area that roughly divides
the area in half. This is a rough estimation. (See Figure 3-22, page 3-26.)
2. Extend a vertical line from the end
points of the previously determined average
haul line up through the project profile.
These lines are referred lo as the average
haul vertical.
(See Figure 3-23, page 3-26.)
3. Draw a final line connecting the intersecting points of the lines drawn in steps 1
and 2. This line represents
the average
grade.
4. Determine the average change in eleva
tion (the vertical distance between the cut
and fill).

5.

efficiency

Calculate

the average

Average

Grade

grade as follows:

% =

Average
change In elevation
Average
haul dfstance

x 1OO

In the example shown in Figure 3-23, the

average grade for the dozer would beAverage Grade % =
18
x 100
203

= -8.87%

Since this is an operation which moves

earth downhill, the grade would be negative,
or -8.87%.
An uphill cut would have a positive grade.

Surveys and Earth work Operations

3-25

FM

5-430-0&1//WAM

Horizontal

32-8013,

line divides area approximately

Vol

:.

..,

.:::

:.:

:: ::-i..:..~i.;:.i.:.I.::i,..

..,,;,

in half.-\
Profile

I
1

I
I

Balance line
Maximum

haul distance

Figure 3-22. Determining average grade, step 7

Average

grade line

Profile

&

&

Mass diagram

I
I

Average

Maximum

haul = 203

haul distance

Figure 3-23. Determining average grade, step 2

3-26

Surveys and Earthwork Operations

,.,:.

:.,:.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

Placement
Work

of Balance Lines to Minimize

Because the area between the apex of the

mass diagram and the balance line is a
measure of the work involved in the balancing operation,
the size of these areas
should be decreased
whenever possible.
However, the method used to minimize the
area depends upon the shape of the mass
diagram and the number of adjacent nodes
that can be used.
If two nodes are adjacent, work is minimized when two balance lines are drawn as
one continuous
line, with the balance lines
Each balance line must be
equal in length.
within the maximum
efficient haul distances for the equipment.
The best placement
of balance lines on the portion of a mass
diagram shown in Figure 3-24 would be
lines AE and EF, with AE = EF.
Only one balance line, CH, may be needed
if it is within efficient haul distance
specifications.
The quantity involved would
be Q yards and the work involved would be
the area above CH.
If this one balance line was replaced by two
balance lines, BD and DG, with BD less
than DC, the quantity of earthwork
balanced would remain the same.
The
work would be decreased
by the size of the
area between CH and DG and increased by
the size of the area between BD and C.
This would result in a savings because the
increase is less than the decrease for the
same amount of earthwork
balanced.
This
decreasing
process will continue by raising
the lines to the point where one equals the
other, or until AE = EF is reached.
AE = EF

Figure

3-24.

Minimizing

32-8013,

Vol 1

If there is an even number of adjacent

nodes, as shown in Figure 3-25, work is
reduced when the balance lines are one continuous line and AD + CD t EF = BC t DE
+ FG. The length of each balance line must
be within equipment
maximum
haul
capabilities
as defined earlier.

Figure 3-25.

Minimizing
work with an even
number of nodes

If there is an odd number of adjacent

nodes, as shown in Figure 3-26, work is
decreased
when the balance lines are one
continuous
line and AB t CD t EF - (BC t
DE) equals the limit of efficient haul, or approximately
1,000 feet. All balance lines
must bc within cquipmcnt
limits.

Figure

3-26.

Minimizing
work with an odd
number of nodes

Calculation of Earthwork not Within

Balance Lines
It is usually impossible
to place balance
lines so that the entire amount of
earthwork
on a project can be balanced.
Some part of the mass line will be outside
the balance lines.
This material must be
wasted or borrowed.
If the portion not
within balance lines is ascending
(cutting),
there is waste; if it is descending
(filling),
there is borrow.
This is shown in Figure
3-27, page 3-28.
Concentrate
all necessary
borrow and waste operations
in one general
area.

work with two nodes

Surveys and Earthwork Operations

3-27

FM 5430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

LIMITATIONS

OF THE MASS DIAGRAM

The mass diagram has many limitations

that preclude its use in all earthmoving
operations.
At best, it is merely a guide indicating the general manner in which the
operations
should be controlled.
Any attempt to get exact quantities
and distances
from it may be misleading.
However, it is a
good starting point.

Figure 3-27.
Format

Waste and borrow

diagram

The mass diagram is most effective when

used to plan operations
along an elongated
project similar to a road, an airfield
runway, or a taxiway.
The haul distances
are along the centerline
or parallel to it.
However, if the project becomes relatively
wide compared
to its length, movement of
earth may be transverse as longitudinal,
resulting in longer, transverse
haul distances and invalidating
the mass diagram
analysis.

on a mass

for Analysis

The simplest and most practical method of

tabulating
the results of a mass diagram is
to write all quantities
and distances on the
diagram, as shown in Figure 3-28.
It is
also possible to extract information
from
the mass diagram and put it in a format
that effectively
controls the operation.
One
method is to prepare a mass diagram
analysis sheet as shown in Figure 3-29.

The mass diagram is used to analyze only

the potentiality
of balancing
within one

Dozer - 330 cy
Cut9+00-ll+Oo
Fill 11 + 00 Average haul = 225
-

Scraper - 2,250 cy
cut 0 + 00 - 9 + 00
Full 12 + 00 - 14 + 60
Average haul = 740 ft

Waste360

cy

33 + 00 - 35 + 00

Dozer
Cut
24 - +400
30 cy
- 25 + 50

Scraper - 1,630 cy
cut 25 + 50 - 33 + 00
Fill 14+ 60- 22+ 50
Average haul = 1,000 ft

Fill 22 + 50 - 24 + 30
Average haul = 220 ft

t-

2300

Figure 3-28.

3-28

Mass diagram showing

Surveys and Earth work Operations

analysis

results

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

phase of a project.
For instance, the mass
diagram may indicate that the best balancing of a ccrlain portion of a runway will require a haul distance of 2.200 feet along
the site. However, it may be better to
balance yardage with an adjacent taxiway
in which the haul distance will be only
1,200 feet. The mass diagram can deal
only with the runway or the taxiway, not
with both simultaneously.
The mass diagram assumes that all
material excavated
in the cut sections is acceptable for use in the embankment
sec-

9+00-11
11 +oo-12+00

+oo

Cut
Fill

300

Figure 3-29.

225
-2%

32-8013,

Vol 1

tions.
This is not necessarily
true.
However, all unacceptable
quantities
can be
eliminated
from the earthwork
table.
The mass diagram is applicable
to projects
needing balanced earthwork.
Balancing
eliminates
the double handling of quantities.
If there is a short distance between
an acceptable
borrow pit and an embankment section, it may be more economical
to
use the borrow pit instead of a long balancing operation.
This can be determined
by a
work or economy. study.

Dozer

Mass-diagram analysis sheet

Surveys and Earthwork Operations

3-29

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,.

: ,: : : : : : ..
:::
.. . .

.,

.:,
.

j :

: : : :
:::

: : : : : :,: :::>,;.;j,:
. ...:.

: :,,x,

CLEARING, GRUBBING,
AND STRIPPING

I,., j :,j

FM 5-430-00-l

/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

CHAPTER

Land clearing is the removal and disposal of all vegetation,

rubbish and surface boulders embedded in the ground. In the
TO, land clearing also includes the removal and disposal of
mines, booby traps, and unexploded bombs. Grubbing is the
uprooting and removal of roots and stumps.
Stripping is the
removal and disposal of unwanted topsoil and sod
Clearing, grubbing, and stripping are accomplished by using
heavy engineering equipment.
Hand- or power-felling equipment, explosives, andJre are also used. Factors that determine
which method to use are: the acreage to be cleared the type
and density of vegetation, the terrains eflect on the operation
of equipment, the availability of equipment and personnel, and
the time available for completion. For best results, a combination of methods is used in a sequence of operations.
-

Clearing, grubbing, and stripping are the same in road and

airfteld construction.
In air-eld construction, the areas to be
cleared are usually larger thanfor road construction: the number
of personnel and amount of equipment used are correspondingly
greater; and the disposal of unsuitable materials requires more
detailed planning and longer hauls.

FOREST TYPES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

Clearing, grubbing, and stripping operations
differ in every climatic zone because each
zone has different forest and vegetative
types. Forests are not uniform in type,
growth, and density within climatic zones.
Soils, altitudes, water tables, and other factors vary widely within each zone.
The general nature of a forest is determined
from records of the principal climatic factors, precipitation, humidity, temperature,
sunlight. and the direction of the prevailing
winds. The nature and action of climatic
factors during the growing season determine
the amount and types of forests. From
these records, a general interpretation of

the forests in an area can guide detailed reconnaissance.

The climate classifications of forests are temperate, rain, monsoon, and dry. The following paragraphs describe these classifications.

TEMPERATE

FORESTS

Temperate forests contain both softwood

and hardwood trees. Hardwoods are dominant where the soils are old, deep, and fertile. Softwoods are dominant where the
soils are young, shallow, and less fertile.
The density of growth in these forests
varies with topography and local climate

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

4-7

FM 5430-000l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

conditions.
Bogs are common in cold
region, softwood forests.
Bogs present a
hazard to construction
equipment during
the clearing operations.
Root systems vary
according to geologic conditions and
species.
The types of root systems typical
of various species are listed in Table 4- 1.

tered growths of low, thorny, stunted

shrubs and stunted trees that usually have
long, tough taproots that are difficult to
remove. Savanna forests are in more
humid, dry-forest regions.
These forests
are park-like. with large trees widely and
uniformly spaced.
Savannas usually have
continuous
coverings of small grasses.

RAIN FORESTS
Rain forests occur in tropical climates
where rainfall is heavy throughout
the year.
They consist of tall, broad-leaved
trees that
grow as high as 175 feet. The trees have
an umbrella-like
foliage that permits liltlc
sunlight to penetrate.
The undergrowth con.
sists of thick vines that cling to the trees
for support and grow to great heights.
Where sunlight reaches the forest floor, the
undergrowth is dense and varied.
Because
of continual precipitation,
the root systems
are on or near the ground surface and
spread in a lateral pattern around the base
of the trees.

MONSOON

FORESTS

Monsoon forests occur in climates of heavy

seasonal rains with strong, warm winds.
The forests are dense, with varied species of
hardwoods which are moderate-sized.
broadleaved, and have shaIlow root systems.
The
undergrowth is very dense with shrubs,
vines, and plants.

DRY FORESTS
Dry forests occur in arid and tropical
regions where there is little precipitation.
The forests are either scrub or savanna.
Scrub forests usually consist of broadleaved hardwoods with dense thickets along
In open areas there are scatwatercourses.

GEOLOGIC AND PERMAFROST

CONDITIONS
An investigation of the geologic conditions
of a forest can help when estimating the
density and depth of the root systems of
should bc conthe trees. The investigation
cerned with hardpan, marshy, and permafrost conditions.
Hardpan

or Rock

Where a forest is closely underlaid by

hardpan or rock, the tree roots branch
remain near the surface.
This growth
easy to uproot.
Where the soil is firm
the hardpan or rock is deep, the trees
to form large, deep taproots that make
uprooting difficult.
Inundated,

Marshy,

and Boggy

and
is
and
tend

Areas

In these areas, trees have thick, widcspreading, and shallow root systems near
the surface of the ground.
Permafrost

In northern regions where permafrost occurs, the root systems of trees are similar
to those in hardpan or rock. Where the permafrost is near the surface, roots branch
out and lie close to the surface.
Where permafrost is far below the surface, trees
develop taproots.

PREPARATION
RECONNAISSANCE

AND PLANNING

The types of trees, vegetation, soil, and terrain encountered

while clearing the land
must be determined as accurately as possible from climatic and geological maps,

4-2

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

intelligence reports, and aerial and ground

reconnaissance.
(Refer to Chapter 2 of this
manual for more detailed information.)
After such information has been verified, estimate the quantity of work, select the available equipment, determine the number of

: .:.,:j..:.
.:..

..:..

..,.A..,.:.. .,,,

:.:.,

,.,,
: ,,:,:,,.

..:

.:...

.:

...,,..,
. . :,;:.

,.,:

:.,:.,.

:.

:,

..:

. .. ..
..,,,:..

. ..

Table 4-1.

: (,,;,./..

:..,..

..,.;.:,,::::.:.
,.
,,.

Species

.,.::::

,...

.,:

.,,

.:

.:.

::.,:.:.,:

:,,.

FM 5430-OO-l/AFPAM

of trees and their normal

Normal Root System

Alder .....................
Ash ......................
Aspen
....................
..................
Basswood
Birches:
...........
Black, cherry, sweet
Paper, white ...............
Yellow
...................
Cedars ....................
Cherry
....................
Chestnut
...................
Cypress
..................
Elm ......................
Firs:
Balsam ...................
..................
Douglas
Lowland white ...............
Noble
...................
White ....................
Gums
....................
................
Red, sweet
..................
Hackberry
Hemlock
...................
Hickory ....................
Juniper ....................
Larch .....................
Laurel
....................
Locust
....................
Magnolia
...................
.................
Mahogany
Maple
Oak
.::::::::::::::::::..Deeptaproo
Pine:
...............
Eastern white
Jack
....................
.................
Loblolly
.................
Lodgepole
.................
Longleaf
Nut ....................
Pitch ...................
.................
Ponderosa
...............
Red, Norway
.................
Shortleaf
Slash ....................
Stone (Foxtail)
.............
Sugar
..................
Western white ...............
Poplar
...................
Yellow
...................
Quassia
...................
Redwoods
.................

Shallow, wide-spreading
laterals
Deep in porous soils, shallow and spreading
Shallow laterals
Deep, wide-spreading
laterals

Spruce
....................
..................
Sycamore
..................
Tamarack
Willows
...................

Vol t

root systems

Species

Deep, wide-spreading
laterals
.Shallow laterals
Shallow, wide-spreading
laterals
Shallow, wide-spreading
laterals
Moderately deep, wide-spreading
laterals
Taproot
, Several descending roots and many shallow,
Shallow, wide-spreading
laterals; occasionally
Shallow, wide-spreading
laterals
Wide-spreading
laterals
Deep, wide-spreading
laterals
Moderately deep, wide-spreading
Shallow laterals
Deep, wide-spreading
laterals
Shallow, wide-spreading
laterals
Shallow, wide-spreading
laterals
Shallow, wide-spreading
laterals
Deep taproot
Deep laterals
Deep, wide-spreading
laterals
Deep, wide-spreading
laterals
Deep, wide-spreading
laterals
Deep, wide-spreading
laterals
Shallow, wide-spreading
laterals
Shallow, wide-spreading
laterals
t

32-8013,

in rocky soils

wide-spreading
a taproot

laterals

laterals

Moderately deep; no taproot

Moderately deep, wide-spreading
laterals
.Short taproot (young), laterals
Deep, wide-spreading
laterals; always with taproot
. Deep taproot; well-developed
laterals
.Shallow to moderately deep laterals
.Taproot (young); later laterals
Moderately deep, wide-spreading
laterals
Strong taproot and laterals
.Very deep taproot
Deep, strong taproot with laterals
.Taproot supplemented
by laterals
Taproot (seedlings), deep laterals
Taproot (seedlings); deep, wide-spreading
laterals
.Shallow laterals
Deep, wide-spreading
laterals
Shallow, wide-spreading
laterals
.Several descending and many shallow, wide-spreading
laterals
Shallow, wide-spreading
laterals
Shallow laterals
Shallow, wide-spreading
laterals
Wide-spreading
laterals

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

4-3

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

work required in clearing.

A sample, usually 10 percent of the area, is studied and
the result is applied to the entire area. The
sample may be increased or decreased.
In
small areas, a loo-percent
cruise is usually
made.

personnel needed, and plan a sequence of

operations to complete the clearing rapidly
and efficiently.
In all clearing operations,
the decisive factors controlling the method
of clearing are the type and amount of
equipment and the time available for completion.

TIMBER CRUISING
Timber cruising is performed to estimate
the size. the height, and the number of
each tree species in a given area. It is
used either to determine the quantity of
usable timber or to estimate the amount of

CLEARING

CONSIDERATIONS

PERMAFROST
Clearing of ground cover over permafrost
which is near the freezing point may result
in thawing of material, causing considerable
ground-surface
subsidence.

SAFETY
Careful consideration
must be given to the
safety of personnel and equipment during
clearing operations.
Protective, tractor mounted cabs should be used when extensive clearing operations are anticipated.
Protective cabs permit greater flexibility in
clearing operations and increase operator efficiency.
With this protection, damage to
the dozer is reduced and continuous
production results.
Proper supervision and planning can help
prevent accidents caused by falling trees,
uprooted stumps, stump holes, and rough
or broken terrain during the clearing operation. All equipment used in clearing
should, if practicable,
be equipped with
heavy steel plating for protection of the undercarriages.
This will prevent stumps,
logs, and boulders from damaging vulnerable equipment parts.

4-4

In timber cruising for land clearing only,

record the diameters of the trees at breast
height (DBH) taken at 4 l/2 feet above the
ground, and record the species and number
of trees. This information is used to plan
the clearing operation and select the type of
equipment most efficient for the diameters
and species.

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

CAMOUFLAGE
To provide cover and concealment
(camouflage) for the construction
site, do
not remove standing trees and brush outside the designated cleared area unless
When uprooting trees with
necessary.
bulldozers, take care to control their fall
and avoid breaking surrounding
trees.

TIMBER SALVAGE
Trim all timber useful for logs, piles, and
lumber, and stockpile it for future use in
bridge, culvert, and other construction
applications.
Push or skid this timber into a
salvage area where it can be moved to a
sawmill with little difficulty.

TEMPORARY

DRAINAGE

Phased development of the drainage system

in the early stages of clearing, grubbing,
and stripping is essential to ensure uninterrupted construction.
Delays caused by
flooding, subgrade failures, heavy mud conditions, and the subsequent
immobilization
of construction
equipment can be
eliminated by careful development of the
drainage system before, or concurrent
with,
other construction.
Use the original
drainage features as much as possible

.j;j:y;::, ,,:.:.:;;,.,j:

...:

., :.. .. ,:
. .:.:.
.y ,.
.:. .;

:;:

:y ; j,

,,,:

~.::;,ji:j,i;,.

without disturbing natural

drainage ditches downhill.

> ;,;j ,:

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., ..,.,...
..::: : :, ,.3 +::.:
. .,.,..:

grades.

,.

,_:
.,.

,; ,.

::.

Grade

Fill holes left by uprooted trees and stumps

with acceptable
soil, and compact the
ground to prevent the accumulation
of surface water. Use dozers and graders for this
work. Slope the ground toward drainage
ditches to prevent ponding on the surface.
Backfill existing ditches at the latest possible time to permit the best use of the
original drainage.

DISPOSAL

.._

Use waste areas or burning to dispose of

cleared materials.
The choice of method
depends on the type of construction,
environmental
concerns,
the location, the
threat, and the time available.
Generally,
the material is pushed and skidded off the
construction
site and into the surrounding
timber to speed disposal and keep the area
cleared for equipment operation.
To dispose of material as rapidly as possible, assign specific units of equipment to accomplish this concurrently
with the clearing
and grubbing.
The disposal method should
be consistent
with the methods of
camouflage, salvage, and drainage used for
clearing.

WASTE AREAS
In airfield construction,
consideration
must
be given to the areas used for disposal of
construction
waste.
Dumps

Adjacent

to Work Areas

In forward combat areas where saving time

is essential,
the quickest and most convenient method of material disposal is to
pile the materials adjacent to the work
area. Study the construction
plans to determine where the debris can be piled without
interfering with drainage or potential work
areas.
Off-Site

Areas

In constructing
the main project, it may be
necessary to clear some adjacent land to dispose of the cleared material.
Locate this
clearing as close to the main project as

.;,.,:

FM 5430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

possible to shorten the hauling distance.

Use the same methods to clear disposal
areas that are used in clearing work areas.
Revetments

Cleared material can be disposed of by

using it as fill material in revetments
around hardstands
when protective
measures are needed.
Burning

Do not use fire for clearing land unless

suitable equipment and sufficient personnel
are not available for other methods of clearing. When burning is required, closely follow recommended
procedures.
Under favorable tactical conditions,
brush
and timber debris may be burned.
To limit
the likelihood of detection because of
smoke, keep fires burning as hot as possible and do not push new material into the
fire rapidly.
Do not permit fires to burn at
night unless tactical conditions are extremely favorable and approval has been obtained
from headquarters.
F&e Control. Strip the area around any
debris to be burned before fires are started
to provide a firebreak.
If large areas are to
be burned, establish firebreaks on all sides
as a precaution against shifting winds.
Maintain a fire guard over the fires as an
additional safety measure.
In dry weather,
hand shovels, water buckets, and other expedient fire-fighting equipment should be
available to extinguish fires caused by
flying sparks.
Burning PLts. The most satisfactory
method
for burning large quantities of brush and
timber is to burn them in a pit or trench
dug by a bulldozer or scraper.
The sides of
the pit will reflect the heat back into the
fire, producing a very hot fire. Burning will
be rapid and complete.
Push the material
into the pit with a bulldozer.
Start the fire
with limbs and small brush to get a good
Gradually increase the size of
bed of coals.
the material as the intensity of the fire increases.
Get as little dirt as possible in the
pit because it tends to smother the fire and
fill the pit. A soldier should be detailed to

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

4-5

FM 5-4300OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

.:,: .,..... ..j:::::..: : ::..:.

tend the fire and ensure that the pile is

kept compact.
This method cannot be used
in swampy areas where groundwater will
seep into the trench.
Log PIZes. If it is not desirable to construct
burning pits, burn piles of logs by loosely
piling them so that the heat and flames can
It is always best to start the
pass through.
fire with brush.
After a large bed of coals
is formed, add a few logs at a time to obtain a good blaze.
To burn piles of green, wet logs, it may be
necessary to use fuel oil to furnish enough
heat to dry out the logs and start the burnPile the logs parallel, one on
ing process.
top of the other. The fuel oil is carried to
the center of the pile by a pipe in which
holes have been drilled or cut. Once the
pile is burning well, the fuel can be cut off
and the pipe removed.
Care must be taken
to avoid ground contamination.
Fuel oil is also a quick and convenient
means of starting brush fires, particularly if
the brush is green and wet. If material is
to be pushed onto the pile while the pipe is
being used, it is best to bury the portion of
the pipe outside the pile to protect it from

PERFORMANCE
CLEARING

WITH EQUIPMENT

The use of engineer equipment is the mosl

rapid and efficient method of clearing.
The
use of such equipment is limited only by unusually large trees, stumps, and terrain
that decrease the maneuverability
of the
equipment and increase maintenance
requirements.
This type of equipment includes bulldozers: tree-dozer, tractor mounted units: tractor -mounted clearing
units; winches; power saws; rippers; and
motor graders.
In addition, pioneer tools
are used for some clearing operations.
Table 4-2 summarizes the limitations and
proper applications
of engineer equipment
in clearing operations.
Use production
rates of equipment under normal operating
conditions for determining
the total time re-

4-6

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

damage
blades.

..

.,

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from tractor

:.

..

grousers

,,i~i,i,::ii:.:~,;:i,:,,~

:,:. ;,::,jF

.:..:,

y;

and bulldozer

CZearing and Pfllng Stumps.

In preparing
stumps for burning, remove as much dirt
as possible from the roots.
Dirt on the
roots will retard combustion
and smother
the fire. When the stumps are pushed out,
leave them with the roots exposed to sun
and wind so the dirt will dry quickly.
Scrubbing with the side of the bulldozer
blade will knock off much of the dry dirt.
Pile the stumps as close together as possible with the trunks pointing toward the
center of the pile. Keep the stumps
together after they start to burn.
This procedure will speed up the burning.

AIRFIELD APPROACH

ZONES

Airfield glide angles and approach zones are

further discussed in Chapter 11 of
PM 5-430-00-2/AFPAM
32-8013, Vol 2. Obstructions extending above the glide angle
must be removed. Although glide-angle requirements may be met by only topping
trees, it is best to fell or uproot trees that
extend above the glide angle. Disposal is
no problem in the approach zone, because
all demolished material is left in place.

TECHNIQUES
quired for the job. Clearing rates are discussed in FM 5-434.
Limitations and applications for each type of equipment follow.
Bulldozer

When clearing an area in dry or temperate

forests, the bulldozer is the most efficient
mechanical equipment for removing small
brush, trees, and stumps up to 6 inches in
diameter.
Although more time and effort
are required, bulldozers can also remove
trees up to 30 inches in diameter when tractor-mounted
clearing units and power saws
are not available.
Because of its ability to
push, move, and skid felled trees and
brush, the bulldozer is used extensively as
the primary unit of equipment in all clearing operations.

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FM 5430-OO-l/AFPAM

Table 4-2. Applications

and limitations

of engineer

equipment

32-8013,

Vol 1

in /and clearing

._

Equipment

Applications

Limitations

Bulldozer

-Primary equipment for all land clearing.

-Excellent for removing brush, trees,

special

and stumps up to 6 inches in diameter.

-Push, pull, or skid cleared material for disposal.

dozer.
-Maneuverability

Tree-dozer, tractor-mounted
unit (Rome Plow)

-Medium

Tractor.mounted

-For extensive

clearing

requiring

unit

clearing

level rather

-Uproot

of brush and trees at ground

clearing

swampy

terrain

-Skilled

personnel

in diameter

methods

limited

require

of removal

in muddy

and in dense,
required

Skilled personnel
Slow in clearing

operations

pulling.

trees and stumps

and slower

by

or

heavy growth I,

for cutting

of

trees; other units required for completion

of clearing when burning is not permitted.

than uprooting.

heavy

unlimited

-Trees over 6 inches

required

of almost

required for rigging.

an area; other units

for speedy

completion.

-Not TOE.

diameters.

-Skid cleared material for disposal.

-Extricate mired equipment.
-Excellent
bottom
Winches

for operation

in jungles,

and

(towing):

Tractor-mounted

-For general

-Skid cleared

Truck-mounted

pulling.

-Pulling

capacity

up to 24 inches

-Terrain

affects

light and medium

-Uproot trees and stumps

in diameter.

material

limited

by size of tractor.

maneuverability

of tractor.

for disposal.

-Extricate

mired equipment.

-Expedient

for light pulling

up to 6 inches

Felling

swamps,

lands with heavy growth.

of trees

in diameter.

-Rigging personnel required.

-Terrain must be suitable for truck use.
-Pulling

capacity

-Skid small trees and brush.

-Extricate mired equipment.

operations.

-Controlled

-Other

too limited

for most

equipment:

Chain

saw

unlimited

felling

-Saw timber
-Rapid

of trees of almost

diameters.
felling.

for salvage.

units required

for uprooting

stumps and disposing of felled timber.

-Pneumatic saws are very dangerous
to use on steep, rugged ground.
Air hoses frequently are fouled and
broken by rolling logs and chunks.
Gasoline chain saws are far easier

to

handle than the pneumatic ones

because there are no hoses to contend
with. They can be used in any type
of terrain
safety

with a reasonable

if operated

by skilled

degree

of

operators.

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

4-7

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

Table 4-2.

Applications

2quipment
Xrcular

or chain

mounted

32-8013,

saw

on tractor

.:. ..

Vol 1

and limitations

of engineer

equipment

in land clearing

Applications

Limitations

-Saw timber for salvage.

-Rapid felling.

-Other

-Excellent
rough

for clearing

and broken

units required

stumps
heavy, dense

growth

terrain.

for uprooting

and disposing

-Maneuverability
swampy terrain

in

(continued)

steep for tractor

of felled

lumber.

limited in muddy or
and in terrain too
to negotiate.

-May bind in unbalanced tree, requiring

extensive looping of tractor pull line.
-Cut free roots.
-Loosen surface

{ipper

-Loosen

-Depth of shank penetration limits use

to shallow roots.
-Maneilverability
limited in muddy or

boulders.

soil for stripping.

swampy
;rader

-Light

clearing

of grass, weeds,

limited

heavy growth

to level terrain

free of trees, stumps, and boulders.

-Careful operation required to prevent

-Grade

damaging

cleared

area for drainage.

Start clearing at the disposal area and

move in each direction away from it. Use
one or two dozers to clear the small trees
and brush only. Another pair of dozers will
remove the larger trees and stumps
bypassed by the previous units.
If necessary, add more dozers for a third cycle of
operation to take care of the heaviest
removals.
Move the cleared material to the spoil area
by skidding, pushing, or pulling.
Disposal
should be done with uprooting and removing. It is best to have a separate crew assigned for disposal.

4-8

-Maneuverability

and

and in dense,

small brush/vegetation.
-Windrow cleared material.

When clearing with bulldozers, the sequence of operations depends on the type of
trees, the terrain, and planned construction. After establishing
the boundaries of
the clearing, select spoil areas for disposal
of all cleared material based on the shortest
haul, a downgrade slope, effective
camouflage, and general accessibility.

Multiple operations
types of equipment

terrain

are possible when other

are available, using

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

blade.

each type where it is most effective.

Use
power saws, for example, to fell large trees.
Use clearing units to uproot large stumps
and work in areas inaccessible
to dozers.
Use bulldozers to clear, stockpile, and dispose of light material.
The operational
methods used by bulldozers in clearing
depend on the size of the trees. The
methods briefly discussed below are discussed fully in FM 5-434.
6 Inches or Less in Dtameter,
In clearing small trees and
brush, operate the bulldozer with the blade
straight and digging slightly.
It may be
necessary to back up occasionally
to clear
the blade. The cleared material can either
be pushed into windrows for later removal
or 1nushed off to one side of the area to be
cleared.
Small Trees,
and Brush.

Medium

Trees,

6 to 12 Inches

Diameter.

To push over trees that range from 6 to 12

inches in diameter, set the blade of the
bulldozer as high as possible to gain added
leverage (Figure 4-l).
As the tree falls, the

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

bulldozer is backed up quickly to clear the

roots.
With the blade lowered, the dozer
travels forward again and digs the roots
free by lifting the blade. The felled tree is
then ready for removal to the spoil areas.
Large Trees.
Removing large trees (over 12
inches in diameter) is much slower and
more difficult than clearing brush and
First, gently and cautiously
small trees.
probe the tree for dead limbs that could fall
and injure you. Then, position the blade
high and center it for maximum leverage.
Determine the direction of fall before pushing the tree over: the direction of lean, if
any, is usually the direction of fall. If possible, push the tree over the same as you
would a medium tree.

Figure 4-1.

Bulldozer

removing

32-8013,

Vol 1

However, if the tree has a large, deeply embedded root system, use the following
method (Figure 4-2, page 4-10):
Step 1. Opposite the direction of fall, make
a cut deep enough to cut some of the large
roots.
Use a V-ditch cut around the tree:
tilted downward laterally toward the tree
roots.
Step 2.

Cut side two.

Step 3.

Cut side three.

Step 4. To obtain greater pushing leverage,

buld an earth ramp on the same side as
the original cut. Then push the tree over.
As the tree starts to fall, reverse the tractor
quickly to get away from the rising root

medium-sized

trees, 6 to 12 inches

in diameter

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

4-9

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

..

Vol 1

..

Cut roots on side one

Cut roots on side two (either side)

Cut roots on side three

Build ramp and push tree over
(optional - cut roots on side four)
Figure

4-2.

Four steps for removing

mass. After felling the tree, fill the stump

hole so that water will not collect in it.
NOTE: The roots on the fourth side may
need to be cut also.
Tree-Dozer, Tractor-Mounted

Unit

The tree-dozer, or Rome plow, is a tractor

with a blade that stings and slices large
trees. A sharp projection on the left side of
the blade splits the trees, while the cutting

4- 10

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

large trees with a bulldozer

edge shears them off at ground level. The

operator is protected by a steel canopy and
a guide bar that controls the direction of
falling trees.
The tree-dozer is a simple and efficient
piece of equipment used for military landclearing operations.
It does not appreciably
disturb the soil. It provides-

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

Vol 1

areas (200 to 400 feet wide) that can be

cut from the outside toward the center
in a counterclockwise
direction. The
cut material then slides off the trailing
(right) end of the tree-dozer mounting
and leaves the uncut area free of fallen
debris. The windrows are placed
lengthwise on the borders of the areas.
Piling is done by sweeping with the treedozer mounting.
Sweep a blade width
at a time. Work from the center of each
area, at a right angle to the border (Figure 4-3).

Clear fields of fire and security around

cantonments,
airfields, and other
facilities.
Right-of-way clearance to desired
depths along roads and railroads, thercby reducing the enemys capability of
ambush.

Before committing a tractor equipped with

the tree-dozer mounting, investigate the soil
condition in the area of operation to determine if it will support the equipment.
Use
the tree-dozer mounting to make cuts
through any kind of forest except heavy
swampland.
Shear trees at ground level,
sweep them into piles or windrows, and dispose of them.
One tractor equipped with a
tree-dozer mounting can clear approximately 1 to 2 acres per hour, depending on the
tree density and size. Use one of the following clearing methods:
l

32-8013,

When the tractor can move forward almost continuously,

it shears to ground
level anything in its path. Fast production can be obtained by laying out long

Another method is shown in Figure 4-4,

page 4- 12. Again, long areas are laid
out in 200- to 400-foot widths, but the
cutting is done from the center toward
the sides in a clockwise direction. This
allows the cut material to fall toward
the center, which becomes the windrow
site. The piling is done with the treedozer mounting, following the pattern
outlined on the right side of Figure 4-4.
When windrowing, the operator keeps
the cutting edge on the ground while
pushing into the windrow and raises it

Start

Start
-

Start

Start

Figure 4-3.

Cutting vegetation to ground level and piling

using the counterclockwise
method

cut material

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

4-l 1

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-801 3, Vol 1

,.,.,,
j,~j:~j,,~j:/:,.~:~,~.~,..~:
:..,
j,Ij,:,:.:.:/j;j(j::j
,:I.;. ,.:,:
:;:,:.,,y;.::;;
..;,.:
.,:.::....jjj.::
.:i:II:l,j:,~~jj::j:.j~.I
......

Any length

Figure 4-4.

Cutting

vegetation to ground level and piling

using the clockwise method

when backing away. This allows accumulated

soil to sift away and lessens
soil deposits in the windrow.
l

4-12

On extreme slopes, rapid

obtained
by working in a
pattern,
from left to right,
mately right angles to the
ure 4-51. If the terrain is

production
is
semicircular
at approxiwindrow (Figsteep, the

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

cut material

windrows should be on the contour,

and the tractor should work from the
uphill side and push downhill to the
windrow.
.

Where the vegetation

is dense and
small, the highest production
can be obtained by cutting and windrowing
simultaneously.
Work from left to right at a

:&.:::.:.;:

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:.

:.

:.

,:.

:.

:.:::.....:b

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Figure

4-5.

Clearing

on steep slopes

90degree
angle to the windrow, with
the trailing edge of the tree-dozer working against the uncut material. This
prevents cut material from sliding off
the moldboard and allows the cut
material to accumulate on the
moldboard,
When the moldboard is filled, the operator
should stop the tractor and deposit the cut
material.
The operator should then reverse
to the starting point and repeat the operation to the right (Figure 4-6, page 4-141,
reducing the time lost in backing up. When
the tractor reaches the previously cut
material, the operator should deposit cut
material and form another windrow.

covered

with large trees

The area of vegetation should be laid out as

shown in Figure 4-6, with the operator
working in patches, from inside to outside
in a counterclockwise
direction and at right
angles to the windrows.
Sweeping and
piling the resulting debris can be accomplished much faster when tractors are used
in teams traveling abreast.
Winches
Towing winches mounted on tractor -dozer
units or trucks are limited in use for clearing operations because of their small
capacities in comparison with the tree- and
stump-pulling
units.
Tractor-Mounted
Winch. Use tractor mounted winches for uprooting trees and
stumps up to 24 inches in diameter,

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

4-13

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Figure 4-6. Cutting and piling

Vol 1

dense growths

hoisting and skidding felled trees, and extricating mired equipment.

On the tractordozer unit, the winch is mounted in the
rear and is directly geared to the rear
power take-off on the tractor.
The line pull
developed varies with the size of the tractor,
the speed at which the winch is operated,
and the number of layers of rope on the
drum. The line pull of a tractor-mounted
winch is only about one-half the pull of a
standard tree- and stump-pulling
unit.
Winch.
As an expedient,
truck-mounted
winches can be used on
trees up to 6 inches in diameter.
Their
Truck-Mounted

4-14

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

of small-diameter

vegetation

on level terrain

capacities are too limited for heavy work.

Their best use is for skidding felled trees
and logs to a disposal area, if the haul road
is sufficiently cleared for trucks to operate.
Felling Equipment
Felling can be done with hand tools or
power equipment.
Axes, two-man saws,
shovels, pick-mattocks,
and machetes are
used to chop or saw down standing timber;
dig and uproot stumps: and slash grass,
vines, and undergrowth.
Clearing by hand
is usually too slow and difffcult for military
requirements
unless explosives or mechanical methods are used. When labor is

plentiful, forests are dense, and terrain is

rough, this method of clearing can be used
with good results.
Power equipment and
chain and circular saws are the principal
ways of felling timber.
Ripper
In land clearing, the ripper is used to help
in the removal operations of bulldozers and
tree- and stump-pulling
units.
The ripper
cuts and breaks tree roots and loosens
boulders from the ground.
The short depth
of shank penetration limits its use to shallow root systems.
Prior to stripping operations, the ripper is used to loosen and
break up frozen soil or organic material for
easier removal by graders or scrapers.

FM 5-430.001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

equipment.
Refer to FM 5-250 for the correct application of explosives and demolitions.
Trees and Stumps
Methods of tree and stump blasting vary
with the size and condition of the tree, root
structure,
and ground conditions.
Figure
4-7, page 4- 16, shows the methods of placing charges to blast stumps with different
root structures.
Table 4- 1, page 4-3, shows
the type of root system for several tree
species in temperate forests.
The size of the charge required depends on
the strength of the explosive available; the
size, variety, and age of the tree or stump;
and soil conditions.

Grader

._-

The grader is used to cut grass and weeds,

remove small brush, and clear the area of
dead vegetation.
The terrain must be level
and free from boulders and trees.
Used
with rippers and bulldozers, graders can
windrow the cleared material for later
removal by other equipment.
The grader is
extremely limited in most clearing operations.

CLEARING

WITH EXPLOSIVES

Explosives may bc used to fell standing

trees, uproot entire trees and stumps, and
rcmovc and dispose of large boulders.
Explosivcs, however. have several disadvantages. The sound of the explosive can
travel farther than the sound of the construction equipment.
In loose soil, the initial charge may be entirely expended in compacting the soil under a tree or stump, and
a second charge may be required to remove
it. Deep taproots often are only broken by
explosives and have to be removed by hand.
Also, explosives generally take time to place
and they create large craters, which require
borrow excavation and compaction to backfill. In spite of these disadvantages,
it is
still somelimes necessary to use explosives
to clear an arca where the terrain precludes
or seriously impedes the operation of heavy

Various types of tools (such as pinch bars,

earth augers, and spoons) can be used
when drilling holes for the charge.
Wood
augers can be used for taproots.
For loading and tamping, any smooth, wooden pole
about 5 feet long and 1 l/2 inches in
diameter can be used. The handle from a
long-handled
shovel is excellent because the
crook of the blade end provides a good grip.
All holes must be tamped firmly with earth
to retain the full force of the explosion.
Boulders
When boulders cannot be used in an embankment or fill, they must be removed
from the construction
area.
Blasting is a
quick and easy method of dislodging
boulders.
Mudcapping, blockholing,
or
snakeholing
(described in Chapter 3 of FM
5-250 or Chapter 6 of FM 5-341 may be
used. Refer to Chapter 3 of TM 5-332 for
quantities and types of explosives to be
used and details regarding blasting rock.

REMOVAL OF SURFACE

ROCKS

All surface rocks must be removed in certain types of construction.

There are three
methods used in this operation:
hand,
bulldozers, and cranes or scoop loaders
with trucks.
The choice of method depends
upon the situation.

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

4-15

FM 5430~OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Evenly

Vol 1

::. ..

Large roots on side of tree

rooted stump

Large, lateral brace roots

Figure

4-7.

Stump-blasting

Heavy

methods

Hand
When there is sufficient time and personnel, rocks are picked up and loaded into
hauling units by hand. This slow method
is used in military construction
only as an
expedient .
Bulldozer
The bulldozer is the most commonly used
engineer equipment for moving rocks to a
fill or disposal area. The rocks may be

4-16

Grubbing, and Stripping

for different

taproot and strong brace root

roof

structures

windrowed by dozers for

scrapers or shovels and
tance is short, they may
dozers to the designated

later removal by
trucks.
If the disbe pushed by
disposal area.

Cranes or Scoop Loaders with Trucks

Clearing surface rock by this method alone
is possible, but it is slow. If the rocks are
first windrowed or moved into piles by
bulldozers or graders, the shovel will load
the trucks quickly and efficiently.
The

... >::
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. . .. . .

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:,: .,..... FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

-,,:

rocks can then be hauled

disposal.

long distances

for

STRIPPING
Stripping consists of removing and disposing of the topsoil and sod that cannot be
used as a subgrade, foundation under a fill,
or borrow material.
Examples of this
material are organic soils, humus, peat,
and muck.
Unsuitable soil must be
removed to a depth at which compaction
and thickness requirements
are satisfied.
Stripping is done concurrently
with clearing
and grubbing by using bulldozers, graders,
scrapers, and sometimes shovels.
Good topsoil and sod should be stockpiled for later
use on bare areas for dust or erosion control or for camouflage.

REMOVAL OF STRUCTURES
An airfield construction
site may be acceptable except for obstructions
such as
houses, railroads, power lines, and other
structures
on the proposed site or near the
operation of aircraft.
The primary selection
of a site always involves compromises.
The
survey party often selects a site where
limited clearing of structures
will be necessary before full-scale operations can take
place.
Power

Lines

Power lines obstructing

forward area construction or glide angles should be removed. In rare instances,
the lines may be
needed intact and a different approach to
the airfield must be used. If the lines cross
the runway, relocate them around the
nearest end of the runway.
As a last
resort, underground
installation
may be
used if armored underground
cable or conduit is available that will adequately insulate the lines.
In rear areas, power lines
that are not in an approach zone or not
high enough to extend into the glide angle
when located in an approach zone may be
marked with suitable warning lights.
Roads

and Railroads

In general, roads and railroads present no

obstructions
when located near airfields, if

32-8013,

Vol 1

the traffic does not interfere with the approach or takeoff of aircraft.
Do not destroy main paved highways and railroad
lines because they may be required for
ground operations.
It is desirable to have
the airfield located near a good road or railroad so supplies may be readily transported
to the site.
Buildings

Buildings may be completely razed with explosives or heavy equipment,

leaving no salvage. They may be razed in a manner to
conserve usable material, or they may be
relocated.

REMOVAL OF BURIED EXPLOSIVES

Mines, booby traps, unexploded ordnance
(UXO), and other buried explosives must be
located and removed or neutralized before
any construction
operations begin. Check
all reports and data on an area to locate
and iden tidy explosives.
Establish the boundaries of the construction area first, then make a visual search of
the most likely places for explosives.
They
are usually near existing structures,
houses, and roads; in disturbed ground hollows where the earth has visibly settled;
and under stockpiles,
pickets, or stakes
placed in unnatural locations.
If time allows, thoroughly investigate the area with
mine detectors or by probing methods.
The safety of personnel and equipment is
primary at all times during the removal of
The speed of clearance is seconmines.
dary. Whenever possible, use trained explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) detachments, particularly when the size of bombs
precludes detonation in place.
The method of mine and UXO removal is a
For minefields with
command decision.
booby traps or other antihandling
devices,
it is best to destroy the mines in place by
explosives or mechanical
means.
UXOs
may be disarmed by ordnance personnel
and then manually removed from the area
If ordnance personnel are
and disposed.
not available, destroy the device in place.

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

4- I7

FM 50430-001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Surface mines or bomblets may be able to

be pushed from an area by using a drag
chain or dozer. If devices are destroyed in
place, all resulting holes and craters must

4-l 8

Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping

,.. :

..: :.::: .

:::.y .i : ; .: :..:.:.:::. ..i::.l.;i.ii::.;

:...:,,i:z.:.+_::,t:

be filled and compacted with acceptable

material, using dozers or graders. For additional information, see FM 5-434.

:.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1;

SUBGRADES AND
BASE COURSES

This chapter discusses the functions of the subgrade, subbase,

and base courses and covers the selection of materials and
construction
procedures.
Chapters 8 and 9 of this manual
discuss the determination of the base- and surface-course thickness for roads. Chapters 11 and 12 of FM 5-430-OO-2/AFPAM
32-8013. Vol 2, include similar information for all classes of
air-elds and heliports as well as all commonly used types of
surface materials. Additional information on soils, compaction,
and California Bearing Ratio [CBR) requirements is contained
in Chapters 2, 6, and 10 of FM 5-410 and in Chapter 2 of FM
5-530.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
-

Pavement structures may be rigid or

flexible. In rigid pavements, the wearing
surface is made of portland cement concrete. A rigid pavement made of concrete
will have great flexural strength, permitting
it to act as a beam and allowing it to bridge
over minor irregularities that may occur in
the base or the subgrade upon which it
rests.
All other types of pavements are classified
as flexible. In a flexible pavement, any distortion or displacement occurring in the
subgrade is reflected fn the base course
and continues upward into the surface
course. Flexible denotes the tendency of all
courses in this type of structure to conform
to the same shape under traffic.
Flexible pavements are used almost exclusively in the TO for road and rear area
airfield construction.
They are adaptable to
almost any situation, and they fall within
the construction capabilities of the combat
heavy engineer battalion and Its support
unlts. Rigid pavements are generally not

suited to TO construction

requirements

(un-

less the materials are more readily available) and are not discussed in detail in this
chapter.

FLEXIBLE-PAVEMENT

STRUCTURE

A typical flexible-pavement structure is

shown in Figure 5-1, page 5-2. It illustrates the terms used in this manual
that refer to the various layers. All the
layers shown in Figure 5- 1 arc not present
in every flexible pavement. For example, a
flexible-pavement structure may consist
only of an asphaltic-concrete surface, a
base course, and the subgradc. The design
of flexible pavements must include a
thorough investigation of the subgradc conditions; borrow areas; and sources of select,
subbase, and base materials.

TESTS
Engineers should classify soils according to
Chapter 2 of FM 5-410, and then select representative samples for detailed tests.
Detailed tests determine compaction characteristics, CBR values, and other properties

Subgrades and Base Courses

5-1

FM S-430-OO-l/AFPAM

E
P
2

32-8013,

al

Binder

%
?
t
c

Vol 1

8
c

course

Leveling

course

Compacted

subgrade

s
Uncompacted
subgrade
(Subsoil)
NOTE: All layers and coats are not present in every flexible-pavement structure. Intermediate courses maybe
placed in one or more lifts. Tack coats may be required between the intermediate courses and under the
surface course. A prime coat may be required between the highest aggregate surface and the first layer of
asphalt.

Figure 5-1.

Typical flexible-pavement

needed for designing

the flexible-pavement
structure.
Subbase and base-course
materials arc tested for compliance
with
specification
rcquircmcnts
for gradation.
liquid limit (LL), plasticity
index (PI). and CBR
values.
When tests arc complclcd,
limiting
conditions
in the subgradc and subsoil
must be dctcrmincd.
Materials arc scicctcd
for each layer based on their characteristics
(gradalion,
LL. PI. and CBK values).

5-2

Subgrades and Base Courses

section

DISTRIBUTION

OF LOADS

Flcxiblc-pavcmcnl
design is based on the
principle that lhc magnitude
of stress induced by a wheel load decreases
with depth
below the surface.
Conscqucntly,
the stresscs induced on a given subgradc
material
can bc decrcascd
by increasing
the thickness of the overlying layers (subbase, base,
and surface courses).
Figure 5-2 shows the
tfistribulion
ol a single-wheel
load on two

FM 54300OO-l/AFPAM

structure

Figure

--

Vol 1

Thick

32-8013,

5-2.

Thin structure

Distribution

of pressures

sections
of flcxiblc
pavcmcnl,
one with a
thick and one with a thin flexible-pavcmcnt
struclurc.
In both cases,
the subgradc
is
the foundation
that cvcntually
carries
any
load applied
at the surface.
Figure 5-2
demonstrates
that the magnitude
of the
stresses
on the subgrade
decreases
as the
flexible-pavement
structure
is thickened.
In
the left diagram
in Figure 5-2, the flexiblepavement
structure
is thick, the load al the
subgradc
level is spread
over a wide area,
and the stresses
on the subgrade
are low.
In the right diagram
the structure
is thin,
the load at the subgrade
level is confined
to
a much smaller
area, and the stresses
on
the subgrade
level are significantly
higher.
The pattern
of decreasing
stresses
with increasing
depth is the basis of the conventional flcxiblc-pavement
design in which
subgradc
materials
of low-bearing
capacity
are covered
with thick flexible-pavement
slructurcs.

under

single-wheel

loads

The distrib\ltion
of pressures
under a multiplc-wheel
assembly
is shown in Figure 5-3,
Multiple-wheel
assemblies
are
page 5-4.
beneficial
because
the stress
distributions
produced
by the tires do not overlap to a
large dcgrec at shallow
depths.
This is illustratcd
at line A-A in Figure 5-3.
Therefore, multiple-wheel
assemblies
are beneficial on thin, flexible-pavement
structures
constructed
on subgrades
with high-bearing
capacity.
The intensity
of stress
at a given point in a
flexible
pavement
is affected
by the tire-contact area and tire pressure.
The major difference
in stress
intensities
caused
by variation in tire pressure
occurs
near the surface.
Consequently,
the surface
course
(pavcmcnt
or a well-graded
crushed
aggregate)
and base course
are the most
seriously
affected
by high tire pressures.

Subgrades and Base Courses

5-3

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

Figure

5-3.

32-8013,

Dlstributlon

Vol 1

of pressures

.,.,,.,
..,:
...,.,
...i..
..,.,
...:::
..:::
...:,:
..:::
. :::
(,,(.
.,.i,.i,.ii...~....,:.~:,:.:.:.~.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.,.:.:.:.:.:
,,:.::
L,.:,:,::::::,:,,,:,:,,,
....,L:.:.~:.:.:.:,
:
,..,......................,.........
.:,.
...,.
,,,,..........i,.,.,,~,,,,,,((,,(,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,(,,,,,,,,,,,~~~.,...
...i,
.,.....,,.......... ,,.,,,
,.,..,.,.,.,.,,,

..i-.,.
i....
.,.,.,.,
,.,
::::::::.:+:m...
.,..
C.
...I....
i./
..,_.,.,.,
,:,::,:
:::
,..,,
.,.,._.,.,

produced

by multiple-wheel

assemblies

SUBGRADES
Using information from a deliberate soil survey as outlined in Chapter 2 of FM 5-530,
consider the following factors when determining the suitability of a subgrade:
l

Depth to bedrock.

Depth to the water table.

54

General characteristics of the subgrade

soils.

Compaction that can be attained in the

subgrade.
CBR values of uncompacted and compacted subgrades.
Presence of weak or soft layers or organics in the subsoil.
Susceptibility to detrimental frost action
or excessive swell.

Subgrades and Base Courses

GRADE LINE
Classify the subgrade soil in accordance
with the Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS) (as described in FM 5-4101 and consider the previously hsted factors to determine the suitability of a subgrade material.
When locating the grade line of a road or
airfield, consider the suitability of the subgrade, the depth to the water table, and the
depth to bedrock. Generally, the grade line
should be established to obtain the best
possible subgrade material consistent with
the design parameters. However, simplicity
of construction must also be considered.

COMPACTION
Compaction normally increases the strength
of subgrade soils. The normal procedure is
to specify compaction according to the requirements in Figure 5-4. A specification
block should be used to determine limits
for density and moisture content.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

Pavement

Base

98 - 100%

compaction

course

(CBR

80 - 100)

Airfield

(CBR

50 - 100)

Road

100 - 105%

Compaction

course

(CBR
usually

Compaction

CBR

Cohesive

compaction

COMPACTED
Cohesive

20 - 50) Airfield

<

Select

CBR

CE 55

90 - 95%

compaction

20
CE 55

95 - 100%

CE 55

SUBGRADE

compaction

Cohesionless

or roads

MATERIAL

Subgrade
Cohesionless

CE 55

CE 55 (AsDhalt)

100 - 105%

SELECT

Vol 1

CE 55 (Soil)

98 - 100%
Subbase

32-8013,

90 -95%

compaction

Uncompacled

CE 55

95 - 100%

CE 55

subgrade

(Subsoil)

NOTES:

1.
2.
3.
4.

A cohesive soil is one with PI > 5.

A cohesionless soil is one with a PI s 5.
Percent compaction is a percent of the maximum density at CE 55.
Each layer shown will not necessarily be used in the final design,
5. The minimum compacted layer thicknesses are 4 for a road and 6 for an airfield.

Figure 5-4.

Recommended
compaction
for rear areas

Compaction is relatively simple in fill sections because all the layers are subjected to
construction processes and can be compacted during construction.
Compaction is
more difficult in cut sections. Compaction
must be obtained during construction to a
depth at which the natural density of the
material will resist further consolidation under traffic.

requirements

Specific requirements for minimum depth of

subgrade compaction for both cohesive and
cohesionless soils for road designs are described in Chapter 9 of this FM. This same
information for airfield designs is described
in Chapter 12 of FM 5-430-00-2/AFPAM 328013. Vol 2.

Subgrades and Base Courses

5-5

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

SUBGRADE

32-8013,

Vol 1

COMPACTION-NORMAL
CASES

Cohesionless
soils (except silts) can be compacted from the surface with heavy rollers
or very heavy vibratory
compactors.
Cohesive soils (including
silts) cannot be compacted in thick layers.
In cut areas consisting of cohesive soils, it may be necessary to
remove the subgrade material and replace it
with sequential
lifts capable of being compacted to the required density.
As a rule of
thumb, initially replace material in 6-inch
lifts, then adjust the lift thickness
up or
down, as necessary,
to determine
the minimum compactive
effort.
Compaction
of cohesive soil is best achieved with penetrating
rollers such as tamping or sheepsfoot.
Compare the subsoil with compaction
requirements
for the subgrade (as described
in Chapter 9 of this FM and Chapter 12 of
FM 5-430-00-2/AFPAM
32-8013, Vol 2) to
determine
if consolidation
of the subsoil is
likely to occur under the design traffic load.
If such consolidation
is likely to occur, provide a means for compacting
the subsoil or
design a thicker flexible-pavement
structure
to prevent subsoil consolidation.
Cohesive materials,
including those of relatively low plasticity showing little swell,
should be compacted
at the optimum moisture content determined
from the densitymoisture curves developed for that soil using the 55-blows-per-layer
compactive
effort
(CE 55) test. CE 55 may also be designated for ASTM 1557, the American
Society
of Testing and Materials code for densitymoisture curves.
Cohesionless,
free-draining materials should be compacted
at moisture contents approaching
saturation.

SUBGRADE

COMPACTION-SPECIAL
CASES

Although
compaction
normally increases
the strength of soils, some soils lose stability when scarified and rolled.
Some soils
shrink excessively
during dry periods and
expand excessively
when they absorb moisSpecial treatment
is required when
ture.
The following
these soils are encountered.

5-6

Subgrades and Base Courses

paragraphs
describe the soils in which
these conditions
may occur and suggested
methods of treatment.
Soib

That

Lose

Strength

The types of soils that decrease in strength

when remolded are generally in the USCS
CH. MI-I, and OH groups.
They are soils
that have been consolidated
to a very high
degree, either under an overburdened
load
by alternate cycles of wetting and drying or
by other means, and they have developed
a
definite structure.
They have attained a
high strength in the undisturbed
state.
Scarifying,
reworking.
and rolling these
soils in cut areas may reduce the soils loadbearing capacity.
When these soils are encountered,
obtain
CBR values for the soil in both the undisturbed and disturbed conditions.
Compact
the soil that is removed to the design density at the design moisture content.
Other
samples should be compacted
to the design
density across the range of specified moisture contents.
If the undisturbed
value is
higher than the laboratory
test results, no
compaction
should be attempted and construction operations
should be conducted
to
produce the least possible soil disturbance.
Since compaction
should be avoided in
these cases, the total thickness design
above the subgrade may be governed by the
required depth of compaction
rather than
the CBR method. (See Chapter 3 of TM 5825-2.)
silt8
The bearing capacity of silts, very fine
sands, and rock flour (predominantly
USCS
ML and SC groups) is reasonably
good if
properly compacted
within the specified
moisture range.
Compactions
of deposits of
silt, very fine sand, and rock flour located
in areas with a high water table can pump
water to the surface.
The material becomes
quick or spongy and practically
loses all
load-bearing
capacity.
This condition can
also develop when silts and poorly draining,
very fine sands are compacted
at a high
Compaction
reduces the
moisture content.
air voids so that the available water fills the
void space.
Therefore,
it is difficult to

../
.,.,.
.,. ...,.,.
. .,
:..,1.... ....;.
....~:.:.~::~;::,:.:.::~,:::::
-:.:+:
........ ...,. .,:,,:,:.:.,:,..,,
.:.:.:.:.:..:.:.:.:+..,...,
_,.,.,..
..I,

X..

. . . . . . . ..:::>:::,:::j::

.,I(,...,,...
.,:, >:,:.:.:.:.:_:+:

. . . . ..

..,):(,):,.

r....,.;,.,.,.,...,..,.,~. ~ ,.,,.,

,.

.,

:;;;;.,,.~..L.~.:..:.:~:.:.:

:..:

::.::v::.:..::
_,:,,_.~_.,~,

.:.,,.,:.,

,..

obtain the desired compaction in these sflts

and very fine sands at moisture contents
greater than optimum.
Water from a wet, spongy silt subgrade
often enters the subbase and base during
compaction through capillary action. This
additional moisture may have detrimental effects on bearing capacity and frost susceptibility. If the source of water can be removed, it is usually not difficult to dry
these deposits. These soils usually crumble
easily and scarify readily. If the soils can
be dried, normal compaction effort should
be applied. However, removing the source
of the water is often very difficult and. in
some cases, impossible in the allotted construction period.

In areas with a high water table, drying is

not possible until the water table is sufficiently lowered. Compaction operations will
continue to cause water to be pumped to
the surface. Areas of this nature are best
treated by replacing the soil with subbase
and base materials or with a dry soil that
is not adversely affected by water.
Do not disturb the subgrade where drainage is not feasible or a high water table cannot be lowered. Also, do not disturb the
subgrade in cases where soils become saturated from sources other than high water tables and cannot be dried (as in construction during wet seasons). Compaction of
lifts during wet periods can cause fines
from the subgrade to contaminate upper layers of the flexible-pavement structure.
The pumping and detrimental actions previously described should be anticipated
whenever silts or very-fine-sand subgrades
are located in areas with a high water table. Pumping action limits the ability to obtain the desired compaction in the immediate overlying material.
swelling

soils

Soils are characterized as swelling if they

display a significant increase in volume
with the addition of moisture. These soils
can cause trouble in any region where construction is accomplished during a dry sea-

..(

. .... .
,.,.,_,~,,,,,,,::.,.

,,

,,,

:.,:

:.>

FM !j-430=004/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

son and the soils absorb moisture during a

subsequent wet season. If the moisture content of the compacted soil increases after
compaction, the soil will swell and produce
large, uplift pressures. This action may result in unacceptable differential heaving of
flexible pavements. For military construction, swelling soils are placed at moisture
contents that will not result in more than a
3-percent change in volume if soil moisture
is later increased.
Preswelling is a common method for treating subgrade soils with expansive characteristics. The soil should be compacted at
a moisture content at which a 3-percent or
greater swelling has already occurred. This
reduces the impact of future expansion.
Proper control of moisture content is the
most important item to remember for swelling soils.

SELECTION OF SUBGRADE AND

SUBSOIL DESIGN CBR VALUES
The CBR test described in FM 5-530 includes procedures for conducting tests on
samples compacted in test molds (design
density and soaked for four days) and for
taking in-place CBR tests on undisturbed
samples. These tests are used to estimate
the CBR that will develop in the prototype
structure. Where the design CBR is above
20, the subgrade must also meet the gradation and Atterberg limit requirements for a
subbase given in Table 5-l.

SUBGRADE

STABILIZATION

Subgrades can be stabilized mechanically

(by adding granular materials), chemically
(by adding chemical admixtures), or with a
stabilization expedient (sand-grid. matting,
Stabilization with chemior geosythetics).
cal admixtures (lime, port-land cement, fly
ash, and such) is generally costly but may
prove to be economically feasible. depending
on the availability of the chemical stabilization agent in comparison with the availability of granular material. Chemically stabilized layers should be designed according to
the criteria presented in Chapter 9 of FM
5410.

Subgrades and Bass Courses

5-7

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vd 1

:::::::::::::::,:i:::~,~.:.:.:..
.,.
,.,....
.\\.~v..~,..:.,.:.:
;:.:,
i:..
.:y:.:.:.,
,.,...;
,,,.;
,,,,:
:.:.:.:.:.,.::
:.::,
..l.i
.,.,,:>:
..1
::,:y.:.+::..
...>:..:
:.:..:.:.:.j::j:~.~~:~
:...,:
,, ,:,:;
,:.:,
l:;i:::~j.:::::.::,:::::::::::i
,..,,..,.~.,.
,,.,
,,.,,.
~::,::,:,,.~.:_:.:,:.,,:
...)...:
.,y,.
.,..,..
,,,:,:
:.:;
.,::::.:
..... :,:::.:
.,.
3,:
.,,.
:..;
.,>
..:,

Table 5-7. Recommended maximum permissible value of gradation and Atterberg limit
requirements in subbases and select materials for roads and airfields

Maximum

50
40

30
Select
Material
*Determination

20

/
!/
I

Value
Atterberg

Gradation requirements
% passing
No. 200
No. IO

Size in
inches

Maximum
design CBR

Subbase

Permissible

50

15

80

15

LL*

PI*

25

25

100

15

25

__

--

35

I_.

of these values will be made according

If mechanical stabilization is used and the

stabilized material meets the gradation and
Atterberg limit requirements in Table 5-1, it
can be assigned a subbase CBR rating. If
it does not meet the requirements for a subbase, the material must be considered a select material.
A stabilization expedient may provide significant time and cost savings as a substitute
to other means of stabiliztion or low
strength fill. The most popular of the manmade stabilizers are sand grid, roll-matting,
and various types of geosynthetics, especially geotextiles. Matting and sand grid
are expedient methods of stabilizing cohesionless soils such as sand for unsurfaced
road construction.
Geotextiles and other
geosynthetics are primarily used to reinforce
weak subgrades, maintain the separation of
soil layers, and control drainage through
the road or airfield design. The

Limits

to ASTM D4318

availability of these materials must be

weighed with the considerable time savings
for use of expedients in combat
construction.

FROST SUSCEPTIBILITY

OF SUBGRADE

In areas subjected to seasonal freezing and

thawing, subgrade materials may exhibit
frost heave and thaw weakening. Table
5-2 lists the frost-susceptibility ratings of
soils. Those materials with the F3 and F4
classifications are extremely frost-susceptible, especially if the water table is less than
5 feet below the top of the subgrade. Silty
soils are particularly susceptible and their
CBR value may be less than 1 during thawing periods. The thaw period and resulting
degraded soil strength may last from one to
four weeks. Emphasis must be placed on reducing traffic loads during this period to
help reduce the possibility of damage.

SELECT MATERIALS AND SUBBASE COURSES

When designing flexible pavements, locally
available or other inexpensive materials may
be used between the subgrade and base
course. These layers are designated in this
manual as select materials or subbases.
Those with design CBR values less than or

5-8

Subgrades and Base Courses

equal to 20 are called select materials, and

those with CBR values greater than 20 are
called subbases.
Where the CBR value of the subgrade, without processing, is in the range of 20 to 50,

: .... :.:
.....
:.... .>:.,
: ,,:,
.. ...........
.....>..::........
: :.............................
:....:.
:...:.:.:..:.:

.. .:

:.:...: .... ......

,.::.,.:

:: ,.:,,:.L .... 7:

,.,:
.........

.,:

.,:

::.:
...........
...............
......................................

Table 5-2.

Frost
Group

;..::
.....

_:.~.:,:<,.:.:
.......

:.:

(,,

.....

Frost-design

Type of Soil

NFS

(a) ,ravg,s,~,thOe25)
Crushed rock
b Sands (e 5 0.30
c Sands (e > 0.30 ,
11
(a) Gravels (e c 0.25)
Crushed stone
Crushed rock
(b) Gravelly soils

Sl

s2

Sandy soils (e 5 0.36)

Fl

Gravelly

F2

a
IIb

Gravelly
Sands

F3

a
b
iIc

Gravelly soils
Sands, except very fine silty sands
Clays (PI > 12)

F4

a
b
c
ild

Silts
Very fine sands
Clays PI < 12)
Varve 6 claysand other fine-grained.
banded sediments

soils
soils

x.>

FM 514301OO-l/AFPAM

Vol 1

soil classification

% By Weight
< 0.02 mm
o-3
o-3
;:i
3- 10
o-3
o-3
o-3
3-6

3-6

Typical Soll Types

Under the USCS
ES
$

E::
SGpp

SF
GW, GP
ET 2:
GW: GP, GW-GM,
GP-GM, GW-GC,
GP-GC
SW, SP, SW-SM,
g;-~F,
SW-SC,

6- 10

GW-GM, GP-GM,
GW-GC, GP-GC

IO- 20
6- 15

GM, GC, GM-GC

SM, SC, SW-SM,
SP-SM, SW-SC,
SP-SC, SM-SC

> 20
> 15

GM, GC, GM-GC

SM. SC, SM-SC
CL, CH, ML-CL

> 15

ML, MH, ML-CL

gy, MScctM-SC
CL$MfH$

egre
x

SMf,;LM&,
NOTE:

32-8013,

or

e = void ratio.

select materials and subbases may not be

needed. However, the subgrade cannot be
assigned a design CBR value greater than
20 unless it meets the gradation and plasticity requirements for subbases.
Where subgrade materials meet plasticity requirements but are deficient in grading requirements, it may be possible to treat an
existing subgrade by blending in stone, lime
rock, sand, or similar materials to produce
an acceptable subbase and raise the design
CBR value.

MATERIALS
Select Material8
Select materials will normally be locally
available, coarse-grained soils (classified G
or S). although fine-grained soils in the ML

and CL groups may be used in certain

cases. Consider lime rock, coral, shell,
ashes, cinders, caliche, and disintegrated
granite when evaluating sources of select
material. To qualify as a select material, a
material must meet the gradation and Atterberg limit requirements established in Table
5- 1. A maximum aggregate size of 3
inches will aid in meeting aggregate gradations.
Subbase Materials
Subbase materials may consist of naturally
occurring, coarse-grained soils or blended
and processed soils. Lime rock, coral,
shell, ashes, cinders, caliche. and disintegrated granite may be used as subbases
when they meet the requirements in Table
5-1. page 5-8. The existing subgrade may
meet the requirements for a subbase

Subgrades and Base Courses

5-9

FM 50430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

course, or it may be possible to treat the existing subgrade to produce a subbase.

Do
not admix native or processed materials unless the unmixed subgrade meets the LL
and PI requirements
for subbases.
A suitable subbase may be formed using
material stabilized with commercial
admix
Portland cement. hydrated lime, fly
tures.
ash, and bituminous
materials are commonly used for this purpose.
The plasticity
of some materials can be decreased
by adding lime or portland cement, enabling them
to be used as subbases.

COMPACTION
Select and subbase materials can be processed and compacted
using normal compaction procedures.
Specify compaction
according to the criteria described in Figure
5-4. page 5-5.

SELECTION

..,: . ..:.
. ..

Vol 1

OF DESIGN CBR

CBR tests are usually conducted

on reHowever, where existing
molded samples.
similar construction
is available, conduct
CBR tests on material in place when it has
attained its maximum expected water content or on undisturbed,
soaked samples.
The procedures
for selecting test values described in the section on subgrades
also applies to select and subbase materials.
In order to be used as a select or subbase, the
material must comply with the requirements indicated in Table 5- 1, including
CBR value, gradation,
and Atterberg
limits.
If a material meets the requirements
for gradation and Atterberg
limits for the next
higher design CBR category, but the materials CBR value does not meet the maximum design CBR for that category, assign
the material design a CBR value equal to
the measured CBR results.
For example, a

..... .

::.::.:.:.::

:.

material with a measured CBR value of 37.

which meets the gradation and Atterberg
limit requirements
for a CBR 40 subbase,
should be used as a CBR 37 subbase.
Conversely, if the material failed to meet the
CBR 40 subbase requirements
(gradation
and Atterberg
limits) but met the CBR 30
subbase requirements,
it would be used as
a CBR 30 subbase rather than a CBR 37.
Some natural materials develop satisfactory
CBR values but do not meet the gradation
requirements
in Table 5- 1. These materials
may be used as select orsubbase
materials,
as appropriate,
if supported by adequate inplace CBR tests on construction
projects using the materials that have been in service
for several years.
The CBR test is not applicable for use in
evaluating
materials stabilized with chemical admixtures.
These chemically
stabilized
soils must be assigned an equipment
CBR
value based on the type of admixture
and
method of application.
(See Chapter 9 of
FM 5-410.)
Ratings as high as 100 can be
assigned to these materials when proper
construction
procedures
are followed.

POTENTIAL

FOR FROST ACTION

Select and subbase materials which are subjected to freezing and thawing may exhibit
detrimental
frost effects.
Although these
materials generally are not affected by excessive frost heave, they may lose up to 50 percent of their strength during thawing conditions.
This is especially true of materials
which have more than 20 percent fines (particles passing the Number (No.) 200 sieve).
If possible, materials listed in Table 5-2,
page 5-9, as NFS. Sl. S2. Fl. or F2 should
be used as subbase and select materials in
seasonal frost and permafrost
areas.

BASE COURSE
Thepurpose

of a base course
ute the induced stresses from
load so that it will not exceed
of the underlying
soil layers.

5-10

Subgrades

is to distribthe wheel
the strength
Figure 5-5

and Base Courses

shows the distribution

of stress through
two base courses.
When the subgrade
strength is low, the stress must be reduced
to a low value and a thick base is needed.

FM 51430-OO-l/AFPAM

Area of tire contact

32-8013,

Vol 1

Area of tire contact

Base 1course
Pavement

or surface

Base course

Subgradesupport

Low-bearing-ratio

subgrade

Figure 5-5. Distribution

Subgrade

High-bearing-ratio

of stress in base courses snd affects

on base-course
thickness

When the subgrade strength is higher, a

thinner base course will provide adequate
stress distribution.
Because the stresses in
the base course are always higher than in
the subgrade
(Figure 5-5). the base course
must have higher strength.
The base course is normally the highestquality structural
material used in a flexiblepavement structure, having CBR values
near the CBR standard material (crushed
limestone).
Base courses are always cohesionless materials and are normally processed to obtain the proper gradation.

Subgrade

support

subgrade

of subgrade

strength

ence to gradation requirements

is not feasible, a safe rule of thumb is to avoid using
materials which have more than 15 percent
fines (particles passing the No. 200 sieve).

Plasticity Index and Liquid Limit

In addition to the gradation requirement,
a
base-course
material must meet the same PI
and LL requirements
for a subbase material
as indicated in Table 5- 1, page 5-8. Material with a LL greater than 25 or a PI
greater than 5 should not be used as a
base course.

Compaction

REQUIREMENTS
Give careful attention to the selection of materials for base courses.
The materials
should be dense and uniformly graded so
that no differential
settlement occurs.
For
continuous
stability, base courses must
meet gradation
and plasticity requirements.

Gradation
Normally,
a material used as a base course
must meet the gradation requirements
outlined in Tables 5-3, 5-4 and 5-5, page 5-12
(depending
on the type of material).
Determine gradation of the proposed material usanalysis.
If strict adhermg mechanical

Base-course
material must be capable of being compacted
to meet the requirements
given in Ffgure 5-4. page 5-5. When constructing a base course, lift thickness must
be based on the ability to attain the reLift thickness is dependent
quired density.
on the type of material, the compaction
equipment
used, and the method of construction.
The CBR of the finished base course must
conform to that used in the design.
The total compacted
thickness must equal that obtained from the flexible-pavement
design
curves.
Table 5-6, page 5-13 lists nine
types of materials commonly
used as base

Subgrades

and Base Courses

5-l 1

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Table 5-3.

Vol 1

Generally

suitable

Uu

base course

materials

uee a.

aa an Aaaregate

a Ba*e
or Subbase

Rock Type

Concrete

Asphalt

Couree

Granite

Fair to Good

Fair to Good

Good

GabbroDiorite

Excellent

Excellent

Excellent

Baaatt

Excellent

Excellent

Excellent

Felsite

PM4

Fair

Fair to Good

Conglomerate
Breccia

Poor

Poor

Poor

Sandstone

Poor to Fair

Poor to Fair

Fair to Good

Shale

Poor

Poor

Poor

TN
A

Limestone

Fair to Good

Good

Good

Dolomite

Good

Good

Good

Chert

Poof

POOP

Poor-Fair

Gneiss (nice)

Good

Good

Good

Schist

Poor to Fair

Poor to Fair

Poor to Fair

?I

Slate

Poor

Poor

Poor

Quart&e

Good

Fair to Good

Fair to Good

?
c

Marble

Fair

Fair

Fair

I
G
N
E
0
U
S
S
:

VR

I!

Reacts (alkali aggregate)

**Antistripping agents should be used

Table 5-4. Desirable gradation for crushed

rock or slag, and uncrushed sand and gravel
aggregates for nonmacadam
base courses

Table 5-5. Desirable gradation for crushed

rock, gravel, or slag aggregates
for macadam base courses

Percent Passing Each Sieve

1
Sieve
Designations

II
II

1 II2
) 2 inch 1 inch

l-inch
sand
1 1 inch 1 clay

Percent Passina Each Sieve

11

2 inch

1 112inch

5-12

Subgrades and Base Courses

No. 40

5-25

No. 200

<lo

<lO

<lo

(1

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

Table 5-6. Assigned

base-course

CBR ratings
materials

Design
CBR

Tvoe
Graded,

crushed

aggregate

Water-bound
macadam
Dry-bound
macadam
Bituminous
base course,
central
Lime

plant,

hot mix

rock

Bituminous

macadam

*Stabilized
aggregate
(mechanically)
Soil
Sand

for

cement
shell

or shell

Vol 1

by blending materials from two or more

deposits. Uncrushed, clean, washed gravel
is normally not suitable for a base course
because not enough fines are present.
Fines act as a binder and fill the voids between coarser particles.

100
100
100
100
80
80
80
80
80

*It is recommended
that stabilizedaggre ate base-course material not be
used fgor tire pressures in excess of
100 psi.

courses for roads and airfields. A typical

design CBR is given for each type of
._
__
material. Laboratory CBR tests to determine design CBR are not necessary.

MATERIALS
Natural, processed, and other materials are
used for base courses. Descriptions of
these materials follow.
Natural Materials
A wide variety of gravels; sands; gravelly
and sandy soils; and other natural
materials such as lime rock, coral, shells,
and some caliches can be used alone or
blended as a suitable base course. Sometimes natural materials require crushing or
removal of oversize material to maintain
gradation limits. Some natural materials
may be suitable for use as a base course by
mixing or blending them with other
materials.
and Gravel.
Many natural deposits of
sandy and gravelly materials make satisfactory base-course materials. Gravel deposits
differ widely in the relative proportions of
coarse- and fine-grained material and in the
character of the rock fragments. Satisfactory base materials can often be produced
Sand

32-8013,

Sand and Clay.

Natural mixtures of sand
and clay are often located in alluvial
deposits of varying thicknesses.
Often
there are great variations in the proportions
of sand and clay from the top to the bottom
of the deposit. Depending on the proportions of sand and clay, these deposits may
also provide suitable base-course materials.
With proper proportioning and construction
methods, satisfactory results can be obtained with sand-clay soils.

Deposits of partly disintegrated rock that

consist of fragments of rock, clay, and mica
flakes should not be confused with sandclay soils. The mica flakes make the
deposit unsuitable for use as a base course.
Mistaking these deposits for a sand-clay
soil may result in base-course failure.
Processed Materials
Processed materials are made by crushing
and screening rock, gravel, or slag. A
properly graded, crushed rock base-course
material produced from sound, durable rock
makes the highest-quality base material.
Existing quarries; ledge rock; cobbles and
gravel; talus deposits; coarse mine tailings;
and similar hard, durable rock fragments
are the sources of processed materials.
Table 5-3 shows the common rock types
that are generally suitable for base-course
material. Generally, rock which is hard
enough to require blasting during excavation makes suitable base-course material.
Base courses made from processed
materials can be divided into three general
types: stabilized, coarse-graded, and
macadam.
In a stabilized base course,
material ranging from coarse to fine is
mixed to meet the gradation requirement
given in Table 5-4. The mixing process can
be accomplished in advance (at a
Stabilized.

Subgrades and Base Courses

5-13

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

processing
plant1 or during the placing
operation.
Because
the aggregates
produced
in crushing
operations
or obtained from deposits
are often deficient
in
fines, it may bc necessary
to blend in
selected
fines to get a suitable
gradation.
Screenings,
crusher -run fines, or natural
clay-free
soil may be added for lhis purpose.
Coarse-Graded.
A coarse-graded
type oi
base course
is composed
of crushed
rock,
gravel, or slag.
When gravel is used.
50 percent
of lhc material
by weigh1 must
have two or more freshly
fractured
facts,
with the arca of each face equal to at least
75 percent
of the smallest
midsectional
area
of the piece.
Macudam.
The term macadam
is usually
applied to construction
in which a coarse,
crushed
aggregate
is placed in a relatively
thin layer and rolled into place.
Fine aggregate
or screenings
are placed on the surface of the coarse-aggregate
layer and rolled
and broomed
into the coarse
rock until it is
thoroughly
keyed in place.
Water may be
used in the compacting
and keying process.
When water is used, the base is termed a
wafer-bound
mucadam.
The crushed
rock
used for macadam
base courses
should consist of clean,
angular,
durable
particles
free
of clay, organic
matter,
and other unwanted
material
or coating.
Any hard, durable,
crushed
aggregate
can be used, provided
the coarse
aggregate
is one size and the
fine aggregate
will key into the coarse
aggregate.
Aggregates
for macadam-type
construction
should
meet the gradation
requirements given in Table 5-5. page 5-12.
Other

Materials

In some TO areas,
deposits
of natural
sand
and gravel and sources
of crushed
rock are
not available.
This has led to the development of base courses
from materials
that
normally
would not be considered.
These
include
calichc,
lime rock, shells,
cinders,
coral, iron ore, rubble,
and other similar
materials.
Some of these materials
arc
weak rock that crush or degrade
under construction
traffic to produce
composite
base
materials
similar
to those described
in the
preceding
paragraphs.
Others
develop a

5- 14

Subgrades and Base Courses

cementing
tory base.

action

that

results

in a satisfac-

These matcrjals
cannot
bc judged
on the
basis of the gradation
limits used for other
materials.
Rather,
they are judged on the
basis or scrvicc
behavior.
Strength
tests on
laboratory
samples
arc not satisfactory
because the method of preparing
the sample
seldom replicates
the characteristics
of the
material
in place.
The PI is a reasonably
good criterion
for detcrrnining
Lhe suitability of thcsc materials
as base courses.
As a general
rule. a low PI (I 5) is a necessity.
However, observation
of lhesc types of
base materials
in existing
roads and pavements is the most reliable
indicator
of
whether
or not they will be satisfactory.
Coral.
Coral is commonly
found along the
coastlines
of the Pacific Ocean and the
Caribbean
Sea.
Coral is normally
very angular and, as such, its greatest
assets
as a
construction
material
are its bonding
properties.
These properties
vary, based on the
amount
of volcanic
impurities,
the proportion of fine and coarse
material,
and the
age and length ol exposure
to the elements.
Proper moisture
conlrol.
drainage,
and compaction
arc csscntial
to obtain
satisfactory
results.
Avoid \.ariations
of more than 1
pcrccnt
from optimum
moisture
content.
Uncompactcd
and poorly drained
coral is
susceptible
to high capillary
rise, resulting
in too much moisture
and loss of stability.
Sprinkling
with sea water or sodium
chloride
in solution
prornotes
bonding
when
rollers are used.
As a rule of thumb,
coral
should cure for a minimum
of 72 hours
after compaction
is completed.
CaIiche.
Caliche
is a by-product
of chemical weathering
processes.
It is composed
of
limestones,
silts, and clays cemented
together
by lime, iron oxide, or salt.
Caliche
has been used extensively
in arid
regions
as a base material
because
of its
ability to reccmcnt
when saturated
with
water, compacted,
and given a setting
period.
Caliche
varies in content
(limestone. silt, and clay) and in degree of cementation.
it is important
that caliche
of good,
uniform
quality bc obtained
from deposits
--

. . .:>.:~

and that it be compacted within a specified

moisture range.
After caliches have been air-dried for 72
hours, the LL of the material passing the
No. 40 sieve should not exceed 35, and the
PI should not exceed 10. For base-course
material, caliches should be crushed to
meet the following gradations:
Percent
Percent
Percent

passing
passing
passing

2-inch sieve
No. 40 sieve
No. 200 sieve

100
15-35
O-20

Stripping should be used to remove undesirable material from surface deposits of

caliche.
A&
Tuff and other cement-like materials
of volcanic origin may be used for base
courses. Tuff bases are constructed in the
same manner as other base courses except
that the oversize pieces are broken and the
base is compacted with sheepsfoot rollers after the tuff is dumped and spread. The surface is then graded and final compaction
and finishing are accomplished.
Rubble. The debris or rubble of destroyed
buildings may be used in constructing base
courses. Jagged pieces of metal and similar objects must be removed: large pieces of
rubble should be broken into 3-inch pieces
or smaller. Caution should be exercised
when using rubble in a tactical
environment to avoid mines or booby traps.
Bituminous Base. In general, a bituminous
base course may be considered equal, on
an inch-for-inch basis, to other types of
high-quality base courses. Bituminous mixtures are frequently used as base courses
beneath high-use bituminous pavements,
particularly for rear-area airfields carrying
heavy traffic. Bituminous bases may be advantageous when locally available aggregates are relatively weak and of poor quality, when mixing-plant and bituminous materials are readily available, or when a relatively thick structure is required for the traffit.
When a bituminous base course is used, it
is placed in lifts no more than 3 l/2 inches

FM 5-430.OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

thick. If a bituminous base is used, the

binder and leveling courses may be omitted
and the surface course may be laid directly
on the base course.

SELECTION

OF BASE COURSE

Selection of the type of base-course construction depends on the materials and

equipment available and the anticipated
weather conditions during construction. A
complete investigation should be made to
determine the location and characteristics
of all natural materials suitable for basecourse construction.
Base courses of untreated natural materials are less affected
by adverse weather and normally require
less technical control. Untreated bases are
relatively easy and fast to build and are
preferable to bituminous or cement-stabilized types. This is true even where suitable admixture materials for such construction are readily available, which is not true
in many areas of the world.

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
FOR
SEASONAL FROST AND PERMAFROST
CONDITIONS
Since base-course materials are near the
surface of the road or airfield, the amount
of strength loss during thawing periods will
have a strong influence on the life of the facility. If possible, materials listed in Table
5-2, page 5-9, as nonfrost susceptible
(NFS). or possibly frost susceptible (Sl or
S2) should be used as base courses in seasonal frost and permafrost areas.

CONSTRUCTION

OPERATIONS

Construction operations for roads and airfields include the following tasks which are
organized according to the construction
schedule and quality control plan for the
project.
Fine Grading
The subgrade is fine graded to achieve the
desired cross section established by final
grade stakes. Before placing select
material, subbase, and base course, the

Subgrades and Base Courses

5-15

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

subgrade should be compacted

to attain the
required density, and ruts and other soft
spots should be corrected.

Hauling, Placing, and Spreading

Placing and spreading
material on the
prepared subgrade may begin at the point
nearest the borrow source or at the point
farthest from the source.
The advantage
of
working from the point nearest the source
is that the haul vehicles can be routed over
the spread material, which compacts
the
base and avoids damage to the subgrade.
An advantage
of working from the point farthest from the source is that hauling equipment will further compact the subgrade.
Also, this practice will not overwork the
base course, which can cause unwanted
segregation.
This method also reveals any
weak spots in the subgrade so that they
can be corrected
prior to placement
of the
base courses, and interferes less with
spreading and compaction
equipment.
The self-propelled
aggregate
spreader is the
preferred piece of equipment
for placing a
base course.
If a self-propelled
spreader is
not available,
base-course
material can be
spread using towed spreaders,
scrapers, or
dump trucks.
If equipment
capable of
spreading
the aggregate
in even lifts is not
available,
the material can be initially
dumped in long windrows
and subsequently
spread with graders, dozers, or front-end
loaders.
Lift thickness should be based on the
ability to compact the material to the required density.
A good rule of thumb is to
initially place the base course in 6-inch
lifts. After testing the compacted
density,
increase or decrease the lifl thickness as
necessary to meet the project requirements.

Blending and Mixing

Materials to be blended and mixed should
be spread on the road, runway, or taxiway
in correct proportions,
with the finer
material on top. Fold the fine material into
the coarser aggregate
with the grader blade.
If available, dry-mix the material using
blades, disks, harrows, or rototillers,
leaving the material in windrows.
When a

5-16

Subgrades and Base Courses

grader is used, thoroughly

mix the
materials by blading the windrows of
materials from one side of the area to the
other, with the blade of the grader set to
give a rolling action to the material.
The
coarse and fine aggregates
can also be
mixed in mechanical
plants (mobile or stationary) or on a paved area with graders
and bucket loaders.
Proportionally
distribute the coarse and fine aggregates
by
weight or volume in quantities
so that the
specified gradation,
LL. and PI requirements
are attained after the base has been placed
and compacted.
Mixing operations
should
produce uniform blending.
When mechanical
mixing is used, place the
coarse and fine a<ggrcgates in separate stockpiles or adjacent windrows
to permit easy
proportioning.
When bucket loaders are
used, place the fine- and coarse-aggregate
portions in adjacent windrows
on a paved
area.
Blade the windrows
together to meet
the requirements
spccificd for the project.

Watering Base Materials

As in subgradc-compaction
operations,
obtaining the specified compacted
density requires that the material be placed and compacted at a moisture content inside the
specification
block.
The moisture con tent
of the base material at the site can be obtained by a nuclear densometer,
a speedy
moisture tester, or by expedient
methods.
Given the on-site moisture content, the engineer in charge can calculate exactly how
much water is to bc added or if the base
needs to be aerated to achieve the specified
moisture con ten 1 range.
Controlled
watering can bc done with a
truck-mounted
water distributor.
Asphalt
distributors
should not bc used because the
pump lubrication
system is not designed for
water.
Any container capable of movement
and gravity discharge of water may bc used
as an expedient
water distributor.

Compacting
Base-course
compacting
must produce a
uniformly
dense layer that conforms
to the
specification
block.
Compact base-course
material with vibratory or heavy,

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

..

rubber-tired
rollers.
Maintain moisture content during the compaction
procedure
within the specified moisture-content
range.
Compact each layer through the full depth
to the required density.
Measure field densities on the total sample.
Use a test strip
to determine which rollers are most cffective and how many roller passes are necessary to achieve the desired compaction.
The care and judgment used when constructing the base course will directly
reflect on the quality of the finished flexible
pavement.
Base-course
layers that contain
gravel and soil-binder material may be compacted initially with a sheepsfoot roller and
rubber -tired rollers.
Rubber -tired rollers
are particularly effective in compacting base
materials if a kneading motion is required
to adjust and pack the particles.
Base courses of crushed rock, lime rock, and shell
are compacted with vibratory, steel-wheeled,
or rubber-tired
rollers.
Select the equipment and methods on each job to suit the
characteristics
of the base material.
When
using rollers, begin compaction on the outside edges and work inward, overlapping
passes by one-half of a roller width.
Finishing
Finishing operations must closely follow
compaction
to furnish a crowned, tight,
water-shedding
surface free of ruts and
depressions
that would Inhibit runoff.
Use
the grader for finishing compacted aggrcgate bases.
Blade the material from one
side of the runway, taxiway, or road to the
middle and back to the edge until the required lines and grades are obtained.
Before final rolling, the bladed material
must be within the specified moisture-content range so it will consolidate with the underlying material to form a dense, unyielding mass.
If this is not done, thin layers of
the material will not be bound to the base,
and peeling and scabbing may result.
Final
rolling is done with rubber- tired and steelwheeled rollers.

SPECIAL PROCEDURE FOR MACADAM

BASES
Construction
of macadam base courses
quires the procedures that follow.

re-

32-8013,

Vol

Preparing Subgrade
If a macadam base course is constructed
on
a material with high plasticity, there may
be base in fil tra lion. This can bc prevented
with a blanket course of fine material such
as crusher screenings or 3 to 4 inches of
sand. The blanket course should be lightly
moistened and rolled to a smooth surface
before spreading the coarse macadam aggregate.
A membrane or a geotextile fabric
may be used in lieu of the blanket course.
Spreading
Macadam aggregate must be placed and
spread carefully to ensure that hauling
vehicles do not add objectionable
material
Care is particularly
necesto the aggregate.
sary when placing the aggregate at the
point nearest to the source and routing
hauling vehicles over the spread material.
If the compacted thickness of the lift is 4 inches or less, spread the loose macadam aggregate in a uniform layer of sufficient
depth to meet requirements.
For greater
compacted thickness,
apply the aggregate
succcssivcly
in two or more layers.
Spreading should bc from dump boards, towed aggregatc spreaders. or moving vehicles that
distribute the material in a uniform layer.
When more than one layer is required, construction procedures are identical for all
layers.
Compacting
Immediately following spreading, compact
the coarse aggregate the full width of the
strip by rolling it with a steel-wheeled
roller. Rolling should progress gradually
from the sides to the middle of each strip
in a crown section, and from the low side
to the high side where there is a transverse
slope across the road, runway, or taxiway.
Continue rolling until the absence of creep
or wave movement of the aggregate ahead
of the roller indicates that the aggregate is
stable.
Do not attempt rolling when the
subgradc is softened by rain.
Applying Screenings
After the coarse aggregate has been
thoroughly stabilized and set by rolling,
tribute sufficient screenings (fine

Subgrades and Base Courses

dis-

5-l 7

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

aggregates) to fill the voids in the surface.

Roll continuously
while screenings are
being spread, so the jarring effect of the
roller will cause them to settle into surface
voids. Spread screenings
in thin layers by
using hand shovels, mechanical
spreaders,
or moving trucks.
Do not dump them in
piles on the coarse aggregate.
If necessary,
use hand or drag brooms to distribute
screenings during rolling.
Do not apply screenings
too thick because
they will bridge over the voids and prevent
the direct bearing of the roller on the
coarse aggregate.
Continue spreading,
sweeping, and rolling until no more scrcenings can be forced into the voids. Start
sprinkling the surface with water after the
screenings have been spread.
The sprinkling causes the screenings
to be flushed
down into the voids of the aggregate.
The
surface is then rolled. Do not saturate and
soften the subgrade.
Continue sprinkling and rolling until a mixture of screenings and water forms, fills all
voids, and gathers in a small wave before
each roller. When a section of a strip has
been grouted thoroughly, allow it to dry
completely before performing additional
work.

FINISHED SURFACES
The base-course
surface determines
the
smoothness
of the finished pavement.
If
the finished base does not conform to the
specified grade when tested with a 12-foot
straigh tedgc. the fin ished pavement also
will not conform.
The base surface should
be smooth and conform to specified design
requirements.
When tested with a la-foot straightedge
applied parallel and perpendicular
to the centerline of the paved area, the surface of the
base course should not show any deviation
in excess of 3/4 inch for roads and airfields
(for propeller-type
aircraft) or l/8 inch for
jet aircraft.
Correct any deviation in excess
of these figures. and remove material to the
total depth of the lift, replacing with new
material and compacting as specified above.

S-18

Subgrades and Base Courses

SLUSH ROLLING
The purpose of slush rolling (rolling with
enough water to produce a slushy surface)
is to achieve compaction when conventional
methods fail. Slush rolling should be permitted only on a free-draining,
cured base
course.
Slushing requires a considerable
amount of water on the surface.
The quantity varies greatly with the type of material,
the temperature,
and the humidity.
If the
surface is generally satisfactory
but has
some large areasrcquiring
slushing, slush
only the rough areas.
Slushing brings fines
to the top and creates voids. In general,
slush rolling should not be used on a highquality base-course
material.
It should be
used only when required by the specifications or when conventional
compaction
methods have failed.
Applying Water
application rate in terms of
per square
yard in order to allow the water distributor
operator to accurately
estimate for applying
rollers

must follow immediately

achieve the
the roller should
carry a wave of water ahead of it as it passcs over the base
Rolling Equipment
Use pneumatic-tired,
vibratory, or steelwheeled rollers to obtain a smooth finish on
the base course.
Continue rolling until compaction has been obtained.
Finishing
There are usually small rivulets or ridges of
fines left on the surface after slushing is
completed.
Where these are excessive or
when the thickness of the blanket of fines
is excessive, sprinkle the surface with water
and hone (dress lightly) with a grader
blade. This delicate operation requires a
good operator and a sharp, true blade. Follow the grader immediately with a
pneumatic roller to reset the surface.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

WET ROLLING
All base courses
require
a final surface
finish.
The final Gnish should
bc obtained
immediately
after Gina1 compaction
or proof
rolling.
For less critical
base courses
or
where dccmcd
necessary
by the project
cnginecr,
wet rolling and slush rolling may bc
used to obtain
the final finish.
Both
methods
have strong
points and, in some
cases,
a job may require
a combination
of
the two.

Applying Water

32-8013,

Vol 1

ser particles
of the base course
will be carricd along by the blade to form a windrow
at the cdgc of the section
being finished.
This coarse
aggrcgatc
can be cvcnly distributed
over the arca and incorporated
into
the surface
of the base by a steel-wheeled
roller closely
following
the grader.
Additional water may be required,
and rolling by
the steel-whcclcd
and pneumatic-tired
rollers
must be continued
until a smooth,
dense surface
is obtained.
This method
can also be used for correcting
minor surfact irrcgularitics
in the base course.

QUALITY CONTROL

Finishing
Finish
the surface
by having the grader
blade lightly cut the final surface.
The
light blading
will loosen
the fines; the coar-

Quality
control
is essential
to any projects
success.
Although
visual inspection
is important,
it is not, by itself, sufficient
to control the construction
of all courses
described
in this chapter,
particularly
those
which contain
considerable
fine material.
Depending
on the type of base, control
tests
will include
dctcrminations
of gradation,
mixing proportions,
plasticity
characteristics.
moisture
contcnl,
field density,
lift
thickness.
and CBR values.
These tests are
described
in detail in FM 5-530.
Prior to
starting
construction,
a dclailcd
quality control plan should bc developed
which addresses testing
procedures,
frequency,
location
and, most importantly.
remedial
actions.

Subgrades and Base Courses

5-19

FM 5=430=00=l/AFPAM

Cheek
soils.

the cocfficienl

of Llniformily

of both

D15 (filter)
II& (protected

soil1

Soil A
Dso

CU = G

19.0
= 1.4
= 13.6

0.30
0.01

=nso_2.o=g()
Dlo - 0.25

crilcria

D15 (filler)
Ds5 (protcclcd

to soil A.

soil1

2.2
= 24.4
0.09

Should bc 5 5 to
prcvcn t movemcn t of
subgradc
soils
through
the filter.
which

design

criteria

D I 5 (fil tcr)
D85 (protcctcd

0.30
0.09

= 3.33

D5o (filter)
D50 (protected

&,

= 23.8

Should be > 1.0

to prevent
clogging
of the pipe.

Note that the soil particle

size is usually
given in millimeters,
while the hole size is
Llsually given in inches.
The two dimensions must bc cxprcsscd
in compatible
units bcforc the preceding
formula
is used.
To make this conversion,
multiply
the size
of the pipe perforations,
in inches.
by 25.4
which rcprcscnts
the number
of millimeters
per inch.
For cxamplc,
with soil B under
discussionDs5 (filter)
hole diameter

is not < 5.

which

Soil A is Ltnsuitable
because
movement
of
the subgrade
soil through
the filter material
is possible.
Apply

is > 5.

Thus, both soils A and B satisfy the requircmen1 that the coefficient
of uniformity
bc
less than 20.
Apply design

Vol 1

Should hc 1 5 to
permit water movcmcnt through
the
filter.
which

Ds5 (filter)
hole diameter

Soil B
c

= 30

32-8013,

13.0 mm
= l/4 x 25.4

l3
=6.35=

20

is > 1.0.

Thus, soil B satisfies

all the criteria
for a
good filter material
while soil A dots not.

to soil B.

soil1

Should be < 5 to
prevent
movement
subgradc
soils
through
the filter.

which

soil1

INSTALLATION
of

is < 5.

Should be 5 25 to
prevcn t movcmen t of
subgradc
soils
through
lhc filter.
which

is < 25.

OF A SUBDRAINAGE
SYSTEM

The most efficient

and most practical
type
of subdrainage
system is one which adequately
performs
the operations
for which it
was intended
and, in addition,
was installed
with the care and skill consistent
with its
purpose.
Any attempt
to lower the quality
of construction
or to use a sketchy
or inadequatc subdrainagc
system can result in disastrous
failures.
Conversely,
any attempt
to install an claboratc
system of undcrground piping whcrc a simple V ditch
would serve as well is inadvisable.

Drainage

6-101

-i

. :.:.:::
. . . . :..
,:

:;. : :,::....

; .,

FM 5430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

DRAINAGE

Inadequate drainage is the most common cause of road and

airfield failure.
Therefore, drainage is a vital consideration in
planning, designing, and building military roads and airfields.
It is important during both construction and use.

SECTION I. CONSTRUCTION

Commanders
and construction
supervisors
must ensure continuous
maintenance
of the
drainage system during construction
of a
military road or airfield.
The construction
drainage system is temporarily established
to prevent construction
delays and structural failure before completion.
Generally,
long delays will result if drainage is not

PRELIMINARY
RECONNAISSANCE
Prior to the start of construction,
preliminary reconnaissance
of an area should disclose features that require advance drainage
plannfng and operations.
These features includel

Springs and seepage on hillsides which

may indicate perched or high water
tables detrimental to cuts.
Trees adjacent to dry or low-flow
streams that could receive their root
water from a groundwater table flowing
near the surface.
Compacted fills
across such areas could change the
movement of the flow.

DRAINAGE

continuously
emphasized by the command.
Construction
drainage must be completed
before needed; when a storm begins it is
too late to start drainage work. Construction-drainage
measures used during different phases of construction
are discussed
below.

MEASURES
Vegetation or cover that, if removed
during the clearing and grubbing phase
of construction,
could increase surface
runoff.
The presence of level areas which have
good vegetation and adjacent slopes.
These areas may indicate a shallow
groundwater table with capillary water
movement and may require intercepting
subsurface drainage.
Streams that should be checked for normal high-water and flood indicators.

PROTECTIVE

MEASURES

Controlling runoff during construction

can
be costly.
The following measures can help

Drainage

6- 1

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

maintain
struction:
l

satisfactory

32-8013,

drainage

during

Vol 1

con-

Make maximum use of existing ditches

and drainage features.
Where possible,
grade downhill to allow economical grad
ing and to take advantage of natural
drainage.

Use temporary ditches to help construction drainage.

Ensure efforts are made
to drain pavement subgrade excavations
and base courses to prevent detrimental
saturation.
Carefully consider the
drainage of all construction
roads,
equipment areas, borrow pits, and
waste areas.

Be aware of areas where open excavation can lead to excessive erosion.

The
discharge of turbid water to local
streams will require temporary retenlion structures.
Hold random excavation
and sod or seed finished
diately.

Plan timely installation of final stormdrain facilities and backfilling operations to allow maximum use during construction.

The following
sidered:
Existing

constraints

should

be con-

Drainage

Clear excess vcgctation

from streams.
This
increases the velocity and quantity of flow.
Widening the stream can also increase the
flow. Bends and meanders can be cut to
straighten
the stream.
Use care in making
major alignment
changes because they can
change the hydraulic characteristics
of the
stream.
This change could adversely affect
other parts of the stream.
Vegetation

Military projects may require the removal

all vegetation
from large areas.
Consider

of

with regard

to construc-

Li

Select a disposal area that will not interfere with or divert the drainage pattern
of surface runoff.
If the drainage pattern is disturbed, the stripped material
may form a barrier resulting in ponding
and may otherwise affect adjacent areas.
Be aware that removing the vegetation
from an area can lead to excessive surface runoff and erosion.
This could
lead, in turn, to silting of channels and
flooding of low areas.
Consider that serious bank erosion due
to surface runoff may occur if vegetation adjacent to the banks of streams or
ditches is removed.
To avoid this, it
may be necessary to leave the vegetation or to provide a berm with a chute.
In large, cleared areas, control runoff
sediments to prevent failure of other
structures and possible adverse environmental effects. This is more of a contern in permanent construction
than in
wartime TO construction.

Clearing,

Grubbing,

and Stripping

Any clearing, grubbing,

and stripping
must
include filling holes and back dragging or
grading to a slight slope.
This will ensure
proper runoff and prevent water from collecting and saturating
the subgrade.
If filling and grading is not done, the advent of
rain will make it necessary
to strip off any
wet soil until dry soil is reached to start
the fill. Some ditching may be required to
direct the surface flow to an outlet point.
Fill
When placing fill, exercise firm control over
the project to prevent adverse effects from
improper drainage procedures.
Some of the
factors requiring
attention are*

Removal

Drainage

to a minimum,
surfaces imme-

AREA CLEARING

6-2

the following factors

tion stripping:

The fill section must be rolled smooth at

the end of each working day to seal the
surface.
No areas should be left that
can hold standing water.

.,:. :.:: :

..; :x:.,,::

::,:,..j>::

.:

.,.,.(

.:

.;..

1,:

i;.:

.Y:.,,

,, :,j.,:

,...,.

.y:,

:.

I.:,,,

..,

.,:./

The fill surface must be kept free of ruts

caused by trucks and other equipment.
These depressions collect rain and
saturate the subgrade.
Also, the surface must be crowned to discharge
runoff quickly.
When the fill area is large, it may be
necessary to create swales (depressed
areas) to conduct surface runoff to discharge outlets.
To allow fill to proceed, it may be necessary to install temporary culverts in the
fill area in places other than final
design locations.
After the fill area has
reached design depth, the design culverts can be properly trenched in place.

Ditching

Use interception
ditches during construction to collect and divert surface runoff
before building the designed system.
Prior
to construction,
conduct a site investigation
of the general layout, consistent
with the
work plan. When interception
ditches cannot be made part of the design drainage,

j.:.:.y:j:~-::,;,

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

consider removing
and compacting.

the ditches

32-8013,

Vol 1

by backfilling

Locate interceptor ditches on hillsides and

at the foot of slopes to intercept and divert
runoff from the construction
site. Make
these ditches part of the final drainage system wherever possible.
Roadside ditches, required during all construction
stages,
should be placed at design locations.
During construction,
use deep ditches for
subsurface
drainage.
They intercept
groundwater flow, as shown in Figure 6- 1.
If groundwater flow must be intercepted but
ditching is not possible, modify the ditch
into a subsurface
drainpipe system.
Ditching may be required in swamp areas
to either continue drainage ditches to an
outlet point or drain the area.
Engineers may use explosives in such
cases, since the soil may not be capable
supporting construction
equipment.
Draglines should also be considered.

of

Impervious

layer

Figure 6-1. Deep interceptor ditch

Drainage

6-3

FM

5_43()-()()-1/AFpAM

32-8013,

vol

Timber or steel mats can be used to provide

a firm foundation and support equipment
during the operation.
Culverts

Culverts are required during construction

to
allow surface runoff.
If streams must be
diverted to allow the construction
of

DRAINAGE

. .

.>.;:.

:.:,j:::,;~:z.::

.,... .,.. j:..:;.,i,:

permanent culverts, use temporary culverts

in the construction
area.
Never close
natural drainage channels, even if they are
currently dry. If these channels are closed,
surface runoff from sudden storms could
cause a serious problem.
These conditions
must be anticipated.
Construction
drainage
must keep pace with the construction
project.

HYDROLOGY

The hydrologic cycle is the continuous

process which carries water from the ocean
to the atmosphere,
to the land, and back to
the sea. A number of different subcycles
can take place concurrently
in the overall
cycle and are discussed below.

water absorbed depends on the soil type,

the vegetation, the terrain slope, and the
soil moistness prior to the rain. Stormwater runoff begins to accumulate
only
when the rate of rainfall exceeds the rate of
infiltration.

PRECIPITATION

DETENTION

Rainfall is the moisture-delivery

mechanism
of primary concern to most military
drainage designers.
Snowmelt may be of
greater concern in colder climates or in the
design of reservoirs in milder regions.
These concerns are beyond the scope of this
manual, but they are included in TM 5-852-7.
The amount of rainfall that evaporates
depends on the surface temperature of
ground features, the air temperature,
the
wind speed, and the relative humidity.
Evaporation occurs while rain is falling to
the ground and after it lands on vegetation
and other ground cover.

Before overland water flow can begin its

downhill motion, it must be deep enough to
overcome any obstacles to its movement.
Detention is the amount of water required
to fill depressions
of any size in the earths
surface.
Except by infiltration or evaporation, no water can leave a depression until
the holding capacity of the depression has
been exceeded.

INTERCEPTION
Rainfall coming to rest on vegetation is said
to have been intercepted.
Large quantities
of water can be trapped in the leaf canopy
of trees and plants.
Rain does not reach
the soil until the holding capacity of the
vegetation canopy is exceeded.

TRANSPIRATION
On a long-term basis, vegetation returns
water to the atmosphere through a process
called transpiration.
Because of the time involved, transpiration
has no immediate effect on water runoff in an area.

RUNOFF
Evaporation,
interception,
infiltration,
detention, and transpiration
are all moisture losses. Runoff is precipitation
minus these
moisture losses.

INFILTRATION
A significant portion of the water that actually strikes the soil soaks into the
ground.
This process is call infiltration.
The rate of absorption and the quantity of

6-4

Drainage

STORMS
Storms can deliver a large quantity of water
to the earth in a short period of time. For

.,,

,, :;y. ,.
,..

W Thunderstorms

..:.;.:

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol

that reason,
the study of storms is an important part of the study of drainage hydrology. This section discusses
storms in
terms of duration, frequency, and intensity.
11 describes procedures for determining
maximum storms and introduces
the subject of
runoff.

Duration
Duration is the length of time a storm
lasts.
After many years of observation,
hydrologists have determined that a storm
of long duration usually has low intensity.
In contrast, a high-intensity
storm usually
has a short duration.
Figure 6-2 shows
typical storm hydrographs developed by the
National Weather Service.
Time, usually
measured in hours, is depicted horizontally.
The amounl of rain for each unit of time is
measured vertically in inches.
The total
amount of precipitation
is the area of the
graph. The five main types of storms are
described below.

Time

Thunderstorms
Ibl Moderate storms

Time

IIL

Thunderstorms,
represented
by Figure
6-2(a), are local atmospheric
disturbances
of short duration and high average rate of
rainfall [intensity).
They are characterized
by thunder, lightning, torrential rain, and
sometimes hail. Thunderstorms
tend to
govern the design of drainage for small
areas.
Moderate Storms
Moderate storms, represented
by Figure
6-2(b), cover larger areas for several hours
with moderate intensity.
These storms

(13 Long-duration storms

lime

Figure 6-2.

Typical storm hyetographs

Drainage

6-5

FM 5.43&0&j/AFPAM

32-801 3, Vol 1

develop greater total precipitation

than
thunderstorms.
The moderate storm normally controls the design of drainage struclures for medium-sized
basins.

Long-Duration

Storms

Long-duration
storms, represented
by Figure 6-2(c), page 6-5, often have several
peaks of high rainfall.
Durations
may be
up lo several days, developing
very large
amounts of precipitation
at relatively low
average rates of rainfall.
With a low
average rate of rainfall, such storms have
little or no impact on small- or mediumsized drainage basins, but they normally
control the design of drainage structures
for
large basins.

Monsoons
Monsoons arc seasonal winds of the Indian
Ocean and southern Asia.
These winds
blow from the south during April to October
and from the north during the rest of the
year.
Heavy rains usually characterize
the
April-to-October
season.
This rain is not
normally continuous;
it rises to a peak and
then subsides in a cyclic fashion.

Tropical Cyclones
Hurricanes
and typhoons are storms caused
by severe cyclonic disturbances
over a wide
area.
Precipitation
is normally heavy and
long.

Design Life Versus Actual Life of a Structure

The design storm is an idealized storm that
is expected
to be equalled or exceeded at
least once during the design life of a
For example, if a draindrainage system.
age system has been designed for an estimated life of five years, then the design
storm will have a five-year frequency.
The
frequency of a design storm is the average
return period of a storm.
For example, if a
two-year frequency
storm has an intensity
of 1.5 inches of rainfall per hour, it can be
expected that a storm of that intensity or
greater will recur an average of once every
two years.
Two years is also called the
return period.
The reciprocal
of the return

6-6

Drainage

.y.yI:il:.;:,>
.:..:..:
.::,j.~~:,~:..:I:...:...
...I....:...::: . .I.:.:...

period is the probability

of that value or greater

.. ..:::..:

of having a storm
in any one year.

For the two-year-frequency

storm, lhe probability of having a storm equalling or exceeding the value in any one year is 0.5
(two out of four times).
The design-storm
frequency
for TO construction is normally two years.
If construction
with a longer estimated life is desired, the

appropriate design storm should be

specified in the authorizing directive.
As with any statistical method of describing
essentially
random, natural events such as
weather, there is a degree of uncertainty.
The two-year design storm occurs on the
average every two years; it is not guaranteed to occur every two years.
Statistically,
the probability
of a storm equal to or
greater than the two-year design storm occurring in any two years is 0.75 (three out
of four times).
Details of lhc statistics involved can be found in hydrology
textbooks.

WEATHER DATA
If there are extensive rainfall and rain-rate
records for the location of interest, and if
hydrologists
have examined
those records
statistically
to formulate
intensity-duration
tables, then those tables can be obtained
through the Air Force staff weather officer.
The staff weather officer is normally located
at division level.
Within the United States, the data will
generally come from the National Weather
Service, either directly or through the Air
Force.
Overseas, the staff weather officer
may be able to obtain data from local
government
sources, but it may take considerable time to obtain.
However, it is unlikely that such pinpoint data is available in
many overseas TO locations.
When weather
data is not available,
use rainfall isohyctal
maps.
Isohyetal maps have contours of
equal rainfall intensity just as topographic
maps have contours of equal elevation.
Figure 6-3 is an isohyetal map of the world, in
this case showing the iso-intensity
lines for
a 60-minute,
2-year slorm.

--

40

ATLANTIC OCEAN

20

25

15
1

10

3
PACIFIC

OCEAN

IO

120

100

60

wk,
60

40

20

20

40

60

60

100

120

140

160

Figure 6-3.

World isohyetal

map

FM 5430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

To properly read a value on the isohyetal

map, find the project location and read the
value of the appropriate isohyettsl.
Do not interpolate.
falls* On an isohyetal
that isohyet.
Between
value.

If a project

location

line, read the value of

two isohyets,

read the larger

(in inches

per hour (in/hrll:

Southern Australia
North Dakota
Florida
Washington,
DC
Vietnam
Cuba
New Orleans, Louisiana

1.0
1.5
2.5
1.5
2.5
2.5
2.5

Note that the intensities just found are for

a 60-minute
storm.
This must now be adjusted to the critical duration of the project
under construction.
Once the critical duration has been determined,
make the adjustment using the standard rainfall intensityduration curves in Figure 6-4.
The standard curves are numbered 1.0, 2.0,
3.0, and 4.0, with intermediate
values readily interpolated.
Note that curve number 1
passes through 1 inch per hour at 60
minutes, curve number 2 passes through 2
inches per hour at 60 minutes, and so on.
Where intensity is known for any nonarctic
location (taken from the isohyetal map, Figure 6-3, page 6-71 and critical duration is
calculated,
the intensity (I) can easily be
determined.
(The standard intensity-duration curves are applicable to any frequency,
not just a 2-year frequency.1

6-8

Drainage

..

.. .,

To use Figure 6-4, enter the graph using

the Duration in Minutes (Tel. Follow the
line vertically unlil it intersects
the curve
whose number corresponds
to the 60minute intensity determined from the
isohyetal map (or from pinpoint data, if you
choose not to draw your own intensity-duration curve). Read horizontally to the left to
determine the rainfall intensity (I) in inches
per hour. The following is an example:
ISO, 2-y

Within an encircling isohyetal line, read

the value of the encircling isohyet.

Examples

..

Intensity
(in/hr)
1.0
1.5
2.0

Critical
Duration
(min)
50
30
10

Iad]

(Whr)
1.2
2.4
5.2

RUNOFF
Precipitation
supplies water to the surface,
but evaporation, interception,
and infiltration begin to draw water at the start of the
Eventually, if the storm is strong
storm.
enough, vegetation and other surface characteristics,
such as depressions
and soil,
will become saturated,
allowing water to
flow freely over the surface.
This condition
is called runoff and is usually measured in
cubic feet per second (cfsl. Runoff begins
sometime after the beginning of precipitation and may continue long after precipitation ends.
The total quantity of runoff from a given
area, after it is collected in channels and
streams, is the flow estimate used to design
an areas drainage structures.
Transpiration
and evaporation also draw
from the water supplied by precipitation.
However, these are relatively small losses
and will not usually affect military drainage
design.
Estimating runoff will be discussed
later in this chapter.
Once the runoff has
been determined,
necessary ditches and culverts can be designed.

FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM

32-8013, Vol 1

Instructions:
1. Enter the chart with the area Tc.
2. Follow the vertical line until it intersects the
curve line corresponding
to I for a 2-year, 60-min storm
3. Read horizontally to the left from the curve line
and find the value from the vertical scale.

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Duration
Figure

6-4.

Standard

rainfall

Curve No. (I, 2-year,

80

90

100

60-min

110

120

rainfall)

130

140

(min) (Tc)

intensity-duration

curves

THE HYDROGRAPH
flow may originate
from surfact runoff, groundwater,
or both.
Runoff
reaches
the stream as overland
flow.
Groundwater
flow results
from side-bank
seepage and springs.
The hydrograph
depicts
the fluctuations
of flow with regard
to time.
Stream-water

The clcmcnts
of a hydrograph
arc base
flow, lag time, peak flow, time of conccntration (TOC), and flow volume.
Each stream
will have its own characteristic
hydrograph
with widely varying values for the clcmcnts.
A typical stream-flow
hydrograph
is shown
in Figure 6-5, page 6-10.

BASE FLOW
The base flow of a stream
the amount
of groundwater

depends
that

upon
seeps

into

the stream and its tributaries

from their
banks and the flow from permanent
springs
and swamps.
Depending
on the area,
climate,
and groundwater
level, it may flow
at a fairly constant
rate.
Conversely,
the
flow may fluctuate
widely or even cease completely for some periods of time.

LAG TIMES
When precipitation
begins over an arca,
thcrc is an initial period during which the
loss factors induced
by interception,
iniiltration. and detention
take effect before any
surface
runoff takes place.
Stream
flow will
increase
only when these initial losses have
been satisfied
and surface
runoff begins.
This is known as initial lag time.
The

length

of this lag Lime is influenced

by

Drainage

6-9

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

o
0

32-8013,

Vol 1

2
-5

0600

1200

1800

2400

0600

1200

1800

Time (hours)
Figure

6-5.

vcgctation
and olhcr terrain characteristics.
For cxamplc,
a grass-covcrcd
parking area
will have a longer initial lag period than an
asphalt
parking lot of the same size.
A second lag Lime occurs bctwcen
the time
the storm rcachcs
its peak precipitation
rate and the time the stream reaches
its
maximum
flow. The lcnglh of this secondary lag time is influcnccd
by the size of
the area drained.
In small- and modcratcly
sized drainage
arcas,
lhcrc will bc only
slight diffcrcnccs
brlwccn
slorrti peak and
slrcam peak.

PEAK FLOW
The peak of Ihc hydrograph
is the maximum strcarn flow that will occur during a
particular
storm.
In gcncral,
peak flow is
generated
when the entire drained
arca is
discharging
its runoff.
Peak flow is read
directly from the maximum
ordinate
of the
hydrograph.
This flow determines
the size
of the drainage
structures
required
at the
basin outlet.

TIME OF CONCENTRATION
Ihc TOC is the lime it takes
drainage
basin
to the stream.

6- 70

for an cntirc
to begin contribtlting
runoff
Assuming
uniform rainfall,

Drainage

Typical hydrograph

the hydrograph
peaks at that point.
TOC
is critical to the drainage
cngincer,
since it
dctcrmincs
the duration
of the storm that
will demand
the most from the drainage
system; that is, the storms critical duration.

VOLUME OF FLOW
The area under the curve of the
indicates
the total flow, in cubic
ing front any particular
storm.
drainage
design for dctcrrnining
lirncs when it is practical
to use
with submcrgcd
inlets.

CONSTRUCTING

hydrograph
feet, resultIt is used in
ponding
culverts

A HYDROGRAPH

A hydrograph
is constructed
by measuring
a streams
rise and fall and the times related to thcsc changes
in flow. When constructing
a hydrographThe base flow must be measured
at a
time when there have been no recent
storms.
A field reconnaissance
must be
made for this measurement.
The peak flow can bc estimated
using
the hasty runoff estimation
presented
lhis chapter.
The general shape of the curve of the
hydrograph
will be similar to that
shown in Figure 6-5.

in

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

DRAINAGE-SYSTEM

DESIGN
area or to divert it away from the work
site.

DESIGN DATA REQUIREMENTS

Before designing a drainage system, survey
the various types and sources of drainagerelated information.
The survey should include, as a minimum, information concerning the areas topography, meteorological
records, soil characteristics,
and available
construction
resources.

TOPOGRAPHICAL

Identify all areas

to the site.

METEOROLOGICAL

that contribute

runoff

Determine the general size and shape of

these contributing areas.
Determine the natural direction of surface-water flow, the slope of the land,
and the type and extent of natural
ground cover.
Locate natural channels that can be
used to move runoff within the project

DATA

Gather information on general climatic conditions, seasonal variations in rainstorms,

and intensity and duration of representative
storms.
This data can then be applied to
the location of the proposed facility.

INFORMATION

Give special attention to the vicinity of the

proposed facility as well as the presence of
any topographical
features that may contribute runoff to the project area. The completed facility often will interfere with the
sites natural drainage.
Therefore, when
analyzing the effects of the surrounding
terrain-

32-8013, Vol II

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Obtain soil data from soil and geological
maps, aerial photographs,
or site tests performed by soil analysts.
Soil data deals
with the horizontal and vertical extent of
soil types, the elevation of the groundwater
table, and the drainage characteristics
of
the soil. The most important drainage characteristic of a soil is its permeability.
Permeability limits the rate at which the rainfall infiltrates the ground, which greatly influences the presence and movement of subsurface water.

AVAILABLE

RESOURCES

Make an initial investigation

of the time,
materials, equipment, and labor available to
build a drainage system.
Without a sufficient quantity of these essentials,
the construction of an adequate system is impossible.

DESIGN PROCEDURES
Designing a drainage system involves
numerous assumptions
and estimates.
The
degree of protection to be provided is directly related to the importance of the established time-use period. The general location of the facility will be determined by its
functional requirements.
The drainage system must be planned and
designed for the predetermined
location of
the facility.
There are three basic proce-

dures
ture:
l

in the design
Determining
contributing
Estimating

of any drainage

struc-

the area (usually in acres1

runoff to the facility.
the quantity

of runoff.

Designing the drainage structure to

carry the maximum expected runoff.

Drainage

6- 1I

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Establishing

DETERMINING THE AREA

CONTRIBUTING RUNOFF
When developing a tentative layout for the
drainage system, identify all locations
within the site requiring drainage structurcs because of topographical
or manufactured features.
This is best done from a
topographic map of lhe area or a sketch of
the project site.
Next, dcterminc the acreage of the areas
that contribute runoff to these required
drainage structures.
An analysis of existing
channels is helpful in establishing
locations
for the required structures.
Upon completion, this tentative plan should be field
checked at the project site.

Figure 6-6.

6- 12

Drainage

Drainage-Structure

Locations

The initial step in developing a drainagestructure layout is to establish the location

of the required drainage structures.
Placement, in general, will be controlled by the
topography.
For example, a fill section
which crosses a valley will require one or
more culverts to permit the flow of storm
runoff down the valley. A depression or
enclosed area will require ditches or culverts at various points to rcmovc accumulated rainfall.
Figure 6-6 shows an airfield with required
culverts (X) and open channels or ditches
(VI. Note that at Point A the elevation is 65
feet, while at Point B the elevation is 55
feet. Culverts and ditches must bc laid to
carry water from high to low clcvations.
The alignment of thcsc culverts and ditches

Typical airfield

drainage

features

FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM

should bc as straight
and smooth as possible.
Sharp bends in ditches
or near culverts will cause erosion.
Not shown on this
sketch are the standard
ditches
constructed
along the sides of all military roads and airfields.
Delineating

32-8013,

Vol li

Delineation line

Watersheds

Afler initially locating

drainage
structures,
define the boundaries
of the areas (or watersheds) contributing
runoff Lo each of them.
This process
is known as delineation.
Delineation
is performed
in six simple slcps
(rcfcr to Figure 6-6):
Step 1. Locate all existing or proposed
drainage
struclurcs
on lhc topographic
or sketch (X and VI.

map
view

Step 2.
poin Is.

Identify

and

mark

all terrain

high

Step 3. Draw arrows representing

water
flow away from these high points.
(These
arrows must always be perpendicular
to
the contour
lines bccausc
water flows
downhill.)
_

drawing
the arrows until
step 4. Continue
they converge
upon the culvert or the end
Remember
that runoff will
of the dilch.
flow parallel
to a road or airfield when it is
intcrccpled
by side (or intcrceplor)
ditches.

Figure

6-7.

Delineation

of roads

and airfiejbs

Step 5. Draw delineation

lines.
(These
lines will run from high point to high point,
indicating
where the flow of surface
runoff
scparatcs.)
Delineation
lines are located so
they cannot
be crossed
by any flow arrows.
Flow arrows only cross dclincation
lines at
culverts
or ditches.
NOTE:
Delineation
lines are drawn between opposing arrows.
(See Figure 6-7.)

Figures 6-7 and 6-8 depict the USC of flow

arrows and delineation
lines for special.
manufactured
structures
such as roads,
airfields.
and superclcvated
roads.
When
airfields
or straight
roadways
are properly
constructed.
they are shaped
so that the
highest portion of the cross section (the
crown) is at the ten terline, as illustrated
in
Figure 6-8. In the plan view, the delineation will be at the centerline,
precisely

Cross section A-A

Figure

6-8.

Delineation

of superelevated

Drainage

roads

6- 73

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

where the accumulated

storm water would
scparatc
and flow in opposing
directions.
Figure 6-8, page 6-13, shows how superelevated roadways
(roadways
that are
banked
to east the flow of traffic through
a
curve) arc delineated.
In a properly
constructed,
supcrelevatcd
road, storm water

will always
the curve.

separate

line

6- 74

Drainage

edge of

Several examples
are provided
to aid in
visualizing
special terrain features,
including hills, ridges, valleys. and saddles,
as
shown in Figures 6-9 and 6- 10 and Figure
6-l 1, page 6- 16.

Delineation

Figure 6-9.

at the outside

Delineation

of a hill

Step 6.
have an
multiple
cover or

::.

::.,:

.,.:

/.

....

Since each cover or soil type will

effect on the basin, if there are
types of cover in the basin, each
soil type must be delineated and

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

measured according to its respective

type. (See Figure 6- 12, page 6- 17.1

Vol 1

cover

Draw

Valley

Delineation
line

Figure

6-10.

Delineation

of valleys

and draws

Drainage

6- 15

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

1,.: : : :;

Vol 1

Ridge line

--_
_L_

Figure

6- 16

Drainage

_FP
_-

---

6-l 1. Delineation

of ridges, spurs, and saddles

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

Compacted

32-8013,

Vol 1

gravel

0.9 acres

GMd with turf

47.9 acres

Figure
Determining

Drainage-System

6-12.

Area delineation

Size

After dclincating
lhc watcrshcd,
determine
its size in acres.
Make this mcasurcmcn
t
carefully,
since tlic size directly
influcnccs
the calculation
of runoff from lhc watcrshcd
at peak flow. USC any accurate
method of
mcasuremcnt
dcsircd.
A planimctcr.
which
mcasurcs
the arca of a plant figure as a
mechanically
coupled
pointer
traverses
the
figures pcrimctcr,
is quite accurate
and
should be used, if available.
However,

scvcral other

methods

arc suitable

for field

by cover or

Counting-squures

method.
To make a hasty
approximation
of an arca, transpose
the outline of lhc watershed
to graph paper (or
Count the number
of
other suitable
grid).
whole squares
and cstimatc
the values of
the partial squares.
Multiply
the total numbcr of counted
squares
by the number
of
counted
square feet reprcscntcd
by a single
square.
Then convert
the mcasuremcnt
in
square feet to acres (1 acre = 43,560
square feet). Figure 6- 13, page 6- 18, shows
this technique.

estimation.

Drainage

6-7 7

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Colculstions:
Approximate
Approximate
Approximate

number of large squares = 5 = 5 sq in

number of small squares = 564 = 5.64 sq in
area = 10.64 sq in

Example:
If one squ6ro represents 10,ooO actual
sq tt on the ground. then the
delineated sres represents:

10.64(loam

2.44

scr

43,560

Figure

6- 18

Drainage

6-13.

Area measurement

- counting-squares

method

FM 5430-OO-l/AFPAM

-1

Geometric-shapes
method.
This method involves estimating the watershed shape in
terms of rectangles,
triangles, or trapezoids.
Using the formulas below for determining
the areas of these geometric shapes, determine the area of each shape and then total
all areas to estimate the area of the watershed. This technique is shown in Figure
6- 14, page 6-20.
Rectangle:
Arca = base x height

or A = bh

Triangle:
Area = base x height

or A = bh

Trapezoid :
Area = sum of bases

x height

The total of the lengths (L) is then multiplied by the stripper width. This would represent the total area on the map in square
inches.
Since the value of 1 square inch
on the map would represent the map scale
squared on land, the acreage can be found
by mulliplying L (in inches) x stripper width
(in inches) x (map scale in feet per inch
(ft/in)J2 and dividing Ihc product by 43,560
ft2 /acre.
Example:
L = 12.5. map scale
width = 1 inch (in)

Vol II

Solu lion:
Step

1. 12.5 x 1 in = 12.5 in2

Step 2. 12.5 in2 x (175

Step 3.

382,s 12.5 ft2

43.560 ftLlacre

ESTIMATING

Stripper method.
The stripper method is a
variation of lhe geometric-shapes
method.
This method Is shown in Figure 6- 15, page
6-2 1. Approximate the area by drawing a
series of lines that are equidistant
(stripper
width) across the delineated area. Then
measure the lines and total all of them.
L = total of the lengths.
This method is
more applicable for field estimations.
Use a
stripper width of 1 inch.

32-8013,

ft/in12 = 382.812.5
feet (ft12
= 8.78

THE QUANTITY

acres

OF RUNOFF

Drainage systems must bc designed lo accommodate the peak flow generated by

runoff from contributing
watersheds during
the design storm.
Many tcchniqucs
are
available for dctcrmining
the peak flow, but
most arc too complex for gcncral field use.
This manual will demonstrate
the most common method for estimating runoff-the
rational method.

DESIGNING DRAINAGE STRUCTURES

FOR MAXIMUM RUNOFF
To accommodate
the peak flow of the
design storm, design structures
must provide a sufficient cross-sectional
arca and
longitudinal slope for passing storm runoff.
If ponding or flooding of adjacent arcas
must be prevented, the design must be for
peak flow. At the same time, water
velocities generated at peak flow must not
be so great as to cause damage to the
drainage structure or excessive erosion and
scouring to the protcctcd facility.
Determine Lhc capacity of drainage structurcs by calculating
the runoff from all
contributing
drainage areas.
Specific procc.
durcs for designing open channels and culvcrts are discussed later in the chapter.

= 175 It/in. stripper

Drainage

6- 19

FM 5430-OOWAFPAM

32-8013,

Calculations:
Area I1 =
Area LIZ =
Area 13 =
Area 114=
Area 116=
Area #6 =
Area 117 q
Total area

Vol 1

trapezoid = H (3.90 + 3.10) 1 .S4 = 6.79 q in

triongls = H (O.S)(O.93) = 0.23 q in
trapezoid = H (0.5 l 0.34) 1.36 = 0.67 q in
rectangle = 0.30 a 1 .S6 = 0.47 q in
trapezoid = H (1.43 + 0.76) 0.86 = 0.93 q in
trapezoid = H (2.37 l 1.66) 0.41 = 0.82 q in
trapezoid = H (1.66 4 0.94) 050 = 0.89 q in
= 10.6 q in

Example
If one quaro represents 10,000 actual sa ft
on the ground, then tno des~nated woa rapresents:
10.6 x io,OoO
= 2.41 acres
43,660

Figure

6-20

Drainage

6-14.

Area

measurement

- geometric-shapes

method

Fj j\: .:.;j,:

,.

: .,::.

2:: . . :;:::,:,:,

., ,.:.

j,:,

s .:

),.

:.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

,:,.

.;

32-8013,

Vol 1

3.6

2
1.0

Map scale:

+ 5.3 + 5.3 + 3.1 + 3.6 + 3.8 + 2.4 = 24.5 in

lengths = 24.5 in

1 in = 285 ft

Step 1. 24.5 In x 1 in = 24.5 in2

Step 2.
Step 3.

24.5 in2 x (285 ft/ln)2 = 1,990,012.5

1,990,012.5
43,560

ft2=

45

ft2

aCreS

ftlacre

Figure

6- 15. Area

measurement

- stripper

method

Drainage

6-27

FM 5-430-()0-l
/AFPAM

32-801 3, Vol 1

ESTIMATING
ESTIMATING

:.:..:..
:..:,:.:j
j,::::.
,...:':.
.:.i~i':~_~:~:.~,:.i,:,~~,i~:~~~::~:.i
;,:j.:
i..:.~~::::::j::::~

RUNOFF USING THE RATIONAL METHOD

PRINCIPLES

The rational method is used to estimate the

expected peak storm runoff at a given
drainage basin outlet.
Much of the input to
the formula is based on judgment.
Therefore, it Is imperative that sound engineering
judgment be used to determine the input
data.

ASSUMPTIONS
The rational method is based on the following underlying assumptions
and limitations:
The area is not greater than 1,000 acres
and is regular in shape, with a
homogeneous cover and soil type.

The entire drainage area is contributing

runoff to the outlet point when peak
runoff Is obtained.

There are no active streams draining

the area. (If an active stream drains the
basin, use the hasty method found in
FM 5-34.)

FORMULA
The rational
mula:

method

FORMULA VARIABLES
The rational formula has three variables.
The C and I variables are explained here.
The A variable is explained later in this
chapter.
The C Variable

The runoff coefficient, or C variable, accounts for losses from precipitation.

The C
variable is the decimal fraction of the
amount of water expected to run off relative
to the amount of precipitation.
It can be expressed as the ratioc=

The design rainfall intensity is uniform

over the entire drainage area (that is,
the rainfall is uniform over time and
space).

This is so close to unity that no correction

factor is added; hence, the name rational
(because a rational conversion of units) is
used.

Table 6- 1 gives conservative values of C.

Knowledge of an areas USCS classification
(for example, GMdl or an estimate of the
soils perviousness
allows selection of a C
value. C values appear in the table for
manufactured
surfaces and for wooded
areas as well. An area of SP soil (a pervious, sandy soil with a slope less than or
equal to 2 percent)
with turf has a C factor
of 0.10; that is, only 10 percent
of the rain
falling on this soil will actually run off.

uses the following forTable 6- 1. Runoff

Q = CIA

whereQ
c
I
A

Soil or Cover
Classification

= peak runoff in cfs

= runoff coefficient
= intensity of rainfall
= drainage

in in/hr
area in acres

The following conversion

this formula:

factor is applied

1 acre x 1 inch = 1 0063

1 hour

6-22

Drainage

rlln0_tf

rainfall

cfs

to

coefficients
C VALUES

Stope 22 &t7% slope 27%

WI0
WI0
w/tuli turf
w/turf turf

II

,.. ,...,
. ...:, :::.
..:...j

;u

I,:,.,

:,,:..:

. : ::i: .,:, : ,..,..

.,...

::::i:::i,ii:,,:,:~i

., ..,. ,.. ,.., .,,..,.,..,.,.

,.,
.,.
:.:. ::.:.:..::.Y...:.
.,..., ,...,.

., .,.. ,.

.: . ..i...
i?. i?. i..........:.
., ,.,., ,., ,., ,. .,.,.,.,.,.

The remaining 90 percent becomes lost to

runoff through inftltration and other factors. At the other extreme, an asphalt pavement has a C value of 0.95.
Only 5 percent of the rain falling on asphalt will be
lost. The remaining 95 percent is expected
to become runoff.
NOTE: C values given in Table 6-l are
actually maximums of ranges of allowable
values for the cover or soil categories.
Using the maximum value, a conservative
worst-case design runoff is calculated.
To use values less than the maximums
given in the table, refer to a reliable civil
engineering texi dealing with hydrology.
The table is arranged with three columns
for varying slope conditions.
C Versus Slope
As terrain becomes steeper, water flows
sooner and more rapidly.
This allows less
time for infiltration to occur and results in
the C value becoming larger for the natural
cover or soil categories.
For this reason,
whenever the average slope of an area exceeds 2 percent, an adjustment
must be
made.
Table 6-1 is arranged with three columns
for different slope conditions and their corresponding runoff coefficients.
Use the
column that corresponds
with the average
percentage of slope.
The C for a turfed soil is different from the
C for bare soil. The turf (grass or other
ground cover) exerts a drag on water, causing slower flow and providing more time for
infiltration to occur: hence, a lower C
results.
Denuded soil (soil from which the
turf or cover has been removed) requires an
increased C because a swifter flow will
result and less time will be available for losses to occur.
If one cover type has more
than one flow path, average the slopes and
use the appropriate column in Table 6- 1.

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Solution :
2.3%

+ 1.9% = 2 1 %
2

C for Nonhomogeneous

Areas

One of the assumptions

made by the rational method is that there is a homogeneous
cover and soil type throughout the area.
Quite often this is not the case, especially
In areas where humans have exerted their
influence on the topography.
If one type of cover and soil predominates
in 80 percent or more of the area, the area
is called simple and the C value for that
predominant
soil and cover type controls.
If no one type of cover and soil type
predominates
in 80 percent or more of the
total area, the area is comp2ex and the C
value must be weighted: that is, the C
value has to be adjusted to account for the
proportion of C contributed
by each subarea.
To help understand
this, imagine a complex
area with one subarea of average turf and
the other of bare soil. The slope of the
bare soil does not affect how fast (or slow)
the water runs off the turfed area and, as a
result, how much of the water soaks into
the turfed area. The converse is also true.
The slope of the turfed area does not affect
the speed or amount of water that runs off
the bare soil area. Table 6-l shows C
values with and without turf.
Weight the C value by multiplying the corrected C values by the area (in acres) that
the C values affect.
Then total the
products and divide by the total acreage.
Expressed mathematically,
the formula isCIA] + Cd2
c

=
Al

+ c3A3
t

t . ..CNA.q
t

where-

Example:
Flow path 1A = 2.3 percent
1B = 1.9 percent.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ...i
,.,. .,.,.,., ,...::.:.:.:.,

and flow path

CIAI = C value and area for first subarea

C value and area for second subc2A2=
area

Drainage

6-23

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

VOl 1

The I Variable

As cxplaincd
previously
in this chapter.
rainfall intcnsilics
can bc dctcrlnincd
from pinpoint source data or isohyctal
maps.
The
former method
provides
more accurate
rcsulls
if reliable data is available.
The
task of calculating
the critical duration
for
any given drainage
area is detailed
here.
Time

of Concentration

Under the assumptions

listed at the beginning of lhis scclion and with the intensitytluration
relationships
presented
earlier,
only one particular
storm will give a maximum discharge
(8) for a given area.
This
parlicular
storm is the one that rains over
the entire area being drained
for a period of
time just long enough
to fill the outlel with
runoff from all segments
of the area at the
same time.
This time is called the area
TOC. A storm of shorter
duration
than this
TOC would not last long enough
for the
runoff from the more distant
segments
of
the arca to reach the outlet.
The outlet
would be filled only with the runoff from
nearby scgmcnts.
Thcrcforc,
runoff would
not bc maximum.
In Figure 6- 16, all of the area below the 1Ominute line will drain in 10 minutes
or
Icss. Runoff from the area between
the loand 20-minute
lines will reach the outlet in
not less than 10 minutes
but will have
drained
in not more than 20 minutes.
Similarly,
the runoff from the area between
the 20- and 30-minute
lines will reach the
outlet in not less than 20 minutes
nor more
than 30 minutes.
At the end of 30
minulcs,
the entire area is draining.
Therefort. the TOC at the outlet for this area is
30 minutes.

..

If a 30-minute-duration

storm sweeps over

Lhc same arca in a uniform
fashion,
the entire arca contributes
runoff to the outlet in
the 30-minute
time frame (the TOC mentioncd above).
If a storm with a duration
longer than the
TOC occurs,
the drainage
designer
can easily picture (using the standard
intcnsityduration
curve) that the intensity,
I, will be
less than the I of the 30-minute
storm.
Examination
of the rational-method
equation,
Q = CIA, reveals that since C and A would
not change as I decreases,
Q must decrease
as well. The critical-storm
duration
which
yields the design Q must then be equal to
the contributing
areas TOC.
Determining

TOC

Determine
the area TOC by determining
representative
flow paths.
A flow path is the
path that a typical drop of water ~111 follow
from the time it hits the ground
until it
reaches
the area outlet.
The flow path is
called rcprescntativc,
because
not all
drainage
arcas are as regular
in shape as
the arca in Figure 6- 16. The path selected
must be represenlativc
of the time at which
most of the area will be contributing
water
to the outlet point.
Establishing
representative
flow paths is based largely on experience
and judgment
(trial and error).

If a storrn of 20-minute
duration
sweeps
over the area in a uniform
fashion,
only a
fraction of the total area inside the 20minulc boundary
simultaneously
contributes
runoff to the outlet at the end of
the slorm.
All runoff from the upper third
of the arca reaches
the outlet after the rainfall has ceased and after much of the lower
acreage
has finished
contributing
runoff.
Figure 6- 16.

6-24

Drainage

TOC, regular area

,.,:
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,.:,
:::
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................
y.;.:..::........
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::::.::::::::::.;:~.;:~:;:~:~:~:~~~
.I :,:,:,:,,;;
...........................................................

.:..I.::

.-

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........................................

...................................

.....:.:.:.::::-::.:
..................

:z:
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.. :. :.: :.::::::.:.):.:.:.:.:.~.:

. ..... . ..... . .. . .. . .. . . . . ...... .. . .. . . .: ........

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...............................
..:
FM
:,(.:,:,:._,):j

. . . . . . :,:.:

::: ?:,:,:

.:.:.:.:...:.:

....................................................

Unlike the area depicted in Figure 6- 16, the

area in Figure 6- 17 is irregular as most
natural areas will be. In irregular areas, it
is especially critical that the flow paths chosen truly represent the time required for
most of the area to drain. All the area below the lo-minute line will drain in 10 minutes or less. The area between the lo- and
20-minute lines will drain in not less than
10 minutes nor more than 20 minutes and
so forth up to the 40-minute line. Flow
lines a, b, and c have been determined; 90
percent of the total area (90 acres) lies below the 30-minute line and will drain in 30
minutes or less. Water from the remaining
10 acres will reach the outlet in not less
than 30 minutes nor more than 40 minutes. Flow lines a and c should be chosen
as the representative flow paths and used
to determine the TOC because they are indicative of the time it will take for most of
the water from the area to reach the outlet.
Line b is not representative.
For simplicity, in this example let C arbitrarily equal 1.0 and assume that the l-hour, 2year intensity is 2.0 inches per hour. If a
40-minute-duration storm occurs, in 40 mlnutes the entire area will be wet and contributing water to the outlet point. The standard intensity-duration curve in Figure 6-4,

.................

...?.

5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

page 6-9, shows that the I for a 40-minute

storm is 2.7 inches per hour; therefore, the
estimated runoff isQ = CIA
Q = (l.Ol(2.7 in/hr)(lOO acres) = 270 cfs
A storm of 30-minute duration will have an
intensity of 3.2 inches per hour. At the
end of 30 minutes, 90 percent of the area
(90 acres) wffl be contributing water to the
outlet and the volume will beQ = CIA
Q = (1.0)(3.2 in/hr)(90 acres) = 288 cfs
which is larger than the 270 cfs estimated
for the entire area.
Flow paths must be chosen that represent
the time required for most of the area to
drain. As shown above, a shorter storm of
higher intensity may cause a larger flow. After all the chosen paths have been timed,
the times should correspond to each other
within a few minutes. If times are not relatively close, make a careful check to determine why, and assess the area to determine
which of the times wffl produce the critical
flow. Apply rainfall adjusted to this critical
duration over the entire watershed. The design runoff from the watershed in Figure 617 would beQ = CIA
Q = (l.Ol(3.2 in/hr)(lOO acres) = 320 cfs

Figure 6-l 7. TOC, irregular area

After representative flow paths have been established, estimate the time it will take for
water to reach the outlet if it travels along
the established path. To do this, determine
(through observation) the nature of the surface cover and the slope of the flow path.
Slope affects the velocity of the water in
that the steeper the slope, the faster the
water runs. Water will also travel faster
across a paved area than across a grassy
area of the same slope because grass slows
the flow. Flow is slower over bare soil than
over pavement but faster than grass. Flow
in a ditch is more rapid than overland flow
over turfed, bare, or compacted gravel
surfaces.

Drainage

6-25

Estimating

Notice that there is a series of curves, each

with linear and curvilinear portions.
The
slope of the curve indicates the velocity at a
given point along the flow path. In the curvilinear portion, the slope is initially zero
and gradually steepens until it becomes
linear. This represents
the fact that water

Flow Time for Single Covers

After establishing
the location, the cover,
and the slope of a flow path, Figure 6- 18
can be used to estimate the travel time
along the flow path.
It is important to understand what the illustration
is depicting
as well as how to use it properly.
I

Average
turf

Sparse
turf

Bare
soil

Compacl :ed
gravel

Paved
areas

20
NOTE:

Drainage

40

Time of concentration
- min
It Is valid to interpolate between percent slope curves.

Figure 6-16.

6-26

30

Flow travel time

FM 514301OO-l/AFPAM

initially
moves very slowly and begins to
pick up speed only as its accumulated
depth increases.
It is initially slow flowing
in a laminar
or sheet-flow
manner
and
gradually
becomes
turbulent
(and faster) as
it progresses
downhill.
At some point, lhe
turbulent-flowing
water reaches
some
steady-state
velocity.
It is apparent
from
Figure 6- 18 that the slope and slickness
of the flow path dictate
how quickly the
lransition
occurs from slow-moving
laminar
flow lo rapid, fully dcvcloped
turbulent
flow.
To estimate
the travel time in sheet-flow
conditions,
use Figure 6- 18. Enter the
right-hand
vertical edge at the appropriate
cover type of the flow path.
Proceed
horizontally
to the left until reaching
the
curve labeled with the slope of the path.
Follow the curve up or down until you
reach the intersection
of the horizontal
line
equaling
the flow-path
length, which is
determined
on the left-hand
vertical edge.
Read the travel time, which is found by
drawing a line vertically
from the intersection to the lowermost
axis.
Some examples
of the use of this graph are as follows:

Table 6-2.

1.7
NOTE:

Steady state will be at

182

Path

Cover

Sparse
turf
Paved
area
Average

2
3

32-8013,

Length

Slope

(fi)

W)

Vol II

Travel
Time
(min)

800

3.0

19

500

1.5

600

2.5

26

turf

Note that il was necessary

to intcrpolatc
to
find the travel time for palh 3. It is valid
to interpolate
bctwcen labclcd lines, but
never extrapolate
above or below the limitUse the limiting curve in
ing-curve
values.
that situation.
To cstimatc
the travel time
in ditch-flow
conditions,
use Table 6-2.
Using the slope of the flow path, enter the
chart, then read the right-hand
column
under velocity.
To calculate
the velocity,
divide the length of the path by the velocity
obtained
from the chart.
Example:
Path

1B

Cover - Ditch
Lenglh - 1.015 fl
Slope - 0.9%
Chart vclocily - 135 feet per minute

Estimating

flow velocity

250

250 fps.

Drainage

Ifpml

FM 5430-OOWAFPAM

Solution

32-8013,

Vol 1

Add partial
travel time:

1,015
135 fpm
Estimating

= 7.5
Flow

minutes
Time

(min)

Travel

for Multiple

Covers

In many cases,
a flow path traverses
more
than one cover type.
Estimating
travel time
accurately
then becomes
more complicated
because
it is not appropriate
simply to add
times obtained
from Figure 6-18,
page 6-26.
Laminar
flow occurs
only once along a flow
path. no matter
how many cover types are
traversed.
For subsequent
covers,
it becomes necessary
to estimate
flow velocity
using Table 6-2, page 6-27.
To estimate
Cravcl time in a ditch, use
Table 6-2.
Enter the table using the slope
of the flow path.
Then read right to the
velocity column
and find the velocity
in feet
per minulc.
By knowing
the flow-path
length and the table velocity,
the travel can
be calculated.
Example:
Assume
that paths
1 and 2 from the preceding example
were actually
the upper and
lower lengths
of one combined
flow path.
To estimate
their combined
travel time, first
cslimate
each separately
in the order the
water would flow through
them.
Solution

Estimate
the travel time of path 1. Since
path 1 is uphill from path 2, nothing
has
changed
from before.
The travel time
remains
19 minutes.
Estimate
the travel
time of path 2. Remember
that the flow
cntcring
at the upstream
end of path 2 is al
ready moving.
To estimate
travel time,
divide the length of the path by the estimatcd
velocity
listed in Table 6-2.
In this
cast.
for a 500-foot,
paved path at 1.5 pcrccn tTravel

time

500 it
( 165 fpm)

(Note that path 2 had

time when considered

6-28

Drainage

= 3.0

an 8-minute
alone.)

min

travel

travel

time

times

= 19 min

to get the total

t 3.0

min

= 22 min

It may be helpful,
at times, to estimate
the
travel time through
a culvert.
A reasonable
assumption
of culvert velocity
is 5 feet per
second (fps) (300 fpm), although
more
precise
determinations
can be made with information
presented
later in this chapter.
Selecting

Design

TOC

The usual procedure

is to establish
several
trial flow paths that are thought
to be representative
of the area and determine
a travel
time for each path.
Compare
the time for
water to travel along each of the flow paths
chosen.
If the times arc within a few
minutes
of each other, select the longest
time as the arca TOC.
If the times arc not
within a few minutes
of each other, make a
complete
analysis
of the area.
New flow
paths may be needed to determine
which of
the times is representative
of the bulk of
the area draining.
The largest
representative
time is chosen
as the design TOC.
The A Variable
The drainage
area, A, (the area contributing
storm-water
runoff to the culvert
or ditch
being designed)
must be calculated
in
acres.
This procedure
was presented
earlier
in this chapter.

APPLYING THE RATIONAL METHOD

Application
of the rational
method of cstimating
drainage
varies according
to the
type of drainage
arca.
One type is a single,
independent
area which does not receive
any drainage
from an upstream
arca.
Another
type is a dependent
or successive
area that rcccivcs
runoff from another
area.
Single

Areas

The rational
method of estimating
single
arcas is reasonably
simple and straightforward,
if it is done methodically.
The
steps are summarized
in the proper order.
If this summary
is followed step-by-step,

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.,.::j

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. >.. :,::

..i:

: : : :.:..: :

j .,..

: j

::.;::

.,

.
,: :.,:,. ::.,:, :j:j.::... .. . .::,..:, :.: ,.,..,,,:
.: :.,, ..,:,...,,:
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: . . .
::....::.
.,:,: ,:,.: ,.,:

., ,.,.,
::.:..;::
>.

~:::::,:,.:::.i:l::.I:l:::::.::::.:~
..,.: ..>:. . . .. . .::..><

the procedure will be correct and the estimate obtained will be as valid as the judgments that are made.
Step 1. Delineate the area to determine the
area contributing
runoff to your project location.
Refer to page 6- 13. Delineating
Watersheds.
Step 2. Delineate subareas
type.
Refer to page 6-15.

by soil or cover

Step 3. Determine
acreage for each basin
Refer to page 6- 17.
and subarea.

FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM

Step 5. Determine
representative
flow
paths.
Refer to the information
on pages
6-24 and 6-25.

.-

Step 6. Divide flow paths into two sections:

laminar and ditch flow. As a rule of
thumb, use 500 feet plus or minus 200 feet
as a point where laminar flow will change
to ditch or steady-state
flow.
Generally,
overland flow concentrates
into natural rivulets or channels after roughly 500 feet of
travel.
This distance may vary up to several hundred feet either way, depending
upon such factors as soil type, vegetation.
and slope.
It is always best to visually investigate on-site to look for evidence of channeling, and take measurements
accordingly.
However, since in this problem it is not possible to visually investigate the drainage
area, clues to determine when overland flow
(sheet flow) ends and ditch flow begins
must come from topographic
information
alone.
Some of these clues may be the beginning of uphill swales or flow paths that
converge in a swale.
This convergence
may
take place in a valley where multiple paths
meet.
Step 7. Determine
the slope of each
section of flow path.
See page 6-25.

Vol 1

Step 8. Determine the average slope of the

basin or each subarea based on flow paths.
Define the slope as being either 12%. > 2%
and c 7%, or 2 7%.
Step 9. Find the C value of the basin or
each subarea based on soil or cover type
and slope from Table 6-1, page 6-22.
Select C from the appropriate
column in Table
6-2. page 6-27, making sure that you pick
the right C-value column.
Notice that the
columns are arranged with respect to slope
and cover type.
Calculate

Step 4. Classify the drainage basin as simple or complex.

A simple watershed
has
one cover or soil type over 80 percent of its
total area. A complex watershed has no single cover or soil type covering at least 80
percent of its total area.

32-8013,

C wtcl =

Cwtd, if the area is complex.

ClAl

t C2A2 t c3,43
A,

A,+

A3+

t ...CNAN

. ..A.

Step 10. Determine the travel time for

each flow path and select the longest flow
path as the basin TGC.
Refer to sheet flow
on page 6-27 and ditch flow in Table 6-2.
Step 11. Find I for a a-year, 60-minute
storm on the world isohyetal map (Figure
6-3, page 6-7).
Step 12. Adjust I based on the TGC
10). using Figure 6-4, page 6-9.

(step

Step 13. Calculate Q using C from step

and A from step 3 as follows:
Q&IA.

12,

Example:
Estimate the amount of runoff expected to
arrive at the culvert in Figure 6-19. page
6-30.
The location is Giessen,
design life is two years.

Germany,

and the

NOTE: A number of steps, quantities,

and calculations will be given to illustrate the process.
Solution:
Step 1. Delineate
example.)

the area.

(Given

for this

Step 2. Delineate the subareas by soil or

cover type.
(Given for this example.)

Drainage

6-29

FM 5-430-00-l/AFPAM

Figure

6-19.

Step 3. Determine the acreage for each

basin or subarea.
The following acreage
given for lhis example:
Average turf GMd
Compacted gravel
Total acreage (A)

6-30

Drainage

::,;.:.
:::.::i:/
: :::..:;.~i:,'.'::j...:~~~:.~:i_i,:,.
.::
.:<F,..;..

32-8013, j/o11

47.9 acres
0.9 acre
48.8 acres

Delineating

is

runoff area

Step 4. Classify the drainage basin as

Divide the largest soil
simple or complex.
or cover group (lhe GMd soil) with turf subarca equaling 47.9 acres by the total area,
48.8 acres.

= 0.98

or 98%

.::.,:.:.

--

.: ,,,,. :

,:.

...:

.: .

. .!

;.:

..:.

. ...:

Since the percentage is greater than 80,

this area will be treated as a simple area
consisting of 48.8 acres of turfed GMd soil.
Step 5. Determine the representative
flow
paths.
It is necessary to determine the
average slope of the entire simple area
shown in Figure 6- 19. In order to do this,
use representative
flow paths.
If the northsouth running swale is imagined as the
dividing line. approximately
one-third of the
watershed area lies to the west (left) and
two-thirds to the east (right). To determine

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

.::,:..,,.

32-8013,

Vol 1

an average slope, the number of slope measurements taken on the western slope
should be balanced by twice that number
taken from the east,
Figure 6-20 reflects
this guideline, showing three slope measurements, two on the east and one on the west.
NOTE: The selection of representative
flow paths is a judgment call based on
the best evaluation of the topographic features.

I 2.7% slope average

1,015 ft + 575 ft
95.1 ft - 52.5 ft = 2.3% slope average
640 ft + 1,265 ft
96ft - 52.5 ft

Path 1
Path 2
Path 3

95.1 ft - 52.5 ft = 3.6% slope average

575 ft + 650 ft

Figure

6-20.

Determining

average

slope

Drainage

6-3 7

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Step 6. Divide flow paths into two sections:

sheet and ditch flow. Generally, overland
flow concentrates into natural ditches after
500 feet. Path 1 changes to ditch flow in
the valley where it slopes down. See section A of Figure 6-20, page 6-31. The same
is true for path 2. By looking at the contour lines near path 3, we can see they are
relatively flat. Flow occurs across a wide
area, and no clear point can be seen where
the flow changes. A good estimate would
be at 575 feet.
Step 7. Determine the slope of each flow
path. The representative flow paths
selected in an earlier step, if properly
selected, can provide very good slope information with a minimum of effort. Other
slope lfnes may be selected for practice and
to gain confidence in using this procedure.
Remember to maintain the 2-to- 1 balance
in finding slopes in this basin and to delete
redundant information.
The slope must be
measured over a path that water would actually follow as it flows downhill. Normally,
all work would be performed on one consolidated map. For instance, to determine
the slope for path 1 AS =

g6 ft - 62 ft = 0
575 ft

059

or

5.9%

This procedure is repeated for every flow

path illustrated in Figure 6-20.
A tabular solution is recommended
mine TOC.
Length

Slope

Path

Cover

Iftj

(%I

1A

Average

575

to deterTime
tmln)

5.9

14.5

0.9

7.5

turf
1B

Ditch

1,015

(135 fpm)

section
2A

Average

640

5.2

22.0
16.5

0.8

9.9

turf
2B

Ditch
section

1,285

(130 fpm)
26.4

3A

Average

575

5.0

16.0

turf
38

Ditch
section

650

2.3

3.02

(215 fpm)

19.02

6-32

Drainage

The slope of the original path 3 is unchanged, remaining at 3.6 percent. Paths
2A and 2B are now one single path, 2, with
an average slope of 2.3 percent. (The
average of 5.2 percent and 0.8 percent is
not 2.3 percent.) Redetermine the overall
slope (as done earlier). The earlier path 1B
has been deleted, leaving only the original
path IA (with S = 5.9 percent) as the new
path 1. The reason for deleting 1B is that
it provides the same information already
provided by the new path 2. Path 2B could
have been deleted instead of path 1B with
no change to the final result.
Step 8. Determine the average slope of the
basin or subarea based on flow paths.
With the three flow paths now determined,
the average slope of the simple area is5.9% + 2.3 t 3.6% = 3.g3%
Step 9. Find the C value of the basin or
subarea based on soil or cover type and
slope from Table 6- 1, page 6-22. Since we
know that the average slope is 3.93 percent, we can use Table 6-1. Using the
column marked slope >2% and <7% with
turf, we have a C value of 0.35.
Step 10. Determine the travel time of each
flow path and select the longest flow-path
travel time as the basin TOC. Times for
paths 1B and 2B were obtained by dividing
their flow lengths by approximate velocities
obtained from Table 6-2, page 6-27. The
travel times for each of the complete flow
paths (22.0, 26.4, and 19.02 minutes,
respectively) are obtained from Figure 6-18,
page 6-26. The variation between the smallest and largest time, although not small, is
not excessively large, either. Perhaps path
1 is not representative and some ditch flow
occurs along path 3 that could not be determined from the topographic information
available. Both of these possibilities are
likely to be true. However, without an actual field investigation to justify revising
either path 1 or 3, accept the travel times
already determined and select the largest as
the basin TOC. Thus, TOC = 26.4 minutes.

.:

step

.,

:,.

.,..

11.

Determine
the I value for a 2year, 60-minute
storm.
To determine
factor
I. a source
of rainfall
data is necessary.
The choice is between using pinpoint data

(the most accurate means of determining I)

or referring to an isohyetal map. Since pinpoint data is not available, use an isohyetal
map. Refer to the isohyetal map in Figure
6-3, page 6-7. Knowing that the airfield is
located near the demilitarized zone IDMZI in
Korea, as shown in Figure 6-3, rainfall intensity of the l-hour, a-year storm is determined to be 2.5 inch per hour or160, 2 Yr = 2.5 in/hr

--

Step 12. Adjust the I value.

To determine
I, 160mln, 2 yr must be adjusted so that its
duration is equal to the basin TOC, 26.4
Use the set of standard intensityminutes.
duration curves in Figure 6-4, page 6-9, to
make the adjustment.
Using curve 5 (for
2.5 inches per hour) and sliding along until
the 26.4-minute
imaginary vertical line is intersected, the intensity (adjusted to 26.4
minutes) is found to be 4.2 inches per
hour; thus-

Iadj =

126.4

min,

2 yr

4.2 inihr

Step 13. Calculate (J using C from step 9,

Iadj from step 12, and A from step 3.
All the variables have been determined
solve the equation Q = CIA, as follows:
c
1
A
Q
Q

=
=
=
=
=

0.35
4.2 inlhr
48.8 acres
0.35 x 4.2 in/hr x 48.8
71.74 cfs or 71.7 cfs

The determination
to the example.

to

acres

of (J is the final solution

If area 5 had been a complex area, steps 1,

2, 3, and 5 would be unchanged.
The only
difference would occur in step 4, which
would

\_

be changed

as follows:

Step 4 (for a complex area). An Savg for

each soil or cover area must be determined
(except for manufactured
covers). A C

32-8013,

FM 5-4300OO-l/AFPAM

Vol 1

value for each soil or cover must be determined based on the average
slope for each
cover area.
Once all C corrections
are
made, then an area-weighted
C or Cwtd can
Cwtci would bc used in solvbe determined.
ing Q = CIA.
Successive

Areas

Up to this point, the drainage

areas discussed
have been single,
independent
areas,
whether
simple or complex.
These independent
areas do not receive runoff from
an upstream
area.
Some drainage
systems,
however, consist
of a series of drainage
areas with upstream
areas discharging
runoff into lower areas.
The areas receiving
this runoff are called dependent
areas.
The
runoff accumulates
and increases
in its passage through
the system.
Sometimes,
two or more areas
runoff into the same dependent
area.
Such contributing
areas
parallel
areas.

discharge
downstream
are called

Unfortunately,
the increase
in runoff is not
the simple summation
of the peak runoff of
The individual
peak
each individual
arca.
flows arc acted upon by various
factors,
including
storage
and peak-flow
reduction
while in the drainage
network.
Also, the
peak flow from upstream
areas and the
peak flow from downstream,
depcndcnt
areas will probably
not arrive at the lower
outlet simultaneously.
Hence, the total
peak flow must be less than the total of the
individual
peak flows.
Calculating

TOC

Because of the accumulation

of peak flow
in successive areas, calculation
of TOC for
those areas must be different from the
method used for single, independent
areas.
To estimate the amount of the accumulated
runoff with sonic precision, a procedure has
been dcvelopcd
to recalculate
TOC for each
of the successive
drainage
arcas as water
Naturally,
as TOC intravels downstream.
creases,
rainfall
intensity,
1, dccrcascs.
The term TOC must be modified
lo reflect
calculation
differences.
Consider
two areas,
an upstream
area W and a downstream

Drainage

6-33

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

arca X, as shown in Figure 6-21.

The
nlaximum
travel time from the most
hydraulically
remote representative
points
in Ihis series of lwo areas to the outlet of
arca X is defined as TOC. The maximum
rcprcscntalivc
flow limes for runoff originating in bolh arcas (X and W) to arrive al
lhcir rcspcctivc
outlcls
(X and W) arc
dctincd as inlcl time X and inlet time W.
rcspcctivcly.
Tllc TOC al Lhe oullcl upslrcanl
in arca W
is ,givcn as TOCw. which equals inlet lime
W for [his inrlc~)cndcnl
arca.
The ditch fin2e
(LIT)
or Lransir (imc Llirotlgh arca X, from
oullct W lo oullct X. Is DTwVx. The total of
lhcsc two clcmcnts
(TOCw and DTw.x) is
inlet timcw_s.

Inlet time

To a designer
engaged
in sizing the culvert
which serves as outlet W, the TOC would
However,
simply be TO& = Inlet Tlmew
when sizing culverts
that occur further
down in successive
areas (for instance,
the
culvert at outlet XI, the designer
rcquircs
Ihc time it takes water to arrive from the
most hydraulically
remote localion,
which
migh I bc in cilhcr arca X or arca W. To
dclcrminc
this maximum
representative
lime (TOG), Ihc dcsigncr
must compare
the
travel times for runoff origination
in both
arcas.
The travel lime [or water originating
in arca
W and arriving at outlet X is equal Lo the
inlet time at area W (which is Ihc same as
TOCx, since arca W is dcpcndent)
plus the
transit
time as the water flows in a ditch
through
area X. This composite
time,
to
called inlet timew.x, must be compared
the time for water that originates
in area X,
TO&, the maximum
repreor inlet timex.
senlativc
time for water to arrive al outlet
X, is the larger time value idcntificd
in the
comparison.
Estimating

Successive

Area

Runoff

The modified definition

of TOC is applied in
estimating
runoff for successive
areas.
This
calculation
requires
collection
of certain essential data and application
of the principles used for single areas, appropriately
modified,
to determine
the desired
Q.
Preparatory
Step

scrics
Slcp

6-34

Schematic example
successive
areas

6-21.

Drainage

1. DclincaLc
of arcas.

every

subarea

year,

2. Dclcrminc
the intensity
60-minute
rainfall.

S&p

3.

Dctcrminc

A, C, and

in the
of lhc 2-

inlet

time.

For each subarea,

detcrminc
the acreage
(A); variable
C, corrected
for slope and
weighted
(as necessary);
and the inlet time.

TOC, = Inlet time W-X,

which - TOC,.,+ DT,,,.,
or = inlet time X,
whichever is larger

Figure

Work.

Step

for

4.

Determine

the DT (or transit

time).

For each dependent

subarea,
the DT is
determined
from the upper outlet to the

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

lower outlet using culvert flow (assume 300

fpm, unless you have more precise data).
Specffk Q. Working systematically, start at the uppermost subarea and
proceed downstream.
Refer to Figure 6-21
and note that subarea W is upstream from
subarea X.

Determining

step 1. Dclerminc
these simple rules:

the subarea

The rule for an independent

TOC using

subarea

is-

The rule for a dependent

TO&,

Adjust

Step 3.

Calculate
f&u =

Solution:
Step 1. Delineate the area:
have the following:

Subarea

6.2 acres

Simple
Area

6.4 acres
B.

Compaclcd gravel
Average turf

0.9 acre
12.5 acra
13.4 acres

Step 2. Delineate subareas

type. (See step 1.1

Simple
Area

by soil or cover

16Oml11.2yr IO ITOC, 2yr.

Q for subarea

Step 3. Determine acreage for each basin

or subarea. (This information is given in
step 1.1

W.

Cw~TOCxhu

Step 4. Proceed downstream

to subarea
and repeat steps 1, 2, and 3.

Slcp 5. Total lhc accumulated

runoff. To
get the total runoff at the outlet of subarea
X. use the following equation:

Step 4.
plex.

Classify

Subarea

A.

Step 6. Conlinuc working downstream.

Proceed until the runoff at the lowest oullcl
in lhc series is calculated.
USC the
drainage basins corresponding
rainfall in tensity for the I value; use the total area for
all basins and the subareas for the area, A
value, in the rational-method
formula.
CIA

NOTE: Remember that when using the rational method, the area limit is 1,000
acres. Always check the accumulated
acreage to ensure that it does not exceed
1,000 acres.

the basin

as simple or com-

6.2 acres

Compacted gravel
Average turf
Total

6.4 acres

6.2 acresl6.4

= 0.97

Subarea

Q =

it is found to

A.

area is-

Compare inlet limcx with inlet limcw.x.

Select the larger value of TOCx, based on
the comparison.
Step 2.

Using the rational method and Figure 6-22,

page 6-36, determine the runoff, in cfs, expected at culverts 3 and 4 at the Span Ii
Army Airfield at Giessen, Germany.
The
soil lypc is GMd.

Compacted gravel
Average turf

t DTwx

Vol 1

Example:

Subarea

TOCw = Inlet time,

32-8013,

acres

Simple
or 97%

B.

Compacted gravel
Average turf
Total

0.9 act-c
13.5 m-c.3
13.4 acres

12.5 acres/ 13.4 acres

= 0.93

Step 5. Determine representative

paths.
See Table 6-3, page 6-37
formation).

Simple

or 93%
flow
(given in-

Step 6. Divide flow paths into two sections:

sheet flow and channel flow. See Table 6-3
(given information).

Drainage

6-35

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

1A

32-8013,

4oofi

Vol 1

1 5%

43ofl

08%

HP= 76

1
Subarea
A

Figure

6-22.

Successive

Step 7. Determine the slope of each section of the flow path.

Step 8. Determine the average slope of the
basin or each subarea.
There are two
paths in subarea 1, paths 1A and 1B.

6-36

Drainage

areas

- example

Both of these paths will have an average

slope of less than 2 percent.
Subarea 2
has three major paths.
Path 2 has an
average slope of 2.3 percent, path 3 has an
average slope of 2.4 percent, and path 4
has an average slope of 2.6 percent.
(See

:,: .,..,.....

:...:...y.,

..

. .

.:

,::

,.
.I ,..,:

: ,:

,,:

.. .

.:

,.,.

,;

: ,.

I.~:.;,~:
..
: ..: : : : :

,.
,>:

,,,,

32-8013,

FM 5430-OO-l/AFPAM

;.:.::(j.,I,:,::.j).I:

,:,,:,

Vol 1

Table 6-3. Determining travel time

Length
(ft)

Slope
(%I

Travel time
(mW

400
430

1.5

13.0

0.8

3.3

Average turf

530

2.6

23.5

Ditch

350

1.9

_ 1.6

Path

Cover/type

1A
16

Compacted
Ditch

2A
26

gravel

at 130 fpm

16.3

at130fpm

25.3
3A

Average

36

Ditch

turf

360

3.2

430

1.6

16.5
2.4

at 130 fpm

20.9

Figure 6-22.1 Using this information, we

can now get an average slope for paths 2,
3, and 4.
Average Slope

= 2.4% + 2.3% t 2.6%

3
= 2.4%

Average slope for subarea

Average slope for subarea

1 = ~2%
2 = 2.4%

Step 9. Find the C value for each subarea.

Subarea A has compacted gravel with an
average slope less than 2 percent.
Using
Table 6- 1, page 6-22, we find that the C
value is 0.70. Likewise, the C value for subarea B, GMd with average turf with a slope
of 2.4 percent, is 0.35.
Step 10. Determine the travel time of each
flow path and select the longest flow-path
travel time as the TOC. Obtain sheet-flow
times from Figure 6-18, page 6-26, and
ditch-flow travel time from Table 6-2, page
6-27. Determine the travel times and ditch
time from Table 6-3.
370 ft
350 ft
Ditch time3_4 =
188 fpm

194 fpm
= 3.8 min
Ditch velocity
= 188 fpm at 1.8%
and 194 fpm at 1.9%
Inlet time A
Inlet time B

= 16.3 min
= 25.3 min

Step 11. Determine I and I&l. (I value for

Giessen, Germany is 1.7 in/hr from local
rainfall records.)

Subarea

A.

TOCA = 16.3 min

= 2.6 in/hr
116.3
Subarea

B.

Compare inlet timen = 25.3 mm with

TOCA t DT = 16.3 t 3.8 = 20.1 min
Select the larger value of TOCB = 25.3 min
and 125.3 = 1.8 in/hr

Step 12. Adjust I based on TOC using Figure 6-4, page 6-9. (This step was included
in step 11.1
Step 13.

Determine

To calculate

runoff.

runoff in subarea

A, use-

Qn = CAkdA
= 0.7Oi2.6 in/hr)(6.4
= 11.6 cfs
To calculate
QB

Qlnlet

Qlnlet

runoff in subarea

= CBIBAA
= 0.35t1.8

in/hr)(13.4
= 8.4 cfs
= 11.6 cfs
= 11.6 t 8.4 = 20 cfs

acres)
B, useacres)

NOTE: Although path 4 was used to obtain an accurate slope average, it is not
used for travel time. The situation, as
drawn on the map, clearly shows that
path 4 could not be chosen for the TOC.

Drainage

6-37

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

SECTION

VOl 1

Il. OPEN-CHANNEL

An open channel is a conduit with a freewater surface used to convey water. The
most common is a ditch, which is an open
channel cut into the soil. If so desired, the
ditch can be lined along the bottom from
bank to bank.

DESIGN

The size, the shape, the method of construction, and the location of a ditch are determined largely by its purpose.
These factors, once determined, will influence the
design capacity and maintenance
requirements.

DESIGN FACTORS
LOCATION
There arc three main lypes of dilchcs
in road and airfield construction.

used

An interceptor ditch is generally located on

a hillside above a roadway or other feature
Its function is to interrequiring protection.
cept runoff and direct the flow to a more
It is usually located
desirable location.
above sidehill cuts to prevent erosion of the
cut.
A side ditch is located along the side of a
road. It collects runoff from the road and
adjacent areas and transports
it to a culvert or diversion ditch.
When the lopography allows, a dioersion
lo transport water away from
roadways or airfields.
It can be used in
conjunction
with interceptor and side
ditches to transport water between culverts
or to divert an existing stream channel
around a project.

motor grader and the wheeled tractorscraper.

Other items of equipment that can
bc used to excavate a ditch section include
the backhoe; bulldozer; front-end loader;
trenching machine; and crane equipped
with a dragline, clamshell, or shovel front.

Triangular

(symmetrical)

ditch is built

Triangular

(nonsymmetrical)

CROSS SECTION
The location and peak quantity of runoff expected will determine the ditch cross-sectional area required.
The most common
shapes of cross sections-triangular
(symmetrical and nonsymmetrical),
trapezoidal,
are shown in Figure 6-23.
and segmentalIn the
tated,
gineer
tion.
suited

6-38

TO, the shape of a ditch is also dicto a great extent, by the choice of enequipment available for its construcTwo items of equipment are uniquely
for speedy ditch excavation:
the

Drainage

Segmental

Figure 6-23. Ditch cross sections

FM +430=00=1/AFPAM

.-

However, production rates for these items

are relatively low compared to the grader or
scraper; hence, the grader or scraper is
more likely to be used.
are commonly installed to handle flows up to 60 cubic feet
per second. The road grader is well
designed to quickly excavate the necessary
cross section to handle this flow, provided
that the ditch is built in soil rather than
rock. Grader efficiency drops significantly
when cross sections of larger dimensions
are required.
Triangular

or V ditches

For flows larger than 60 cubic feet per

second, the trapezoidal
ditch is commonly
specified. The flat bottom and midsection
of this ditch can be excavated rapidly by a
wheeled scraper, and the side slopes can be
dressed back by subsequent passes of a
road grader.

Smaller bottom widths can be provided

using any of the previously mentioned
items of construction equipment, including
the road grader with its blade turned lo a
high angle. Production rates, however, will
be much lower than those of the wheeled
scraper.
Note that the 60 cubic feet per second
guideline is flexible. If scrapers are not
available to excavate a ditch carrying 100
cubic feet per second but a grader is, common sense dictates that the grader be used
to construct an oversized V ditch rather
lhan using low-production-rate equipment
to construct a trapezoidal ditch.
The segmental-ditch
shape results when explosives are used to create the ditch. This
technique is often used when the terrain is
too soft to support excavating machinery.
Ditches cut by hand will often bear this
shape as well.

SIDE-SLOPE

RATIOS

Ditches have two sides and two associated

side-slope ratios. Side slope is the slope of
the banks of the channels, normally expressed as a ratio of feet horizontal to feet
vertical. For example, 3: 1 is a side slope of
3 feet horizontal to 1 foot vertical. When
the sidewalls on opposite sides are inclined

32-8013,

Vol II

equally, the ditch is called symmetrical.

Nonsymmetrical
ditches have side slopes
that differ.
The designer selects appropriate side-slope
ratios. The selection is critical to ensure
that the ditch serves its purpose. Ditch
sidewalls that are too steep invite excessive
erosion and are likely to cause the ditch to
clog with sediment. Even more serious is
the risk of a severe accident, if a vehicle
should run into the ditch and become
entrapped or overturn because the side
slope is too severe. Only one side slope is
required for symmetrical ditches. For
clarity, the termsfront slope or ditch slope
and back slope are used to differentiate between the dissimilar slopes. Figure 6-24,
page 6-40, illustrates this terminology.
The sidewall of a roadside ditch located adjacent lo the shoulder is called lhc front
slope of the ditch. The far slope, called the
back slope, is simply an cxtcnsion of the
cut face in an excavation. The following
rules of thumb are applicable only in shallow ditches in relatively flat terrain:
l

Roadside ditches may be cut nonsymmetrically at 3: 1/ 1: 1 (front slope/back

slope).

NOTE: For calculation purposes, the

horizontal component of the roadside
ditch will be referred to as X. Likewise,
the horizontal component on the back
slope will be referred to as Y. (See Figure
6-23.)
l

Diversion ditches may be cut symmetrically at 1: 1.

Ditches intended to be subject to cross
Lrafflc may be cut symmetrically al 3: 1
or more genlly.

In most cases, interceptor and diversion

ditches are installed far enough from the
traveled way not to present a hazard to
passing vehicles on the roadway or aircraft
on the runway. Since there is very little
danger from either side, symmetrical sideslope ratios are specified for these types of
ditches.

Drainage

6-39

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Figure 6-24.

Tables 6-4 and 6-5 are also useful

ing front slopes for fill sections.

in select-

TYPES OF FLOW
Several types of flow are associated with
open channels.
Some of these types occur
simultaneously
in the same channel.
An
understanding
of these types of flow
and their interrelationship
is essential to
the effective design of drainage systems.
An open-channel
flow has a free surface and
no hydraulic pressure.
Some examples of
open-channel
flow include ditches, canals,
streams, and culverts not flowing full. Empirical formulas with experimentally
derived
coefficients are used in designing an open
channel.
These hydraulic formulas reflect
certain hydraulic theories and assumptions
governing design analysis of free-flow channels.
A steady flow is assumed
nel with a uniform depth
period. Changes in flow
and any errors that may
this assumption
are not
A continuous
the principle

6-40

in an open chanduring the design

are generally slow,
be introduced by
significant.

flow is assumed according to

of the conservation
of mass.

Drainage

Definition

sketch

A unrorm flow is assumed when the depth

of water throughout a channel is constant
in dimension and slope. This means that
the slope of the water surface is the same
as the slope of the channel bottom.
This assumption is essentially correct for channels
of moderate slope and length.
Flows in
ditches, canals, and rivers arc uniform, but
flows over spillways or waterfalls are not
uniform.
The strength of viscosity forces and hence
the thickness of moving fluid, determine
whether channel flow is turbulent or
laminar.
Turbulent flow is assumed for purposes of
open-channel
design.
This type of flow occurs when viscosity forces are relatively
weak and the individual water particles
move in random patterns within the aggregate forward-flow pattern.
Laminar flow occurs when viscosity forces
predominate and the particles of the fluid
move in smooth, parallel paths. An example
of this type of flow is honey poured from a
container; honey has high-viscosity strength
compared to water. The only type of
laminar flow considcrcd in this manual is
sheet flow, which occurs where depth is extremely shallow.
It is assumed that the flow

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

Table 6-4.

Recommended

requirements

for slope ratios in cuts and fills - homogeneous

Slopes Not
Subject to Saturation
uses
Classification

Not critical

Vol 1

soils

Slopes
Subject to Saturation

Maximum
Slope Ratio

Maximum Height
of Earth Face

GW, GP, GMd

32-8013,

Maximum
Slope Ratio

Maximum Height
of Earth Face
Not critical

lH:l

2:l

SW, SP, SMd

GMu. GC
SMU, SC
ML. MH

Less
than

CL, CH

feet

L9sS
than

2:l

SO

OL. OH. Pt

3:l

50

feet

Generally not suitable for construction

Recommended
slopes are valid only in homogeneous
soils that have either an in-place or
compacted density equaling or exceeding 95% CE 55 maximum dry density.
For nonhomogeneous
solls, or soils at lower densities, a deliberate slope stability analysis is required.

4OTES: 1.

2.

Back slopes

cut into loose soil will seek lo maintain

above this cut face.

Table

6-5.

Expect

sloughing

a near-vertical

cleavage.

Do

not apply loading

to occur.

requirements
for slope ratios in cuts - rock with bedding
or other planes of weakness

Recommended

Effective

dip angle

o- 19

18 - 35

36 - 75

75 - 90
or any negative
angle

I:2

1:l

cut to
dip angle

1:4 to 1:2

(degree)
B
Maximum side slope
ratio (H:V)

1, Solid rock (with no plane of weakness)

may be cut 1:4 to 1:2.

2. Effective dip angle = true dip - apparent dip where-a. True dip is the angle between the horizontal
b. Apparent

and bedding planes, measured

perpendicular

to strike.

dip equals:

angle between centerline

and strike x true dip

90

Drainage

6-4 1

FM 5-4300OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

in natural and designed channels will be

steady, continuous,
uniform, and turbulent.

Mannings
equation can easily be solved
mathematically
using the equation.
However, to assist in the design of open channels, the equation has been prepared as a
nomograph.
(See Figure 6-25.)

DESIGN EQUATIONS FOR OPEN

CHANNELS

Roughness Coefficient

This section deals with open-channel

design
equations.
Because of the variables and assumptions
to be made, trial techniques are
required to determine
the shape and depth
of a particular channel before a final solution is reached.

Continuity Equation
The equation
follows:

of continuity

is expressed

as

Q = AV
whereQ = rate of flow in cfs
area in sq ft
V = velocity in fps

A = cross-sectional

The roughness
or resistance
coefficient
is a
measure of the resistance
to flow caused by
surface-contact
irregularities.
It varies with
soil type, channel condition,
and type of
ditch lining used.
Use Table 6-6 to estimate the roughness
coefficient,
n, used in
the solution of the equation.
The coefficient can be changed only if the ditch
lining is changed or modified.
The effect of
the roughness
coefficient
on velocity can be
altered by changing
the side slopes of the
ditch, thereby changing
the water contact
area.
Changing
the roughness
coefficient
in
this way changes the ditch capacity.

Longitudinal
Mannings Velocity of Flow Equation
Many empirical equations have been
proposed for determining
turbulent flow.
The most widely used is the equation
presented by Manning in 1889. It statesv _ I.486
or, after

R 23 S2
n
transposing,

whereV = velocity of flow in fps

R = hydraulic radius
or
R = cross-section
area of water
wetted perimeter
S = slope or grade of the channel in feet
per foot (ft/ft)
n = roughness
coefficient
or friction factor,
which depends upon the material comprising the channel lining
NOTE:

When using metric unitsR

v=

6-42

213 s/2

Drainage

(n)

Slope or Grade (S)

Under normal conditions,

the ditch slope
(the longitudinal
fall of the channel in feet
per foot or in percentage)
will be determined by the slope of the terrain.
For
short ditch lengths only, a variation from
the natural slope of the terrain can be
achieved by modifying
the cutting depth of
the ditch.
By varying the cutting depth
within the ditch length, the slope can be increased or decreased
independently
of the
terrain slope.
In channel design, slope percentage
and the
resulting change in velocity are important
considerations.
Slopes over 2 percent may
have too high a velocity, resulting in
erosion.
Slopes under 0.5 percent will
generally have too low a velocity, resulting
in sedimentation
deposits.
Deposition
(the
depositing
of sediment on the bottom of the
ditch) normally occurs at velocities
below 3
feet per second.

Velocity of Flow (V)

Many ditches with differing side slopes and
cross-sectional
areas of flow will carry the
same rate of runoff on a similar longitudinal
slope.
In each case, however, the velocity of
flow will be different.
Since excessive
velocity in a ditch will cause erosion and

FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

0.3
1.486
z,,
,h
n

Equation: w = 0.2

0.10
0.09
0.08

I
-=

~ 0.07
0.06

0.05

z\ 0.7

P
z

0.6

2
\

0.04

0.6
0.9
-

1.0

\
\
\ e+ %
\

a,

\
II

>

I c
2 -2.0

a!!

Example (see dashed line):

Given

V = 2.9
s = 0.003
n = 0.02

8
9
10

Find: R
1. Line from S value to
n vrlue intersects
turning line, establishing
turning point.
2. Line from V value
through turning point
intersects hydraulic
radius scale at R = 0.6
foot.

Figure 6-25. Nomograph

for Mannings

equation

Drainage

6-43

FM

32-8013,

5-43&O()-l/AFpAM

Table 6-6.

Values

for Mannings

Vol

: .:.: .:

n and maximum

..

..

permissible

.:.

velocities

.:.

.:...:

.:

,:.

.::

:.::

of flow in open channels

Manning8 n

Ditch Lining

v,

UP@

1, Natural earth:
a. Rock: smooth and uniform
jagged and irregular

0.038
0.043

20
18

b. Soils:

0.023
0.025
0.024
0.023
0.025
0.023
0.022
0.024
0.023

7
8
5
4
7
2
3
4
3

0.014

20

0.016
0.018

20
19

0.023
0.027

15
15

c. Gravel bottom, w/sides of-formed concrete

random stone in mortar
random stone or rubble

0.018
0.022
0.028

10
10
10

d. Brick

0.016

10

e. Asphalt

0.015

20

GW
GP
GMd
GMu. MH
GC
SW, SP
SMd, SMu
SC, ML
CL, CH, OL, OH, PT

2. Paved surfaces:
a. Concrete (ail surfaces)
b. Concrete bottom w/sides of-dressed stone in mortar
random stone in mortar
dressed stone or smooth
concrete rubble (riprap)
rubble or random stone

NOTE: To calculate

is 8 - 1 or 7 fps.

V_,,m.c,

take V,,

and subtract

possibly damage adjacent structures, it

must be contained within limits. Table 6-6
lists the maximum permissible velocities,
depending on soil and other factors.
Velocity Relationships
l

6-44

As slope increases, velocity (V) increases.

As quantity of runoff (9) increases while
area (A) remains constant, velocity (Vl
increases.
If Mannings n increases, velocity (V)
decreases.

Drainage

1. For example,

V_,,,,,_,

for a

GP soil

If velocity IV1 increases, erosion increases.

Hydraulic Radius (R]

The hydraulic radius (R) is the area of the
water cross section of the ditch divided by
its wetted perimeter, calculated as shown in
Figure 6-26. It relates the surface area of
friction resistances with the volume of
water being carried by the ditch. The
hydraulic radius can be calculated using an
electronic calculator as shown in Figure 627, page 6-46.

:.: . . ,..:

,.

: .y..,

j:

y>..j

::j

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

:,::..::.....:,

32-8013,

Vol 1

Examole
Assume
Find
A

H=2ft.W~=141t.W~=iOft

hydraulic
%(H)(W,

radluk
+ W2)=

(R)

%(2)(14

10~

= 24sqft
In a 1 1 triangle.

hypotenuse

=vT
Wetted

perimeter

= 2 m

* 10

+2-w=1571t
Hydraulic
Wetted

Figure

6-26.

Hydraulic

radws area
perimeter

24
-15 7 = 1 53 ft

radius

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
There are certain factors known for each
ditch being designed.
Each of these factors
will affect design details.
Items such as the
location, the peak flow or runoff carried,
the effect of terrain on slope, and the soil
type or material to be used to line the ditch
all have a bearing on channel design.

LOCATION
The location of the ditch will determine its
general shape and the side slopes to be
used in its design.

QUANTITY

OF RUNOFF (Q)

Designers must know the quantity of runoff

the channel will have to carry.
Usually,
this is estimated using the rational method
of runoff determination.
However, it may
also be estimated based on knowledge of
the slope, the diameter, and the type of culverts used to discharge into the channel.
The value of Q will also determine which
type of ditch section, triangular or
trapezoidal, will be used. This depends on
whether Q is greater than or less than 60
cubic feet per second.

SLOPE (S)
The slope will be determined by the terrain.
In general, the slope used will be the
natural ground slope. Small modifications
of the slope can be made for short ditch sections.

PROPOSED

DITCH LINING

The ditch lining determines

the velocity and
roughness coefficient or resistance
factor, n.
(See Table 6-6.)
Table 6-6 gives maximum erosion velocities
for each type of soil and lining. The lower
velocity on the chart indicates the velocity
at which erosion will start occurring in
some portion of the ditch.
At the high
velocity value, the entire length of the ditch
will probably be eroding.
Table 6-6 also provides Mannings roughness coefficient (n) which represents
the friction resistance
of the ditch, channel, or
stream for various soil types and linings.
Use the average value of n for design purposes.

Drainage

6-45

FM 5_43()_0&l/AFPAM

32-6013,

.. I.I.,c.,i::
::yy.:.:: .::: : ::;::. : :;...~..:.:;.
>I.y: Y;.:.
.;.,.-:;,,:..
.:..:..::i,.~,:,:,::i::i::,::

j/o1 1

1. If your calculator has the function fiand

accurately than with the nomograph provided

y you can determine hydraulic radius (R) more quickly

in the workbook.
Transposing Mannings equation,

1.486 R2 SR
V

1.6

Vxn

=
(

1.486 \Is

Since n and S are constant for various trial iterations, you need only enter different
arrive at an acceptable value for R. Therefore, if S and n are constant, the above equation
R=[VxK]

where

First, input and store values

1.486 &

Enter value for S

x5

Square

x 1.486

Times constant

= l/x

Calculate

x .xXx

Times value for n

To calculate

or M+

root of S
of 1.486

and invert denominator

Store constant

R for various

values

of V,

RCL or MRC

Recall K

XV

Times value for velocity

Equals

yx 1.5

Raise product to 3/2 power

Displays

C. Repeat

2b for different

flow rate, Q,

for K.

.xXx

= ST0

values for V to
for R becomes:

K =

2. To calculate R, use the above equation for numerous iterations until you have bracketed
within acceptable limits. Below are keystrokes which will work on most calculators.
a.

and

V values

Figure 6-27.

value for R
until you reach an acceptable

R and Q.

Calculating hydraulic radius

DESIGN TECHNIQUES
Once design considerations
have been examined, the interactive design procedure
can begin.

DESIGN STEPS
The steps

6-46

used in design

Drainage

follow:

Step 1. Determine the peak volume of

storm-water runoff, Q. Calculate the total
area(s) contributing
flow to the ditch.
(Use
the rational method.)
Using the appropriate
formula, find Q.
Step 2. Determine the slope, S, in feet per
foot. If the slope is already known as a

,.,
:,:.

percentage,
it may be converted to units of
feet per foot by simply dividing by 100.
Step 3. Select trial values for resistance,
n,
and velocity, V. From Table 6-6, page 6-43,
select a value of the resistance
or roughness coefficient,
n, and a velocity, V, for the
soil type in which the ditch is to be constructed.
The initial trial velocity should be held to 1
feet per second below the high value.
Usually, the channel will be carrying less
than design flow, reducing the velocity and
making sedimentation
likely. If a high
value is chosen for the design velocity, this
deposited material will be removed by the
water during a peak flow without causing
extensive damage to the channel.
Step 4. Determine the hydraulic radius.
From the slope, S; Mannings n; and the
velocity, V; find the hydraulic radius of the
ditch, using the nomograph or equation.
Call this Rm to distinguish
it from the R
values in Appendix C of this manual, which
will be Rt.
Step 5. Determine the type of ditch cross
section,
Where Q is greater than 60 cubic
feet per second, use a trapezoidal ditch.
Where Q is equal to or less than 60 cubic
feet per second, use a triangular ditch.
Whether the ditch is symmetrical or nonsymmetrical
will depend on the specific location.
Step 6. Select the appropriate hydraulic
radius and area table.
From Appendix C,
select the appropriate hydraulic radius and
area table for the desired ditch cross section. Identify the column headed with the
tentative side-slope ratios.
Enter the Rm
table, locating the value of Rt that corresponds with Rm. Then find the cross-sectional area and ditch depth corresponding
to Rm and Rt. In using the tables, if the
exact Rm value is not available, use the
next smaller Rt value listed in that column.
Step 7. Calculate Q. Use the equation
$J = ALoV, where area, ALU, and velocity, V,

: :,

FM 5-430-00.l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

are determined in steps 6 and 3, respectively. If the calculated

Q from step 7 is not
more than 5 percent greater than the
design Q, the ditch selected can be used. If
the calculated Q is more than 5 percent
greater than the design Q, reduce the
velocity and repeat steps 4, 5, 6, and 7.
If the calculated Q is smaller than the
design Q by more than 5 percent, increase
the velocity.
However, do not make it any
larger than the maximum for the soil or
lining based on Table.6-6.
If the calculated
Q is still less than the 95-percent
limit, the
cross section must be increased by flattening the side slopes or by increasing the bottom width (if a trapezoidal section is used).
Step 8. Provide freeboard.
Add 0.5 foot to
the water depth to provide freeboard.
Freeboard is the additional ditch depth over
that required to carry the design flow. This
added depth allows the ditch to carry the
design capacity, even with sediment in the
ditch bottom.
The total depth, including
freeboard, will be the cutting depth and the
depth at which the ditch grade will be set.
Example:
Design a ditch to carry a peak volume of
storm-water
runoff equaling 47.3 cfs from a
culvert to a stream that is 289 feet from
the outlet of the culvert.
The ditch invert
(or bottom) elevation at the outlet of the culvert will be 7.0 feet above sea level. The
ditch invert will be constructed
above the
stream high watermark at an elevation of
5.5 feet above sea level. The ditch lining
will be the bare (unturfed) GMd soil, as excavated.
Q = 47.3
Slope

cfs

= invert at culvert or 7.0 ft - 5.5 ft

distance from culvert to stream
= 1.5
= 0.0052
289 ft

Soil (GMd):

ft/ft

V = 3 to 5 fps (Table 6-6)

= 0.024 (Table 6-3, page 6-37)

Drainage

6-4 7

FM 5-430-00-l

Soiu tion

/AFPAM

(Nomograph

and

32-8013,

Table

Vol 1

Method):

The solution
of a ditch problem
is always a
trial tcchniquc
in which several values of
velocity arc used.
Tables arc recommended
to tabulate
the results.
The tables should
bc similar to the ditch design work sheet
shown in Table 6-7.
step 1. Sclcct a ditch.
Since design flow,
Q, is less than 60 cubic feet per second,
Lhc ditch should be triangular.
The channcl is not a roadside
ditch, so it should be
symmetrical.
Select side slopes for a 3: I tri
angular
ditch for the first trial.
(This assumes that periodic vehicular
crossings
are
expected.)
Thcsc factors can bc changed
if
lhc ditch design is not suitable.
Enter the
information
in the columns
under ditch
sclcction
on the ditch design work sheet.
Step 2. Select the velocity.
The erosion
velocity for the soil Is 3 to 5 feet per
second.
This means that at 3 feet per
second the soil in the ditch may begin to
crodc, and at 5 feet per second the whole
ditch will be eroding.
Since it is preferable
not to exceed the VmRx of 5 feet per second,
the best initial choice is usually
1 feet per
second lower than Vmax, or 4 feet per
second.
Enter this figure on the design
work sheet.
Step 3. Dctcrminc
the hydraulic
radius,
the nomograph.
Using the
R,,. from
nomograph
(Figure 6-26, page 6-441, first io
cate a turning
lint.
The line is in the center on the nomograph.
Find the turning
point by locating
the slope, S tin feet per
foot), in the left column of the chart and
the roughness
coefficient,
n, in the right
column.
Draw a straight
line to connect
the two points.
The point at which the new
line crosses
the turning
line is the turning
Table 6-7.

6-48

Drainage

point.
This turning
point will remain
the
same as long as neither S nor n changes.
The hydraulic
radius,
Rm, is found by connccting the velocity tin the second column
from the right) and the turning
point by
drawing a straight
line through
to the R
scale.
Then read the hydraulic
radius
(R)
in the second column
from the left. This
gives the rcquircd
R for any given V in
Mannings
equation.
In this cxamplc,
R =
O.S6. Enter this value on the work sheet.
The R value can bc computed
by using the
calculator
method shown in Figure 6-27,
page 6-46.
Step 4. Find the hydraulic
radius,
Rt, in
the ditch table.
Locate the appropriate
table among Tables C-2 through
C- 10 in Appcndix C of this manual.
There arc four
types of tables:
V-triangular
or symmetrical, V-triangular
or nonsymmetrical,
trapezoidal-symmetrical,
and trapezoidalnonsymmetrical.
For this example,
use
Table C-2 for a symmetrical
V ditch.
Locate the pair of columns
representing
the
side slopes of the ditch being designed
(for
example,
3:l).
Locate the Rt values that
fall above and below, or the one that is exactly equal to, the Rm value found from the
nomograph
of Mannings
equation.
In this
cxamplc,
the Rm = 0.86 cannot bc found in
thcsc columns,
but the values 0.85 and
0.90 arc given.
USC the lower value (0.85)
on the work sheet.
Step 5. Record the area and depth.
With
RI = 0.85, the corresponding
arca found in
Table C-2 is 9.72 square feet, and the
depth (d) found in the column at the far left
is 1.8 feet. Record these values under the
appropriate
headings
on the ditch design
work sheet.

Ditch design

work sheet

FM 51430=00=1/AFPAM

Step 6. Cheek for Q. Cheek to see if lhis

particular
ditch will meet the rcquircmcnls
of the design by performing
lhc calc(llalionsQ = Au,V
Q = (9.72 sq ftJ(4.0
Q = 38.9 cfs

fps)

This calculated
quantity
of flow (9) musl
fall within 5 percent
of the design flow of
47.3 cubic feel per second, or between
44.9
and 49.7 cubic feet per second.
If this requircmcnt
is not met, as in this cast, try a
new velocity.
If the calculated
Q is less
than 95 percent
of the design flow, use a
higher velocity.
For this example,
since
38.9 is less than 44.9 cubic feet per second
(the lower limit of the acceptable
range), a
velocity of 4.5 feet per second would bc an
acccplablc
assumption
for the next trial.
V
= 4.5
Rlt, = 1.0
RI = 0.95
= 12.0
= (4.5
2
= 54.0
9
cfs. so lhc ncxl trial
than 4.5 fps: try 4.2

sq ft, d = 2.0 rt
fpsl(l2.0
sq il)
cfs. which cxcccds
49.7
vclocily must bc less
fps.

Vol 1

cleaning
and rcquircs
little maintcnancc
Peak runoff will remove any silt buildup
from lhc channel
bottom.
With V = 4.2 lCCt
per second,
lhcrc mav bc sonic erosion of
the ditch, but it shoUId not bc a significant
maintcnancc
problem.
The shape. lining,
and slopes are acceptable.
Step 8. Dcterminc
the cutting
depth.
The
water level in the ditch should be at least
0.5 foot below the edge of the ditch as a
safety factor.
Accordingly,
the cutting
depth is the water depth plus 0.5 foot of
freeboard.
Cutting
Using

depth

the cutting
Cutting

= d + freeboard

depth

depth

just

calculated.

= 1.9 + 0.5
= 2.4 ft

Since there are 2.5 feet (8.0 - 5.5 = 2.5) of

available
cutting
depth at the end of the
dilch, the design is acceptable.
Conclusion:

Altcrnativc

Use this ditch.

Solution

(Calculator

Method):

If it is more convcnicnt
to use the calculator
method
than the nomograph,
the following proccdurc
is used:

V
= 4.2
R 111 = 0.92
Rt = 0.90
= 10.83 sq it, d = 1.9 ft
=
(4.2 fps)( 10.83 sq ft)
2
Q
= 45.5 cfs

Step 1. Select a ditch.

As before, the ditch
is V-type and symmetrical.
Assume side
slopes of 3: 1 have been selected
for the
trial cross section.

Q is greater
than the lower limit of 44.9
and less than the high limit of 49.7.
This
ditch is within the range and thus meets
the ditch water depth and velocity requireITlen ts. Enter this value of Q on the ditch
design work sheet.
Step 7. Dctcrminc
if the ditch is appropriatc.
This process
dcscribcs
a symmetrical.
triangular
ditch in GMd soil, with
a slope of 0.0052 feet per foot and 3: 1 side
slopes.
It carries
45.5 cubic feet per
second runoff with a water depth of 1.9 feel
and a velocity of 4.2 feel per second.
Since lhc velocity in the ditch is greater
than 3 fps, the ditch can be considered

32-8013,

Step 2. Select the velocity.

The assumed
trial velocity should always be 1 feet per
second less than the maximum
erosion
velocity of the soil. In this case, it will be 4
feet per second.
step

3.

Dctcrminc

the hydraulic

radius,

Rm.

?*L

l&l=[ 1.4&]
whcrev = 4 fps

R = 0.024
S = 0.0052

ft/fl

sclf-

Drainage

6-49

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

1.486v0.0052

:$2
= 0.848
If the

and
tlrc

AU, = I :2(xci

TOT any

+ ydid

For tliis problcrtt.

Lriangular

(cl 1 = (al I2 + b2,

and (~2) = (a2)2 + b2

Therefore, wetted perimeter (WP) = c, + c2
=j/qzq~

ditch.

x = 3, > = 3
Figure

= ll2(3d
+ 3cl)d
= 1/2(Gdk-l
= 3d2

A\&

Into two right triangles,

the Pythagorean theorem IS applrcable

the area of water, Aw,

d. As explained
in Fig-

4. Dcterminc
depth of water,
6-28-

Slcp

large triangle ISdlvlded

6-29. Determination
of the wetted
perimeter of a triangular ditch

Thcreforc,

the hydraulic

radius

(Rm) is-

Rm = -!k
WP

Xd-----+-+-4

3d2
=2m

3d2
=2(3.16)d

3d2
=6.

= 0.474d

For depth (d), the depth of water for the

conditions
assumed in step 3, is calculated.
Since Rn, = 0.848 from step 3, and Rm is
also equal to 0.474d,
the depth of water (d)
can be computed.

Area of any triangle = %(base)(helght)

Base of triangle = Xd + Yd
Height of triangle = d
Therefore, area = %(Xd + Yd)d

o.848 _ 1.79 rt

0.474

6-26. Determination

Figure

triangular

of the area of a
ditch

This allows

Aw

lo

be computed.

Aw = 3d2 = 3( 1.79

The wetlcd pcrimctcr

Fjgurc 6-29. iswp = Cl +
Substituting
wp =

values

d@i)i

twp), as cxplaincd

Step
(xd12

of

6-50

Drainage

(@I2

and y-

+ d/(3d)

= 2 tl(9dL + dL)

=2dd-iG

+ d=

ft)2 = 9.61

sq ft

in

5.

Check

for Q.

Q = AwV = 9.6(4)

= 38.4

cfs

The Q calculated
for the ditch must be
within f 5 percent
of the design Q of 47.3
cfs, or between
44.9 and 49.7.
The calculated ditch Q is 38.4, which is less than
the lower limit and is unacceptable.
Since
the calculated
Q is below the lower limit,
raise the velocity for the next trial calculaFor the second trial, the assumed
tion.
velocity will be 4.5 feet per second.

Step 6.

. . . . .

Make a second

trial calculation.

1.01
Rm
= == 2.13 ft
0.474
0.474
Aw = 3d2 = 3(2. 13J2 = 13.6 sq ft
d

cfs

Q is too high; try V = 4.2 fps.

Make a third trial calculation.

.I2

0.474

1 92

ft

Aw = 3d2 = 3( 1 .92J2 = 1 1.06 sq ft

Q = AwV = (1 1.0614.2
Q is acceptable
limits.

bccausc

= 46.5

fps

it is bclwcen

the

Step 8. Determine the ditch. With the Q

being acceptable,
the ditch will have a
water depth of 1.92 feet and side slopes of
3: 1. Additional depth must be added to the
water depth for freeboard.
This additional
depth can be selected depending upon the
conditions external to the ditch but cannot
be less than 0.5 foot. ThereforeCutting

depth

Vol 1

Gutters are shallow, paved drainage channels used in more permanent

construction
adjacent to paved or hard-surfaced
areas.
They provide positive removal of runoff,
protection for easily eroded soils adjacent to
the pavement, and prevention of softening
of turf shoulder areas commonly caused by
a large volume of runoff from adjoining
pavements.

R,,, = 1.015

Step 7.

32-8013,

Gutters

0. 108 3z
= (l.Ol)&
0.107

= 61.2

FM 51430.OO-l/AFPAM

will tend to be very wide and shallow.

To
determine runoff capacity (in cfs) in this
type of channel, open channel hydraulics,
as previously discussed,
must be modified.

1 1

Q = AwV = (13.614.5

.y.

= water depth (dl + 0.5

= 1.92 + 0.5
= 2.42 ft or 2.4 ft

The velocity of 4.2 feel per second is acceptable. Some erosion may be anticipated,
but
il will not be serious.
In addition, because
of the high velocity, the flow will clean out
the sediment from previous low flow.

A cross section of a typical runway gutter is

shown in Figure 6-30, page 6-52.
This gutter conforms to US Air Force safety requirements and design charts of that particular
Safety and operational rcquiregutter.
ments for fast landing speeds make it
desirable to provide a continuous,
longitudinal grade in the gutter.
Close conformity to the runway gradient requires the
use of sump inlets (drop inlets covered by
gratings).
A sufficient number of inlets
should be provided in the gutter to prevent
the depth of flow from exceeding 3 inches.
Median Channels
Channels will be placed down the center of
medians, dual roads, runways, taxiways,
and other similar structures.
These channels will be symmetrical
but very wide and
shallow.
The input flow into such channels
is from surfaced and unsurfaced
areas adjacent to the channel.
The flow can be
determined by the rational melhod.
Since
the factors of slope (S), Mannings n, flow
(91, and the general width are known, the
depth can be dctcrmined
by trial using the
flow equation or nomograph for flow in
open channels.

BERMS
SPECIAL CHANNELS
Some facilities will have special types of
channels where surface runoff will be intercepted and removed.
These channels will
be similar to open channels, except they

The uncontrolled
inflow from drainage areas
adjacent to open channels has been a
source of numerous erosion failures.
Combating this problem requires special consideration during the design of the surface
drainage system.
Local runoff inflow can

Drainage

6-5 1

FM 6-43&00-1/AFPAM

32-8013,

:. .::...... ::;.e ..:c

Vol 1

..

.i .::, ,..

,:,....:;::,.:. .,...
::..z;: .. ,.,.

Typlcal gutter sectlon for mllltary altflelds

W _ fi
9

10

11

12

Discharge - cfs
Inflow rate - cfs per ft
20
18
1.6
14
12
1.0
08
06
0.4
02
0

-0

Discharge - cfs

Figure

6-30.

Typical runway

be particularly
detrimental.
Because
of normal irregularities
in grading operations,
runoff becomes
concentrated
and causes excessive erosion as it flows over the sides of
the channel.
Experience
shows that constructing
a berm (raised lip), Figure 6-3 1,
prevents
this problem.
Place the berm,
usually made of earth, at the top edge of
the channel.
This berm prevents
inflow
into the channel
except at designated
points where an Inlet, properly
protected
against erosion,
is provided.

6-52

Drainage

gutter

Where excavated
material
is wasted,
as in a
levee or dike parallel to the channel,
there
must be frequent
openings
through
the
levee to permit inflow to the channel.
A
suitable
berm allows a minimal amount
of
excavated
material
to flow back into the
channel.
This prevents
sloughing
from the
spoil bank into the channel.
Runoff, Q, from the area is determined
by
the rational
method.
This runoff is collected and conveyed
by the channel
formed

.,,

,.
3

:.

i.

.::

.:.:.:.

.,,:

.,::.

j:;

,,,.

:.

:::.:-j:,,

,::j:....:.;..

.I...

j,..;

,/, :.;.

::::..

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Interceptor ditch berm construction

Dlverslon ditch side berms

Figure

6-31.

Typical berm emplacement

by the berm. The factors of Q, n, S, and

width are used to solve for depth by the
trial method.

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

OF CHANNELS
Ditch construction
normally requires either
a grader or a scraper.
Sometimes,
these
two items are used in combination.
Depending on the location, other factors must be
considered in designing and building
ditches.
Interceptor ditches should be set on grades,
thus allowing for quick removal of water

without erosion.
When the grade is not sufficient to permit quick water removal, the
ditch may require an asphalt or concrete
lining. Berms may be constructed
on the
downhill side of interceptor ditches, as
shown in Figure 6-3 1, to prevent overflow
and excessive erosion of the downhill slopes.
Abrupt changes in a ditchs normal flow pattern will induce turbulence
and cause excessive erosion.
These conditions develop most
frequently at channel transitions,
junctions,
and storm drain outlets.
Accordingly, special attention must be given to these locations during design.

Drainage

6-53

FM 50430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Channel maintenance
problems exist in all
drainage systems.
The basic design of the
ditch must consider
these maintenance
problems before they arise.
Therefore,
designers must have a thorough understanding
of the two basic ditch maintenance
problems: sedimentation
and erosion.
Channel
protection
and ditch shape, when used
together, control maintenance
problems
most effectively.

SEDIMENT

CONTROL

Water flowing overland

tends to carry sediment into any open channels.
When the
velocity in the channel is 3 fps or less, this
sediment can be deposited
in the channel.
Since most storms are less intense than the
design storm, the channel bottom may accumulate a large volume of loose sediment.
When peak flow does occur, the velocity
should be great enough to scour the channel bottom clean of loose sediment.
If the
sediment is not removed,
it will compact
and gradually reduce the depth of the
ditch.
At peak flow, the ditch may overflow
and cause damage to adjacent structures
before the channel is cleaned out; therefore,
the channel should be kept clean through
maintenance.
When designing
channels,
keep peak
velocity flow above 3 fps. This keeps the
channel self-cleaning.
A higher velocity is
preferred,
but such velocity must not exceed the maximum
velocity for the soil.
(See Table 6-8.)
When the soil type requires a maximum
allowable velocity under
3 fps, sedimentation
will be a maintenance
problem.
One solution is to line the ditch
with asphalt or concrete.
This reduces the
coefficient
of friction, thus increasing
the
velocity.
When sedimentation
is expected
and linings cannot be used, increase the allowable freeboard
to eliminate overflow.

EROSION CONTROL
Water flowing through open channels is turbulent.
This turbulence
increases as the
velocity increases.
Together, velocity and
turbulence
erode and carry away the soil of
the channel and endanger
nearby struc-

6-54

Drainage

tures such as roads, bridges, and culverts.

Velocity and turbulence
may also endanger
the channel itself.
In addition, the eroded
material may sometimes be deposited
within
the channel in areas where it will cause
damage.
In these cases, channel maintenance and repair will be a constant concern.
Erosion most commonly occurs when the
velocity of flow exceeds the velocity at
which the soil of the channel will erode.
Table 6-8 shows the maximum velocities.
Erosion can be prevented by lowering the
velocity below the soil-erosion
velocity.
This can be accomplished
by lining the
natural channel material with a more
erosion-resistant
material or by reducing
the side slopes.
Table 6-9 shows the recommended side slopes.
Erosion should be considered and accounted
for in the design of
channels.
Table 6-8.

Suggested

maximum

velocities

Maximum permissible
velocities (fps) *
/

Soil type or
Clear
lining (earth; no
, water
vegetation)
iI Fine

1 Water
carrying I and
fine silts 1 gravel

sand

&&kiTG&l)
9ilt

1ns.m

(noncolloidal)
Ordinary firm loam

I-

2.0

2.0

3.0

2.0

2.5

3.5

,I

2.2

FM 51430-OO-l/AFPAM

Table 6-9.

Recommended

Type of channel
Firm rock

side slopes

(Horizontal:vekcal)
Vertical to t&l

Concrete-lined stiff day

I??3

Fissured rock
Firm earth with stone lining

tl:l
1:i

Firm earth, large channels

Firm earth, small channels
Loose, sandy earth

1M:l
2:l

Sandy, porous loam

3:l

1:l

Decreasing the Hydraulic Radius

Reducing the hydraulic radius will decrease
the velocity.
This decrease in hydraulic
radius can be accomplished
by increasing
the wetted perimeter, wp, in relation to the
area, A (while the Q remains constant).
This can be done by widening the ditch, flattening the side slopes, or widening the bottom. This increases the wetted perimeter
without materially increasing the area. The
required changes in ditch design are determined by the trial approach, since the
amount of runoff, Q, must be retained
while reducing the velocity.
Lining the Channel
Erosion can be controlled by lining the bottom and sides of the channel.
Grass or Turf
Since natural linings take considerable
time
to grow or effort to place, they are seldom
used in the TO.

32-8013,

ditches.
Details on riprap and gabions
given on pages 6- 116 through 6- 123.

Vol II

are

Pavement
When the design and construction
are done
properly, paving the ditch with asphalt or
concrete will prevent erosion.
Because of
the low n values of different types of pavement, velocity may increase too much, causing erosion where the pavement ends.
Special protection, such as a stilling basin or
rock lining, may be required at this point to
slow the velocity before allowing the flow to
continue into the natural soil channel.
Because of pavements low n values. it can be
used effectively to increase flow velocities if
they are too low, thus preventing deposition.
Installing Check Dams
The water velocity in a channel can also be
reduced by decreasing the slope. However,
except for local variations,
building ditches
at slopes other than that of the surrounding ground is impractical.
One method for
decreasing the slope is to install check
dams or weirs, as shown in Figure 6-32,
page 6-56.
Check dams should be considered when the slope ranges between 2
and 8 percent.
Channels with slopes of 2
percent or less generally do not require extensive erosion controls.
With slopes in excess of 8 percent, it is usually more
economical to pave the ditch with asphalt
or concrete than to build check dams.
Design
Correct spacing between check dams can be
determined by using the following formula:

Riprap
Riprap lining involves placing rocks or rubble in the bottom and on the sides of the
ditch to prevent soil erosion.
Rocks should
be hand-placed
in at least ,two layers and
compacted individually.
Riprap not only
prevents erosion but decreases velocity in
the channel because of its high n value.
Riprap also helps prevent erosion when
making transitions
from paved to soil
ditches or from other high-velocity ditches
to those in which lower velocity is required.
Gabions are another method of lining

whereS = spacing, in feet. between check dams

(This value should not be less than 50
feet.)
H = height from the channel bottom to the
lower edge of the weir notch
(This value
should not be greater than 3 feet unless
the dam Is to be structurally designed.
To prevent unnecessary work, the practical lower limit for H is 1 foot.]

Drainage

6-55

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

A I % grade of road centerline

B = % grade of proposed water surface
- __-a

--

Old ditch slope

_______--_---________-__-

Jl

H is expressed in feet
Figure

6-56

Drainage

6-32.

Check-dam

design

FM 51430=00=1/AFPAM

A = slope

of the original

ditch

in percent

slope in percent
(This value
should be set at 2 percent.
This is the
maximum
slope that will not require additional erosion control.)

B = desired

slope

= 5%

Desired

slope

= 2%

300
100(H) _ lOO(3) =_=
3
A-B
5-2

H = 3 ft

Maintenance

Find

Erosion
dams.

S.

Table 6-10.

Compute

100

is a common
problem
with cheek
It usually
occurs when the weir

Discharge

for weir notches

by formula

Q =

Where

Vol 1

The spacing bctwccn

check dams is 100
feet. To prevent erosion of the sides of the
channel
at the check dam, a weir notch is
built in the center of the dam.
The weir
notch must be designed
to carry the flow in
the ditch.
Weir-notch
dimensions
for
various
flow rates are given in Table 6-10.

Example:
Original

32-8013,

in check dams

3.39L(HT

Q q discharge in cfs
L = length of weir notch in ft
H = depth of weir notch in ft

0
L

0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

1.2
3.4
6.2
9.6
13.4

2.4
6.8
12.5
19.2
26.8

3.6
10.2
18.7
28.8
40.2

3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0

17.6
22.2
27.1
32.4
37.9

35.2
44.4
54.2
64.7
75.8

52.8
66.6
81.4
97.1
113.7

4
4.8
13.5
24.9
38.3
53.6
70.5.
68.8
108.5
129.4
151.6

6.0
17.0
31.1
47.9
67.0

7.2
20.3
37.4
57.5
804

8.4
23.7
43.6
67.1
93.6

9.6
27.1
49.8
76.7
107.2

88.1
111.0
135.6
161.8
189.5

105.7
133.2
162.7
194.2
227.4

123.3
155.4
189.8
226.5
265.3

140.9
177.6
217.0
258.9
303.2

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5

10.8
30.5
56.0
86.3
120.6

12.0
33.9
62.3
95.9
134.0

13.2
37.3
68.5
105.5
147.4

14.4
40.7
74.7
115.0
160.8

15.5
44.1
61.0
124.6
174.2

16.8
47.5
87.2
134.2
187.6

18.0
50.9
93.4
143.6
201.0

19.2
54.3
99.6
153.4
2144

3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0

158.5
199.8
244.1
291.2
341.1

176.1
222.0
271.2
323.6
379.0

193.8
244.2
298.3
356.0
416.9

211.4
266.4
325.4
388.3
454.8

229.0
288.6
352.6
420.7
492.7

246.6
310.8
379.7
453.1
530.6

264.2
333.0
406.8
485.4
568.5

281.8
355.2
433.9
517.8
606.4

Drainage

6-57

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

notch is too small or is clogged with debris

so that water flows over the top of the dam.
Scour begins on the area exposed to the
hydraulic jump.
If allowed to continue long
enough, the erosion will extend to the area
around the dam, as seen in Figure 6-33.
If
lhis occurs, there will be more damage
caused to adjacent structures
than if the
dam had never been installed.

Water

Drainage

6-33.

; ,:.>.
:.j:j ::y:,,:.::
:::,
>,;:
:::.:
:.:,.,.
:..::., :......
.,,::.jj;.,,\
...

Some protection usually takes the form of

an extended horizontal or sloping apron.
Scour can also be prevented by anchoring
the sides and bottom into at least 2 feet of
compacted material.
Then place riprap
along at least 4 feet of the downstream
channel.
These construction
techniques
will prevent scour and undercutting.

Figure

6-56

5.. ,. ./..j :;:.:j: ::>::

Check-dam

maintenance

;.

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

SECT/ON /Il. CULVERTS

tions. Accordingly, culvert types and construction procedures are discussed prior to
considering culvert hydraulics and design
features.

A culvert is an enclosed waterway used to

pass water through an embankment
or fill.
The flow in a culvert depends upon several
factors, including the lining, slope, headwalls, wing walls, and downstream condi-

CULVERT TYPES AND DESIGNS

PERMANENT

headwall supports the soil mass at the end

of the culvert and helps to protect against
erosion.

CULVERTS

Permanent structures
can be constructed
from corrugated metal pipe (CMP), concrete,
multiplate pipe arch, vitrified clay (VC),
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or other material.
Corrugated-Metal-Pipe

CMP joints must be lapped so that water

flowing through the culvert passes over the
joint rather than into it. Failure to properly overlap the pipes will tend to force the
flowing water through the joints and into
the fill. All joints must be sealed, preferably with caulk or bituminous
material.
If
joints are not sealed, voids may be generated around culverts, causing collapse of
the fill. To increase the velocity for a
greater quantity of flow, line the culvert
with asphalt.
Commercial CMP is available
with asphalt linings.

Culverts

Because it is commercially
available in
numerous shapes, lengths, and diameters,
CMP is commonly used in military construction. For TO construction,
CMP is made of
an aluminum-and-steel
alloy. It comes in
nestable half sections that, when assembled, give 2-foot effective lengths.
It is
available in the diameters and gages listed
in Table 6- 1 1. The minimum diameter
recommended
is 18 inches for lengths up to
20 feet and 24 inches for all other lengths.
Small diameters may become clogged with
debris and are difficult to maintain.

Assembling

Concrete-Pipe

Z-loot

effectwe

Material.

length

aluminum-steel

(nestable
alloy

half secttons)

0.0598

Culverts

When available, precast concrete pipe

should be used instead of CMP for culverts.
It has two advantages over CMP. First, it is
stronger and requires less cover than CMP
to support the same load. Second, the interior surface of concrete pipe is smoother
(Mannings n = 0.013) than CMP (Mannings
n = 0.024).
Because of these advantages,
concrete pipe of the same diameter and
slope as CMP will carry a higher flow.

Table 6-11. Sizes of corrugated metal pipe

16

CMP

CMP has flange-type fittings which arc easily fastened together by nuts and bolts that
come with the sections.
Vise grips and a
ratchet set make assembly faster and easier.

Specific construction
techniques
are
employed in placing CMP. A retaining wall
called a heczdwall is placed at the upstream
end of the culvert.
Headwalls are always
used upstream: they are desirable but not
mandatory for the downstream end. The

Nestable

Concrete pipe is fabricated in circular and

noncircular
cross sections.
It is available
in many lengths and widths.
Seal joints between the sections to prevent excessive
leakage and subsequent
weakening of the

Drainage

6-59

FM 5430-OO-l/AFP

93-4, Vol I

fill section.
Substantial
headwalls
are requircd at both ends to prevent
separation
at the joints.
Start assembly
downstream
and work upstream,
ensuring
male ends
point downstream.
Concrete-Box

Culverts

Consider
concrete-box
culverts
where the
full area of the waterway
must bc used.
One advantage
is that the box can be
designed
to withstand
external
loads with
little or no cover.
Box culverts
are cspecially adaptable
to rock sites, since the bottom
of the culvert can bc placed directly
on the
rock.
Concrete-box
design requires
knowledge
or
construction
techniques
for reinforced
concrcte structures.
Box culverts
can be
precast,
but construction
in the TO will
probably
require
that they be cast in place.

EXPEDIENT

CULVERTS

Expedient
field-type
culverts
are built of
material
available
on-site such as logs, oil
drums,
and sandbags
filled with a sand-ceSome examples
of culverts
ment mixture.
built of thcsc materials
appear in Figures
6-34, 6-35 and 6-36.
ExpcdicnL culverts
built and sized properly
should serve until
permanent
structures
can bc built.
For
cvalualing
hydraulics,
end arcas equivalent
Lo CMP can bc used for similar slopes.

CULVERT CONSTRUCTION
Proper placement
is one of the most important factors during culvert construction.
It
is a major contributor
to survival
of the
culvert under adverse
conditions.
Some
things to consider
in placing culverts
are
culvert alignment;
slope: fill placement;
compaction
under, around,
and over the
culvert;
culvert length; and protection
against
erosion.
Alignment

The relationship
of the culvert to the
strcambed
is of major importance.
Improper location
can cause the stream to
seek an alternative
path other than the culvert.
This could quickly close a road or air-

6-60

Drainage

field to traffic.
To lessen
the alignment
tcchniqucs
6-37, page 6-62.

this effect, use

shown in Figure

To maintain
an existing drainage
pattern,
place the culvert directly
in the streambed,
as in view (A) of Figure 6-37.
Even though
this may be diagonal
to the fill, if the
hydraulics
of lhe channel
are not changed,
the stream will not change its direction.
Prcvcnt Ihc stream from shifting
its course
at the culvert inlet or oullct.
Somctimcs
lhc structure
will cut across a stream
meander
as in view (B) of Figure 6-37.
This leads to doubt as to where to lay the
culvcrl in the streambed.
In this cast, it is
best to cut a new channel
to lead the
stream away from the structure.
The old
streambed
must be filled and dammed
with
erosion-resistant
material
at the junction
of
the old and new channels.
The dam can be
built of sandbags,
logs, riprap, or other
similar material.
Provide a smooth transition
into and out of
the culvert.
The structure
may cut across
a bend of the stream,
as in view (Cl of Figurc 6-37, with a straight
run of the stream
through
the structure.
If the bend is close
to the structure,
it is preferable
to recut the
stream.
as shown, and lay the culvert
in
Ihc new strcambcti.
Care should be taken
to lill in and dam the entrance
to the old
strcambcd
and the junction
of the two
streambcds,
as described
above.
Move the water past the project as quickly
as possible.
When the channel
flows parallel to the structure,
erosion will eventually
occur.
To prevent erosion,
dig a new channcl, rouling
the flow through
the culvert
and away from the structure,
as shown in
view (D) of Figure 6-37.
Again, be sure to
fill and dam the old streambed
at the junction point.
The alignment
of ditch relief culverts
is
shown in Figure 6-38, page 6-63.
The
amount
of flow and the slope of the ditch
determine
the spacing between
culvert inlets.
On a road with a 5-percent
grade,
relief culverts
should be spaced 500 feet

FM 5-4300OO-l/AFPAM

Tack weld

Figure

6-34.

Oil-drum

32-8013,

Vol 1

culvert
Figure

6-35.

logs

Landing-mat

and sandbag

culvert

Stakes and spreaders

spaced 8 center to center

8 x 10
logs
I

6X8

Diameter

logs

1 ))

Driftpin or spike logs

and stakes together

\I

,o-

+llFigure

6-36

Log culverts

Drainage

6-6 1

FM 5_43().0()-1/AFPAM

32.8013,

Vol 1

:. ,..... :..;.:: .. .; ..::..

.; ..

:; ..~::.i,~~~.j~~.~_-j..,
..:...
: ..:;.,

Use longer

(A) Malntaln existing drainage pattern

Dam

(B) Prevent stream from

shlftlng its course at inlet
or outlet

(C) Ensure smooth transition

at inlet and outlet

Fill old channel

Fill

old channel

(D) Move water past

as soon as possible

I\

Figure 6-37. Culvert alignment

apart.
should

6-62

On an 8-percent grade, spacing

be reduced to 300 feet.

Drainage

Slope

Culverts normally should be installed with

the invert of both the inlet and the outlet of
the culvert at streambed or channel elevation. The invert is the lowest point in the

:_:::::.:::.,:.;
.,.:
,,...: .:..
..(.,(.(.,,
:.:..:.:...:

.,.,

;::,:::,.:.:..

:.:::.>,::

., ,.,. : >;::::,;
.,. .. ...,.. ::.:~:.::,i:,t::~::,,:,::
,.,
,, ::::,,,:,:,:;:

:,+:...:x:.>:

~:,::::

:,::

.....

., ..~~::::::i:.i::~:.~,~~,,~~~
.,

.:: _.

:.:.:.;(::j:j;~
. .

FM 5430=00=1/AFPAM

Ditch
relief
culverts

Figure 6-36.

Ditch relief culverts

internal cross section of an artificial channel or the bottom of the culvert.

The normal grade of the culvert can be modified by
two techniques,
as shown in Figure 6-39.
l

Drop inlets can be used to lower the

inlet of the culvert. This will tend to
reduce the slope of the culvert. An example of a drop inlet is shown in view
(Al of Figure 6-39 and a discussion
begins on page 6-89.

32-8013, Vol 1

The outlet of the culvert can be raised

to reduce the slope, as shown in view
(B) of Figure 6-39.

For culverts to be self-cleaning,

flow
velocity should be at least 3 fps. To
achieve this velocity, the culvert should not
be set on less than a 0.5 percent grade, if
practicable.
To prevent excessive outlet
velocity, the culvert grade should not exceed 2 percent.
In general, free-falling outlets and culverts
with slopes of more than 2 percent will require outlet erosion protection.
In mountainous country where there are excessive
stream slopes or in fills across dry valleys.
culverts may have to be set at grades other
than the terrain or streambed slope. In the
TO, it may be advisable to accept the
erosion problem and install the culvert with
a slope for an excess of 2 percent.
This
will help to prevent a blockage caused by
debris passing through the pipe.
Depth of Fill
The distance measured from the culvert invert to the edge of the shoulder or top of
the fill, as shown in Figure 6-40. page 664, is the depth of fill. The depth of fill
must be equal to or greater than the cover
plus the pipe diameter.
Otherwise, a
smaller diameter culvert or a drop inlet
must be used. For a road culvert made of
CMP, the largest diameter allowable must
equal two-thirds the minimum fill depth.
Cover

(A) Drop Inlet

(6) Outlet above grade

Figure 6-39.

Changing

normal grade of culvert

The depth of compacted soil from the top of

the culvert (crown) to the finished construction grade is called cover. The culvert and
the surrounding compacted soil must have
sufficient strength to carry the compacted
soil backfill (dead loads) and the wheel and
impact loads (live loads) of the traffic.
Live
loads are more damaging than dead loads
on culverts under shallow cover, and dead
loads are more damaging than live loads on
culverts under deep cover. Accordingly,
both minimum protective cover and maximum permissible depths of backfill must be
included in design considerations
for culverts. During construction,
provide

Drainage

6-63

5_43().()()11/AFPAM 32.801 3, Vol 1

:j:~~~.:::j~j:~.~,:I.:,lii.i..I~:;~i,:i:
.... ..:: .. :..:: I .I..: :,.,.
::j::,..::
:,.,.
ii.~ii~,,:~.:.I:;~r,:~i:i:i.:.,:i

Fill and compact

inlet

culvelt

Figure

properly

6-40.

layers to top of
culvert plus 12 inches

Culvert

adequate
additional
cover to protect
the culvert from damage in places where heavy
construction
equipment
will be crossing
frequently.
The minimum
cover required
to protect
the
culvert pipe against
live loads will depend
upon the type of load.
For road culverts,
the minimum
cover is one-half
the diameter
of the culvert,
or 12 inches, whichever
is
greater.
The cover over culverts
used in airfields must be specifically
designed
for the
heaviest
aircraft
using the facility.
Table
6- 12 lists characteristics
of US aircraft.
Use this table to determine
the landing-gear
configuration,
wheel loads, and culvert
weight type.
This will, in turn, allow you to
select the proper fill requirements
category
in Table 6- 13, page 6-66, or Table 6- 14,
page 6-67.
Tables 6- 13 and 6- 14 give the cover requirements for culverts
under airfields.
These
tables are composed
of a series of charts
based on aircraft
load and gear configurations.
Each of these charts
is headed by a

6-64

Drainage

specifications

shaped and to
minimum depth
of l/l0 D

for CMP

culvert weight type.

These charts are good
for 5,000 pounds
more than listed.
(For example, the chart headed 60,000-lb
Singlewheel is good for single-wheel
loads up to
and including
65,000 pounds.1
Each chart is subdivided
into columns
headed by culvert pipe diameters,
in inches,
and rows based on the gage of the metal.
Use linear interpolation
for the incremental
diameters
not listed.
The body chart gives
the cover required,
in feet, for the diameter
and gage of pipe concerned.
To use these tables, find the chart that applies to the particular
aircraft
wheel or gear
load and landing-gear
type.
Then use Table
6- 12 to find the appropriate
culvert type.
When the proper chart is located,
read
down the left column of the table to determine the appropriate
row for the gage concer ned. When the proper row has been
found, read horizontally
to the right and
find the minimum
cover, in feet, under the
column headed with the pipe diameter
in

::.::...:..:..:.
j:.,. :,: :,:~:,,
,:,.
..:...:.::.

.
: .

. .

:
. . . .

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

,j,,
:.,::.:

. . . .

Table 6-12.

:..

y:

Characteristics

32-8013,

Vol 1

of US aircraft

Aircraft

Name

Gear type

Load on main
gear (klps)

Culvert WT

Max wt (kip)

type

A-7
A-1OA
A-370

Corsair II
(CAS)
Dragonfly

42
51
15

S
S
S

18
23
7

2
2
1

F-l 1 lA/D/E
F-111F
F-4C/D/E/G
F-14C
F-l 5A/B
F-l 5C/D
F-l 5E
F-l 6A
F-18

(VGF)
(VGF)
Phantom
Tomcat
Eagle
___
--_
(LWF)
Hornet

100
100
58
72
56
68
81
33
20

S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S

44
48
25
34
25
30
35
14
9

4
4
3
4
2
2
2
2
1

AV-80
AV- 16A

Harrier
Advanced

B-1
B-52G/H

II

28
30

DU-S(BlC)

10
11

2
2

(Adv SB)
Stratobomber

477
488

T-T-TA
T-T

222
265

15
16

FB-11lA

(VGSB)

114

Single

54

C-5B
C-9A
c-17
C-130E
HC-130H
KC- 135A
C-1414/B
VC- 1378

Galaxy
Nightingale
-__
Hercules
Hercules
Stratotanker
Starlifter
(707)

840
108
580
175
175
301
323
334

T-DE-TA
Twin
T-TA-TRl
S-TA
S-TA
T-TA
T-TA
T-TA

400
52
267
84
84
142
153
167

15
7
15
13
13
14
14
14

E-3A
E-4B

(707 AWACS)
(747 AABNCP)

323
800

T-TA
DU-T-TA

155
372

14
16

SR-71 c

(A=)

170

Triple

77

OV- 1OA/B

Bronco

14

DU-S(-fA)

55

uv-18A

Twin Otter

13

Single

Harrier

(707)

Drainage

6-65

Table 6-13.

Minimum

10
20

30

35

30

40

45

25

35
30

45
35

40

45

Vol 1

32-8013,

FM 5-430~OO-l/AFPAM

cover requirements,

10
10

15
15

15

10

10

10

35

45

55

50
45

30

40
35

50
40

in feet, for airfields

20

20

55
50

45

20

i.::::

,:,,

(CMP)

20
15

30
45
45

..:..

2:.:

.,

30
20

40
30

40

30

35

10

15

30

10

15
15

15
15

25

35

40

20
15

25
20

65

60
55

40

50

55

65

Corrugated

metal pope. Federal Spscd~cat~on QQ C.6060

and Am 1. AASHO

M36.57.

NOTES:
1 Ptpa produced by certam mwwtacwrsrs
exceeds the strsnpth requ~ementr
estabhshed by the lndlcsted rtsndardr When sdd,,mnat rtre,3th 13proven.
the m~~mm coef may be reduced accordmgty
2 Tabla to be used tar both trench- and embankment-,ype

mstatts~mns

3 Covsr tof ptpe w~lhin Iandmg or 1axlw.y slnps or s!mntar Irattnc areas w~tttbe
I accordance wnth thus table except as prpwded I no,a 4

question.
follow.

Two examples of this tabulation

or AREA Spsc~t~cat~on l-4-6

(1953)

4 Pope placed under alrfietd rqd pavenwls

,vtI have a m,n,mum cove,
measured from the bottom 01 the stab 010 5 t1 tar 25.OOGtb s~npte.whest
toad 40.000-lb
twl-wheet
arsembly.
and 40.000-lb
rrgte.,andam
assembly Mfnlmum cover for greater toadmpr wit be 1 0 h
5 tn seasonal tron areas. rnllrnrn pipe cover Wlli meel the repvlrementr 01
Table 2 ot Change 1 to EM 11 10 345-283 tor protsct,on 01 s,orm dra,ns
sgaunst lreezm~ condltoons

60,000-lb single-tandem-12-gage
pipe.
(Use 60,000-lb single-tandem assembly
(assy), chart 13.)

Example 1:
13

Wolght

C 130E Hercules-12-gage
pipe; from Table
6-12, page 6-65, C130E requires culvert WT
type 13.

typr
__@I
pip

60,OOMb
12

24

16

20

30

14

15

d5

Singlo-tandrm
36

48

ass] V

60

72

GAGE
25

35

12

15

25

35

IO

15

25

30

30

35

20

25

30

30

6-66

Drainage

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

Table 6-14.

10

From

10

Minimum

10

10

cover requirements,

25

25

25

1.5

15

15

25
20

20
15

20
15

*Linear

3.5

35

30

2.0

20

20

30

concrete

20
15

15

Vol 1

pipe)

6.0

30

30

30
30

30

15

Example
2: 60,000-lb
single-wheelpipe.
(Use chart 5 in Table 6-13.1

Pipe dia
Cover
required
(ft)

25

(reinforced

10

chart:

(in)

in feet, for airfields

32-8013,

8-gage

24

/ 1.5
interpolation

30*

2.ok

36

2.5

between

42*

2.75
sizes /is ted.

48

3.0

Pipe dia
(in)
Cover
required
(ft)
*Linear

36

42*

48

54*

60

2.5

2.75

3.0

3.25,

3.5

interpolation

between

sizes

listed.

Drainage

6-67

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

The maximum
pcrmissiblc
depth of fill
(cover) for CMP is given in Table 6- 15 for
slccl and Table 6-16 for aluminum
alloy.
Reinforced
concrete
pipe made under standard specifications
can be cased in fill up to
50 feet.
Bedding

as shown in Figure 6-40,

page 6-64.
The
bedding
is formed and shaped
to fit the bottom of the culvert.
In addition,
the foundation is cambered
(curved slightly
upward),
as shown in Figure 6-41 along the centerline of the culvert
to allow for settlement
and to ensure
tightness
in the joints.
At
no time should the invert elevation
increase
as the flow proceeds
downstream.

(Foundations)

The minimum
bedding
depth for pipe culverts is one-tenth
the diameter
of the pipe

Table 6-15.

Maximum

permissible

cover for CMP

NOTES:
1.

Except

for gage tables,

CMP will conform

to the requirements

and Aml, AASHTO Standard M36-57 or to AREA Specification

2.

Table will be used for normal

only to dead load plus H-20-44

3.

Vertical

generally

6-68

elongatfon

installation

live load.

will be accompllshed

be 5% of the pipe diameter.

Drainage

conditions

H-20-44

of Federal

l-4-6

Speclflcation

QQ-C-666a

(1953).

and for loads

ranging

live load Is equivalent

by either shop fabrlcatlon

from

dead (earth)

to a 32,000-lb

or field strutting

axle load.
and will

load

Table 6-16.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Maximum permissible cover for corrugated aluminum-alloy

Vol 1

pipe

YOTES:
1.

Corrugated-aluminum-alloy

pipe will conform

to the requirements

of AASHTO

Standard

2. Table will be used for normal Installation conditions for loads ranglng from dead
dead load plus H29-44 live load or dead load plus Cooper E-W railway loadlng.
3.

Vertical

generally

elongation

will be accompllshed

by elther shop fabrlcatlon

(earth)

or field strutting

M196621.
load only to

and will

be 5% of the plpe diameter.

&?+J

Figure 6-41.

Elevation of center section of

culvert

Culverts are constructed

on firm, well-compacted foundations.
The composition of the
soil on the bottom of the stream should be
determined.
Good granular material will be
required to form a proper compacted and
shaped bed. If a stream bottom is composed of poor material, such as organic matter, muck, silt, or large material that could
puncture the CMP, remove and replace the
material.
The depth of material to be

Drainage

6-69

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

rcmovcd will depend upon information

from
borings.
When the bearing slrcngth of the
soil is complctcly
inadcquatc
and uneven
settlcmcn L is cxpcclcd,
provide cradle
footings.
Thcsc footings may rcquirc piling
as shown in Figure 6-42.
Footings used for
timber c~~lvcrts, as shown in Figure 6-43,
can also bc adaptctl for various types of ct~lvcrts and soils.

3 x 12 or 4 X 12

Culverts can be placed on properly

prepared rock foundations.
Trench the
rock and backfill with firmly compacted
soil
for bedding the culvert, as shown in Figure
6-44.

Figure 6-43.

Footings

for timber

culverts

Hand placed and

2 X4
Beveled
Beddina:
compactecY fill
shaped to fit pipe

nter to Center

&

or malbr

cuhrerts

Figure 6-44.

Concrete-culvert
rock

installation

in

Backfill
center to center

6 x 6

Cradb on piles for large culverts

and larger fills
Figure

6-70

6-42.

Drainage

Cradle

footings

Take cart in backfilling

around the culvert,
since the backfill supports the culvert
against soil pressure generated
by surface
loads as shown in Figure 6-39, page 6-63.
The soil selected should be placed carefully
in well-compacted
layers kept al the same
elevation on both sides of the culvert.
Compaction is done in 6-inch layers if hand- or
air-operated
or if other mechanical
tampers
arc used.
If logs, hand tamping, or other
cxpedicnt
methods are used, place the soil
in 4-inch layers.
Carry the compaction
from Lhc culvert bed material to 12 inches
or one-ltalf the diamctcr above the top of
the culvert (whichcvcr
is grcatcr).

..:. ,/: : : j y: : i:..

...,.

...I..

,,,..

...:,.,

:::

32-8013,

FM 514301OO-l/AFPAM

Vol 1

Length

Culvert length is determined

by the width
of the embankment
or soil mass through
which the culvert carries water.
Culverts
that do not include a downstream
hcadwall
must bc long enough
lo cxlend a minimum
of 2 feet beyond
the Lot of lhc embankment
lo prcvcn 1 erosion.
Headwalls, Wing

Walls, and Aprons

Hcadwalls
and aprons arc constructed
to
guide water into the culvert,
prevent or control erosion,
rcducc
seepage,
hold the soil
in place, and support
the ends of the culveri.
Headwalls
close to roads should not
protrude
above the shoulder
grade.
They
should be at least 2 feet outside
the
shoulder
so they do not present
a traffic
hazard.

Plank headwall

USC headwalls
on the upstream
end of all
culverts.
If possible,
use a headwall
on the
downstream
end as well. When concrete
pipes arc used. headwalls
are mandatory
at
Headwalls,
both upstream
and
both ends.
downstream,
should have wing walls or
retaining
walls set at an angle to the headwall. This will help support
the fill and
direct the water flow to prevent erosion.
The upstream
wing wall will guide the
waler into Lhc culvert and assist in improving 11-1~culvert hydraulics.
The downslream
wing wall, combined
with an apron, will
help reduce
the velocity of the stream,
and
thcrcby
lessen erosion al the oullct.
Ideally. headwalls
and wing walls should bc
rcinforccd
concrete
or morlared
stone.
Standard
designs
are in the TM 5-302
series manuals.
They can, however, be
made of expedient
material
such as lumber,
logs, or sandbags.
These structures
are
shown in Figure 6-45.
For speedy construction in the TO, sandbags
filled with a soiland-ccmen
t mixture
may provide the best
headwall
possible.
When hcadwalls
arc not used on the downstream end, the culvert should project
beyond the toe of the fill at lcasl 2 feet.
USC riprap to protect
lhc projecting
area culvcrl riprap, as shown Figure 6-46. page
6-72.

Concreteheadwall

Concrete wing wall

Figure

6-45.

Headwalls and wing walls

culverts

Drainage

for

6-71

FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Figure
Erosion

6-46.

Vol 1

Culvert

Control

Culverts discharging
into open channels
should have antiscour protection to prevent
erosion.
Two types of channel instability
can develop downstream
from culvert and
storm-drain
outlets.
These conditions,
known as gully scour and scour hole, are
shown in Figure 6-46.
Predict the type of
scour for a given field situation by comparing the original or existing channel slope or
drainage basin downstream of the outlet to
what is required for stability.
Gully scour is expected when channel flow
exceeds that required for stability.
It
begins at a point downstream where the

channel is stable and progresses upstream.

If sufficient differential in elevation exists

6-72

Drainage

.. :..

outlets

Minimum

projection

without

headwalls

between the outlet and the stable channel,

the outlet structure will be completely
undermined.
Erosion of this type may be
considerable,
depending on the location of
the stable channel section relative to the
outlet in both the vertical and downstream
directions.
View (A) of Figure 6-47 illustrates this condition.
A scour hole or localized erosion, as shown
in view (Bl of Figure 6-47, is to be expected
if the downstream channel is stable.
The
severity of damage to be anticipated
depends on existing conditions or those
created at the outlet.
In some instances,
the extent of the scour hole may be insufficient to produce either instability of the embankment or structural damage to the out-

..

. .

. .

gully scour

32-8013,

Vol 11

Headwalls, wing walls, or channel linings

can absorb the energy of flowing water and
reduce its velocity to acceptable
levels.
When wing walls are not provided, line the
stream bank and bottom for some distance
downstream with riprap or other material.
Ditch linings were described in greater
detail earlier in this chapter.

Flow

(A)
Flow

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

Stable
slope

CULVERT DESIGN
(B)

Figure

The hydraulic load on a culvert is the

amount of water that will flow to the ulvert inlet, either as direct surface or chartnel-stream
flow. Surface flow is determined
by the rational and channel-flow-equations
methods discussed earlier.

scour hole

6-47.

Types of scour at culvert

outlets

let. However, in many situations,

flow conditions produce scour that erodes the embankment and causes structural
damage to
the apron, end wall, and culvert.
This type
of outlet erosion of the bottom of the ditch
and of the side banks is shown in Figure
6-48.
Erosion is best controlled by two methods:
velocity reduction and channel protection.
Reducing the slope of the culvert reduces
the velocity.
This solution, however, may
require a larger pipe since it changes the
capacity of the culvert.

Hydraulics of Culverts
Culvert quantity of flow (9) is the amount
of water the culvert will carry in a unit of
time. This capacity is expressed in cfs.
For a particular culvert of known size (AI,
shape, and interior roughness (n), the discharge capacity is controlled by one or
more of the following factors:
l

Height of the water above the culvert

inlet.
Hydraulic gradient

(S) of the culvert.

Length (L) of the culvert.

Elevation
outlet.

of the tailwater at the culvert

Slde-bank scour
(plan view)

Top bank
of ditch

Bottom-scour
(wctlon v&w)

Figure

6-48.

Outlet erosion

Drainage

6-73

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

The type of inlet is not generally

considered
in military culvert design.
However, it
should bc rcmcmbered
that the discharge
capacity
of a culvert will bc increased
by a
smooth,
transition
type of inlet with headwalls and wing walls.
For construction
in
the TO, Lhc culvert should have a design
capacity
sufficient
to pass the peak runoff
from the design storm.
Hydraulic

Gradient

The hydraulic
gradient
(S) of a culvert is
one of the culvert discharge
capacity
controls.
It can bc satisfactorily
estimated
as
lhc slope in ft/ft.
The gradient
is calculatcd by dividing the head (HI on a culvert
by the culvert length CL): S = H/L.
The
head is the diffcrcncc
in elevation
between
the following:
l

The two ends of a culvert, if both the

inlet and the outlet are not submerged.
The water surface directly above the
inlet and the top of the outlet, if the
inlet is submerged
and the outlet is not
submerged.

The hydraulic
gradient
and
illustrated
in Figure 6-49.

head

are

The normal flow pattern

for culverts,
for
which Table 6-17 is used, is shown by view
(Al of Figure 6-49.
In this case, the water
is at crown elevation
at the inlet, and the
ou tlct is free-flowing.
An accumulation
of water at the inlet of the
culvert is called pending.
When ponding
occurs,
the outlet will normally
be free-flowing, but the water will be at some depth
above the inlet.
When this depth at the
inlet is 1.2D or less (where D is the diameter of the culvert),
use Table 6- 17 to
directly determine
Q and V. When the
waler depth at the inlet invert is greater
than 1.2D and the outlet is free-flowing,
use a nomograph
(Figure 6-50, page 6-76)
to determine
Q, and use the continuity
equation
Q = VA to determine
the velocity.
When both the inlet and the outlet are completely submerged,
use Figure 6-50 exclusively.

The water surface directly above the

inlet and the outlet, if both the inlet and
outlet arc submerged.
Water level

(cl

(Al Inlet and outlet unsubmerged

s, = H, /I.
Water level

6-74

Drainage

6-49.

Hydraulic

Inlet and outlet submerged

Sg=Hg/L

Water level

(8) Inlet submerged and outlet unsubmerged

s2 = H* /L

Figure

Water

gradient,

@I Drop inlet culvert - inlet submerged and

outlet unsubmerged
s, = H, /L Hi = heaa on grate

S, and heads,

H, for culverts

.,.,.,...,..,:
:.,.,..:,:.::..,::.:::.:..::,..
,.,.. .,..:y+,:::: :..,>:..,, .,,:...,..,.

:;::;;:i::; i:::~:::l:::l:~:::.:::.:...

:.

.A.,

,:,.:,.(.

.i...

.j

..,,., :,::,::.,.::~::;:.,:

,&l;i::illl:.3

> :j:

.+:.:.:.:.~..;:.:.:.:
: ::j:$j
,,.,...,
:,..>:.:..:... .. ..::::,;::
. . . ..:;:.:::.:x
. .. . .:.>...

:;&

,j,:; :i;;::(: ,,

FM 5=43&00=1/AFPAM

:;;

32-8013,

Vol 1

Table 6-17. Capacity and critical slope of culverts*

(h-fannings n of 0.012, 0.018, and 0.024)
_. ___

PIPE (INCHES)

DIAMETER

IF
0.4

0.9

0.9

30.9

0.9

Tii4

1.6

2.4

4.3

1.6

10

6s
rB.B

10

16
*-716

26

40

26

*40

69

83

110

9--1059

93

110

140

190

230

290

330

400

470

2.6
n =O.OlS

TMverts

with fraa outlet with water surface at inlet sama elevation as top of pipe and outlet unsubmerged

NOTES:
1.

Values are In da.

Ilnos indicate

critlcal

llope.

2.

Horvy horizontal

3.

Steopar rlopoa than crltlcal do not result In Increaaod

4.

Numbered

oteppad Ilnea Indicate appoxlmate

5.

Mannlngr

n = 0.012 appllea to clay or concrete

6.

Mannlngr

n = 0.019 appllae to CMP; Invert paved to 50% of diameter.

7.

Mannlngr

n I 0.024 applier

velocltiaa

diecharge.
In fps.

pipe; rxcellent

condition

of aurfaclng

allgnment.

to CMP; ofandard unpaved.

Drainage

6-75

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

0.25

5
6
;
9
10

-z

L
3

----

..

Ic2

The head al
entrance
(h,)
must exceed
velocity head
plus entrance
loss.

Compute

VI-

600
700
800
900

Qi

I,OOcJ

A
Increase

section

II necessary,
until hi > 0.022

7
8

for CMP

V2

h, > 0.017

V2 for others.

9
O45:e

10

51

Figure 6-50. Nomograph for culverts

6- 76

Drainage

I
s

I
E

flowing

For free outlet.

be rpprox,msted
~emcrl

use Ii for n. H may

8s Ii less an rssumd

daameler

full with ponding

inlets

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

Critical

Slope

For a given size, A, of the culvert and a

given head, H, on the culvert. the discharge
capacity of the culvert will increase as the
hydraulic gradient increases.
This
continues
until the hydraulic
gradient
becomes equal to or greater than the
critical slope, SC. As the hydraulic gradient
is increased
beyond the critical slope,
culvert discharge
remains constant.
The
area decreases
because the pipe does not
flow full, and the velocity of flow in the
culvert increases because V = Q/A. The
critical slope is the maximum discharge.
Roughness
For the sclcction of the pipe roughness
values (n values) for flow determination,
rcfcr lo the footnotes
to Table 6- 17, page
6-75.
Box-Culvert

-.

Flow

Flow characteristics
of box culverts may be
different from those of pipe culverts, even
those with the same slope, lining, and inlet
and outlet conditions,
Flow, 8, can be
determined,
as previously
noted, for the
conditions
of inlet and outlet water
elevations.
Assuming
that the water elevation of the
inlet is at the top of the box and the outlet
is free-flowing,
the difference
in inflow
characteristics
between pipe and box
culverts of the same material and slope is
negligible.
Box-culvert
sizes can therefore
be determined
by computing
the
cross-sectional
area required for a pipe and
then designing
a box of the same material,
slope, and cross-sectional
arca.
When the water clcvation is above the top
of the box inlet, use the nomograph
in
Figure 6-50.
In this case, make trial
solutions
until there is correlation
between
the box size and ponding depth.
Design

of Culverts

with

Submerged

Inlets

Submerging
of the culvert inlet results in
ponding at the site. The elevation of the
pond surface, which will determine
the

depth

of submergence,

is a function

of the

32-8013,

Vol 1

extent of the pond, the requirement

of
safety to the structure,
and the time it will
take to empty the pond.
These factors are
determined
by the runoff rate, the pond
volume, and the culvert-flow
ralc.
They are
derived using the following
steps:
Step 1. Determine
the rate of runoff (9)
the culvert must drain or, in the case of
ponding, the inlet drain capacity, Qd.
Step 2.

Determine

the length

Step

Determine

the head on the culvert.

3.

of the culvert.

Step 4. Using Figure 6-49, page 6-74,

determine
the size and type of pipe or box
culvert required lo handle the quantity of
flow, Q.
To use this table, enter the nomograph
(Figure 6-50) at the intersection
of the
length for the type and size of culvert (for
example, point A in the nomograph).
Extend the line horizontally
to the
turning-point
lint (point B in the
nomograph),
and extend the line to the
culvert head, H, in feet (point C in the
nomograph).
Find the discharge,
Q, in
cubic feet per second, for the pipe selected
at the intersection
with the discharge
line.
Step 5. Compute the discharge velocity, V,
in fps. Use the equation,
V = Q/A.
If the
discharge velocity is greater than the
maximum
permissible
velocity for the
outfall or the height of the water, in feet,
above the top of the culvert inlet is less
than 0.022(V2) for CMP or 0.017(V2) for
concrete pipe or boxes, either select pipes
of larger diameter or decrease the slope of
the culvert.
Example
Outlet) :

(Submerged

Inlet,

Unsubmerged

Determine
the most economical
pipe size
and number of pipes required
for a culvert
across an airfield.
The following are known
conditions:
The outfall from the culvert is a natural
drainage channel with dense turf in a
GP soil.

Drainage

6-77

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

The design flow, Q, is 2 10 cfs.

42-inch and 48-inch

available.

concrete

pipes are

Solution :
Step

1.

Q = 2 10 cfs (given).

Step 2.

L = 180 feet (given).

Step 3.

Determine

head,

ft t 3.5 ft)

H 48-m

= 598.6 ft - (593.0
= 1.6 ft

ft + 4.0 ft)

Step 4. Determine the size and number

pipes required to handle the flow, Q.

of

(b) Similarly, for the 48-in pipe, 180 ft

length, and 1.6 ft H, proceed from D to E
to F and find that one 48-m pipe would
have a capacity discharge of about 92 cfs.
Again, three would be required for 2 10 cfs.
Step 5. Compute the discharge velocity,
and check for excessive outlet velocity.
Check smaller pipe.

V,

(a) Since three pipes are used, assume

each will carry one-third the total Q or 70
cfs, whichever is greater.
If the pipe flows full, the exit velocity

is-

Drainage

to see that Hi 2 0.017(V2).

(e) Since allowable outfall velocity is exceeded and Hf < 0.017(V2), use three 48inch pipes as the most economical available
size.

(a) On the cast-concrete-pipe

portion of
the nomograph. draw a horizontal line from
the intersection
of the 180-ft L line and the
42-m pipe line (point A) to the
turning-point
line (point B). From B, draw
a line to an H of 2.1 ft (point C). The
intersection
of this line with the 9 portion
of the nomograph shows the maximum
discharge of one 42-m pipe to be about 78
cfs. For 210 cfs, three would be required.

6-78

Check

Hi = 598.6 ft - (594.0 ft + 3.5 ft) = 1 .l ft

and 0.017 x 9.22 = 1.44

H.

= 598.6 ft - (593.0
= 2.1 ft

78
3.14(1.75)2

(c) If the exit velocity is based on a design

flow of 70 cfs, the pipe would be flowing
only partially full and the exit velocity
would be 9.2 fps. This velocity is greater
than when the pipe flows full because the
resistance
to flow decreases until the pipe
is flowing approximately
0.8 full.
(d)

H 42-m

(b)

.:

= 8.1 fps

Design of Pipe Culverts with Unsubmerged Inlets

The factors to be applied to the design of
these culverts are determined as follows:
Step 1. Determine the rale of runoff.
Use
the area the culvert must drain. This will
be the required capacity, &-,, of the culvert.
Step 2. Determine culvert use. Will it be
used for a road or for an airfield?
Step 3. Calculate the critical dimensions
from the cross sections.
See Figure 6-51.
Determine the length in place (LIP) and the
fill critical (Fc).
Step 4. Determine the largest pipe for the
fill. Begin from the cross section at the
outside edge of the shoulder.
Consider only
pipes that are available and for which cover
is adequate.
For roadway loadings, the maximum culvert
diameter is equal to two-thirds of the
minimum fill (F-r from Figure 6-5 1, page
6-79).
The cover required for culvert
protection is equal to one-half the diameter
of the culvert or 12 inches (whichever is
greater).
For runways and taxiways sustaining
aircraft wheel loads, refer to Table 6- 12,
page 6-65, for the wheel loads and Table

,,,,.,
.., .........,.
......,..,.>:...:
.....>:.:,.:
. . ..,.....,
.. ... .., .,..,.,,,.,,.
,. ,.............~..~...~
.,...,...
>..$:,..>>::,:::::x:,:::

> . . ....~:::.:.:::..

., : . .: :

,.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

F, = El - EL, =

F, = S x S, =

s, = F, x X =

F, = F, + F, =

F, = EL - EL, =

LIP = s, + TW + s, + 2 =

32-8013,

Vol 1

S, = F, x Y =

EL, - EL,
S = ____________________________
= _____
___.
___________________
=
s, + TW + s,

F, = F, - D,

F, (Fill 1) = roadway elevation at the outer edge (EL,) -the

S, (Slope horizontal distance on the inlet slde of the road) = Fill 1 x the x value (horizontal
component of the inlet side slope ratio).

F2 (Fill 2) = roadway elevation at the outer edge of the road on the outlet side (Et-s) - the
elevation at the toe of the slope on the outlet end.

elevation at the toe of the slope (Ek),

S, (Horizontal distance of the roadside slope on the outlet end) = Fill 2 x the Y value (horizontal
component of the outlet side slope ratlo).

S (Slope) = the difference between EL, and EL, divided by the sum of S, + TW (top wldth across the
road) + S,.

Fs (Fill 3) = fill amount from the existlng ground on the inlet side to the culvert inlet.

FT (Fill Total) = Fill 1 t Fill 3.

LIP (Length In Place) = S, + TW + S, + 2.

F, (Fill Critical) = Fill total minus DP (diameter of the pipe).

Figure 6-51. Calculating cover

Drainage

6-79

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

6- 13, page 6-66,

for the minimum

32-8013,

Vol 1

or Table 6- 14, page

cover required.

6-67,

Step 5. Determine
the culvert capacity,
QP,
and outlet velocity.
Use values based on
culvert material
and slope and Table 6-17,
page 6-75.
Step 6. Determine
the number
of culvert
pipes required.
Divide the area runoff, Q,
by the pipe capacity,
QP. Round up to the
next whole number.
Step 7. Determine
the order length (OLI.
The OL is calculated
by multiplying
the
number
of pipes (NPI times the LIP times a
waste factor of 1.15.
(See step 3 for the
LIP and step 6 for the NP.)

Culvert

Q to be handled

= 32 cfs.
the maxi= 3-4 fps.

Pipe sizes available: 24-, 30-, 36-, and

42-inch CMP, 10 gage.

Referring
to Figure 6-52, note that the
following information
is required
before
design can be accomplished:
Horizontal

length

of one culvert,

L.

Slope of culvert pipe needed to determine the flow characteristics

of various
pipe diameters
(see Table 6- 17, page 6751 and Fc, which is a portion of the
critical fill depth, Ft.
Critical fill depth, Ft, in order to determine if the cover over the pipe meets
the requirements
of Table 6- 13.
Solution:

Use the least number of culvert pipes

possible to carry the total flow and still
be consistent
with the above criteria.

Step 3. Calculate
the critical dimensions.
Computations
should be made in the
following sequence
(see Figures 6-52 and
6-53):

(Unsubmerged

the runoff
Step 1. Determine
for this example,
Q = 32 cfs.
Step

2.

pipe size
for a
with the
below.
The
class for

Fi = EL1 - EL2
Fi = 607.00 - 600.80

will be constructed
The following are known

Aircraft SR-7 1C. (Refer to Tables

and 6- 13, pages 6-65 and 6-66.)

Drainage

airfield

culvert

Given

use.

* Determine
the difference
in elevation between the edge of the runway and the
culvert upstream
invert.

No headwall
down-stream.
conditions:

Determine

rate.

Inlet):

Determine
the most economical
and the quantity
of pipe required
culvert located under a runway,
general data cross section given
maximum
using aircraft
weight
this example
will be an SR-71C.

6-80

by culvert

Be sure the outlet velocity is equal to or

less than the maximum
velocity of the
channel lining into which the culvert
outlet will discharge.
If outlet velocity
exceeds the soils Vmax, the outlet must
be protected
against erosion.

Example

type = 9.

Soil type is bare SC; therefore,

mum allowable outlet velocity

Step 8. Determine
the maximum
permissible discharge
velocity,
Vmax. Use Table
6-6, page 6-43, to calculate
Vmax for the
channel
lining into which the culvert outlet
will discharge.
Determine
the correct
pipe
to be used.
Apply the following criteria
in
your calculations:
l

welght

6- 12

it

Determine
the horizontal
distance
tween the culvert invert and the
shoulder
edge.

= Fi xX
Si = 6.20 x 10 = 62 ft
Sl

= 6.20

be-

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:,.:. .,,;: : ::j::. j ,::,:

1:.

::,;

:..i(,j,j :: :: ,j:; :: .,.,

.(

j,

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

,:

32-8013,

Vol 1

Lp
L

2
SP

_I,M)7.0

I
FT

Min

loo

DP

Fc

FI

IL

\
I
F3

600.8

Sl

Figure

F, = EL, - EL, = dOZo-

s, = F, x X =

6.2*

Y =

1.2

boo.&
f0

Unsubmerged

inlet culvert

F,=sxs,

62

F, = EL, - EL, = &07.0:59Q.

S, = F,x

6-52.

7.3#;/6=

problem

0,005x

6.2+.31:

F, = F, + F, =

CZ* 7.38

LIP = s, t lw

&+

73.f

1&+73_&2=

237,g.d

F, (Fill 1) = roadway

S, (Slope horizontal distance on the inlet side of the road) = Fill 1 x the X value
component of the inlet side slope ratio).

F2 (Fill 2) = roadway
elevation

elevation

6,571

t s, + 2 =

elevation

,3r

&A

at the outer edge (EL,) - the elevation

at the toe of the slope

at the outer edge of the road on the outlet

238

(EL2).

(horizontal

side (EL3) - the

at the toe of the. slope on the outlet end.

S, (Horizontal distance of the roadside slope on the outlet end) = Fill 2 x the Y value
component of the outlet side slope ratio).

S (Slope) = the difference

road) t S,.

F3 (Fill 3) = fill amount

FT (Fill Total)

LIP (Length

F, (Fill Critical)

between

EL, and EL, divided

from the existing

ground

by the sum of S, t W

on the inlet side to the culvert

(horizontal

(top wldth across the

inlet.

= Fill 1 t Fill 3.

In Place)

= S, t TW t S, t 2.

= Fill total minus DP (diameter

Figure

6-53.

Calculating

of the pipe).

cover (sample

problem)

Drainage

6-8 1

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Dcterminc the difference in elevation betwccn the cdgc of the runway and the
culvert outlet and fill slope.

.::

Vol 1

NOTE: These computations depict the

cross section and Figure 6-53, page 6-81,
summarizes the calculations.
From these calculations,
determined that-

F2 = EL3 - EL4
FP = 607.00 - 599.62 = 7.38 ft

The actual length of the culvert is

235.8 feet, rounded up to an even
value of 236 feet. A 2-foot projection
is added because there is to be no
downstream headwall. This gives a
culvert length of 238 feet for a single
pipe.

The slope of the culvert is 0.005 foot

per foot or 0.5 percent.

The depth of fill at the critical section

is 6.5 feet (rounded to the nearest
tenth of a foot).

Determine the horizontal distance between the edge of the runway and the intersection of the culvert and fill.

S2 = F2 x Y
Sp = 7.38 x 10 = 73.8 ft
Dclcrminc the actual slope of the culvert.

fj

s =

EL2 - EL4
S1 t TW t S2

600.8 - 599.62
62 + 100 t 73.8

= 0.005

1.18
235.8

or 0.5%

Dctcrminc Chc incrcmcntal elevation difference bctwcen the elevation of the

upstream invert and the invert of the
culvert at the critical fill section.

ft/ft = 0.5 percent

F3 = S x SI
F3 = 62 x 0.005 = 0.31 ft
0.005

Determine the depth of critical fill section.

Ft = F1 t Fn
Ft = 6.2 t 0.31 = 6.51 ft (Length of horizontal projection
ol the culvcrl.)
The
upstream invert elevation
to downstream
invert elevation isLIP = SI t TW + S2 t 2 ft
LIP = 62 t 100 t 73.8 t 2 = 237.8
(Round up to 238 ft)

ft;

it has been

Step 4. Determine the largest pipe for the

fill. Prepare a table as shown in Table
6-18 and fill in all known values. Start by
entering the largest pipe available, Dp, into
the table. Subtract Dp from total fill, FT, to
get fill critical, Fc. Fc represents the
actual cover over the pipe at the critical
section. Compare Fc to cover required, CR.
To find CR for aircraft, refer to Table 6-12,
page 6-65, which indicate that an SR-7 1C
aircraft has a culvert weight type (WT) of 9.
The CMP available is 10 gage. With this
information, refer to Table 6-13, page 6-66,
and select chart 9, corresponding to culvert
WT 9. The diameters and cover are given
in chart 9 under the lo-gage line. Starting
with the largest pipe available, 42-inch or
3.5 feet, CR is 4.0 feet (interpolated between
pipe diameters.) Enter this value in Table
6-18. The 42-inch pipe (3.5 feet) cannot be
used because its actual cover is 3.01 feet
against a required cover of 4.0 feet. Repeat
the process using the next smaller pipe
available, 36-inch pipe. It has a Fc of 3.51
feet and a CIX of 3.5 feet. This pipe will
work.
Determine the culvert capacity.
Use Table 6- 17, page 6-75, to find the
capacity and velocity for the 36-inch pipe.
Step 5.

6-82

Drainage

,. .,..

Table 6-18.

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

Unsubmerged

inlet sample

32-8013,

Vol 1

data

.F, = F, - D,
Total

Fill

F,

6.51

6.51

Pipe Dla

D,

3.5

3.0

Fill Critical

F,

3.01

3.51

*CR

4.0

3.5

Cover

Reqd

*For aircraft, see Tables 6-12 and 6-13, pages 6-65 and 6-66; for roads, 2/3 F,.

The slope of the culvert is 0.5 percent.

Entering the graph from the top (pipe
diameter), move down the column until you
intersect with the slope in the left-hand
column. This will state the quantity of flow
in the pipe. The velocity of flow is shown
by following the respective shaded or
unshaded areas down and to the left until
it ends in the velocity column, 4 feet per
second.
The 36-inch pipe has a capacity of 27.5
cubic feet per second for the 0.5 percent
slope. The velocity indicated is 4 feet per
second
Step 6. Determine the number of pipe
required to carry the flow by dividing the
total (8) of 32 cubic feet per second (step 11
by the pipe capacity, 27.5 cubic feet per
second (step 51 and rounding
up to the
next whole pipe.
For this example, the
number of pipe rcquircd is 32/27.5 = 1.2
or two 36-inch diameter pipes.

Step 7. The next step is determining the

length of pipe to be ordered. The order
length is calculated by multiplying NP
(Step 6) times LIP (step 3) times a waste
Since pieces of material wllI
factor (WF).
be damaged in manufacturing, handling,
transporting, and assembling, an additional
amount over the actual in-place length will
be required. This value has been
determined to be 15 percent of the total
length of pipe required. For this project,
the pipe selected will be 36 inches in
diameter with a length in place of 476 feet.
The length to order will beNP x LIP x WF
2 x 476 x 1.15 = 1,094.8 ft
The pipe comes in 2-foot increments;
therefore, the value of 1.094.8 is rounded
up to the next even value, or 1,096 feet of
pipe.

Drainage

6-63

FM 5430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1.

j ji:

.:.

: : ., ...

:;. .::... .

PONDING AREAS
Ponding
the inlet
from the
discharge
capacity

is the accumulation
of runoff at
of a drainage structure resulting
inability of the system to
more of the runoff than the rated
of the structure.

Military drainage structures

in the TO are
designed to discharge
the runoff based on
the 2-year design storm which, by
definition,
is expected to be equaled or
exceeded at least once in the design period.
Thus, a storm more severe than the design
storm may occur and generate excessive
runoff, overloading
the drainage structures.
In anticipation
of this event, design the
arcas around the inlets of drainage
structures
to accommodate
a certain
amount of ponding.
In some casts. due to limitations
in culvert
cover and space. terrain conditions,
time,
materials, or other conditions,
a system
may not be able to take care of the runoff
from the design storm.
To provide for this,
include sufficient
ponding areas in the
original plan to prevent flooding of vital
areas.
The ponding areas store excess
runoff until the intensity of the storm
decreases and the structure can handle the
flow.
When possible, military drainage systems
are designed to pass the runoff from the
design storm without ponding.
However,
some provision for ponding may be made in
those areas where flooding for a period of
time will not affect the facilitys operational
status.
The following specifications
are generally
adhered to in the design of ponding areas
for military installations:
l

6-84

The edge of the pond must be at least

75 feet from the edge of the pavement
when used for runway and taxiway
design.
When a pond is used with road fills or
embankments,
the depth of the pond
will be determined by the porosity of the

Drainage

fill, the amount of freeboard required to

prevent overtopping
of the road, the
height of the headwall and wing wall,
and the time allowed for the pond to
empty. When ponding is anticipated,
the adjacent fill side slope should be
made less steep to prevent the sloughing of saturated fill.
l

The pond must be drained before

damaging infiltration of the subgrade
can occur. The actual time during
which ponding is allowable will depend
upon the type and condition of the soil
in the ponding area and the embankment. In general, this period will be no
more than four hours from the start of
the storm.

In designing
assumptions
calculations
accuracy:
l

ponding areas, the following

are made to simplify the
and to retain satisfactory

A culvert discharges its design capacity

before runoff starts to accumulate
at
the inlet and form a pond.
An increase in the head because of
ponding does not increase the discharge
capacity of the culvert.

The determination
of permissible
volume,
the preparation
of runoff curves, and the
soil analysis must be done before designing
ponding areas to meet the above specifications and assumptions.

PERMISSIBLE

VOLUME

The volume of permissible

ponding is
determined
by the elevations
of the area
available for such ponding and the
A contour map showing
surrounding
areas.
the final grading plan is required to
compute the volume of permissible
ponding.
By inspection,
a contour line may bc
selected to provide a ponding area located a
safe distance or elevation from the
pavement.
Ponding volumes may be
computed
from the contour map by the
average-end-area
method.
This method is

....

FM 5-4301001l/AFPAM

. .

the average of the areas, in square feet,

enclosed by two adjacent contour lines and
multiplied by the contour interval in feet.

VzA+*,b
2

Volume 62-64

feet
feet

in square

B = area

in square

of the next contour

= oo20 + x 2
= 10,000

Volume 64-66

cubic

= 25Pooo i

feet

loBooo x 2

= 35,000 cubic feet

The total volume of the ponding arca is-

b = vertical distance, in feet, between

contours (contour interval)
As an example of computing the volume for
ponding, consider the contours shown in
Figure 6-54.
Water can be safely ponded to
the 66-foot contour line. The bottom of the
inlet end of the culvert is at an elevation of
62 feet. Use a planimeter, or any other
method, to determine the total area
enclosed by each contour.
In this case, the
66-foot contour line encloses 25,000 square

Figure

Vol 1

feet. The 64-foot contour line encloses

10,000 square feet. It should be noted that
the contours are concentric:
the 66-foot
contour-line
area includes the area
bounded by the 64-foot contour line.

whereV = volume in cubic feet

A = area of the first contour

32-8013,

6-54.

10,000

+ 35.000

= 45,000

cubic

feet

A further example of the computation

of
ponding volumes by the average-end-area
method is shown in Figure 6-55, page 6-86.
Assume that the ponding area extends to
the 68-foot contour line. Determine the
volume of the pond. The 68-foot line
encloses a total area of 30,000 square feet.

Ponding

area

Drainage

6-85

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Volume 62-64

= 10,000

cubic

feet

Volume 64-66

= 35,000

cubic

feet

Volume 66-68

= 2 x 30,000
= 55,000

+ 25,000
2

cubic

feet

The total volume available for ponding will

bc 10,000 + 35,000 + 55,000 = 100,000
cubic feet. if (hc ponding area cxtcnds to
lllc 68-fool contour lint.

RUNOFF CURVES
To rletcrminc the
will contribute
lo
runoff curve must
following example
is prepared :

amount of water an area

a pond, a cumulative
be plotted.
The
shows how such a curve

Example:
An area has 33.3 acres, consisting of 23.3
acres of impervious soil and 10 acres of
paved surface.
The weighted C value is
0.75, the TOC is 13 minutes, and the loca
tion intensity
is 2.2 inches per hour for a
I -hour storm with a 2-year frequency.

..

:,,..

Prepare a cumulative runoff curve based on

the data given. Ponding may be required to
reduce the culvert size.
Tabulation of Data-Rational

Method

All data required to plot a cumulative

runoff curve, using the rational method,
shown in Table 6- 19. Each column is
prepared as follows:

is

Column 1 is a tabulation of time in

minutes.
Any similar combination
of time
increments can be used as long as enough
properly spaced points are obtained to plot
a smooth curve. The cumulative runoff
curve is constructed
by plotting time, in
minutes (column 11, against volume in
cubic feet (column 6).
Column 2 is the product of the runoff
coefficient, C (as determined for the area
using the rational method), and the area in
acres.
Column 3 is the intensity, in inches per
hour, for each one of the minute values of
column 1. These values are obtained from
the standard intensity-duration
curve
number 2.2 in Figure 6-4, page 6-9. The
value of 2.2 is the location intensity, in
inches per hour, of the l-hour, a-year
storm as specified in Ihe given conditions.
Column 4 is the rate of runoff, Q, in cfs.
for the entire interval of time shown in
column 1. It is obtained by multiplying
columns 2 and 3 (9 = CIA).
Column 5 is the time, in seconds,
column 1.

Column 6 is the quantity of water supplied

to the pond for the time given in column 1.
For the first five minutes of rainfall, the
quantity of water entering the pond is given
by-

Top view

Figure

6-86

6-55.

Drainage

Ponding

given in

area enlarged

Column

6 = (column

Column

6 = (163)(300)

4Hcolumn
= 48,900

5)
cubic

feet

-I

.:..:
,.: : : ..j :

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1: j ;,::.I /,,,:: j ,i 1,.j: .<! ,:i:,:yj;,r

Table 6-19.

Jj;

:,:,),:,:, FM 5-430-00-l
/AFPAM
-.:.:.x:x.::
,,......
~.~.:.~::::::::::::.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~,~.~~~~~

pzY,c+

: :.::i:I:~:i:i:i:i:::::::j:::.::~::::::::::j,::~~:~

Cumulative

Cxrrrr.

data tabulation,

Intondty
(Inlhr)

Q
(cff4

Tlmo
WC)

Volume
(a fi)

163

300

130

600

82,800

900

103,600

116

20
30

4.2

106

40

2.9

86
72.6

60

2.6

60

2.2

120
180

1.200

12a.a
_-ii

1.8M
. ,-__

163.000

2.400

3174,ow

82.6

mm

1187,600

66

3.BM
_~___

1.3I

32.6

7.200
_~__

198,000
:
134.000

1.0

26

10,800

270,000

3.4

After 20 minutes from the start of rainfall,

the volume of water would be equal to
105 x 1,200 or 126,000 cubic feet, if no
water was released from the pond.
of Cumulative

Runoff

Curve

The cumulative runoff curve is obtained by

plotting the volume (column 6, Table 6-19)
obtained by the rational method, on the vertical axis and the time, in minutes (column
1, Table 6- 19), on the horizontal axis. The
cumulative runoff curve for the data listed
in Table 6-19 is shown in Figure 6-56, page
6-88.
Analysis

of Cumulative

Runoff

48.900

6.6
4.6

Curve

Based upon the data given in the problem,

the flow for the culvert design shown in Ngure 6-55 would be determined as follows:
Q = CIA

wherec = 0.75
I = 4.9 for a TOC of 13 minutes and a
location intensity of 2.2 inches per hour for
the l-hour, 2-year storm
A = 33.3 acres

Vol 1

method

16

Preparation

rational

0.75 x 33.3

runoff

32-8013,

Q = 0.75 x 4.9 x 33.3 = 122.4 cfs. The

number of culverts at a slope of 1.2 percent
(Figure 6-55) when Q = 122.4 would be as
follows:

30-inch pipe al
36-inch pipe at
42-inch pipe at
48-inch
60-inch

24 cfs = 6 pipes
38 cfs = 4 pipes

57 cfs = 3 pipes
pipe at 80 cfs = 2 pipes
pipe at 140 cfs = 1 pipes

These pipes In the above sizes and quantities will pass the flow without ponding.

ANALYSIS

FOR PONDING

The safe volume for ponding is 100,000

cubic feet. The requirement is to reduce
the flow past the outlet point by using a
single culvert and allowing ponding at the
inlet.
Table 6-17, page 6-75, reveals that a
30-inch CMP culvert (n = 0.024) on a
1.2-percent slope discharges 24 cfs. Assuming that the pipe always discharges at the
rated capacity. the cumulative discharge is
a straight-line function for any time interval
with a line passing through the origin.

Drainage

6-67

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Figure

Continue
these slraight
intersect
the cumulative
the point of intersection,
rtlnoff will have equaled
amount
of water passed
From then on, there will

T..
...,
.. .,:.\:..
.:.
.:..,:,,,::.,
..:...:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:....
.....L.
.....i..
. .,.,.,:
.:,y
;+:.c>
.:..:
,,iI,/,,I,,,i,.
,::;:;::::>,y
:. ::...y::..,.:::.

Vol 1

6-56.

Cumulative

lines so that they

runoff curve.
At
the cumulative
the cumulative
by the culvert.
be no ponding.

Knowing how long the pond will exist behind the inlet, next determine
whether
or
not the ponding
area is large enough.
Figurc 6-56 shows that the greatest
vertical
distance
between
the cumulative
runoff
curve and the 30-inch
cumulative
discharge
volume is lint P. Line P represents
the maximum volurnc
of water ponded behind
the
X0-inch
culvert.
Measuring
lint P by the vertical
scale used
in Figure 6-56 indicates
that the maximum
ponding volume will bc 115,000
cubic feet.
Al 42 minutes,
the cumulative
supply curve
shows that 175,000
cubic feet of water have
been supplied
to the pond by the rain-

6-88

Drainage

runoff

~./Y.:_j.

curve

storm.
At the end of 42 minutes,
the
30-inch
culvert
has theoretically
been able
to discharge
60,000
cubic feet.
Therefore,
the difference
between
the quantity
supplied (175,000
cubic feet) and the quantity
discharged
(60,000
cubic feet1 is 115,000
cubic feet, which must still be in the pond.
In view of the fact that the safe ponding
volume is only 100,000
cubic feet, 30-inch
CMP is unsatisfactory
because
the safe
ponding volume would be exceeded.
Make the same calculations
for 36-inch
culvert.
In this case, the pond volume will be
75,000
cubic feet with a pond time of 95
Since the safe ponding
volume of
minutes.
100,000
cubic feet and the 4-hour
limit on
the ponding
time are not exceeded,
the
36-inch
culvert
is satisfactory.
In addition,
the excess
volume of 25,000
cubic feet will
be available
for storms
that may cxcccd
the
design storm.

FM 5-4309OO-l/AFPAM

ADVANTAGES
.-

OF PONDING

Although ponding is an added safeguard

against the effects of storms more severe
than the design storm, its primary use is as
an economy measure.
Ponding allows for
reductions in the size of culvert pipe necessary to handle runoff.
However, if additional pipe or other construction
is required for
pending, check the additional cost against
the savings in reduction of pipe size. Ponding appreciably reduces pipe sizes for areas

32-8013,

Vol 1

that have a short TOC. For longer TOCs,

ponding has little or no effect on pipe sizes.
The use of ponding as an economy measure
is often restricted by the area available for
ponding.
This area should be sufficient to
satisfy the requirements
of the design
storm.
It should also have enough reserve
capacity to take care of storms more intense than the design storm.
Facilities for
ponding should be coupled with initial grading operations,
if possible, to secure the
most efficient use of personnel and equipment.

DROP INLETS AND GRATINGS

Drop inlets, vertical entrances
to a culvert
or a storm drain, may be used to lower the
elevation of the culvert inlet below ditch
elevation.
This is done where fill does not
provide sufficient cover or where discharge
velocity is erosive and can be controlled
only by changing the slope. For storm
drains (underground
culverts or conduits
designed to carry surface runoffl, drop inlets are used to collect surface runoff from
paved and turfed areas, street gutters, and
ditches.
A typical drop inlet is shown in
Figure 6-57, page 6-90.
A framework of bars, or a perforated plate
called a grating, passes the storm runoff
into a drop inlet. The grating serves as
both a filter and a cover for the inlet. Gratings arc shown in Figure 6-58, page 6-9 1.

CONSTRUCTION
OF DROP INLETS AND
GRATINGS
Drop inlets should always be protected with
some type of grating.
An expedient grating
can easily be fabricated using reinforcement
bars welded together.
These gratings
should be spaced to readily admit debris
which will pass unobstructed
through the
culvert.
A drop inlet may be constructed
of
concrete, brick, timber, or CMP sections.
Inlet grating should be fabricated of steel
bars, steel plate, cast iron, or reinforced
concrete with adequate strength to withstand the anticipated
load. The loads may

range from the weight of debris collected

over the grating to vehicle or aircraft wheel
loads.
Inlet grating should be placed 0.2 foot
below the grade. This will allow for the settlement of the area around the grating and
will provide a sumped area to ensure complete drainage around the grating and positive interception
of surface and gutter
runoff.
To determine

the proper size of grating-

1. Determine the peak rate of runoff,

from the area that drains into the drop
inlet. This will be the required discharge
capacity, Q, of the grating.

Q,

2. Determine the load (depth of water or

head) on the grating at times of peak
runoff.
When a drop inlet is used in a
ditch, gutter, or ponding area, the head will
be the depth of water running in the ditch
or gutter, or the depth of the pond.
3. Knowing the head, H, and the design
discharge capacity, Q, refer to Table 6-20,
page 6-91, to select the minimum size grating required.
4. Multiply the required grating size by
the appropriate safety factor to determine
the actual grating size to use.

Drainage

6-89

FM 5-430-OOWAFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

A safety factor of 50 percent (1.5 x total

grating area) for paved areas and 100 percent (2 x total grating area) for turfed areas
should be added to the grating-area
measurement to compensate
for debris caught in
the openings.

2ft6in
minh+l

Place grating 0.2 ft

or more below
proposed grading
elevation to
provide sumped
area around inlet
&

Grating openings should be at least 18 inches long and should be placed parallel to
the direction of flow.
The area of the grating openings is estimated at 50 percent of the total grating
area. When using bars with large openings,
determine the area of grating openings.

- 250 feet to Qof

SECTION

A-A

Riprap

PLAN

Figure

6-90

Drainage

6-57.

Drop inlets

FM 50430-OO-l/AFPAM

MAINTENANCE

32-8013,

Vol 1

OF DROP INLETS AND

GRATINGS

Drop inlets and gratings require continuous

maintenance
because debris collects at the
openings.
A maintenance
schedule must be
established
to check and clean debris from
the inlets and gratings.
If these openings
are not kept clean, a pond could form at
the inlet, resulting in damage to nearby
structures.
This damage could consist of
saturation of the subgrade by the pond or
direct flooding of adjacent areas.
Periodic
maintenance
of drop inlets should include
removing the cover and inspecting and
cleaning the chamber.

Figure

6-58.

Grating

heads

Table 6-20.

GIllI.

capacity

of square

Head

of wstor on

grate inlets

gralo (Ii)

oprnlng

(In)

(qfl)

6x6

0 12

9x9

0 26

12rlZ

0 50

15x15

0 76

16x16

112

2lr21

1.53

14r24

2.00

30130

312

42x42

Discharge

GM9

lizo

361136

Expedient drop inlets of the type shown in

Figure 6-39, view (Al. page 6-63, must be
covered with bars.
If the box is left open, it
will tend to fill with debris making cleaning
difficult, especially if a pond has developed.

,
,

48x49

02

04

06

06

10

12

14

16

16

20

03
0.7

04
1.0

05
1 .l

06
1.4

07
15

07
17

06
16

06

09

09

12

13

1.5

16

16

19

20

21

19

20

21

26

30

34

37

40

43

4.5

4.6

11 1

11.9

12 6

13.3

85

10.5

124

13.5

146

16.0

17.1

161

191

21 6

233

247

26.0

199

30

40

50

60

70

60

90

100

10.4

11.0

11.6

142

164

164

201
26.3

2E 4

30.4

32 2

34.0

21 2

22.5

23.7

29 1

33.6

37.5

41 1

U4

47.5

503

53.1

59 2

63 9

68.3

71.5

76.4

121.6

1269

135.9

450
612
47.1

600

506

543

56.6

609

74.4

65.9

96.0

05.2

1137

NOTES:
1 Capacity

ts in cubic feet per second

2 Values to Islt of HEAW

line were
formula
Q =3L+.
1 = perimeter
3. Valuer
orifwe

to rqht
formula

calculated

from the weir

of HEAW
line weare cslculsted
37AHh.
A = 9rnte opening

Cl=5

4. Clear opem9 between 9rats bars w.,

total grate wee

from

taken to be 50% of

5. Grate size should

bs increased

50% in paved areas

6 Grate

be increased

100%

sot* should

the

m turisd

areas

Drainage

6-97

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

SUBSURFACE
SUBSURFACE

DRAINAGE

CRITERIA

When surface failures prove that natural

subsurface
drainage
is inadequate,
it becomes necessary
to determine
if a subsurface drainage system is needed, and if so,
what type io install.
Generally,
subsurface
drainage may be divided into three classes:
base drainage,
subgrade drainage, and interccpting drainage.
Base drainage
gcncrally
consists of subsurface drainpipes
laid parallel and adjacent to
pavcmcnl cdgcs with pervious material joining the base and the drain.
Figure 6-59
shows a typical section of base drainage.
Base drainage is rcquircd where frost action
occurs in the su bgradc beneath the pavemcnl and whcrc groundwater
rises to the
bottom of the base course through natural
conditions
or from ponding of surface
runoff.
Whcrc pavcmen t becomes tempor arily inundated
and there is little possibility
that the water will drain from the base into
lhc subgradc,
base drainage will be required.
Table 6-21, page 6-94, establishes
the criteria to follow in these cases.
Base drainage is also required at the low
point of longitudinal
grades in excess of 2
percent where Ihe subgrade coefficient
of
permeability
is less than 1 x 10m3fpm. The
coefficient of permeability,
a property of
each soil type, is defined as the discharge
velocity at a unit hydraulic gradient.
Deterrninc the cocfficicnt
of permeability
experimentally, cithcr by laboratory
test or by an
actual field lest of the soil involved.
The
coefficient
is cxprcsscd
in units of velocity
such as fpm or ccntimetcrs
per second
(cm/set).
Base drainage is required if the
subgradc coefficient
of permeability
is
smaller than the coefficient
of permeability
indicated in Table 6-22, page 6-94.
Subgrade drainage
is required for permanent construction
when seasonal fluctuations of groundwater
may be expected to
rise to less than 1 foot below the bottom of
Figure 6-60, page 6-95, shows
lhc course.

6-92 - Drainage

j...

Vol 1

>..:.j::::

DRAINAGE
a typical example of a subgrade drainage
section.
Figure 6-61, page 6-96, will serve
as a guide for spacing drains.
These
drains, although similar to base drains,
have a larger area of filter material in contact with the subgrade.
Intercepting
drainage
is required when
water seeping into a pervious layer will
raise the groundwater
locally to a depth of
less than 1 foot below the bottom of the
base course.
This condition is often encountered
in thin, pervious soil layers; in exposed rock cuts; or in seepage from
springs.
A typical intercepting
drainage section is shown in Figure 6-62, page 6-97.

SUBSURFACE

DRAINAGE TECHNIQUES

Subsurface
water can be controlled
through
a combination
of techniques.
The techniques and combinations
depend on the
conditions
existing in the area to be
drained.
The techniques
that follow should
be considered
when planning and designing
subsurface
drainage.

Depth of Base Course

The base course may be built up to a specified depth above the groundwater
table.
Generally, the finished grade must be at
least 5 feet above the mean groundwater
table level.
This technique
is feasible
when*
l

A gravity

drainage

system

is impractical.

The condition to be controlled is limited

to a small area such as a narrow swamp
crossing.
Adequate
able.

base-course

material

is avail-

Deep Ditch
Where ditches will nol interfere with operations or become a hazard to traffic, deep Vditches with free outfall may be feasible.
Easily built and readily enlarged, these
ditches provide positive interception
and

..,:.,:.::.
.,

...A

.:

. . . ..,,.

. .. .

.. :..,:
:...,.y:i:.:
:..

:;,:::

:::):.:,-:;

.,

,.

:,: ,,.: .y,:

,,,,,,,, .,;. :, :, : :, <j

j .: :j::: .;,;i:x..j:.p : j:::.,, i..:rg:;l: j:j :

j .: :

j ,. ,:,..

.. :

., :.., :I

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Pavement

I
Compact
filter
material

I
.

Figure 6-59.

Typical base drainage installations

drainage of subsurface water before it

reaches the area to be protected. Erosion,
maintenance, traffic, and right-of-way are
factors to be considered before using this
solution .

Natural Drainage Channels

Where possible and practical, water in existing natural drainage channels should be
lowered when corresponding effective
lowering of the groundwater table will
occur. This technique may be particularly
effective in pervious soil.

Drainage

6-93

FM 5.430900.l/AFPAM

Table 6-21.

32-8013,

Base drainage

Vol 1

criteria

Drains

102

10
I

characteristics

I,

(1 cm/set

(log scale)

1.0

10-l

10-2

10-3

10-4

10-e

6-94

Drainage

2 ft/min)

10-e

10-7

10-e

Drains
slowly

Drains very
slowly

GW-SW

GP-SP

ML-OL

GC-SC-CL

10-g

Practically
impervious

Poor
dralnago
Drains
rapidly

Drainage
imperceptible
CL-CH-OH

GF-SF-MH
.

Clean
gravel

Drains
very rapidly

Types of aoll

:.

of soil

Good

Soll
cln8slflcstlon

:,j:.,

/,.j,

Pipe

~rrlnrgr

Dralnago
properties

,,,,

Bell and spigot pipes can be laid with open

joints.
If the filter material has been properly designed, collars are not needed over the
joints.
This type of pipe is generally made
of vitrified clay, nonreinforced
concrete, or
cast iron.

Drainage

K in cmhec

j;.j.,:j:

The most common form of subsurface

drainage is perforated pipe. Where the perforations do not extend completely around the
circumference
of the pipe, the pipe is generally laid with the holes down and the joints
Materials used in manufacturing
closed.
this type of pipe are corrugated metal, cast
iron, vitrified clay, nonreinforced
concrete,
bituminized fiber, and asbestos cement.

Blind or French drains are constructed

by
filling a ditch or trench with broken or
crushed rock. The top surface of the rock
may be left exposed so that the trench will
act as a combination
surface and subsurfact drain, or the rock may be covered by a
relatively impervious soil so that no surface
water can penetrate.
The latter is the
In general, French drains
general practice.
are not recommended
for permanent construction because they tend to silt up over
time. In TO construction,
these drains are
often used as a substitute
for perforated or
open-joint pipe or on filter materials used
with such piping.

Table 6-22.

::c::>,ji.zp

In cases where a V-type or other open-ditch

type drainage system is not practical, it
necessary to resort to construction
may
of subsurfa-.e drainage.
Failure of the subsurface system stemming from improper
control of the grade, the bedding, the pipe
placement, the placement of filter material,
or other installation
work gives no warning
prior to failure.
Such failure is extremely
difficult to repair when discovered.

soil with K = 10-T is more prone to capillary sctiol

than a soil with K = 10-8.

Blind

:.

Subsurface

for K

IYOte: Capillary action is related inversely to permeability. I

t

..;

Clean sand,
clean sand
and gravel
mixtures

Very fine sands; organic

and inorganic sifts;
mixtures of sand,
silt, and clay;
glacial till;
stratified clay deposits

Impervious soils
Homogeneous
clays below zone
of weathering

Impervious soils which are modified by

the effects of vegetation and weathering

.,

,:.

.y:. .j ,.:.:.:.:

.:::

;,

. .

. .

,.

FM 5-4309001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Pavement
--

Base CQurse

Min rlafx
0.0015
High
point

Recommended maximum distance between

manholes: 1,000
ft
Figure

6-60.

Typical subgrade

Porous concrete pipe is laid with closed

joints.
It collects water by seepage thrbugh
the wall of the pipe and should not be used
where sulfated waters may cause disintegration of the concrete.

--

Farm tile is laid with butt joints slightly

separated to permit collection of water
through the joint. Because of its low resistance to high-impact loads, farm tile is not
recommended
for use on airfields.

drainage

installation

Materials commonly used in manufacturing

farm tile are clay or concrete.
Combination

Drainage System

Combination drains, which attempt to handle both surface runoff and subsurface water
in the same pipe system, are recommended.
Surface runoff often carries sediment and
soil from the drained area into the system.
This clogs the system and causes flow stoppage. For this reason, subsurface drainage
systems using some form of piping are

Drainage

6-95

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM
r

32-8013,

Vol

: .: .::..

::,.:,,

.,...

.. ., . ...I.::.

:.::

.A:::.

. .

.:...

<j..,::

intercepting surface

Surface intercupting ditch

lntercepling drain

Pocketed
area

Storm drain

Pervious layer

materiil
Finished or8

Interceptor

/
stratum

Figure 6-61.

Types of subsurface drainage

generally sealed so that surface runoff cannot enter. The only drainage system which
will satisfactorily handle both surface
runoff and subsurface water is the open
channel or ditch.

6-96

Drainage

PIPE-LAYING

CRITERIA

There are essentially four different types of

pipe available for subsurface drainage, as
previously mentioned. They should be laid
according to the following specifications:

::

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Shoulder
lmpwious
material

11

minimum

(usualty 6 in)

Pervious stratum

Figure

6-62.

Typical intercepting

The minimum slope for subdrainage

pipe is a 0.15-foot drop in elevation per
100 feet of length. The elevation of a
pipe at any particular location is generally specified by the invert elevation, in
which the invert is defined as the lowest
point in the internal cross section of the
pipe at the particular location.

drainage

installations

Manholes should be provided at intervals of not more than 1,000 feet, with
flushing risers between manholes and
at dead ends as shown in Figure 6-60,
page 6-95.
Pipe should be at least 6 inches in diameter with 6-inch pipe being used for
all drains. With long intercepting lines

Drainage

6-97

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

or extremely severe groundwater conditions, 8-inch or larger pipe may be

ncccssary.
.

The ccntcr of subgradc drains should be

located at least 1 foot below the bottom
of the base course and not less than 1
foot below the groundwater table. Normally, subgradc drains are required
only at the edges of pavement areas
where the soil is pervious and drains
well. However, local groundwater conditions and base and subgrade soil characteristics may require closer spacing of
the drains. When the dram discharges
in to a culvert or any considerably larger
pipe, it should discharge above the
water lcvcl in the larger pipe. When the
drain discharges into a pipe of equal or
only slightly larger size, it is generally
bcttcr to bring the drain in above the
receiving drain and make a vertical conncct.ion belwccn the two. This will prevent the ivater from backing up in the
drainage pipe since thcsc pipes rarely
flow full.
When the impervious layer is at a
reasonable depth, intercepting drains
should bc placed in the impervious
layer below the intercepted seepage
stratum.
The quantity of water collected by an intercepting dram is difficult to determine, but in general, 6inch pipe is sufficient for lengths up to
1,000 feet.

VERTICAL WELLS
to
Vertical wells arc sometimes constructed
allow trapped subsurface
water to pass
through an impervious soil or rock layer to
a lower, freely draining soil layer. If drainage is obstructed,
additional wells are built
or the pocket is drained with an easily
maintained lateral subdrain system.
Vertical wells arc often used in northern latitudes where deep freezing is common.
They permit fast runoff from melting snow
to get through the frozen soil and reach a
pervious stratum.
Under such conditions,
the bottoms of these wells are treated with

6-98

Drainage

calcium chloride
prevent freezing.

or a layer of hay to

FILTER MATERIAL
A layer of filter material approximately
6
inches deep should be placed around all
subsurface
piping systems.
The selection of
the proper filter material is very important
since it determines,
to a great extent, the
success or failure of the drainage system.
The improper selection of filter material can
cause the drainage system to become inoperative in one of three ways:
l

The pipe may become clogged through

infiltration of small soil particles.
Particles in the protected soil may move
into or through the filters, causing instability of the surface.
Free groundwater
reach the pipe.

may not be able to

Criteria have been developed, based upon

the mechanical-analysis
soil curve, to prevent the above failures.
A great deal can be learned about gradation
characteristics
of a particular soil by observing the soil curves on the mechanicalanalysis chart.
Well-graded soils generally
have a smooth, grain-size curve with gradual changes of slope. Poorly-graded,
uniform soils generally have a very steep grafnsize curve. Skip-graded soils have a grainsize curve with a characteristic
hump in it.
The filter material in skip-graded soil tends
to segregate during placement.
The grainsize curves in Figure 6-63 show various
gradation characteristics.
A coefficient of uniformity, Cu. value of less
than 20 is desirable to prevent segregation
of coarse and fine-grain particles, especially
For the same reason,
during placement.
skip-graded material should not be used.
Placing the filter material while it is wet
can reduce segregation.
Filter material can clog a pipe by moving
through the perforations or openings.

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

U.S. Standards sieve

openings - inches

Vol 1

32-8013,

U.S. Standards sieve numbers

100

90

80

70

E
.o,
g
3

60

50

6
E
8

$)

40
30

h
20

10

0
lb

0.5

01

005

001

Grain sizes - millimeters

Figure 663.

Prevent
tions:

this by using

For a slotted

Mechanical analysis curves for filter material

the following specifica-

50 percent size of protected soil

opening-

85-percent size offIZter material

slot wfdth

For a circular

50 percent size of filter material

, I 2

hole-

85-percent ske offtlter

hole diameter

material

, I o

Use the following methods to prevent particles from the protected soil from moving
into or through the filter or filters:
15-percent size of filter material
85-percent size of protected soil

and

~ 5

~
; 25

To permit free water to reach the pipe, the

filter material must be many times more
pervious than the protected soil. This condition is fulfilled whenI5-percent
I5-percent

size offtiter materIaZ

size of protected sol1

25

If it is not possible to secure a mechanical

analysis of available filter materials and
protected soil, concrete sand with mechanical-analysis
limits as shown in Figure 6-63
may be used. Experience has indicated
that a well-graded concrete sand is satisfactory as a filter material in most sandy, silty
soils.

Drainage

6-99

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

-, ::,:,

,,:,;
,. .I..
...........
,:,.
..>,::;
: ::>:
,; :j :.,;,, .:,~,~::..i::,~:::,.~~,,:~
j::::.
:.,(,
:..:
.,..l,:::.:.::::::.i,:.:!:ijiii:::i
.:

D15

STEPS IN FILTER DESIGN

Obtain a mechanical
analysis of each sandy
soil from several readily available sources.
Obtain a mechanical
analysis of the subgrade soil (protected soil) at the bottom of
the trench which will be in contact with the
filter material.
Plot the mechanical
analysis of each soil on
semilogarithm
paper and draw a curve for
each soil.
From the mechanical-analysis
curve for
each soil, determine the diameter, in millimeters (mm), of the particle of each
sample.
Ten percent of these particles are
finer (by weight), Dlo. The subscript 10
indicates the percentage, by weight, of the
soil sample which is finer (smaller in
diameter) than the particle in size DIO.
Similarly, determine the D15, D50, Dso, and
Da5 particle size for each soil.
Determine the slot width or hole diameter,
in millimeters, of the type of pipe to be
used.
Check the coefficient
ensure-

cu =

Dso
-

Dlo

of uniformity,

(2)

D35

slot width

(2)

1.2

>

035

hole diameter

or

5 1.0

offilter material
DE, of protected soil

015

D50 offtlter

material

D50 of protected

Check the design criteria

viousness to ensure-

6- 100

Drainage

D15 of protectedsoil

Select that filter material

the above criteria.

which best meets

Install pipe to grade, bedded and surrounded with the selected filter material as
shown in Figure 6-58, 6-59, or 6-60, pages
6-91, 6-93, and 6-95, respectively.

SELECTING

FILTER MATERIALS

Filter material should be selected with a

view toward the simplest construction
and
the lowest cost. To further this end, try to
use only one layer. If several layers of filter
material are required, one layer should be
confined to the region around the pipe openings and another layer placed between it
and the protected soil, as shown in Figure
In this case, the designer
6-59, page 6-93.
selects a filter material for use around the
pipe according to the filter design formulas.
The second filter material is then designed
to protect both the inner filter material and
the surrounding
soils. in other words, the
design of a multilayer filter for a subdrain
system should proceed outward from the inside filter material to the subgrade soil
being protected.
Example

for clogging of

Check the design criteria for movement of

particles from the protected soil (subgradel
through the filter material to ensure-

ill

r 5

$20

Check the design criteria

pipe openings to ensure(1)

CU, to

offfilter material

soil

(Selecting

Filter Material):

A suitable filter material must be selected

for a 6-inch pipe with l/4-inch diameter
perforations
to protect a subgrade soil with
an E curve (shown in Figure 6-63, page
6-99).
The soils represented
by curves A
and B are readily available from local borrow pits.
Tabulate
curves.

data from the mechanical-analysis

~ 5

Soil B

Soil A
5;

25

for relative

per-

Subgrade
(protected
soil)

D1o =

1.4 mm

DKI =

0.25 mm

D15

2.2 mm

015 =

0.30 mm

D50

1.0 mm

D15 =
D5o =

0.01 mm

D5o : 13.5 mm

0.042

mm

D60 = 19.0 mm
D&j 38.0 mm

D60 =

2.0 mm

D60 =

0.054

mm

13.0 mm

D85 =

0.09 mm

085

FM S-430=00=1/AFPAM

.-.

Cheek
soils.

the coefficient

of uniformity

of both

D15 (filter)
D 15 (protected

soilr

Soil A
C[

Dso
-

Dlo

19.0
1.4

0.30
G7l

13.6

D60
cu = r*=

Thus, both soils A and B satisfy lhc requircment that the cocfficicnl
of uniformity
be
less than 20.
design

criteria

D15 Ifillcr)
DB~ (protcclcd

soil)

-2.2 = 24.4
0.09

to soil A.
Should bc < 5 to
prcvcn t movcmcn t of
subgradc
soils
through
the filter.
which

design

criteria

D I 5 (fil tcr)
Ds5 (prolcctcd

0.30
0.09

= 3.33

DUO (filter)
-Dso (protcctcd

&&

soil)

which

= 23.8

13.0 mm
= 1 / 4 x 25.4

l3
=6.35=

20

is > 1.0.

Thus, soil B satisfies

all the criteria
for a
good filter material
while soil A does not.

to soil B.
Should bc < 5 to
prcvcn t movcmen t of
subgradc
soils
through
the filter.
which

soil)

Note that the soil particle

size is usually
given in millimeters,.
while the hole size is
usually given in inches.
The two dimensions must be expressed
in compatible
unils bcforc the preceding
formula
is used.
To make this conversion,
multiply
the size
of the pipe perforations,
in inches,
by 25.4
which rcprcscnts
the number
of millimeters
per inch.
For example.
with soil B under
discussionDe5 (filter)
hole diameter

is not < 5.

Soil A is unsuitable
because
movement
of
the subgrade
soil through
the filter material
is possible.
Apply

is > 5.

Should be > 1.0

to prevent
clogging
of the pipe.

2.0 = 8 0
0.25

Vol 1

Should bc 2 5 to
permit water movement through
the
filter.
which

D85 (filter)
hole diameter

Soil B

Apply

= 30

32-8013,

is < 5.

Should be 5 25 to
prcvcn 1 movcmen t
subgradc
soils
Lhrough lhc filter.
which

is < 25.

Of

INSTALLATION

OF A SUBDRAINAGE
SYSTEM

The most efficient

and most practical
type
of subdrainage
syslem is one which adequately
performs
the operations
for which it
was intended
and, in addition,
was installed
with the care and skill consistent
with its
purpose.
Any attempt
to lower the quality
of construction
or to use a sketchy
or inadequatc subdrainagc
system can rcsull in disastrous
failures.
Conversely,
any attempt
to inslall an elaborate
system of undcrground piping whcrc a simple V ditch
would serve as well is inadvisable.

Drainage

6- IO 1

FM 514301OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

SECTION I\/: SURFACE DRAINAGE DESIGN IN ARCTIC AND

SUBARCTlC REGIONS
APPLICABILITY
This section discusses
the problems involved in the design of drainage facilities in
arctic and subarctic regions.
While the
design data presented has been developed
primarily for Alaska, the methods used are
generally applicable to other arctic and subarctic regions.
Arctic

Arctic is defined as the northern region in

which the mean temperature
for the
warmest month is 50 Fahrenheit
(Fl or
less, and the mean annual temperature
is
below 32 F. In general, the arctic coincides with the tundra region north of the
limits of trees.
Subarctic
Subarctic
is defined as the region adjacent
to the arctic where the mean temperature
is
32 F or below for the coldest month and
50 F or above for the warmest month, and
where less than four months have a mean
temperature above 50 F. In general, the

subarctic coincides with the circumpolar

belt of dominant coniferous forests.

HYDRAULIC

CRITERIA FOR COLD

CLIMATES

Rainfall
A study of rainfall intensity-frequency
data
recorded at arctic stations indicates a considerable variance between the average intensity of rainfall for a period of one hour
and the average precipitation
rates of comparable frequency for a duration of less
than one hour. This is evidenced when
compared with similar rainfall in the continental United States (CONUS). Even
within the area of Alaska, there was a
noticeable difference between the rains at
Juneau and those at Fairbanks.
The
higher values for rainfall intensity were
used to develop design intensity-duration
(supply1 curves, which are shown in Figure
6-64.
For design purposes, a minimum
rainfall rate of 0.2 in/hr is recommended,
even where maps of intensity-frequency

6.0

20

40

60

60

100

120

Duration

Figure 6-64. Intensity-duration

6- 102

Drainage

140

160

160

200

220

240

- minutes

curves, arctic and subarctic

260

260

300

..

::

,...,.. .,,,:.

..)

. . . . ,.

. .

.... .. . . .. . ..

. . . . . ...

One-hour rainfall intensities having various average frequencies of

occurrence
in the arctic and subarctic
regions of Alaska are shown on maps in Figure 6-65, page 6-104.
This figure, on
which rainfall depth curves are superimposed, is known as a design-storm
index.
The curves are labeled by the one-hour
amounts of rainfall that are represented;
these, in turn, are coordinated with the intensity-duration
or supply curves of Figure
6-12, page 6-17.
Figures 6-64 and 6-65,
used in combination,
provide a means
whereby rainfall intensities
sufficiently accurate for runoff computations
for any duration may readily be determined.

Design-storm

--

,.....;....\...
. . ,, .,.. .
. ... .::.,::..:
.. .. . . ,..,,
., ,.,....,.
.:.:.:..,,.....,.,/,.

Elevation

index.

and physiographic

orientatfon.

Present information is insufficient

to establish quantitative
conclusions
of the effects
of elevation and physiographic
orientation
for all locations.
At the time a site is
under investigation,
it would be helpful to
obtain even a short record of rainfall there.
Such a record may be compared with the
concurrent
portion of a nearby long record
and proper frequency values assigned to
events in the short record.
For example, a
temporary gage might have a maximum
hourly value of 0.60 inch some summer,
and the same storm might produce the
summers maximum hourly value of 0.40 at
a nearby long-record station.
Similar comparison of other storms for the brief parallel
record might confirm the ratio of 6 to 4 as
an expression of the difference in the orientation, exposure, and elevation of the two
stations.
This ratio could then be applied
to the known 2-year, l-hour value of the
long-record station to get the estimated
a-year, l-hour value for the short-record
station.
If the long-record station has a
2-year, l-hour value for the construction
site, it would be 6/4 of 0.5 or 0.75.
Arrangemcnts usually can be made for borrowing
a rain gauge for temporary use from the
meteorological
agency of the area in which
the project is to be located.

. .. . .. . . .

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

In permafrost areas, infiltration

purposes should be considered

for design
zero. In

Vol 1

other areas, a good guide may be oblained

when test borings are made. Values normally would not exceed about 0.5 inch per
hour for coarse sands and gravels and
would be as low as 0.1 inch per hour for
clayey soils with low permeability.

STORM-DRAIN

DESIGN

The type and capacity of storm-drain

facilities required are determined primarily
by the promptness with which design-storm
runoff must be removed in order to avoid
serious interruption
or hazard in the use of
important operational areas as well as
prevent serious damage to pavement subgrades.
It is presumed that all phases of
site reconnaissance
have been carefully completed and that information is available
which shows topography, natural drainage
patterns, groundwater conditions,
and
seasonal frost and permafrost levels.
Basic Considerations
Even though rainfall magnitudes are small
in arctic and subarctic regions, drainage is
an important factor in selecting an airfield
site and planning the construction.
The
planner should be aware of several features
related to drainage in order to ensure a sucThese features include the
cessful design.
following:
l

Infiltration

32-8013,

Sites should be selected in areas where

cuts or the placement of base-course
fills will not intercept or block obvious
existing natural drainage ways.
Areas with fine-textured,
frost-susceptible soils should be avoided, if possible.
In arctic and subarctic regions, most
soils are of single-grain structure with a
very small percentage of clay. As a consequence, cohesive forces between gram
particles are very small and the material
erodes easily. kozen, fine- textured soil
profiles may also contain large amounts
of ice lenses and wedges.
If the upper surface of the permafrost
layer is deep and if provisions are made
for lower temperatures,
design features
of a drainage system may be similar to

Drainage

6- 103

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Once In 2 years

Once

in 10 years

Once

in 5 years

Once

In

20 years

_e!w nd
-. *. . .

Approximate
Approximate
Approximate

southern
southern
southern

limit of the Arctlc

Ilmlt of the permafrost
limit of area covered

NOTES:
1. Observation of rainfall at National Weather Service stations provides the basic data for this figure.
stations are not located in the more elevated regions; consequently, wide devlattons from the charted
exist at altitudes above 2.500 feet.
2.

The Influence

dralnage

of local topographic

characteristics

and evaluated

at the tlme of

design.

3.

The lines of equal half-hour

4.

The once-in-50-years

amount

rainfall

magnltudes

can be eetlmated

Figure 6-65.

6- 104

should be taken into account

These
values may

Drainage

correspond
by multiplying

Design-storm

to the intensity-duratlon
the once-in-2-years

index for Alaska

curves
amount

shown

in Figure 6-64.

by the factor 2.2

.., .,

FM 5430=00=1/AFPAM

The flow of water in a drainage channel

has an accelerating effect on the thawing of frozen ground. This may cause
the surface of the permafrost to dip considerably beneath streams or channels
which convey water. Bank sloughing
and significant changes in channel
grades become prominent. Sloughing is
often manifested by wide cracks paralleling the ditches. For this reason,
drainage ditches should be located as
far as practicable from runway and road
shoulders.
In many subarctic regions, freeing
drainage channels of drifted snow becomes a significant task before breakup
each spring. In these areas, it is advantageous to have ditch shapes and
slopes sufficiently wide and flat to accommodate heavy snow-moving equipment. In other locations where flow continues year round, narrow, deep ditches
are preferable to avoid icings.
Large, cut sections should be avoided in
planning the drainage layout. Thawed
zones or water-bearing strata may be encountered and later cause serious
icings. Vegetative cover in permafrost
areas should be preserved to the mardmum degree practicable. Where disturbed, it should be restored as soon as
construction permits.
Inlets to closed conduits are commonly
sealed before freeze-up and opened
prior to breakup each spring.
Fine-grained soils immediately above a
receding frost zone are very unstable.
Conscquenlly, much sliding and caving
is to be expected on unprotected ditch
side slopes in such soils.
Locating ditches over areas where permafrost lies on a steep slope should be
avoided if possible. Slides may occur
because of thawing and consequent wet-

Vol 1

ting of the soil at the interface between

frozen and unfrozen ground.

those used in frost regions of the United

States.
l

32-8013,

Maintenance equipment for drainage

facilities should include heavy snowremoving apparatus and a steam boiler
with accessories for steam thawing of
structures which have become clogged
with ice. Pipes for this purpose are
often fastened inside the upper portions
of culverts prior to their placement.

Grading
Proper grading is a very important factor
contributing to the success of a drainage
system. The development of grading and
drainage plans must be carefully coordinated. In arctic and subarctic regions, it is
necessary to eliminate soft, soggy areas.
Temporary Storage
Trunk drains and laterals should have sufficient capacity to accommodate the project
design runoff. Do not consider supplementary ponding above the drain inlets in airfield drainage designs for the arctics and
subarctic. Formulate plans in sufficient
detail to avoid flooding even during the time
of actual construction.

ICINGS
An fclng is an irregular sheet or field of ice
with no uniformity as to shape, thickness,
or size. All icings are similar with regard
to laminated structures, indicating that irrespective of shape, thickness, size, or
cause, the actual process of formation is
the same. Thin films of water traverse over
layers of ice or other material and, when exposed to the cold air, freeze and form the
first or an additional layer of ice. As water
flow continues, the process is repeated, and
an icing with horizontal laminations continues to grow until either the source of
water supply is depleted or warmer weather
begins.
Types of Icings
For the purpose of analysis, icings may be
divided into three groups, depending largely
on the nature of the source of water

Drainage

6-705

FM 5-43&0&1/AFPAM

32.801 3, vol 1

srlpply.
For icings formed along rivers or
streams and adjacent areas having a source
01 water above or below the riverbed, the
Lcrm river icing applies.
If the source is
Irom groundwater
flow above permafrost,
yrorlnd icing is Ihc Lcrm most commonly
~~scd. This Lcrm should no1 bc confused
\vilh ground ice:, which is often encountered
III lllc arctic and subarctic as deposits in
fine-graincd
soils.
The term spring fclng
should be confined
to when the source of
water is from subpermafrost
levels or subpermafrost
water under hydrostatic
presstlrc. Spring icings are commonly
large
and thick.
Human activity can disturb the
ground regime sufficiently
to cause or accclcratc the formation
of all types of icings.
Rirxr icings.
Most arctic and subarctic
streams carry large loads of sediment which
arc not fed into the channels in uniform
quantilies.
Consequently,
the rivers are
quilr wide and relatively
shallow.
Many
rivers have a braided pattern of several
smaller streams within the confines of the
main channels.
These streams frequently
shill in transvcrsc
position and often do so
tltlring one period of high flow. Winter flow
is ordinaril), \crv small and shallow.
Freezil$ pcnctrates
tb the bottom of shallow
slrcams quilt rcndily, but the river discliarQqr corilini~cs as groundwater
flow
bcncath the riverbed..
Because of thermal
(-lfccts of flowing water, the soil below
slrcambcds
is unfrozen to greater depths
than soil located clscwhcre.
Consequently,
~llcrc is a large space for groundwater
sloragc and flow above the permafrost
and
below all riverbeds.
The head motivating
groundwater
flow is ordinarily
quite large
and can result in large pressures
above seclions where the groundwater
flow is
retarded.
Groundwater-flow
retardation
is a natural
process at many river sections because riverbeds arc not lioniogencous
in watcr-carryir$ capacity.
Frcciing
of the water reduces
charincl arca and capacity in some sections
Inorc than in others.
The formation
of
:lrlchor ice on t11c bottom of lhc slrcambcd
I-crLllls in furlllcr constriction
of the chan11~1(ross-scclion
arca.
The water then

6- 106

Drainage

.::::;:
:,:::,f:.
:..:
;._:~~.,~:.:::..:.i::
..........:j:.:i:::i..::.
:.i.::~i._:::_:~::~,:,,:.:
:.. ,.,:!.i:I.:.::..,i;,:_

finds avenues of escape to the top of the ice

via weak points, cracks, and fissures.
Here, exposed to the cold atmosphere,
the
water quickly freezes in thin sheets.
This
action is progressive,
and icing continues
to
increase in thickness until the supply of
water is exhausted
or finds a new outlet, or
until the beginning
of warmer weather.
A
bridge may shade the streambed
and also
prevent the deposition
of snow.
Freezing
then would be more rapid beneath the
bridge than at either upstream or downstream locations.
Subsequent
penetrations
of frost would diminish groundwater -flow
capacity at the bridge section and induce
the formation of an icing above or at the
site. These icings can be of various shapes
and sizes, depending
upon the valley topography, the depth of the snow, the intensity
of cold, the water supply, and other factors.
Ground icings.
Ground icings may take the
form of mounds having considerable
thickness but small areas.
They may also form
as crustations
if groundwater
flow is induced to the surface at points which are
not of great lateral spacing but are of about
equal elevation.
In addition to a supply of
water, there is another requisite
to the formation of an icing-an
area where the
water can bc exposed to the cold atmosphcre.
A pavement kept clear of snow offers an excellent site over which flowing
water can spread out into a thin film and
then frcczc.
Icings from groundwater
above
the permafrost
arc not likely to occur in the
arctic, as the permafrost
there is too close
to the surface to permit any appreciable
storage in the active layer.
This occurrence
is most severe in the southern zones of the
subarctic and on slopes which face south.
Groundwater
flow may be induced to the
surface in various ways.
It is not essential
that the seasonal frost reach the permafrost, although this very effectively
blocks
groundwatcr
flow. Partial freezing of the active layer reduces the area of the section
which groundwater
must pass. The path of
least resistance
may lcad to the ground
surface via a frost crack or fissure or
through holes which have previously
been
made by burrowing
animals.
Water coming
to the surface in this way may flow

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

.-

considerable distances down slopes beneath

a snow blanket without freezing.
Various methods have been tried to prevent
the occurrence of such icings. Some of
these have met with partial success. The
frost belt or dam has been advocated by
Russian investigators, but this method is
effective for only a few years. The thawing
in summer is accelerated at the site of the
frost dam, and eventually the permafrost
degrades sufficiently to permit groundwater
flow below the frost dam. Fences and barriers have been used quite effectively under
special circumstances.
Spring icings.
Icings that occur from artesian, subpcrmafrost water and springs are
ordinarily quite thick and cover considerable area. Reference is often made to the
icing in the Momy River Valley of Siberia.
This spring icing is about 15 miles long
and 3 miles wide, with an average thickness of about 12 feet. It does not melt and
form each year. Spring icings can be controlled quite readily. The temperature of
the water emerging from the ground is ordinarily quite high and the water does not
freeze quickly if confined to a conduit. In
some cases, an insulated conduit may be required to convey the spring water to locations where the formation of icing will do
no damage.
Measures Against Icings
River icings.
In the case of river icings,
depths to permafrost are ordinarily too
large to bc blocked effectively by accelerated
freezing such as is induced by the frost
dam or bell. In addition, the subbed river
flow is often in excess of what can be

A ford is a shallow place in a waterway

where the bottom, either naturally or by
human improvement, permits the passage
of personnel and vehicles. A ford is used
instead of a bridge when time limitations,
the lack of structural materials, the tactical

Vol 1

stored as ice above the location of the

bridge to be protected. The control of river
icings then must be concerned with an insulation of streambeds at the critical section.
Ground fctngs. Ground icings can be controlled to some extent by inducing the ice
to form upstream from the site in question.
This can be accomplished by the installation of frost belts. In open terrain, some
success can be achieved by merely keeping
snow removed from a strip crossing the affected area in a direction transverse to
groundwater flow. Groundwater flow will
be blocked by freezing and forced to the surface upstream from the cleared area. The
snow-free area also provides a cold space
on which surface flow can spread out and
freeze. If necessary, the depth of stored ice
can be increased by erecting some barrier
to the flow, such as an ordinary woodenstave snow fence on top of the ice initially
formed at the site of the frost belt. Because the process employs the removal of
snow, it is essential to shift the position of
the belt from year to year in order not to
unduly influence the depth to permafrost.
In timbered regions, it is obviously necessary to maintain the frost belt at one location to save the expense of tree removal.
Sprtng icings. If the source of water forming the icing is a spring, then it is necessary to resort to drainage or diversion to
control the occurrence. This sometimes requires insulated channels. In the case of
springs, flows are ordinarily too large to permit a storage of ice at or upstream from the
site.

FORDS, DIPS, CAUSEWAYS,

FORDS

32-8013,

AND BRIDGES

situation, and the terrain configuration

make its use necessary and practical.
An increase in water depth can close a ford
for a considerable time. Streams in mountainous and desert country are subject to
sudden changes in depth. The increase in

Drainage

6- 107

depth can be so sudden as to endanger

sonnel or vehicles in the ford.

per-

Stream bottoms can be of such material

that much effort is required to make fords
usable.
Reconnaissance
Route reconnaissance
should include the
selection of possible ford sites.
Special emphasis is placed on the requirements
to be
discussed in this section.
Ford reconnaissance and required reports are covered in
FM 5-36.

ly adaptable for improvement.

In addition,
the variation in the shape of the banks is
not as pronounced in the reach area as it
is at the bend.
Materlal.
For a natural ford, the bottom material should be hard, durable, and
interlocking.
Such material will resist cutting by wheeled traffic and erosion.
The
general terrain will determine the bottom
condition, as follows:

Bottom

In mountainous country, sudden

freshet floods can transport large
boulders and stones along the bottom.
This material is deposited at the passing of high water or at locations where
the widening of the stream reduces the
velocity. It may be necessary to remove
this material before traffic can cross the
ford.

In terrain of moderate or gentle slopes,

the velocity will tend to prevent deposition of fine material. This tendency and
the scouring action of the water will
leave a good, firm bottom. The bottom
material may be disturbed by traffic and
will require protection.

In slightly sloping or flat terrain,

streams meander and have low velocity.
In addition, there is sometimes a high
water table. In such cases, the bottom
material may be very soft. Such

Requirements
The characteristics
of a good ford are a
slow current (usually less than 2 miles per
hour); low, sloping banks; good approaches;
and a uniformly increasing bottom depth
with a firm bottom material.
Requirements
of width, depth, and bank slopes for fords
are given in Table 6-23.
A desirable location for a ford is
in the reach of the stream between bends.
At this location, the bottom depth is constant between the banks with only a slight
channel in the center.
The influence of
river action on possible fording locations is
shown in Figure 6-66.
Because of the increased velocity of the water, bends result
in a deep channel that is difficult to improve. In the reach, the center channel is
not so deep or sharp and therefore is readi-

Location.

w
Table 6-23.

Yaxlmum
depth

Requirements

Minimum width
(one-byay traffic)

for military

fords

Type of bottom

(ft)

3%

Infantry

Trucks
Light tanks
Medium tanks
Heavy tanks

I '8JSOd On hard dry

6408

(Single file)

Firm enough to prevent sinking

(Column of 3s)

Boulders and obstacles removed

1:l

10

Firm and smooth

3:l

1-3

10

Firm and smooth

2:l

24

10

Firm and smooth

2:l

4-6

12

Firm and smooth

2:l

SIJ~JCJ.

Drainage

Maxlmum
allowable
slope on
approaches*

if

wet Jnd ShppJ~. slops must be IJSS.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

material
will require a completely
improved ford with special emphasis
on
bottom requirements.
Timber, lumber,
matting,
gravel, or gabions can be used
to improve trafficability.

32-8013,

Vol 1

in Figure 6-67,
page 6- 110, can bc made
direct stream
observation,
as follows:

by

Buse Flow.
Base flow is the normal
flow
that occurs
in a stream
when there has
been no recent rain.
The depth of this flow
is dependent
upon the quantity
of
groundwater.

High-Wuter
Determination.
Table 6-23 indicates that a maximum
water depth of 2 feet
is allowable
for truck traffic.
To ensure
maximum
use of the ford, it is necessary
to
detcrminc
the depth at which the stream
will flow at frequently
recurring
times.
Estimates
of various
depths
of flow, as shown

During the year, many

High-Waler
Flout.
rainfalls
normally
occur that cause
flows
above the base level.
The velocity
of such
flows generates
a slight erosion
cut, as

f
Areas of deposition

//
Stream

Thread of stream
(location of fastest
velocity)

Thread of stream

D-p

depth

Fm

Deposition

W//h
-Y
SectIon B-8

Section A-A

7
Shallow depth

Thread of stream
I

Erosion
scour
w

Deep depth

Soctlon C-C
Figure 6-66.

River action

Drainage

6- 109

FM 5_43&()&1/AFPAM

324013,

..:.. .

Vol 1

.... ... ::;! Y:::,.

:.

.:

.: : :

Fbod fbw

Figure

6-67.

Stream

shown in Figure 6-67.

The occurrence
of
such flows tends to prevent the growth of
vegetation.
Since these flows can occur
with relative frequency during the year, the
depth of these flows could control the use
of the ford. In the event the depth is
greater in places than the fording depth of
trucks (see Table 6-23, page S-1081, it may
be necessary to fill these gaps with rock or
gravel. However, such filling might cause
the velocity of flow over the ford to be increased to the point that vehicles would
have difficulty using the ford.
Flow.
In the absence of records, it is
necessary to check stream banks for
evidence of floodwater levels. The highest
level of flood that occurs within a period of
two years is of particular interest.
The
bend of a stream, especially with a high
bank on the outside of the bend, would
show an erosion cut that can be used to
determine the flood level, as shown in Figure 6-67.

Flood

Approaches.
Carefully note the height of
the bank and the type of soil. This information helps to determine construction
requirements.
Stream Velocfty.
The normal stream velocity
at the fording site should not exceed 3 fps.

6- 110

Drainage

cross section

This velocity would, in most cases,

low or moderate levels.

occur at

Section.
Make a cross section of a
ford location similar to Figure 6-66, page
6-109 and Figure 6-67.
Include full details
of bank slopes, bottom slopes, bottom variations, and water depth. In addition, determine the average velocity of the stream
from measurements
taken at equal intervals
across the stream.
Cross

Channel Condftfon.
Make a record of the
character of the streambed.
Include vegetation density and type, whether or not the
channel is scoured, and the type of soil.
This information will determine the value of
Mannings R.

CONSTRUCTION
Two phases of construction
are required for
fords-the
development of the approaches
and the preparation of the bottom.
The maximum slopes for ford approaches
should be as recommended
in Table 6-23.
Place material cut from the banks off to the
side and not in the stream, where it may
form an obstruction.
Because traffic will
wet the slopes and cause eventual deterioration, provision should be made for protecting the surface.

-\-/

.A.
:.

Ford-bottom
preparation will depend upon
site conditions.
Fill short, deep gaps with
rock or gravel, preferably retained by wire
mesh.
Soft, mud bottoms can be improved
by covering the bottom first with willow,
brush mattresses,
or timbers, and subsequently with metal planking, rock, or
coarse gravel. Even a hard and tenacious
bottom deteriorates
under traffic conditions
and requires protective maintenance.
Consider these factors
tom of the ford:
l

when raising

the bot-

The depth upstream from the ford increases in proportion to the amount of
rise of the bottom of the ford.
The velocity of flow over the ford increases at an increased fording depth so
that vehicles may be difficult to operate
and control.

MARKING
Place marking posts at each end of the ford
and at as many intermediate
points as may
be necessary.
Mark a post at each end
with an index to indicate depth. Warning
notices should be clearly and prominently
placed to alert drivers that flooding can
occur suddenly and without warning.

MAINTENANCE
Examine fords after each flooding.
Repair
scour damage upstream and downstream
with riprap.
Remove boulders and.other
debris to provide a clear passage for
vehicles.

.,:
:

FM 5-430-000l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Determine the type of soil in the banks and

bottom for construction
requirements.
In
addition, note the size and type of bottom
rock. This type of information gives an indication of the volume and velocity of flash
floods which move or carry large material.
Investigate the area, especially the banks,
to determine the general flash-flood high
watermark.
This information on the area of
the waterway, along with an approximation
of velocity as indicated by the rock or other
debris on the bottom, gives some indication
of the volume of flow. This information will
be necessary if bridging is required.
Construction
The subgrade should be of erosion-resistant
material or a rock-compacted
base, and it
should be set between the cutoff retaining
walls. The pavement should be of concrete
or compacted macadam.
The general construction is shown in Figure 6-68.
Other factors

of importance

are as follows:

The site should be in the reach of the

stream and well away from any bends.
There is more erosion in bends than in
straight stretches.
If a very severe flood
occurred, a structure placed in a bend
might be destroyed.
The structure should be set at right
angles to the flow to reduce scour.

DIPS
Dips are paved fords used for the crossing
of dry, wide, and shallow arroyos in semiarid regions subject to flash floods.
Reconnaissance
The preferred location of a dip is in the
straight run of an arroyo or wash. Determine the width between the banks and the
top elevation of the banks.
In addition,
check the area above the dip site to determine if ponding will occur and to what level.

subgrade
1

Figure 6-66. -Cross section of dip section

Drainage

6- 111

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

The structure must be set al true drystreambed level to avoid scour erosion
or silting. Under no circumstances
should the structure be set above drystreambed level.

Marking
The marking
fords.

for dips is the same as for

,..

sited, carefully designed to pass the flow,

and strongly built. It must incorporate a
sufficient waterway at streambed level to
permit the passage of the design volume of
flow before the flood level reaches the top of
A typical design is shown in
the structure.
Figure 6-69.
The main design features of a
causeway follow.
Cross-Sectional

Maintenance
Dips, like fords, must be examined after
each flooding, and scour damage upstream
and downstream should be repaired with
riprap.
Remove boulders and other debris.
When macadam is used, it can be anticipated that holes may be scoured in the
roadway.
Consider stockpiling rock adJacent to the area for immediate maintenance repair.

Area

A sufficient cross-sectional
area must be
provided to ensure that the flood level will
not submerge the structure.
Consider the
following basic elements:
l

CAUSEWAYS

When it is essential to keep a roadway open

during floods of medium intensity, a raised
causeway can be used in place of a ford or
dip. This type of structure must be well

The size and number of culverts or

other elements must be sufficient to
pass the flow. When the water elevation
upstream and downstream is above the
culvert crown, pipe equations should be
used for flow design.
The inverts or lowest parts of the culverts must be set at streambed level.
The cover over the stream must be sufficient to protect the waterway against
traffic loads,

Earth and stone filling

of depth sufficient to

Concrete or rock gabion

facing on upstream
and downstream faces

in concrete or

CuhWts of CMP,
oil drums, barrels,
earthenware pipes

Figure 6-69.

6-112

Drainage

.,.:,::

Overflow

(causeway)

Embankment
--

Protect both the upstream and downstream

faces of the embankment against scour and
erosion. Heavy flooding or overtopping of
the struclurc will require complete protection in the form of a concrete or rockgabion facing. To further prevent excessive
scour and erosion, carry the protective
facings below the streambed and provide
them with aprons. Anchor the ends of the
structure securely into the banks in such a
way that there is minimum obstruction to
water flow.
Guardrails

of the stream (Figure 6-66, page S-109). In

this location, there are moderate, even
depths from bank to bank. The deep channel tends to be in the center. Abutments
will bc placed on the edge of the stream.
Because of the even distribution of flow,
scour and erosion at the stream pier and
bank abutments are not expected to be so
excessive as to cause maintenance problems.
Height
The height of a bridge depends upon the
flood-flow, high watermark. The height of
that mark will determine the profile or superstructure level of the bridges as follows:

Provide guardrails to guide and direct traffic. Because the structure can be overtopped, be sure to provide for ready replacement of the guardrails.

When the flood-flow, high watermark is

above the banks, a high-profile or highlevel bridge must be constructed to
keep the superstructure above the flood
level. This type of bridge is well above
bank level and may require a considerable length and height of approach.

Maintenance
Inspect the structure for scour or erosion
after each flow that causes partial submergence or overtopping.
Repair any damage
immediately; othcrwisc, at the next heavy
flow, the structure could be destroyed.
Stockpiling of heavy rock and gabions at
each end OCa structure may bc required.

When the flood-flow, high watermark is

below bank level, a low-profile or lowlevel bridge can be constructed. This
type of bridge presents fewer problems
than the high-level bridge, since approach ramps will not have to be constructed.

BRIDGES

Abutments

This section presents elements of bridge

design other than the requirements for
structural design. Bridges must conform to
the requirements of stream hydraulics in
the same way as all cross-stream structures
such as fords, dips, and causeways.

The location of bridge abutments depends

upon an analysis of the flood level and the
cross section of the stream (Figure 6-70).
Analysis proceeds as follows:

Location

Abutments placed at 1A and 1B of Figure

6-70 present the most direct solution because they are located on high, dry ground.

The location of a bridge should be away

from bends in the straight section or reach
1A

Floodhigh water

Figure 6-70. Waterway cross section at bridge site

Drainage

6- 113

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

the bridge flow. If this action is taken,

the roadway may not be usable at all
times. Since overflow is anticipated, the
construction of these approaches is
similar to construction
of causeways
without the culverts. If the bridge is
designed properly, with fording depths
as outlined in Table 6-23, page 6-108. it
may be usable during floods under extreme conditions.

Use of these locations, however, may necessitate more construction

effort because of
the increased length of the bridge. This increased length could result in the need for
intermediate
piers and spans.
With this
method, the full river waterway will be used
for the passage of flood water.
Abutments placed at 2A and 2B would
reduce construction
time because fewer intermediate piers and spans would be required. In addition, the fill in areas lA-2A
and lB-2B could be accomplished
as the
bridge is constructed.
As can be seen from
the figure, this placement reduces the cross
section of the waterway.
The following techniques could be used to accommodate
this
reduction in an available cross-sectional
area :
* The elevation of the bridge superstructure could be raised to account for the
rise in the flood level. In this case, use
substantial abutments that are well
protected against end scour.
l

The superstructure
elevation could be
left substantially
at the original level,
and approach ramps over areas lA-2A
and 1B-2B could be constructed as
causeways to allow for flow. Care must
be taken to ensure that there is no excessive scour or erosion below the culvert outlet that would affect the roadway.
The
and
the
the
the

roadway approaches in areas IA-2A

lB-2B could be depressed below
superstructure
level. In this case,
excess flood flow would pass over
roadway approaches, thus relieving

When a depressed roadway or an elevated superstructure

is used, the approach to the bridge must have a gentle
slope to prevent vehicle impact on the
abutment and to ensure traffic visibility.

Drainage
The soil behind bridge abutments
can become saturated because of rain or other conditions.
This saturation can take place
whether the approach road is at the natural
grade of the soil or it is a filled approach.
When saturation occurs, static hydraulic
pressure on the back face of the abutment
generates additional overturning movement.
With wood abutments,
this condition is
relieved naturally.
However, if concrete
abutments are used, the pressures can be
relieved as follows:
Step 1. Use weep holes to pierce the abutments with bagged gravel backing on the
soil side.
Step 2. Place gravel backing against the
lower part of the abutment drained by a perforated pipe at the footing elevation.
Set
the pipe to drain out at the sides of the
abutment.

EROSION CONTROL
Erosion must be controlled to maintain an
effective and clear drainage system with a
minimum of maintenance
and to reduce hazardous dust conditions.
Erosion may occur
at any point where the force of moving
water exceeds the cohesive strength of the
material with which the water is in contact.
Proper design of side slopes in cut and fill
sections (based on the type of soil) will

6-7 14

Drainage

reduce the need for extensive erosion control measures.

However, additional control
Most methods of conis usually required.
trol are based on dissipating the energy of
water, providing an erosion-resistant
surface, or some combination
of these techniques. This chapter acquaints
the military
engineer with the means available to reduce
or eliminate the erosive force of water.

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FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

NONUSE AREAS AND OPEN CHANNELS

Terracing is a control measure designed to

dissipate the energy of overland flow in nonuse areas.
Turflng, paving, Gunite lining,
and placing riprap are control methods
designed to cause turbulence and to increase retardation,
thereby dissipating the
energy of flow in open channels such as
ditches and pipe outfalls.
In cases where
even riprap will be eroded, the use of
gabions is a speedy and relatively inexpensive means of dissipating energy.

disturbed soil in place. Vertical spacing

and longitudinal gradients of terraces are
given in Figure 6-71.

TURFING
Ditches are often protected by placing
strips of sod (held in place by wooden
boards or stakes) perpendicular
to the flow
path at intervals along the ditch, as shown
in Figure 6-72.

TERRACING

PAVING AND GUNITE LINING

A terrace is a low, broad-based

earth levee
constructed
approximately
parallel to the
contours of the topography.
A terrace
either intercepts and holds the water until
it infiltrates the soil or moves it as overland
flow to a suitable discharge point. A hardy,
vigorous turf should be planted to hold the

Ditches having grades in excess of 5 percent usually require paving or a Gunite

lining. Where a slope equals or exceeds 5
percent, paving must be extended down
slope at least to the point in the ditch at
which the erosive energy of the water is controlled or absorbed without erosion damage.

Vertica! spacing

I4

Horizontal spacing
Finished terra& grade
- - -- Original grade
Average
land slope
(percent)

Vertical spacing
Horizontal
spacing
(feet)

Vertical
spacing
(feet)

2
4
6
6
10
12
14

125
75
56
50
45
42
39

?.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5

Side sbpe
A. psr+ctlvo
with lrorbn

Longitudinal gradlents
Length of
Terrace channel
terrace
grade
(feet)
(percent)
O-300
300-600
600- 900
900 . 1,200
1,200 . 1,500

--

Figure 6-71.

0.10
0.15
0.20
0.30
0.40

Terrace spacing

of drrlnrgo
chocJm

ditch

nol be less
than ditference
in elevation lo
erosion check
0. Sectlon through ditch proflle of eroslon checks

and gradients

Figure 6-72.

Erosion-control

checks

Drainage

6- 115

FM 5-430-OOWAFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Paving will1 cilhcr asphalt or portland-cemcnt concrctc provides superior erosionresistant linings in gutters, ditches, and out1,111structures.
Gunitc lining of ditches controls erosion efIcctivcly.
Gunitc is a mixture of portland cen~nl and sand with water added just
bcforc the mixture is sprayed from a highpressure nozzle onto the surface being protcctcri. The Cunite lining is formed over
steel mesh placed over the bottom and
sides of the ditch.
Gunite is sprayed to a
lhickness of 1 to 1 l/2 inches, with the
steel mesh localcd midway in the thickness.
Human resources,
time, matcrial, and cquipmcnt cxpcnscs
usually limit the use of
paving or Gunitc linings to only the most
dcrllanding
conditions
in TO airfield conslrliction.

PLACING RIPRAP
Riprap protection
should be provided adjacent to all hydraulic
structures.
When
placed on crodiblc surfaces, it prevents
scour at the ends of the structure.
This
protection
is rcquircd on the bed and banks
Tar a sufficient distance to establish velocity
gradients and turbulence
levels at the end
of the riprap.
Riprap can also be used for lining the channcl banks to prevent lateral erosion and undcsirablc mcandcring.
Provide an expansioii tither horizontally
or vertically
(or
both) immcdiatcly
downstream
from
hydraulic structures
such as drop structllrcs or energy dissipators.
The expansion
allows the flow to expand and dissipate its
csccss energ-- in turbulence
rather than
directly on the channel bottom and sides.
Riprap has been known to fail from*

6- I I6

Movcmcnl ol the individual stones from

a combination
of velocity and turbulcncc.
Movcmcnt of the natural bed material
through lhe riprap, resulting in slumping of the blanket.
Undercutting
and leveling of the riprap
from scour at the end of the blanket.

Drainage

Consideration
must be given to the selection of an adequate size of stone, the use of
adequately
graded riprap, the provision of a
filter blanket, and the proper treatment of
the end of the riprap blanket.

Selection of Size
Curves for the selection of stone size required for protection,
with Froude numbers
and depths of flow in the channel shown,
are shown in Figure 6-73.
Two curves are given.
One is for riprap subjected to direct flow or adjacent to
hydraulic structures
such as side inlets,
confluences,
and energy dissipators,
where
turbulence
levels are high.
The other is for
riprap on the banks of a straight channel
where flows arc relatively quiet and parallel
to the banks.
With the depth of flow and average velocity
in the channel known, the Froude number
can be computed from the following equation:
F= 0.716v
VZ
D5o value can be determined
propriate curve.

from

the ap-

Curves for determining

the riprap size required to prevent scour downstream
from
culvert outlets with scour holes of various
depths are shown in Figure 6-74, page
6- 118. Make the thickness of the riprap
blanket equal to the longest dimension
of
the maximum size of stone or 1.5 times
D50, whichever is greater.
When the use of large rock is desirable but
impractical,
substituting
a grouted reach of
smaller rock in areas of high velocities or
turbulence
may be appropriate.
Grouted
riprap should be followed by an ungrouted
reach.
A well-graded
mixture of stone sizes is
preferred to a relatively
uniform size of
A recommended
gradation
is shown
riprap.
in Figure 6-75, page 6- 119. In certain locations, the available material may dictate the
gradation of riprap to be used. The

..::j.:..:>.:/:i,:

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FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1

,,

0.

O.!

0.1

c+
O.O!

Dam= Stone diameter

f5O.percent size)
d
= De&h of fbw .
V = Average vebcity
in channel

0.01
05

0.1

Figure

gradation

6-73.

Recommended

should resemble
the recommended mixture
as closely as possible.
Consider
increasing
the thickness
of the
riprap blanket
when locality dictates
using
gradations
with a larger percentage
of small
stone than shown by the recommended

riprap sizes for open channels

plot.
If the gradation
of the available
riprap
is such that movement
of natural
material
through
the riprap blanket
would be likely,
place a filter blanket
of sand, crushed
rock,
gravel, or synthetic
cloth under the riprap.
The usual blanket
thickness
is 6 inches,

Drainage

6- 117

FM

5~43&()().l/AFpAM

32-8013,

vol

..

:::::j:

...;.:.

;:

..,,

..

(50%

size)

::;,;.:..

0 3c
d

Horizontal

= Depth of fbw

50:
;0

w,

;ihmM;

is:

Average vebcii
= Wiih of outlet
=

at outlet

O.l(

50
K

0 O!

Plan
c-i-l

Varies (O-1.ODo)

SeotlonA-A
proformad amur hok
00

0.3

05

1
F

Figure

although a greater
necessary.

6-74.

thickness

0.716ij
I\/a

Recommended

is sometimes

Design

An ideal riprap design would provide a

gradual reduction In riprap size until the
downstream end of the blanket blends with
the natural bed material.
Unless this is
done, turbulence caused by the riprap is
likely to develop a scour hole at the end of

6- 118

Drainage

riprap

sizes for culvert

outlets

the riprap blanket.

However, the extra effort required to provide gradual reduction
in riprap size is seldom justified.
Double
the thickness of the riprap blanket at the
downstream end to protect against undercutting and unraveling.
An alternative is a
rubble blanket of constant thickness and
suitable length, dipping below the natural
streambed to the estimated depth of bottom
scour.

,.

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..

3.

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.,,

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.,.

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. .

. . . . .,...

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FM

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5.430_00_1

32-8013, Vol 1

/AFpAM

8C

1W

80

60

40

Diameter
Max diameter

Figure

6-75.

Recommended

GABIONS
Gabions are large, steel, wire-mesh baskets,
usually rectangular
and variable in size,
designed to solve erosion problems at a low
cost. Widely used in Europe, gabions are
now accepted in the United States as a valuable and practical construction
and maintenance tool. They can be used in place of
sheet piling, masonry construction,
or cribbing.

d
= dM

gradation

of stones

Description

for riprap

and Assembly

Gabions are supplied from manufacturers

in flat, folded bundles.
For ease in handling and shipping, the number of gabions
per bundle varies according to the size of
the gabions.
The box gabion is a rectangular cage or basket formed of woven,
hexagonal, galvanized steel, wire mesh with
4- to 8-inch openings and divided by diaphragms in to cells. To assemble, remove a
single gabion from the bundle and unfold it
on a hard, flat surface to straighten unnecessary creases and kinks.
Fold the

Drainage

6- 119

FM 5-4309OOWAFPAM

32-8013,

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front, back, and end panels to a right angle

to form a box, as shown in Figure 6-76.
Securely lace the vertical edge and
diaphragms with binding wire.

being stretched,
inspect all corners to make
sure the lacing is secure and the corners
are closed.
Keep gabions taut while they
are being filled with stone.
Where water, soil, and atmospheric
conditions allow, galvanized wire mesh can have
a life of 40 years or more. For soils and
water showing a pH factor of less than 7 or
more than 12, plastic-coated
wire must be
used to form gabions.
Filling

Procedures

The best filling material is one that allows

flexibility in the structure and, at the same
time, fills the gabion compartments
with a
minimum of voids and maximum weight.
Ideally, the stone should be small, just
slightly larger than the size of the mesh
(usually 4 to 8 inches).
The stone should
be clean, hard, durable, and resistant
to
weathering and frost action.
Gabiin ends and diaphragms
will be lifted into vertical
position and laced to
form a box
Figure

6-76.

Assembly

of a gabion

Installation

Before placing the gabions, make the

ground surface relatively smooth and even.
Place the assembled gabions in position
singly or wired together in groups suitable
for handling.
It is convenient to place the
gabions front-to-front
and back-to-back
to
expedite the stone-filling and lid-lacing
Lace the basket along the
operation.
perimeter of all contact surfaces.
Where
there is more than one course of gabions,
the base of the empty gabions placed on
top of a completed row must be tightly
wired to the latter as shown in Figure 6-77
When using 3-foot-high gabions, place them
empty and lace for approximately
100 linear
feet. Anchor the first gabion firmly and
apply tension to the other end with a comealong or by other means to achieve the
Anchoring can be
proper alignment.
accomplished
by partially filling the first
While the gabions are
gabion with stone.

6- 720

Drainage

Fill the gabions to a depth of 1 foot. Then

place one connecting wire in each direction
and loop around two meshes of the gabion
wall, as shown in Figure 6-77.
Repeat this
operation twice or until the gabion is filled;
then fold the top shut and wire it to the
ends, sides, and diaphragms.
Pack the stone inside the compartment
as
To protect the vertical
tight as practical.
diaphragm during the filling operation, temporarily place rebars and lace them along
the upper edges.
Some manual stone adjustment
is required
during the filling operation to prevent
undue voids. Fill the gabion slightly overfull and allow for subsequent
settlement;
then lace the lid down with binding wire to
the tops of all the sides and lo the tops of
the diaphragm panels.
Since it is necessary to stretch the lid to fit the sides exactly, use a short crowbar or special tool
designed for this purpose.
The strong interconnection
of all units in a
gabion structure is an important feature.
It
is essential that the lacing be done properly.
Adjoining gabions are wired together by
their vertical edges. Empty gabions,

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

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stacked on filled gabions, arc wired to the

filled gabions at front and back.
Gabions may be filled by almost any type of
earth-handling
equipmenl such as a
payloader, crane, conveyor, or modified concrete bucket.
The use of rounded stone, if
it is available, reduces the possibility of
damage to the galvanized wire during
mechanical
filling.
When the depth of the water is too great for
the gabions to be filled on site, fill them at
a dry location nearby and place them underwater by crane or barge.

1 ft 6 in

\
Edges

Figure

6-77.

Assembly

and construction

of gabions

Drainage

6- 121

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

Maintenance

32-8013,

Vol 1

and Repair

Maintenance
and repair are simple procedures: therefore, gabions are inspected at
least once a year. Holes can be patched
with small panels of mesh, and broken
wires can be repaired by using the method
shown in Figure 6-78.
Thickness

The thickness of gabions may be calculated

by considering the gradient of the channel.
the steepness of its slope, the type of
material forming the banks and bed, and
the curvature of its course.
A 12-inch-deep
lining is suggested for channels having
reasonably straight alignment, side slopes
of less than 35 degrees, and a flow velocity
of about 10 fps, as shown in Figure 6-79.
Use an IS-inch gabion linfng for curved
channel sections with a side slope of 45
degrees.
Use 36-inch stepped-back
gabion
protection for sharper side slopes.
For a
steep channel slope, a combination
of lining
and weirs may be required.
In the case of easily erodible soil, a layer of
filter material or permeable membrane of
cloth woven of synthetic fibers is required.
The gabion should be filled with stone
small enough to allow at least two overlapping layers.
In designing a gabion-lined
channel, the
roughness factor or coefficient fn) in
Mannings formula may be assumed to bc
between 0.025 and 0.030.
If the gabions
are grouted. the roughness
factor can be assumed to be between 0.012 and 0.018.

Cross Section

Figure 6-79.

Typical channel
gabions

12-in-thick
gabions

lining using

Gabion-lined channels may be designed

using Mannings equation and the procedures for open -channel design.
Uses

Gabions
l

can be used in the following ways:

Protective and antierosion structures on

rivers (for example, revetments, groins,
or spurs).
Other antierosion structures (for example, weirs, drop structures,
and
check dams).

* Channel
0 Seashore
l

linings.
protection.

Low-water bridges or fords.

Culvert headwall and outlet structures.

* Bridge abutments

and wing walls.

It is often necessary to modify the inlet and

outlet of a culvert by using transition structures to reduce entrance losses and to inhibit erosion.
Therefore, the two most common devices for which gabions are used are
headwalls and outlet aprons.

Figure 6-76.

6- 122

Method

Drainage

of repairing

a broken

wire

Headwalls or wing walls are designed to

protect the slopes of an embankment
against scour, to increase culvert efficiency
by providing a flush inlet as opposed to
projecting one, to prevent disjointing of sectional-pipe culverts by anchoring the inlet

,.

32-8013,

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An apron is often required

at the outlet of a
culvert to reduce
the outlet velocity and
thereby
inhibit scour.
Gabions
arc well
adaplcd
for use here because
of their roughncss, flexibility,
and durability.
Set Figure
6-80.)

and outlet, and to retain the cmbankmenl

slope.
These structures
are built in a
variety of shapes:
straight,
L-shaped.
flared, and warped.
A typical plan using a
headwall
and an outlet apron with a culvert
is shown in Figure 6-79.
Straight
hcadwalls arc gcncrally
used on small, roadside
culverls
under driveways
and in small channcls having a low approach
vclocily.
They
arc also rccommcndcd
whcrc thcrc is a tendcncy for lateral erosion
to dcvclop at the
outlel.

1WMhick

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

Table 6-24 indicates

prolcction
required
lcl \relocilics.

the type of gabion

for various
ranges of out-

gabion

Figure

6-80.

Culvert

in/et or out/et

Table 6-24.

using gabion

Requirements

headwall

for gabion

and channel

lining

protection

Calculated outkt voloclty

(WI

Length of apron
(fl)

Thickness of apron
(in)

Less than 7

No apron is needed; good grass cover

is adequate

7to10

10

10 to 15
More than 15

13 to 23
Energy dissipator or stilling
basin required

Drainage

6- 123

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

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..

CULVERT OUTLETS
Most culverts operate under free outfall conditions (that is, there is no control of tailwater), and the discharge possesses kinetic
energy in excess of that occurring naturally
in the waterway.
This excess kinetic energy
must often be dissipated to control damaging erosion.
The extent to which protective
works are required for energy dissipation
depends on the amount of excess kinetic
energy and the characteristics
of the
material in the outlet channel.
In general,
scour occurs at average velocities in excess
of about 1.5 fps in uniform-graded
sand
and cohesionless
silts, 2.5 fps in wellgraded sand, 3.0 fps in silty sand, 4.0 fps
in clay, and 6.0 fps in gravel. These
velocities should be used only as a general
guide.
If possible, make a study of local material
to determine its erosion tendencies prior to
a decision on the degree of protection required. The study should consider three
types of outfalls offering three degrees of
protection:
plain outlets, transitions,
and
Plain outlets provide no
stilling basins.
protective works and depend on natural
material to resist harmful erosion.
Transitions provide little or no dissipation on the
works themselves but result in a spreading
of the effluent jet to approximate the crosssection flow of the natural channel, thus
reducing the concentration
of energy prior
to releasing the flow to the outlet channel.
Stilling basins result in dissipation of energy on the protective works.

PLAIN OUTLETS
If the discharge channel is in rock or a
material highly resistant
to erosion, special
erosion protection is not required.
This
type of outlet should be used only if the
material in the outlet channel can withstand velocities about 1.5 times the velocity
in the culvert.
At such an outlet, side
erosion from eddy action or turbulence is
more likely to prove troublesome
than bottom scour.

6- 124

Drainage

Cantilevered culvert outlets may be used to

discharge a free-falling jet onto the bed of
the outlet channel.
As a result, a plunge
pool will be developed.
The depth and size
of the plunge pool depend on the energy of
the falling jet at the tailwater and the
erodibility of the bed material.

TRANSITIONS
Outlet headwalls and wing walls serve the
dual purpose of retaining the embankment
and limiting the outlet transition boundary.
Erosion of embankment
toes can be traced
to eddy attack at the ends of such walls. A
flared transition is effective if it is proportioned so that eddies induced by the effluent jet do not continue beyond the end
of the wall or overtop a sloped wall.
As a guideline, it is suggested that the
product of velocity and flare angle not exFor example, if effluent
ceed 150 degrees.
velocity is 5 fps, each wing wall may flare
30 degrees; but if velocity is 15 fps, the
flare should not exceed 10 degrees.
Unless
wing walls can be anchored on a stable
foundation, a paved apron between the
wing walls is required.
Special care must
be taken in the structure design to
preclude undermining.
A newly excavated channel may be expected
to degrade.
Proper allowance for this action
should be included in establishing
the
apron elevation and depth of cutoff wall.
Warped end walls provide excellent transitions that result in the release of flow in a
trapezoidal cross section which approximates the cross section of the outlet
channel.
A warped transition is made at
the end of the curved section to reduce the
possibility of overtopping as a result of superelevation of the water surface.
A paved
apron is required with warped end walls.
Riprap is usually required at the end of a
transition-type
outlet.

,j:.

j,;.,: ,:

::

STILLING

.:::.:

I.:.:

BASINS

At culvert outlets where a high concentration of energy or easily eroded materials

make excessive erosion likely, a stilling
basin or other energy-dissipating
device is
required.
For TO construction,
riprap or
simple, concrete stilling basins are usually
required.
There are many types of energydissipating devices such as hydraulic-jump
basins, roller buckets, flip buckets, impactenergy-dissipating
devices, and stilling
wells. In unusual cases involving major
structures,
the use of a special type of

:,:: . :...
.;

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

device should be considered.

Three types of
dissipators which may offer a solution are
the hydraulic-jump
stilling basin, with
details developed at the St. Anthony Falls
Hydraulic Laboratory; the impact-energy
dissipator, with details developed at the
hydraulic laboratory of the Bureau of
Reclamation;
and stilling wells. These dissipa tors are beyond the scope of TO conDesign procedures are not instruction.
cluded in this manual.

Drainage

6- 125

...,.,.,.
:,.>:
.,,.:;,,:,:.. ;.
::.:::..::.:,::

: : :

.y:

. . . . .:. ... : ,,

. .

::.:,,:,

..

FM 54301OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

SOILS TRAFFICABILITY

Sofls traflfcabflfty
eludes information
.

Operatfng

.
Measurfng
penetrometer

CHAPTER

fs the capacfty of sotls to support

on the following
topics:

and mafntafnfng

the sofl-traflcabflfty

traflfcabflfty
wfth the results
and remoldfng equipment.

mflftary

uehfcles.

This chapter

fn-

test set.

of the tests performed

by the cone

.
Makfng trafftcabflfty
estfmates from terrafn data (topography
and sol1 data) and
The procedures
in this chapter are conservative
estimates for field
weather conditions.
use, Engineers
must be cautious as the calculated
results can vary by 20% or more
from changes in tire pressure and deflection.
Plan for the unexpected!
This chapter discusses
the trafficability
(muskegJ and snow are not discussed.

of fine-

and coarse-grained

soils.

Organic

soils

The tra~lcablllty
of fine-gralned
soils (silts and clays) and sands that contain enough
fine-gralned
material
to behave like fine-grained
soils when wet is more dfjfcult
to assess than tra~lcabflfty
in coarse-gralned
sofls (clean sands).
Relationships
that
describe the soil-vehicle
interactions
are based on sol1 shearing-resistance
measurements made wfth the cone penetrometer
and corrected for soil remolding
under vehicle
tragic by the remolding
index [RIJ procedures.
The fnformatfon
presented
In this chapter is lfmited to problems
associated
wfth soils.
It does not fnclude problems
associated
wfth natural or man-made
obstacles
(such as
forests
or ditches) nor lnformatfon
on vehicle characteristics
(such as the maxfmum
tilt
or side angle at whfch a vehicle can climb without power staZ1 or OoerturnlngJ.
The
basic prlncfples for the procedures
presented
are sound for temperate
and tropfcal
clfmates and for soils that have been subjected
to freeze-thaw
cycles, If they are not
frozen at the time of testing and passage of tra_Cfic.
Orfgfnally,
thfs chapter was designed to permit calculations
of trafficability
by field perPerformances
were estimated for a mfnfmum
sonnel with only a hand-held
calculator.
number of vehicle passes (1J or a maximum
of 50 vehicles in the same ruts.
Today
most relations
are used for one pass and the combined
effects on vehfcle performance
of terrain features
such as sofl, vegetation,
and slope can only accurately
be determined through the use of the computerized
Army mobility prediction
system contained
The engineering
relationships
which
in the NATO Reference
Mobilfty Model (NRMMJ.
produce vehfcle speed predfctfons
or GO/NO GO performance
based on measured
terrain and vehicle characterfstics
are contained in the NRMM.
This chapter only lntroand illustrations
of this computerized,
duces fundamental
relationships,
terminologies,
Most
military
units
have
access to NRMM
comprehensive
mobility evaluation
tool.
relationships
through personal
computer-based
NRMM versions of mobility predictions
such as the Comprehensive

Army

Mobllfty

Modeling

System

(CAMMS).

Soils Trafficability

7-l

FM 5_43().()0_1/AFPAM 32-801 3, j/o! 1

~...:~i.~i..:::~.~.::~~:_~~~_.,
..,:,,; j..~:jj.,j....,i~:::
.:.j:.~.:,:::~~..::,.:~j~~~.:.:~::.jjj,.~j
::,:i:.:~~,,::i,.:j.:,ii:

BASIC TRAFFICABILITY
The following factors
ficability:

impact

soil traf-

SOIL STRENGTH
Bearing and traction capacities of soils are
functions of their shearing resistance.
Shearing resistance
is measured by the
cone penetrometer
and is expressed in
terms of cone index (CI). Because the
strength of fine-grained soils (silts and
clays) may increase or decrease when
loaded or disturbed, remolding tests are
necessary to measure any loss of soil
strength expected after traffic.
The finegrained soil CI multiplied by the RI
produces the rating cone index (RCI) used
to denote soil strength corrected for remolding. A comparison of the RCI with the
vehicle cone index (VCI) indicates whether
the vehicle can negotiate the given soil condition for a given number of passes.
For example, if a soil has a CI of 120 and an RI
of 0.60 in its critical layer, the soil strength
may be expected to fall to 120 times 0.60,
or an RCI of 72, under traffic.
Therefore,
such soil is not trafficable for vehicles with
VCIs greater than 72. If a vehicle has a
minimum soil-strength
requirement
of 72
for one pass, its VCIl is 72 and an RCI of
72 is required for the vehicle to complete
one pass without immobilization.
Appendix
D of this manual summarizes VCIs for
military vehicles.

STICKINESS
Stickiness
may seriously hamper vehicles
operating in wet, fine-grained soil. Under
extreme conditions,
sticky soil can accumulate in a vehicles running gears, making
travel and steering difficult.
Normally,
stickiness
is troublesome only when it occurs in soils of low-bearing capacity (normally, fine-grained
soils).

7-2

Soils Trafficability

FACTORS
SLIPPERINESS

Excess water or a layer of soft, plastic soil

of low LL overlying a firm layer of soil can
produce a slippery surface.
Such a condition may make steering difficult or may immobilize rubber-tired
vehicles.
Vegetation,
especially when wet and on a slope, may
cause immobilization
of rubber-tired
vehicles.
Slipperiness
is troublesome,
even
when associated with soils with high-bearing capacities.
VARIATION OF TRAFFICABILITY
WEATHER

WITH

Weather changes produce changes in soil

trafficability.
Fine-grained
soils increase in
moisture during rainy periods.
This results
in slipperiness,
stickiness,
and decreased
strength.
Dry periods produce the opposite
effects.
Loose sands improve trafficability
through an increase in cohesion during
rainy periods and return to the loose, less
trafficable state during dry periods.
Trafficability characteristics
measured on a
given date cannot be applied later unless
full allowance is made for the changes in
soil strength caused by weather.
Freezing
and thawing conditions can cause extreme
variations in the trafficability
of soils.
Several inches of frozen soil may carry a
large number of extremely heavy vehicles.
However, when this same material is thawing, it may be impassable to nearly all
vehicles.
Snow cover can have a significant
effect on the depth of freezing.
The absence of snow allows frost to penetrate
more deeply into the soil. Techniques
have
been developed for predicting the effects of
weather on soil traffIcability.
These techniques are part of the comprehensive
NRMM
and are not included in this publication.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

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CRITICAL LAYER
-

The critical layer is the layer in the soil

that supports the weight of the vehicle in
question.
The critical layers depth varies
with the soil type, the soils strength

profile, the vehicle type and weight, and the

number of passes required.
Table 7-l summarizes these variations for common
military vehicles.

Table 7- 1. Critical-layer

depth

variations

I
Depth of Normal Critical Layer (inches)

Tracked vehicles with ground

contact pressure less than 4 psi
Wheel load up to 2,000 lb
Wheel load, 2,000 to 10,000 lb
Wheel load over 10,000 lb
Tracked, up to 100,000 lb
Tracked, over 100,000 lb
*Fine-grained
soils and remoldable
*Coarse-grained
soils
NOTE: Vehicle
vehicles.

50 Passes

1 Pass

Type of Vehicle

weights

F-G Soils*

C-G Soils*

3 to 9
3 to 9
6to12
9to15
6to 12
9to 15

0
0
0
0
0
0

6
6
6
6
6
6

C-G Soils**

3 to 9
3 to 9
6to 12
9to 15
6tol2
9to 15

0
0
0
0
0
0

to
to
to
to
to
to

6
6
6
6
6
6

sands

are located in Appendix

INSTRUMENTS

to
to
to
to
to
to

F-G Soils*

D, along with VCI, and VCI,

values for military

AND TESTS FOR TRAFFICABILITY

This section contains general information

regarding the soil-trafficability
test set. The
specific use, operating instructions,
and
test procedures for the soil-trafficability
test
set are described in detail in Appendix E of
this manual.
Sieve-analysis
tests, plasticity
tests, and other field identification
tests are
described in Chapter 2 of FM 5-530.

---

Trafficability
measurements
are made with
the soil-trafficability
test set. This set consists of one canvas carrying case, one cone
penetrometer
with 3/&inch steel and 5/8inch aluminum shafts and a 0.5-squareinch cone, one soil sampler, remolding
equipment (which includes a 3/8-inch steel
shaft and a 0.2-square-inch
cone, a 5/8inch steel shaft with foot and handle, a 2
l/2-pound
hammer, a cylinder and base
with pin), and a bag of hand tools. The
items are shown in Figure 7-1 in their
proper places in the carrying case. The set
is carried on the back as shown in Figure 7
2, page 7-4. The complete set weighs 19
pounds.

Figure

7- 1. Soil- trafficability

test set

Soils Trafficability

7-3

FM 51430-001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

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..

The primary instrument

of the soil-trafficability test set is the cone penetrometer.
It is shown in Figures 7-3 and 7-4 and Figure 7-5, page 7-5.
It is used to determine
the shearing strength of low-strength
soils.
There is also a dynamic cone penetrometer,
but this instrument
is used to determine
shear strength of high-strength
soils such
as those found in the base courses of roads
and airfields.
(The dynamic cone penetrometer is currently developmental
and has
only limited fielding.) The dynamic cone
penetrometer
is described in detail in Appendix E. The cone penetrometer
consists of a
30-degree cone with a l/2-inch-square
base
area, a steel shaft 19 inches long and 3/8
inch in diameter, a proving ring, a
micrometer dial, and a handle.
When the
cone is forced into the ground, the proving
ring is deformed in proportion to the force
applied.

Figure

Figure 7-2. Carrying a

soil-trafficability
test set

7-4

Soils Trafficability

Figure
penetrometer

7-3.

Cone penetrometer

7-4. Using a cone

in the upright position

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

Figure

.-

7-5.

Using a cone penetrometer

The amount of force required to move the

cone slowly through a given plane is indicated on the dial inside the ring. This force
is an index of the soils shearing resistance
and is called the soils CI in that plane.
The dials range is 0 to 300 pounds per
square inch (psi). (The actual load applied
to the cone penetrometer
is 0 to 150
pounds, since the instrument
uses a l/2square-inch
base.) The proving ring and
handle are used with a 3/8-inch-diameter
steel shaft and the 0.2~square-inch
cone for

MEASURING
Whenever reconnaissance
parties have time
to take trafficability
measurements.
they
should obtain data to determine the number and type of vehicles that can cross the
area and the slopes they can climb. The
procedures for measuring trafficability are
described in this section.
Remember that
measurements
are valid only for the time of
the measurement
and short periods thereafter, provided no weather changes occur.

RANGE OF CONE INDEXES

A CI ranging between 10 and 300 in the

critical layer is required to support most
military vehicles.
Except for a few vehicles,
a CI below 10 is considered to be a nontrafficable area and a CI above 300 is considered trafficable to all but a few vehicles
for 50 passes.
These limits usually make it
possible, while gathering data for traffica-

32-8013,

Vol 1

in the prone position

remolding tests in remoldable sands.

The
cone penetrometer cannot be used to
measure gravels.
Gravels are considered excellent for 50 passes, and any problems can
be determined by visual observation.
The specific use, operating instructions,
and test procedures for the cone penetrometer as well as the remainder of the
soil-trafficability
test set are described in
detail in Appendix E.

TRAFFICABILITY
bility evaluation, to classify large areas as
above or below the critical range without CXtensive testing.

NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS
The number of measurements
taken is
determined by the time available, the judgment of the range of soil strengths,
and the
general uniformity of the arca.
Trafficability-measuring
instruments
are designed
for rapid observations.
The accuracy of the
average of any series of readings increases
with the number taken.
Variations in soft
soils require that at least 15 readings be
taken to establish a true average CI at any
spot at a given depth.
The 15 readings
should be distributed
throughout a uniform
area.

Soils Trafficability

7-5

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

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:~:i.c;~~~~

If time is not available to take a large number of measurements, use judgment to reduce the number according to the following
instructions:
.

7-6

If CIs are between 0 and 150. enough

readings should be taken to assure accurate coverage of the area. Readings
should be made at enough locations to
establish the area boundaries and the
average CI within close limits. Four to
six sets of readings should be made at
each location. Remolding tests (in the
case of fine-grained soil and remoldable
sand) should be run at a sufficient number of locations to establish the range of
I&. If a tentative route can be selected
in the field, penetrometer and remolding
measurements should be made at
closely spaced intervals to locate any
soft spots. Where CIs are less than 10,
readings should be limited to the number needed to establish the nontrafficable-area limits. No remolding tests are
required.
If the CI ranges from 150 to 200. select
enough locations to verify the area limits. Three or four sets of readings
should be made at each location. For
fine-grained soils and remoldable
sands, remolding tests should be made
at the first two or three locations. If
these show an RI of 0.90 or more, additional remolding tests are not needed.
If the RI is below 0.90. sufficient remolding tests should be made to establish
the range for the area. This can be established with tests at approximately
six locations.
If the CIs are above 200, a few penetrometer readings will usually verify the
extent of the area. Two sets of profile
readings taken at each location should
be adequate. Remolding tests on soil
from the critical layer (fine-grained soils
and remoldable sands) should be made
at the first two or three locations. If
these show an RI of 0.80 or more, no additional remolding tests are needed.
Sufficient tests should be made to estab-

Soils Trafikability

lish the range for the area if the RI is below 0.80. This can be established with
tests at approximately four locations.
Example:
Using the work sheet in Figure 7-6, five
tests down to 24 inches were completed at
a selected site. The corresponding penetrometer readings are listed in the blocks
for the corresponding depth and test. For
example, in test number 1 the O-inch reading is 58. the g-inch reading is 63, and so
on. The individual depth readings are then
added and averaged, as in the O-inch layer.
(Always round down.)
Solution:
58 + 63 + 65 5+ 72 + 75

= 66 6 = 66

The numbers in the numerator are the individual readings. The number in the denominator represents the number of tests conducted. The resulting quotient is the average CI for that depth.
After all individual readings are added together, they are averaged with the reading
above and below to obtain the average CI
for that layer. In the case of the 0- to
6-inch layer. the 66 and 71 are added and
then averaged (68). The 68 is the CI for
the 0- to g-inch layer. Readings are then
averaged for the 6- to 12-inch layer and
so on.
NOTE: Intermediate value8 for the 3-,
0-, and lb-inch deptha (fine grains and remoldable sands) can be interpolated when
the vehicle types under consideration require them.
Continuing with the example above, the
M929 dump critical layer for one vehicle
and for 50 vehicles is 9-15 inches. (To determine the critical layer, refer to the section on critical layers in this chapter, page
7-3.) Because the readings on the cone
penetrometer are taken at the 0-, 6-, 12-.
18-, and 24-inch depths, the 3-, 9-. 15-. and
2 l-inch readings must be interpolated
where necessary.

::::::.,
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,..,,.,,.
.,.:..,:
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.,.... ....i.
.
::::::::::::;:.~:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:...:.:..
.... . ...
,. ::.::.:>:..
l.,.

;,::.:::......
.

..:.:.:.:.:.:.:...:.:.:.:.:
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.,.,\,,,,,

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a.

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,,,,:,,,:,:,i:(
: FM

5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

VOl

TEST NUMBERS

Figure

7-6.

Trafflcabillty

test data form

Soils Traffkability

7-7

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

To find the 3- to g-inch layer, the CI readings for the 0- to &inch and the 6- to 12inch layers are added together and then averaged:
68 + 73
2

shown in Table 7-2. CIs should be measured at 6-inch increments

down to 18
inches in the early stages of area reconnaissance.
If these measurements
consistently
reveal that the profile is normal, only readings in the critical layer need to be recorded.

= 70

70 becomes the CI for the 3- to g-inch

layer.
For the 9- to 15-inch layer, the 6- to
12-inch and 12- to 18-inch layers will be interpolated:
73 + 76
2

= 74

The CI for the 9- to 15-inch

STRENGTH

For a tracked vehicle weighing less than

100,000 pounds, such as the M113A3 armored personnel carrier (AX).
readings are
recorded for the 6- and la-inch depths.
In
a normal profile, remolding tests should be
run only on samples taken from the normal
critical depth for the vehicle in question,
since a decrease in RI with increasing depth
is not common.
The RCI for this layer is
used as the criterion of trafficability
for this
particular vehicle.

layer

is 74.

PROFILE

Normal Strength Profile in Fine-Grained

Soib and Remoldable Sands

Strength Profile in FineGrained Soils and Remoldable Sands

Abnormal

In a soil with a normal strength profile, the

CI readings either increase or remain constant with each increment of depth.
An
area with a normal strength profile is

Table 7-2.

Depth
(inches)

Examples

of normal-

An abnormal

strength profile has at least

one CI reading that is lower than the reading immediately
preceding it. An area with

and abnormal-soil

Cl Penetration Test Number

6
7
8
9
10

strength

profiles

11

12

13

14

15

AV

28
50
71
81

31
50
68
79

33
53
70
77

30
51
73
82

32
52
72
83

31
50
70
80

Area A (Normal Strength Profiles)

Surface
6
12
18

28
47
69
80

33
46
67
82

32
50
71
83

27
51
70
83

39
49
69
81

::
67
70

30
53
72
80

27
49
73
79

29
47
68
77

30
48
70
78

The results from 3 remolding tests made in the 6- to 12-m layer are: 0.86, 0.91, and 0.93
for the layer is 0.90.

The average remolding index

Area 8 (Abnormal Strength Profiles)

Surface
6
12
18

32
77
42
38

30
78
43
37

33
75
45
34

for
Thethe
results
6- to from
12-in
0.91. The
average

31
73
46
36

28
76
::

30
75
47
33

29
73
48
32

27
78
44
36

15
80
120
180
200

20
60
110
175
220

31
72
43
37

29
74
:6

27
75
46
35

remolding

index

for
results
the

from 3 remolding
12. to 18-k layer

30
80
130
190
195

40
70
110
175
205

120
180

15

250

230

245

230

210
250

18

300+

250

280

295

300+

20
75
115
185

25
70
125
190

30
60
115
180

205

200

245
275

tests made
is 0 90.

in the

12. to 18-in

33
72
47
32

layer

are:

28
74
46
34
remolding
0.88. 0.91.

30
75
45
35
index
and

Soils
20
65
120

20
75
125

119

210

175
215

180
220

181
208

240

235

250

240

242

280

300+

290

290

284+

NOTE:
The t is normally added to the average to Indicate several of the readings exceeded
20% do not exceed 300.

7-8

32
76
47
33

3 layer
remolding
is 0.90.tests
The made in the 6- to 12.in layer are 0.87. 0 90. and 0 93. The average

Coarse-Drained
Surface
3
6
9
12

30
77
42
37

24
68

300.

Do not add if less than

.......

........

...............................................................................................

..............
...
........::~::~::~
:~~::::il;i~::,t::~:~:,~~~.::~.~.~.:,:
i.:::.::::::::,:,:
.....

,:.):.:.:,:.:_i:.:
:,:,:,:,:
::::: ..........
......
..........
....
FM

.~...~..:.:.:.:...:.:.~.:.~.:.:.:::a~~:::::::~.~~~~~~~:~~:
................................iii:.:: i:j;:::j:i.>:i
.......:.:.).........:...:.:.:
.....................
.A/:.

. . . . . ....................
.......

.................

..~~....~.~......:.~.~...~~.~.~.~:.:.

::::

..

:::.

.:.:.:.:,:,:

an abnormal strength profile is shown in Table 7-2.

When an abnormal strength profile exists,
CI readings should be made and recorded
at 6-inch increments from the top of the
normal critical layer (6-inch depth for the
Ml 13A3 ARC) to 6 inches below the bottom
of the normal critical layer ( 18 inches for
the M113A3 AFC).
Remolding tests must be run on samples
from the normal critical layer and also from
the 6-inch layer below it. The lower RCI is
used as the trafficability measurement. Lowground-pressure tracks are an exception to
this rule. The 3- to g-inch layer is always
used as the critical layer for these vehicles.

Strength

Profile

in Coarw-Grained

Soils

As indicated in Table 7-1. page 7-3, the

critical layer for most vehicles in coarsegrained soils is the 0- to 6-inch layer. Most
coarse-grained soils have a normal strength
profile with a large increase in strength
with depth when compared to fine-grained
soils. For this reason, CI measurements
should be taken at 3-inch increments to 18
inches or until the maximum capacity (300
CI) of the penetrometer has been reached.
Usually, fewer penetrations are required to
establish an average because coarse-grained
soil areas generally are more uniform than
fine-grained soils and remoldable sands.
The RI tests are not required. The strength
measurements in a coarse-grained soil area
are shown in Table 7-2.

RATING CONE INDEX

The RCI defined earlier is the CI that will result under traffic. This value is compared
to the VCI to determine the trafficabflity of
the area for a specific vehicle.
Example:

The following fine-grained soil areas are to

be investigated for trafficability for vehicles
with a normal critical layer of 6 to 12
inches. Because area A in Table 7-2 has a

5.430900.l/AFPAM

32-8013,

VOl 1

normal profile, a remolding test was run

only for the 6- to 12-inch layer. The RCI
for area A is 60 (the average of 50 and 70)
x 0.90 = 54. In area B, remolding tests
were necessary for both the 6- to 12-inch
and 12-to 1Sinch layers. In this area, the
RCI of the 6- to 12-inch layer is 60 (the average of 75 and 45) x 0.90 = 54, and the
RCI of the 12-to 18-inch layer is 40 x 0.90
= 36. The RCI of the 12- to 18-inch layer,
36. is the governing value for the trafficability in area B.
Example:
Using the work sheet in Figure 7-6. page
7-7, the critical layer for one or 50 M929
dumps is 9 to 15 inches.
Samples are removed from the critical layer.
For the 9- to 15-inch layer, three tests were
conducted, each yielding different results,
The average of these results is determined,
and this number becomes the RI for that
layer.
1.19 + 1.10 + 1.14 = I I4 or I o
.
.
3
(1.14 exceeds 1.0, so use 1.0.) The RCIl is
74 and the RCIso is 74. The VCIi is 30,
and the VCIso is 68. Comparing the RCIi
to the VCIl and the RCI5o to the VCIso, it is
determined that one M929 dump can cross
the area and 50 M929 dumps also can
cross the area because the RCI values are
greater than or equal to the VCI values.
Usually a mixture of vehicles will pass
through an area, not a column of one vehicle type. Therefore, the VCI and critical
layer will be determined for the critical vehicle.
To estimate how many vehicles will cross an
area when the RCI is less than the VCbo or
to see what the VCI for less than 50 vehicles will be, use the following formula:
VCIso - VCII =

AVCI

AVCI
will give an increment for one vehicle
50
that, when added to the VCIl. will give the
AVCI for any amount of vehicles up to 50.

Sol/s TraMcabllity

7-9

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Example:
Estimate how many M 1A 1 tanks can cross
a level area with fine-grained soil where the
CI is 65 and the RI is 0.80 in the critical
layer. For simplicity, we have used this approach on trafficability research. In actuality, the strength increment decreases as
passes increase; for example, more strength
is required for lower passes than for higher
passes, so that more remolding occurs at
lower passes than at higher passes. The differences are not linear but can be estimated in the manner shown here.
From Appendix DVCIso = 58 and VCIl = 25
RChjo = 65 x 0.80 = 52
To determfne the VCI increment per
vehicleVC150 - VCIl = 58 - 25 = 33
fi

33 = 066

50 =50

Each vehicle adds 0.66 to the VCIl.

To estimate the number of vehicles that can
pass, add 0.66 to VCIl until the number is
equal to the RCI or one more increase will
exceed the RCI. (Remember, this is only an
estimate.)

.,..
.

ticity of the soil, the more severe the effects

of stickiness. Stickiness adversely affects
the speed and control of all vehicles but
will not cause immobilization except for the
smallest tracked vehicles. The worst stickiness is nothing more than a nuisance to
larger, more powerful military vehicles.
Removing fenders will reduce stickiness effects on some vehicles. Instruments for
measuring the effects of stickiness on the
performance of vehicles have not yet been
devised.
Slipperiness
Like stickiness, the effects of slipperiness
cannot be measured. Soils that are covered
with water or a layer of soft, plastic soil
usually are slippery and often cause steering difficulty, especially in rubber -tired
vehicles. Immobilization can occur when
slipperiness is associated with low-bearing
capacity. The adverse effects of slipperiness are more severe on slopes. Sometimes
slopes with adequate soil strength will not
be passable because of slipperiness.
Chains on rubber-tired vehicles usually improve mobility in slippery conditions. The
following categories are used to rate slipperiness:
Condition
Not slippery under any conditions
Slippery when wet
Slippery at all times

Symbol
N
P
S

Vegetation

OTHER TRAFFICABILITY EVALUATION

FACTORS
In addition to the CI of an area, consider
the factors that follow when evaluating trafficability.
Slope
The steepest slope, or ruling grade, that
must be negotiated should be determined
by studying a contour map. For travel over
slopes, the CI requirements must be increased over those required for level terrain.
Stickiness
Stickiness occurs in all fine-grained soils
when they are wet. The greater the plas-

7- 70

Soils Trafficability

The effects of vegetation on trafficability are

not within the scope of this manual,
but some points are worthy of mention.
Dense grass, especially if wet, may provide
slippery conditions. Additionally, soil
strength requirements will be greater than
normal if small trees or thick brush must
be pushed down by the vehicle.
Organic-Soil

Areas

Much of the terrain in northern latitudes is

blanketed with a layer of organic material
composed of roots, mosses, and other
vegetation in various stages of decomposition. Limited testing with military vehicles
reveals that low-ground-pressure, tracked

:.:::::.:.:c.:.:l.:...>

.,.

-,

I.

.A.,

..,..

.....Li..L.,.,.,
. .I/..

: .:: >,:,:j
:,,.,,:
: ,:.:,:
+...:.,,
v::. :
,,_,i..:...,::.
,.::;:.,::.:.::
_,)..:::.:.:: : ..:..:y.
,.,.
,:,.::.
..,:,.:
:,.::,:::,.
:.:.::::y::::+:.:.:.
FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM
i--::

:::::
.I.

,.,,,_,.,.,..
.

vehicles, such as the M973 small-unit support vehicle (SUSV). can travel 50 passes
over organic mats that are more than 6
inches thick.
Usually, high-ground-pressure vehicles can
travel only a few passes before they break
through and become immobilized. Wheeled
vehicles usually cannot travel on most of
these organic-soil areas. Cone indices denote the relative strength of organic soils.
However, the soil-strength vehicle performance relations for organic soils are not as

7%.

32-8013,

Vol 1

well defined as for fine-grained and coarsegrained soils.

Other Obstacles
A complete assessment of the trafficability
of a given area must include an evaluation
of obstacles such as forests, rivers, boulder
fields, ditches, and hedgerows. Exact effects of such obstacles on the performance
of vehicles are determined by the comprehensive NRMM but are not within the scope
of this manual.

APPLICATION OF TRAFFICABILITY PROCEDURES IN

FINE-GRAINED SOILS AND REMOLDABLE SANDS
The procedures presented in earlier sections
of this chapter are intended for use in tactical operations. Criteria have been established so that when a given areas RCI is
equal to or higher than the VCI for 1 or 50
passes (VCIl or VCI5o) of the selected vehicle, sufficient strength will be available in

the soil to withstand 1 or 50 passes of the

same vehicle (or vehicles with smaller VCIi
or VCI50) operating at a slow speed in the
same ruts (in the case of 50 passes) and to
permit stopping and resumption of movement, if necessary.

SELF-PROPELLED, TRACKED _VEHICLES AND ALL-WHEEL-DRIVE

The maximum slope negotiable and the
maximum towing force or gross vehicle
weight for the RCI are essentially equal.
Therefore, when the RCI is known, the maximum slope negotiable by a given vehicle for
50 passes [or by 50 similar vehicles in
straight-line formation) can be estimated
from Figure 7-7, page 7-12. The differences
in the properties of various soils produce
some differences in vehicle performance, so
NRMM actually predicts performance in finegrained soils based on specific soil type.
Example:
Estimate the maximum slope an MlAl tank
can climb for 50 passes where the slope consists of a fine-grained soil with a CI of 100
and an RI of 0.85 in the critical layers.

Solution:
RCI = 100 x 0.85 = 85
RCIx = RCI - VCIso = 85 - 58 = 27
Using Figure 7-7, the maximum slope
equals 50 percent. The maximum slope the
MlAl can negotiate under the given conditions is 50 percent.
Example:
Estimate the maximum slope an M923
5-ton cargo truck can climb for 50 passes
where the slope consists of a remoldable
sand whose CI is 93 and RI is 1.00 in the
critical layer.
Solution:
RC
= 93 x 1.00 = 93
RCIx = RCI - VCI50 = 93 - 68 = 25

Soils Trafficabirity

7- 11

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

30

Vol 1

Tracked vehicles with

grousers less than 1%

40

RCI in the critical

Figure

7-7. Fifty-pass

70

- VCI = RClx
vehicles

operating

in

Example:
Estimate if an MlAl
tank can complete one
pass on a level, fine-grained
soil with a CI
of 50 and an RI of 0.70 in the critical layer.
(Use Appendix
D to determine
the VCI.)

PERFORMANCE

The following
information
is used to determine if various vehicles can make a single
pass over different types of terrain:

Self-Propelled, Tracked Vehicles and AllWheel-Drive Vehicles on Level Terrain

The ability of a given vehicle to make one
pass on a straight line on level terrain is assured if the RCI of the area is greater than
the VCI for one pass fVCI11. The VCIls of
most military vehicles arc listed in Appendix D.

7-12

layer

60

performance
curves for self-propelled
fine-grained
soils or remoldable sands

In Figure 7-7, at RCIX = 25, the maximum

slope is 35 percent.
The maximum slope
the M923 truck can climb under the stated
conditions
is 35 percent.

ONE-PASS

50

Soils Trafficability

Solution:
VCIl = 25
RCI = 50 x 0.70 = 35
Because the RCI is greater than the VCIt
(35 is greater than 25). the MlAl
tank can
complete one pass.
Immobilization
of a
vehicle probably will occur when the RCI is
less than the VCII.
Immobilization
may
occur even when the RCI is slightly greater
than the VCIl, if water on the soil surface
causes excessive sinkage or slipperiness.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

behides

Tra&d

1
Wh&ad

bhicles

10

20

30

40

50

60

RCI In the critical layer -

Figure

70

60

90

100

VCI = RCI,

7-8. One-pass performance

curves for self-propelled
vehicles
operating in fine-grained
soils or remoldable sands

Self-Propelled,
Tracked Vehicles
Wheel-Drive
Vehicles Up Slopes

and All-

The maximum
slope negotiable
and the max
imum towing force (as a pcrccntagc
of gross
vehicle weight) for the same RCIx arc cssentially equal.
Therefore,
when the RCI is
known, the maximum
slope ncgotiablc
by a
given vehicle for one pass in a straight
lint
up a slope can be determined
by using the
information
in Figure 7-8.

Solution:
VCIi = 25 (Appendix
Dl
RCI = 100 x 0.85 = 85
RCIx = RCI
VCIi = 85 - 25 = 60
Using Figure 7-8, at RCIx = 60. the maximum slope = 63 pcrccnl.
Under the stated
conditions,
the maximum
slope the MlAl
tank can negotiate
is 63 pcrccnt.
Example:

Example:

Determine
the maximum
slope an M 1Al
tank can climb on one pass where the slope
consists
of fine-grained
soil with a CI of
100 and an RI of 0.85 in the critical layer.

Dctcrminc
the maximum
slope an M923
truck can climb on one pass whcrc the
slope consists
of a remoldable
sand with a
CI of 93 and an RI of 0.40 in the critical
layer.

Soils Trafficability

7-13

FM 5430-OO-l/AFPAM

Vol 1

32-8013,

Solution:
VCI 1 = 30 (Appendix
DI
RCI
= 93 x 0.40 = 37
RCIx = RCI - VCIr = 37 - 30 = 7
In Figure 7-8, page 7-13, at RClx = 7, the
maximum slope = 21 percent.
Under the
stated conditions,
the M923 truck can
climb a slope less than or equal to 21 percent.
Vehicles Towing
and Up Slopes

Trailers

on Level

Terrain

One-pass performance
of vehicles towing
trailers is predicted
using the comprehensive NRMM and is beyond the scope of this
manual.
The prediction
system is not as
well validated
as that for single, selfpropelled vehicles.
Although
the procedure
for determining
the VCI for combinations
of
trucks or tractor-trailers
is not discussed,
the VCIs of commonly
used combination
vehicles are listed in Appendix
D.
Vehicles
Terrain

Towing

Other

Vehicles

on Level

When the RCI is equal to the VCI, the soil

has just enough shear strength for the
vehicle to overcome
its motion resistance.
If the vehicle must tow another vehicle, additional shear strength is required to
produce the thrust needed to overcome the
motion resistance
(or required towing force1
of the towed vehicle.
Thus, RCI - VCI, or
RCIx, is a measure of additional
shear
strength that allows the vehicle to develop a
towing force.
Curves that predict the maximum
towing
force that can be developed
by three types
of self-propelled
vehicles on level terrain are
presented
in Figure 7-7, page 7-12.
The
maximum
towing force (expressed
as a percentage of vehicle gross weight) is related to
RCIx. Curves that predict the force required to tow vehicles of various weights
and types on level terrain are shown in Figure 7-8, where required towing force (expressed as a percentage
of vehicle gross
weight) is related to RCI. When a vehicle is
required to develop a given towing force,
the necessary RCI can be determined.

7- 14

Soils Trafficability

When the RCI is known, the ability of one

vehicle to tow another can be determined.
The determination
of VCI for towed tractors
and self-propelled
vehicles with nonpowered
wheels requires calculations
on an axle-byaxle basis and is beyond the scope of this
manual; therefore, in examples involving
vehicles towing other vehicles always refer
to the towed vehicles as inoperable,
The following parapowered vehicles.
graphs give examples of the application
of
vehicle performance
criteria for both 1 and
50 passes, using Appendix
D and Figures 77 through 7- 10, pages 7- 12 through 7- 17:
Procedures
used in the examples should
not be extended to the development
of a
single VCI for a tractor-trailer
combination
vehicle.
Such development
can be reliably
made only through the integration
of complex considerations
which are beyond the
scope of this manual.
However, some commonly used truck-trailer
combination
vehicles are listed in Appendix D, where
their VCIs arc used in the same way the
VCIs for other vehicles are used to predict
their performance
on level terrain.
Example:
Estimate if an MlAl
tank can tow an
M923, 5-ton cargo truck for 50 passes on a
level, fine-grained
soil where the CI is 100
and the RI is 0.80 in the critical layer for
the tank, and the CI is 60 and the RI is
0.80 in the critical layer for the truck.
Solution :
From Appendix

D:

For the M 1A 1 tankVCl5o = 58

Gross weight = 125,000
Grousers
< 1 l/2 in
For the M923
VCI50 = 68
Gross weight

lb

truck-

= 32,500

lb

RCI for the tank = 100 x 0.80 = 80

RCI for the truck = 60 x 0.80 = 48

FM 504309OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

The maximum towing force IT11 of the tank

is read from the curve In Figure 7-7, page 712, labeled Tracked vehicles with grousers
less than 1 l/2 inches.
Using this curve,
where the RCIx = 80 - 58 = 22. it is estimated that the tank can tow 25 percent of
its weight. Thus, 25 percent of 125,000 =
0.25 x 125,000
= 31,250 lb.

Vehicles

The required towing force IT21 of the M923

truck is read from the curve in Figure 7-8,
page 7-13, for 30,000 lb for wheeled
vehicles.
On this curve, at RCI = 48, T2 =
49 percent of 32,500 = 0.49 x 32,500 =
15.925 lb.

TI = the maximum towing force (in lb) of

the towing vehicle
T2 = the force (in lb) required to tow the
towed vehicle on level terrain

Because the available towing force (3 1,250

lb) of the MlAl tank is greater than the required towing force ( 15,925 lb) for the
M923 truck, the tank can tow the truck
under the stated conditions,
Example:
Estimate if an M923, 5-ton cargo truck can
tow an MlAl tank for 50 passes on a level,
fine-grained
soil whose shear strength (CI =
95 and RI = 1.00) is the same for the critical layers for both vehicles.
The vehicles
are the same as those in the previous example.

Solution :
RCI = 95 x 1.00 = 95
RCIx = 95 - 68 = 27 for the M923
The maximum towing force (Tl) of
M923 truck is read from the curve
Wheeled vehicles in Figure 7-7.
curve, RCIx = 27, Tl = 37 percent
= 0.37 x 32,500 = 12,025 lb.

truck

the
labeled
On this
of 32,500

The required towing force (T2) of the MlAl

tank is read from the curve in Figure 7-8
that is labeled 75,000 lb for tracked
vehicles.
On this curve, at RCI = 95, T2 =
18 percent of 125,000 lb = 0.18 x 125,000
= 22,500 lb.
Because the available towing force (12,025
lb) of the M923 truck is less than the required towing force (22,500 lb) of the M 1A 1
tank. the truck cannot tow the tank.

Towing

Other

Vehicles

Up Slopes

The maximum slope a vehicle towing

another vehicle can negotiate is estimated
using the following formula:
Tl -T2
WI + w2
Where-

WI = weight (in lb) of the towing vehicle

W2 = weight (in lb) of the towed vehicle
NOTE:
This formula
slippery surfaces.

does

not apply

to

Example:
Estimate the maximum slope that can be
negotiated by an M 1Al tank towing an
M923 truck for 50 passes, where the slope
consists of fine-grained
soil whose shear
strength is such that the CI is 100 and the
RI is 0.85 in the critical layer for the tank,
and the CI is 80 and the RI is 0.80 in the
critical layer for the truck.
Solution :
RCI = 100x0.85
= 85
RCIx = RCI - VC150
= 85 - 58 = 27 for the tank
RCI = 80 x 0.80 = 64 for the truck
Using Figure 7-7, the maximum towing
force (Tll of the MlAl tank at RCIx = 27 is
45 percent of 125,000
= 56,250 lb.
In Figure 7-9, page 7- 16, the required
towing force (T2) of the M923 truck at RCI
= 64 is 38 percent of 32,500 = 0.38 x
32,500 = 12,350 lb.
Tl - T2
Wl t w2

56,250
= 125,000

- 12,350

t 32,500

= 0.279 = 28

percent

Soils Trafficability

7- 15

FM 5430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1
.

20

0
NOTES:

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

zoo

Rating cone index

1. The towing force In sofl areas where vehicles are bogged down
may equal or exceed the weight of the vehicle.
2.

Thesecurves also apply lo inoperable powered vehicles.

Figure 7-9. Fifty-pass performance curves for vehicles towed

in level, fine-grained soils or remoldable sands

Thus, the maximum slope negotiable by the

MlAl tank towing the M923 truck under
the given conditions is 28 percent.

Solution:
RCI
RCIx

Example:
Estimate the maximum slope negotiable by
an M923, 5-ton cargo truck towing an
M998 high mobility, multipurpose
wheeled
vehicle (HMMWV) for 50 passes, where the
slope consists of fine-grained soil with a CI
of 120 and an RI of 1.00 in the critical
layer. The M998 is a wheeled vehicle with
a gross weight of 7,500 lb.

7- 16

Soils Trafficability

= 120 x 1.00 = 120

= RCI - VcIso
= 120 - 68
= 52 for the M923 truck

Using Figure 7-7, page 7-12, where the

RCIx is 52, the maximum towing force CT11
for the truck is 47 percent, 0.47 x 32,500 =
15.275 lb.

j :.:.::,...: : ;:: .

...

..

.,,.:

.:

.:::,;

..j

y:..

I,.

. .

:.::j;

. . . . .

Using Figure 7-9, the required towing force

(T2) of the M998 at RCI = 120 is 13 percent
of 7,500 = 0.13 x 7,500 = 975 lb.
Tl
Wl

- T2
t w2

15,275 - 975
= 32,500 t 7,500
= 0.358

= 36 percent

Thus, the maximum

slope negotiable
by the
M923 truck towing an M998 HMMWV
under the given conditions
is 36 percent.
Vehicles
Vehicles

Towing Inoperable,
Powered
on Level Terrain (One Pass)

When the RCI is equal to the VCIi, the soil

has enough shear strength for a given

RCI in the critical

Figure

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol

vehicle to overcome
its motion resistance.
If the vehicle is required to tow another
vehicle, additional
shear strength is required to produce the necessary
thrust to
overcome the motion resistance
(or required
towing force) of the towed vehicle.
Thus,
RCI - VCIl = RCIx, which is the additional
shear strength that allows a vehicle to
develop a towing force when required (for
one pass).
Two performance
curves, one for selfpropelled, tracked vehicles and one for selfpropelled, wheeled vehicles, are shown in
Figure 7-8, page 7-13. The maximum
towing force (expressed
as a percentage
of
the vehicles gross weight) that can be

layer - VCI = RCI,

7-10. One-pass performance

curves for vehicles
in level, fine-grained
soils or remoldable sands

towed

Soils Trafficability

7-7 7

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

,.:...

Vol 1

developed by a vehicle on level terrain is recurve for all

lated to RClx. The performance
vehicles when towed on level terrain is
shown in Figure 7- 10, page 7- 17, where the
required towing force (expressed
as a percentage of the vehicles gross weight1 is related to RClx. When the RCI is known, the
ability of one vehicle to tow another can be
estimated.

truck, RCIx = RCI - VCIl =

In Figure 7-8, page 7-13, at
RClx = 65 the towing force (Tl) = 54.6 percent of 32,500 = 0.546 x 32,500 = 17,745 lb.

Example:

Because the available towing force of the

truck (17,745 lb) exceeds the force (10,000
lb) required to tow the tank, the truck can
tow the tank under the stated conditions.

Estimate if an MlAl
tank can tow an M923,
5-ton cargo truck for one pass on level, finegrained soil whose shear strength is such
that the CI is 100 and the RI is 0.70 in the
critical layer for the tank, and the CI is 50
and the RI is 0.70 in the critical layer for
the truck.
Solution:
For the MlAl
tank, VCIi = 25, gross
weight = 125,000 lb, and grousers are
less than 1 l/2 inches.
For the M923
truck, VCIl = 30 and gross weight = 32,500
lb. (See Appendix D.1
For the MlAl
tank, RCI = 100 x 0.70 = 70
and RCIx = 70 - 25 = 45. In Figure 7-9,
page 7- 16, at RCIx = 45, the maximum
towing force (T 1) = 63 percent of 125,000 =
0.63 x 125,000 = 78,750 lb.
For the M923 truck, RCI = 50 x 0.70 = 35
and RCIx = 35 - 30 = 5. In Figure 7-10, at
RCIx = 5, the required towing force (T2) =
25 percent of 32,500 = 0.25 x 32,500 =
8.125 lb.
Because the available towing force (78,750
lb) of the tank exceeds the required towing
force (8,125 lb) of the truck, the tank can
tow the truck under the stated conditions.

For the M923

95 - 30 = 65.

For the MlAl

tank, RCIx = RCI - VCIi =
95 - 25 = 70. In Figure 7- 10, at RCIx = 70
the required towing force (T21 = 8 percent of
125,000 = 0.08 x 125,000 = 10,000 lb.

Vehicles Towing Inoperable, Powered

Vehicles Up Slopes
The maximum slope a vehicle towing an inoperable, powered vehicle can climb is estimated using the following formula:

r1 - T2
Wl +w2

WhereTI = the maximum towing

lb) of the towing vehicle

force (in

T2 = the force (in lb) required to tow the

inoperable,
powered vehicle on level terrain
WI

= weight

W2 = weights

(in lb) of the towing

(in lb) of the towed

vehicle
vehicles

NOTE: The relation does not apply to slippery surfaces.

Example:
Estimate the maximum slope that can be
negotiated by an M 1Al tank towing an
M923 truck on one pass, where the slope
consists of fine-grained
soil with a CI of 100
and an RI of 0.85 in the critical layer for
each vchiclc.

Example:
Estimate if an M923. 5-ton cargo truck can
tow an M 1A 1 tank for one pass on level.
fine-grained
soil whose CI is 95 and RI is
1.00 in the critical layer for each vehicle.
Solution:
RCI = 95 x 1.00 = 95

7-18

Soils Trafficability

Solution:
RCI = 100 x 0.85 = 85
For the MlAl
tank, RCIx = RCI - VCIl =
85 - 25 = 60. In Figure 7-8. at RCL = 60
the maximum towing force (Tl) = 63 percent of 125,000 = 0.63 x 125,000 = 78.750
lb.

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

__

For the M923

85 - 30 = 55.
RCIx = 55, the
8.3 percent of
2,698 lb.

truck, RCIx = RCI - VCIl =

In Figure 7- 10, page 7- 17, at
required towing force (T2) =
32,500 = 0.083 x 32,500 =

Tl - T2
Wl+W2
= 0.48

78,750
125,000

= 48 percent

Thus, the maximum

slope negotiable
by the
MlAl
tank towing the M923 truck under
the given conditions
is 48 percent.

CLASSES

OF VEHICLES

Appendix
D contains a list of vehicles
divided into four classes:
self-propelled,
tracked vehicles; self-propelled,
wheeled
vehicles; construction
equipment;
and trucktrailer combinations.
Each vehicle is idenTable 7-3.

Military

vehicles

Vol 1

tified by its standard nomenclature.

Appendix D also includes performance
categories
for each vehicle and each vehicles VCI for
l- and 50-pass performance.

PERFORMANCE

- 2,698
+ 32,500

32-8013,

CATEGORIES

Military vehicles can be divided into seven

arbitrary categories
according
to the minimum CI requirements
WC11 and VCIso).
The range of VCIls and vcI50S
for each
category (exceptions
are numerous)
are
shown in Table 7-3.

Determination of VCIs for New or Unlisted Vehicles

For conventional-type
vehicles not shown in
Appendix
D. the following procedure
can be
used to calculate
the VCI:
First, a mobility
index (MI) is calculated
for each vehicle.

and VCI and category

of each vehicle

r-

Range
Category

vci,

VCiw

Vehicles

12 or less

29 or less

Lightweight vehicles with low contact

pressures (less than 2.0 psi)

12-21

30-4s

Engineer and high-speed tractors with

comparatively
wide tracks and low
contact pressures

21-26

50-5s

Tractors with average contact

pressures, tanks with comparatively
low
contact pressures, and some trailed
vehicles with very low contact
pressures

26-30

60-69

Most medium tanks, tractors with high

contact pressures, and all-wheel-drive
trucks and trailed vehicles with low
contact pressures

31-35

70-7s

Most ail-wheel-drive
trucks, a great
number of trailed vehicles, and heavy
tanks

35-44

80-99

A great number of all-wheel-drive

and
rear-wheel-drive
trucks and trailed
vehicles intended primarily for highway
use

45 or
greater

100 or
greater

Rear-wheel-drive
vehicles and others
that generally are not expected to
operate off roads, especially in wet
soils

Soils Trafficability

7- I9

FM

5-43O-OO-l/AFpAM

32-8013,

Vol

Y..

...

::

.:

:::.

::., ..:j..:.:-

:,

Although the NRMM calculates actual VCIs based on an axle-by-axle basis, the VCI can be estimated by using the following steps to calculate the MI and VCI for each type of vehicle, assuming equal wheel or track loads and all wheel drive: (The NRMM adjusts for uneven loads
and differences in tire pressures. With the newer trucks the VCIr may vary 20% with tire
pressure changes ONLY.)
NOTE: These formulas could be used to determine estimates of VCI and adjusted by
20% to reflect that drivers of trucks with central tire inflation will reduce as required.
Self-Propelled,
Step L

Tracked

Vehicles.

Determine the MI.

contact
Pl -essure x yi:i:
factor
bogie
clearance
x engine factor
x transmissionfactor
=
factor
track x grouser
+factor factor
factor
I
contact
qross weight in Ibs
pressure
area of tracks in contact with ground in square inches
factor

Mnhilitrl
-------3
index

wherein

weight factor:

trackfactor

less than 50,000 lb

50,000 to 69,999 lb
70,000 to 99,999 lb
100,000 lb or greater

1.0
1.2
1.4
1.8

track width in Lnches

100

grouser factor:

bogiefactor

=
=
=
=

grousers less than 1.5 inches high = 1.0

grousers more than 1.5 inches high = 1.1

gross weight, Ln Zbs, dfvfded by 10

(total number of bogies on tracks
x (area of 1 track shoe Ln square
In contact with ground )
clearance

in inches

clearancefactor

engine factor ..

210 horsepower/ton of vehicle weight = 1.00

< 10 horsepower/ton of vehicle weight = 1.05

transmission

inches)

10

factor: hydraulic = 1.00

mechanical = 1.05

Z&p_& Use Figure 7-l 1 to convert the MI to VCI.

[For MIS above 40, the VCI50 can be obtained from the equation VC15o = 25.2 t (0.454 x M1J.l
Self-Propelled,
( 1)

Wheeled

All-wheel-drive

Vehicles.

vehicles.

Step 1. Determine the MI.

Mnhilifrr

7-20

Soils Trafficability

+ wheeZ
load -

clearance
factor

x engine factor

x transmission

factor

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

contact
wherein

pressure
factor

weight factor:

gross weight in lbs

outs [de diameter of tires Ln inches
tire width in inches x
r)
.5

Weight range (lbs)*

less than 2.000
2,000 to 13,500
13,501 to 20,000
greater than 20,000
* gross oehlcle weight (Ibs]
number of axles

tirefactor

)
I

32-8013,

x number

Vol 1

of tires

Weight factor equations

Y
Y
Y
Y

=
=
=
=

0.553x
0.033x t 1.050
0.142X - 0.420
0.278X - 3.115

where

ross vehicle weight (kips)

number of axles
Y = weight factor

X =

10 + tfre width in fnches

grouser factor:

100

with chains
without chains

= 1.05
= 1.00

180

140

120

00

f
$
..c
5

80.

00

40

20

60

Figure

7-11. Estimated

relation

70

80

so

100

of a MI to a VCI

Soils Trafficability

7-2 7

wheel
load
factor

gross

weight In kips
of wheels

(wheels may be single or dual)

number

clearance

factor

clearance

engine factor :

::.:.;
: ., ; . .: .:. ,:. .: .. ,.

32-8013, j/o1 1

FM 5.430.00-1/AFPAM

in inches

10

1 10 horsepower/ ton of vehicle weight = 1.00

< 10 horsepower/ ton of vehicle weight = 1.05

transmission

factor:

hydraulic
mechanical

= 1.00
= 1.05

SteD
Enter Figure 7- 11, page 7-21, to convert the MI to VCI. (For MIS above 40, the
VCIso can be obtained from the equation VChjo = 25.2 t (0.454 x kIl].
(21 Rear-wheel drive vehicles only. If the vehicle being considered is not equipped with an
all-wheel drive, the MI is computed according to the formula for all-wheel-drive vehicles, then
multiplied by 1.4 to obtain the VCI.
(31 Half-tracked vehicles. The all-wheel-drive formula is used to obtain the VCI of halftracked vehicles by assuming that the vehicle has wheels instead of tracks on the rear end.
The wheels are assumed to be of the same size and have the same load as the front wheels.
A grouser factor of 1.1 is used (to account for increased traction provided by the rear tracks].
Towed.

Tracked Vehicles.

Step 1c Determine the MI.

contact
Mobility
index

pre~c~~~x
=

weight factor:

track factor

bogiefactor

+ :a:::

track
factor

contact
pressure
factor

wherein

weight
factor

clearance

+ 30
I

gross wefght In Zbs

area of tracks In contact with ground in square inches

15,000 lb or greater .= 1.0

below 15,000 lb = 0.8
track

width
100

in Lnches

gross weight, in lbs, divided by 10

=
(total numberof

bogies on track in contact with ground

clearance = clearance in inches

7-22

Soils Trafficability

) x

ar~~~~~a~fl~~~~~~

...........................................................
.:~.:.:.::.::..:::::j::::~:~:~~~::::~:.::~:::iiiiiii)::i:li:iiil
iiiiii FM 5-430-()()-1/AFPAM 32.801 3, Vol 1
.:......

::.::::.::::::::::::::::::::.:::::::;
i:i:i:i_
j::::::::.:i
.....................................

..

;;j::;:::;

...............................
.........
~.:.:.:~:.:::~.~:~:~.~.::~.~:.:~.~:~:~~..::.~..:..:.:.:.:::
:,:,:,::;.

j:..i.::.:.:. .. .~:

Step 2. Use Table 7-4, page 7-24, to convert the MI to VCI. [For MIS above 40, the VCI can
be obtained from the equation VC15o = 25.2 t (0.454 x A41)].
Towed,

Wheeled

S&.p_L

Vehicles.

Determine

the MI.

contact
MobtZfty
index

pre=-c;;

_ o 64

contact
pressure
factor

weight factor:

tire factor:

load

single

axle
+ load

normal tfre pressure,

clearance

tire =

tire =

axle load
1,000

width

+ 10

In lb. per square inch

z

15,000 lb per axle or greater

12,500 to 14,999 lb
10,000 to 12,499 lb
7,500 to 9,999 lb
less than 7,500 lb

dual

axle

weight
factor

tire
factor

I
wherein

=
=
=
=
=

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6

In Inches
100

1.5 x width In inches

100

in lb

clearance = clearance in inches

SteD
Use Table 7-5, page 7-25, to convert the MI to VCI. [For MIS above 40. the VCIso
can be obtained from the equation VCko = 25.2 + (0.454 x MI)].
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .

MIS and resultant VCIs from

trailers (towed, tracked and towed, and
wheeled vehicles1 may be used only for
Lfmltatlons.

determination of probable RCI that will permit a trailer to complete 25 to 40 passes

without the axle or undercarriage dragging.

Soils Trafficability

7-23

Table 7-4.

Tracked

vehicles

Moblllty Index vs Vehicle Cone Index

For One and FlRy Pa8ws
MI

VCI,

VCI,

MI

VCI,

VCI,

MI

VCI,

VCI,

MI

VCI,

vcl,

MI

vq

vcl,

0.0

1.5

33

12.6

30.3

66

19.7

45.9

99

26.4

60.6

132

33.1

75.1

1.3

4.1

34

12.8

30.8

67

19.9

46.4

100

26.6

61.1

133

33.3

75.6

2.2

6.3

35

13.0

31.3

68

20.1

46.8

101

26.8

61.5

134

33.5

76.0

31.8

69

20.3

47.3

102

27.0

62.0

135

33.7

76.4

3.0

8.1

36

13.3

3.7

9.6

37

13.5

32.3

70

20.5

47.7

lo3

27.2

62.4

136

33.9

76.9

4.3

11.0

38

13.7

32.8

71

20.7

48.2

lo4

27.4

62.8

137

34.1

77.3

4.8

12.2

39

13.9

33.3

72

20.9

48.6

105

27.6

63.3

138

34.3

77.7

5.3

13.4

40

14.1

33.6

73

21.1

49.1

lo6

27.8

63.7

139

34.5

78.2

5.7

14.4

41

14.4

34.3

74

21.3

49.5

107

28.0

64.2

140

34.7

78.6

6.1

15.3

42

14.6

34.8

75

21.5

50.0

108

28.2

64.6

141

34.9

79.0

10

6.5

16.2

43

14.8

35.2

76

21.7

50.4

109

28.5

65.1

142

35.1

79.5

11

6.8

17.0

44

15.0

35.7

77

21.9

50.9

110

28.7

65.5

143

35.3

79.9

12

7.2

17.8

45

15.2

36.2

78

22.1

51.3

111

28.9

65.9

144

35.5

80.4

13

7.5

18.6

46

15.4

36.7

79

22.3

51.8

112

29.1

66.4

145

35.7

80.8

14

7.8

19.3

47

15.7

37.2

80

22.5

52.2

113

29.3

66.8

146

35.9

81.2

15

8.1

20.0

48

15.9

37.6

81

22.7

52.7

114

29.5

67.2

147

36.1

81.7

16

8.4

20.7

49

16.1

38.1

82

23.0

53.1

115

29.7

67.7

148

36.3

82.1

17

8.7

21.4

50

16.3

38.6

83

23.2

53.6

116

29.9

68.1

149

36.6

82.5

18

8.9

22.0

51

16.5

39.0

84

23.4

54.0

117

30.1

68.6

150

36.8

83.0

19

9.2

22.6

52

16.7

39.5

85

23.6

54.4

118

30.3

69.0

151

37.0

83.4

20

9.5

23.2

53

16.9

40.0

86

23.8

54.9

119

30.5

69.4

152

37.2

83.8

21

9.7

23.8

54

17.1

40.4

87

24.0

55.3

120

30.7

69.9

153

37.4

84.3

22

10.0

24.4

55

17.4

40.9

88

24.2

55.8

121

30.9

70.3

154

37.6

84.7

23

10.2

25.0

56

17.6

41.4

89

24.4

56.2

122

31.1

70.8

155

37.8

85.1

24

10.5

25.5

57

17.8

41.8

90

24.6

56.7

123

31.3

71.2

156

38.0

85.6

25

10.7

26.1

58

18.0

42.3

91

24.8

57.1

124

31.5

71.6

157

38.2

86.0

26

11.0

26.6

59

18.2

42.7

92

25.0

57.6

125

31.7

72.1

158

38.4

86.4

27

11.2

27.2

60

18.4

43.2

93

25.2

58.0

126

31.9

72.5

159

38.6

86.9

28

11.4

27.7

61

18.6

43.6

94

25.4

58.4

127

32.1

72.9

160

38.8

87.3

29

11.7

28.2

62

18.8

44.1

95

25.6

58.9

128

32.3

73.4

30

11.9

28.8

63

19.0

44.6

96

25.8

59.3

129

32.5

73.8

31

12.1

29.3

64

19.2

45.0

97

26.0

59.8

130

32.7

74.2

32

12.4

29.8

65

19.4

45.5

98

26.2

60.2

131

32.9

74.7

NOTE: For MIS above 160, the VCI Is obtained from the followlng
(1 Pass) VCI, = 11.48 + 0.2 Ml - {39.2/(Ml t 3.74)}
(50 Passes) VCI, = 28.23 t A3 Ml - (92.67/(Mlt 3.67))

7-24

Soils Trafficability

eqUatlOnS:

s....

.A..

. ..A.

..

. . . .

:.,.:.:
..I:

,.,.,.
::...:

.,.,

:..:

. . . . ::.:..:..

..

.,.:.,.

.,

...

.....I

....:c.i:j:.:.,::._,.

,,

((.,./
:,,,,,,,,,,
,,

:,.,. :/
. . ..A...

.._i:

,,.,.,..:,:_:,,.i

,.,., ,.,.,. :,.:.:,.,

..,. :.:>

,.,,.
:,.,(,l
~..~.~..:,::.::::i:i:I::j.:.:~:~
FM 5_43()_00_1/AFPAM

::::,:...,,
:.:.:.:~:: ..i..
.,.....,.,., .....
,...../.:,.:y...: ,,.,.,,. .,,. ,:,:..,
:,.: :::::,::::;:::.:.:::,~~~,.:,~,.:.~:.
.,.,.,.,.,.,..

Table 7-5.

: ....:. .:

.,.,.. :.,.

Wheeled

32-801 3, vol 1

vehicle

Moblllty Index vs Vehlole Cone Index

For One and Fl?ty Pas-s
VCI,

vcl,

MI

VCI,

vcl,

Ml

VCI,

VCI,

MI

VCI,

VCI,

MI

vcl,

VCI,

1.0

3.0

33

17.0

39.9

66

24.1

55.3

99

30.9

69.9

132

37.6

64.3

3.4

8.8

34

17.2

40.4

67

24.3

55.7

100

31.1

70.3

133

37.0

64.7

5.0

12.6

35

17.5

40.9

66

24.5

56.2

101

31.3

70.8

134

38.0

65.2

6.3

15.6

36

17.7

41.4

69

24.7

56.6

102

31.5

71.2

135

38.2

65.6

7.2

17.9

37

17.9

41.9

70

25.0

57.1

lo3

31.7

71.6

136

38.4

66.0

6.0

19.7

36

16.1

42.4

71

25.2

57.5

lo4

31.9

72.1

137

36.6

66.5

8.7

21.2

39

16.4

42.6

72

25.4

58.0

105

32.1

72.5

138

36.6

66.9

9.2

22.6

40

16.6

43.3

73

25.6

56.4

106

32.3

73.0

139

39.0

87.4

MI

9.7

23.7

41

16.6

43.6

74

25.8

56.9

107

32.5

73.4

140

39.2

87.7

10.2

24.8

42

19.0

44.3

75

26.0

59.3

708

32.7

73.6

141

39.4

86.2

10

10.6

25.6

43

19.2

44.7

76

26.2

59.6

109

32.9

74.3

142

39.6

88.6

11

11.0

26.6

44

19.5

45.2

77

26.4

60.2

110

33.1

74.7

143

39.8

89.1

12

11.4

27.5

45

19.7

45.7

76

26.6

60.6

111

33.3

75.2

144

40.0

89.5

13

11.7

26.3

46

19.9

46.1

79

26.8

61.1

112

33.5

75.6

145

40.2

90.0

14

12.0

29.0

47

20.1

46.6

80

27.0

61.5

113

33.7

76.0

146

40.4

90.4

15

12.4

29.7

46

20.3

47.1

61

27.2

62.0

114

34.0

76.5

147

40.6

90.8

16

12.7

30.4

49

20.5

47.5

62

27.4

62.4

115

34.2

76.9

146

40.6

91.3

17

13.0

31.1

50

20.6

46.0

63

27.6

62.6

116

34.4

77.3

149

41.0

91.7

16

13.3

31.7

51

21.0

46.5

64

27.6

63.3

117

34.6

77.8

150

41.2

92.1

19

13.6

32.3

52

21.2

46.9

65

28.0

63.7

116

34.8

78.2

151

41.4

92.6

20

13.6

32.9

53

21.4

49.4

66

28.2

64.2

119

35.0

76.6

152

41.6

93.0

21

14.1

33.5

54

21.6

49.8

87

28.4

64.6

120

35.2

79.1

153

41.6

93.4

22

14.4

34.7

55

21.6

50.3

86

28.6

65.1

121

35.4

79.5

754

42.0

93.9

23

14.6

34.6

56

22.0

50.6

69

26.9

65.5

122

35.6

80.0

755

42.2

94.3

24

14.9

35.2

57

22.2

57.2

90

29.1

65.9

723

35.8

80.4

156

42.4

94.7

25

15.1

35.8

58

22.4

51.7

91

29.3

66.4

724

36.0

60.8

157

42.6

95.2

26

15.4

36.3

59

22.7

52.1

92

29.5

66.6

125

36.2

61.3

756

42.6

95.6

27

15.6

36.6

60

22.9

52.6

93

29.7

67.3

726

36.4

67.7

759

43.0

96.0

26

15.6

37.3

61

23.1

53.0

94

29.9

67.7

727

36.6

62.1

160

43.2

96.5

29

16.7

37.9

62

23.3

53.5

95

30.1

68.1

728

36.6

62.6

30

16.3

36.4

63

23.5

53.9

96

30.3

66.6

129

37.0

83.0

37

76.6

38.9

64

23.7

54.4

97

30.5

69.0

130

37.2

63.4

32

76.6

39.4

65

23.9

64.6

96

30.7

69.5

131

37.4

63.9

NOTE: For Ml8 above 160, the VCI is oblalned from the followlng equations:
(1 Pass) VCI, = 11.48 + 0.2 MI - {3@.2/(Ml+ 3.74))
(50 Pas-s)
VCI, = 26.23 t A3 MI- {92.67/(Mlt 3.67))

Soils Trafficability

7-25

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

OPERATION

IN COARSE-GRAINED

Coarse-grained
soils present trafficability
problems different from those encountered
in fine-grained soils. Some important differences are*

Coarse-grained soils do not respond to

the remolding test (except for highly
saturated sands).
Wheeled-vehicle performance is affected
more by tire-inflation-pressure changes
on coarse-grained soils than on finegrained soils.

Level, coarse-grained soils seldom cause

immobilization of tracked vehicles or allwheel-drive wheeled vehicles when
operating at low tire-inflation pressures.
The first pass over a coarse-grained soil
area is the most critical, and subsequent passes are usually assured if
they are made in the first-pass ruts.

Coarse-grained soil in the dry state is easily

recognizable.
It is the round, granular
material found on most beaches and in
sand dunes. When wet, however, it may be
confused with remoldable sand or even finegrained soil. Because coarse-grained soils
do not remold there is no need to conduct
the remolding test. Use RCI for finegrained soils and CI for coarse-grained soils
(assume RI = 1.0.)
Use the following procedure to ensure the
soil in question is coarse-grained:
Push the
penetrometer into the soil. If the color of
the soil near the penetrometer immediately
becomes lighter, the internal drainage is
good, which signifies a coarse-grained soil.
Another test is to confine a soil sample in
the remolding cylinder and attempt to
penetrate it with the cone penetrometer. If
the soil is coarse-grained, it will be difficult
or impossible to penetrate.
The presence of vegetation in coarse-grainedsoil areas indicates the soil is stabilized
and is of high trafficability.
This effect is
reflected in high CI readings. Testing to

7-26

Soils Trafficability

SOILS

date has not permitted development of CI

performance relations for tracked vehicles
because all tracked vehicles have been able
to travel on all level, coarse-grained soils encountered. Furthermore, the effects of soil
strength on the performance of a given
tracked vehicle are minimal.
One-pass performance of all-wheel-drive
vehicles has been determined. In most
cases, the first pass is the most critical,
and subsequent passes are assured if the
first pass is successful.

ALL-WHEEL-DRIVE VEHICLES
TERRAIN

ON LEVEL

The ability of a given vehicle to travel one

pass in a straight line over level terrain is
generally assured if the CI of the area is
greater than the VCI. The prediction of the
performance of a wheeled vehicle in sands
is a complex interplay among many vehicle
characteristics including tire size, tire pressure, the number of tires, tire construction,
vehicle characteristics, and the soil condition (in terms of soil strength and moisture
content). Since most natural, sandy soils
contain fine-grained materials that cause
the soil to behave like a fine-grained soil,
only dry-to-moist, poorly-graded sands (SPI
are evaluated using coarse-grained vehicle
performance relationships in NRMM or
CAMMS.
Other sandy soils with appreciable quantities of fine material (SM. SC, SM-SC) are
treated in the NRMM as fine-grained soils.
The need to evaluate the interplay among
terrain and vehicle characteristics requires
that the coarse-grained soil predictive
relationships be computerized into the
NRMM. Therefore, these relationships cannot be simplified to a point where they
could be displayed as figures in this chapter. The relationships do follow the trends
of the fine-grained relationships, and they
compute a minimum soil strength requirement for traffic (VCIl) based on measured
CI (RI is considered 1.0 or greater for these

:.

--

..,

;..

:::

: .j:

.:j : ; j : :.,:.... ..,:,.

:;. ,./..

: :
3

:..

3:.

.,,:
:

.,

.,:,:
:,

::,;:,:

,,,,
:

,:

:
,.,

..,,:,.

FM 51430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

soils). Speed predictions can then be made

for these areas.

derized. found on most bulldozer-type

vehicles.

In coarse-grained soils, the performance of

wheeled vehicles is generally affected most
by tire pressure. To optimize vehicle performance, tire pressures should be reduced to
mud, sand, and snow pressure, at a minimum, or to the emergency tire pressures if
speed is not a requirement.
In this manner, vehicle ground pressure is decreased
from on-road, and vehicle traction is maximized for the terrain conditions encountered.

Vehicles with girderized tracks generally

produce higher tractive forces on SP soils
than do flexible-tracked vehicles,

TRACKED

VEHICLES
TERRAIN

ON LEVEL

As a general rule, tracked vehicles are able

to travel on all level, coarse-grained soils
regardless of soil strength. Performance
predictions in the NRMM are made for two
categories of tracked vehicles; flexible,
found on most military vehicles, or gir-

CALCULATIONS

Calculation of a coarse-grained VCI for a

vehicle configuration is considered beyond
the scope of this manual. These predictions are made using the comprehensive
NRMM. In general, wheeled vehicles
operating in sands should use the lowest
tire pressures possible and all-wheel-drive
for maximum off-road performance.
The
user should be aware that immobilization
can easily occur in these soils, especially if
the soils are dry and loose, and should
prepare for such emergencies. Tracked
vehicles generally do not suffer immobilization on level SP soils.

TRAFFICABILITY
The objective of mapping trafficability data
is to provide commanding officers with an
estimate of an areas trafficability prior to
actual operation. The estimate consists of
placing symbols that describe the trafficability of a small area at strategic points on
existing maps as shown in Figure 7-12,
page 7-28. The maps produced by the techniques described in the following paragraphs are elementary compared with the
complicated and comprehensive maps now
in production for use with the NRMM.

ESTIMATING
Trafficability can be estimated if weather
conditions, soils, and area topography are
generally known. Weather and climatic information usually are available, even for
remote areas, from meteorological records,
climatology textbooks, or personnel interrogation. Soils and topography data may
be obtained from topographic, soils, and

OF VEHICLE CONE
INDEX

DATA

geologic maps: aerial photos: or interrogation.

The accuracy of the trafficability estimate
depends on the type, quantity, and accuracy of the available data. The analysts
ability to interpret the data is also important, especially if soil types must be
deduced from geological maps and air
photos.
Weather Conditions
For estimating trafficability, consider only
two general weather conditions-the
dry
season and the wet season.
Dry Season. A dry season is defined as a
time when climatic and vegetation factors
combine to produce, in general, low soil
moistures. For temperate, humid climates,
such as the United States east of the Mississippi River, the dry season is from about
the first of May to the first of November. In
this season, evaporation of water from the

Soils Trafficabiiity

7-27

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

7-28

32-8013,

Soils Trafficability

Vol 1

:_:,:,,:,::::F:,,~~.
,.

:.:.

,,..j:

;..

:.:.:.

:
::.
.,.:,.,..:,./
.,,. :/

: .:::..

...
:: ,,.,
,,.,.>:.;:+
,,

::.:j:;

,.,:,:.

j.:,jj,j/:::jj:

I.:,,~(,j:~:,,:,I,j,:i

soil is high because of long days, high

temperatures, and few clouds, and water is
rapidly extracted from the soil and
transpired to the atmosphere by growing
plants. A dry season may also occur at
other times of the year as a result of long
periods of fair weather. Areas of arid
climates may be considered to be constantly
in a dry season.
During the dry season, fine-grained soils
and remoldable sands of any type usually
are trafficable and, in general, are of higher
trafficability than dry, coarse-grained soils.
The trafficability of dry, coarse-grained soils
is poorer than that of all wet, coarsegrained soils except quicksands.
Even in
the dry season, trafficability of any type of
soils is affected by a high water table that
results from underground springs, low-lying
and poorly drained soils, or any other cause.
A wet season is defined as a
time in which weather conditions combine
to produce high soil moistures. In temperate, humid climates, the wet season extends from about the first of November to
the first of May. During the wet season, frequenl rains, low temperatures, heavy cloud
cover, and the absence of growing plants
tend to keep soil moisture near a maximum
value. Melting of snow and thawing of previously frozen soils may also produce wet
soil conditions. Wet seasons may occur at
any time as a result of prolonged rains,
floods, or irrigation. Adding moisture to a
soil affects the strength of that soil; the effect differs with soil types.
Wet Season.

Topography and Classification

of Soils

The configuration of the soil surface and

soil types in a given area are determined
from the sources that follow.
Photos.
Elevations and slopes can be
estimated by personnel who are properly instructed to read (with the aid of stereopairs)
and interpret information in aerial photos.
Accurate elevations and slopes can be obtained with mechanical equipment by
operators trained to use such equipment.
Locations of rivers, forests, escarpments,

Aerial

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

and embankments can also be obtained

from aerial photos.
The techniques for identifying soils from
aerial photos are so complex that only welltrained personnel can fully use aerial
photos for this purpose. However, some
general information can be obtained by personnel with a minimum of training. For example, orchards are usually planted in welldrained, sandy soils; vcrlical cuts are
evidence of deep loessial (silty) soils; and
tile drains in agricultural areas indicate the
presence of poorly drained soils (probably
silts and clays).
In a given photo, light color tones generally
indicate higher elevations, sandier soils,
and lower soil moisture than those signified
by dark color tones. However, the same
color tone may not signify the same conditions in the same photo and may signify an
entirely different condition in another aerial
photo. In addition, natural soil tones may
be obscured and modified by tones created
by vegetation (natural and cultivated),
plowed fields, and cloud shadows.
Geologic
maps show parent
Maps.
material and age data. With that information and a general knowledge of climate,
topography, and vegetation, trained analysts
can estimate the soil types likely to be
found in the area.
Geologic

Soils Maps. Trafficability can be estimated

rapidly from maps that delineate surface
soils according to the USCS, although these
maps are scarce. The more common types
of soils maps are those using an agricultural system of soil classification.
Information from agricultural maps must be translated into engineering terms before a trafficability estimate can be made. No exact
method exists for doing this, but analysts
familiar with the classification systems can
usually make good translations.
For example, the term loam in the agricultural
classification system usually includes CL
and ML soils in the USCS.
Topographic
Maps.
Physical features such
as rivers, streams, cultivation, forests, and

Soils Trafficability

7-29

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

roads can usually be identified from a

topographic map. Estimates of surface
slopes can be made from the contour lines
(lines passing through points of equal elevation).
For trafficability
classification
purposes,
topography has been divided into two classes: low topography and high topography.
Low-topography areas are those at comparatively low elevations with respect to surrounding terrain, and high-topography
areas are those at comparatively
high elevations. Absolute elevation has no significance in identifying the topography
class.
Low-topography
areas are usually
poorly drained and have water tables occurring within 4 feet of the surface at some
time during the year. High-topography
areas are usually medium-well to welldrained and do not have water tables
within 4 feet of the surface at any time
during the year.

TRAFFICABILITY

MAPS

A wide variety of mobility-related

products
can be obtained from computerized
mobility
models such as the NRMM or CAMMS.
Input terrain data includes land use; terrain slope; obstacles;
soil types: vegetation
type, density, and spacing; surface
geometry; linear and hydrologic feature
data: and road and trail data. This data is
used by the models with input vehicle data
to make speed or GO/NO GO predictions
for each individual terrain unit (on a quad
sheet1 formed by the complex interplay of
the input variables.
Visual displays or hard
copies of the video displays can be used for
such Casks as vehicle and terrain analysis,
operational planning, route selection, convoy planning, or unit-movement
preparation.
Comparison visual products can also be obtained to show quad-sheet-sized
differences
in the mobilily performance
levels of red or
blue vehicles to contrast the performances
of a vehicle in a variety of configurations,
such as with different tire pressures,
with
and without towed loads, or with different
load configurations.
The derived displays
can lhen be enlarged via zoom techniques

7-30

Soils Trafficability

to precisely plan the optimum

configuration.

route for the

Cross-country
traverse or route movements
can be configured to show the additive effccts on vehicle speeds of mined areas,
obstacles emplaced, choke points, or gap
crossings,
together with changes in vehicle
configurations
which may result as a consequence of offensive or defensive actions
during tactical or combat operations.
The
models may also be used by materiel and
hardware developers to determine the effects of proposed designs or changes on
manual vehicle performances.
Thus, the
uses and displays achievable through the
NRMM or CAMMS computer models are
basically limited only by the imagination or
requirements
of the user.
As an example of hard-copy outputs from
the mobility models, three graphical
products are presented in Figures 7-13
through 7- 15. pages 7-31 through 7-33, as
they would appear on the console of a
CAMMS computer.
Figure 7-13 depicts the
cross-country
speed performance
of a US
Army MlAl tank in Germany.
The different cross-hatched
areas are used to
depict cross-country
mobility rates of O-10,
10-20, 20-30, and greater than 30
kilometers per hour (kphl for the tank. The
shading and the speed increments
are arbitrary.
The initial assessment
of the display in Figure 7- 13 would indicate the
platoon can move across this quad at
greater than 30 kph except for scattered
areas where speeds will drop to 20-30 kph.
River and stream crossings will be required
in west-east movement across the quad,
and these crossings will require 30 minutes
except for a few crossing points which
would require zoom techniques
to locate.
Scallered
NO GO areas should be avoided,
especially those concentrated
in the upper
portion of the quad. On-road mobility in
most areas should exceed 10 kph.
Figure 7- 14 is a display of potential landing
zones from CAMMS for the same areas as
in Figure 7-13.
The potential landing-zone
map indicates primarily unfavorable landingzone sites, with favorable sites located in
the northwest third and southeast corner of

,...,:,,,
:.,. :.

:,.,j:.

:. .. .

::..,:I

,:.
.,..

,:.:

:,:
:,,,....,.
... . ..,. ., :... y.,,,:,,,,.,,
:,: ..:.: . ..,,,,,

::.!.:::j

..::,

;:::.,

:,..

.j:.::.;...

,..,;

,,:.,

,,

., ,,

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:.:

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,.:,

c ..,.::

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Soils Trafficability

Vol 1

7-31

Figure

(,,

7-14.

Potential

landing zones

,.,.: : :

,,:

: >;,:,:,

,.,.,

.: :

:;

: .....

,f:,:$,$:,i ::j :,,:.:,.:: :,..:

.:, . :Y : :,. : :,,, -.,:

FM 5-4301OOWAFPAM

32-8013,

Soils Trafficability

Vol 1

7-33

FM 5-430-00-l

/AFPAM

32-801 3, Vol 1

..,..:.<...:y:
:,,(.
.......:,.:::;i:il::_i:i
,;:!:,,i;:,jzi~xiiz<
::.,
Y::.:;::Y:?,::
.< <x~:
.._::..:?i,:,;:
y::! ;; ..:..,:;,:,
. .,:_:

the quad. This display helps guide the

user to the most suitable sites for landingzone construction.

Example:

Figure 7-15, page 7-33, is a display of

USCS soil-type descriptions from CAMMS
for the same area as in Figures 7- 13 and 714, pages 7-31 and 32. This display indicates the locality of soil types that may be
useful in scouting for construction
materials or sites more suitable for road
and airfield construction.

B is the soil type condition (from Table

7-5, page 7-251, 80 is the RCI, 25 is a 25percent slope, and S is a slippery surface.

Thus, the mobility analysis is now a very

powerful tool for the military planner. It integrates natural features of the landscape
with vehicle parameters to produce mobility
products which can be used by materiel
developers, planners, war garners, or combat soldiers in the field to plan real-time
red and blue actions in terrains around the
world.

MANUALLY MAPPING SOIL CONDITIONS

AND TRAFFICABILITY
Although mapping soil conditions and trafficability through manual means is rarely
done since the development of computerized
mobility models, it is important that the procedure be presented should the need ever
arise. The following paragraphs describe
the proper procedure in detail:
VCIs vary widely, and it is desirable to
present basic terrain data that can be compared directly with VCIs. The four basic
terms describing trafficability are: soil
type, RCI, slope, and slipperiness.
The soil-type condition is shown by A, B, C,
or D (as defined in Table 7-6); RCI is shown
by a single number; slope, in percent, is
shown by a single number; and slipperiness
is shown by N, P. or S. (Stickiness effects
are not considered significant enough to include on maps.) The four factors may be
presented (as in Figure 7-12, page 7-28) in
fractional form with two items in the
numerator and two in the denominator.

7-34

Soils Trafficability

In the fraction

B - 80
25 - S

Solution:

B - 80
25 - S,
first find in Figure 7-7, page 7- 12, the RCIx
for the three vehicle types on 25-percent
slopes. For wheeled vehicles, RCIx = 17; for
conventional, tracked vehicles, RCIx = 13;
and for long-grousered, tracked vehicles,
RCIx = 11. Then, for each type of vehicle,
find the VCI5o. Thus, the area is trafficable
for wheeled vehicles with VCIBO less than
63 WC150 = RCI - RCIx or VCI5o = 80- 17),
for conventional, tracked vehicles with
VCI5o less than 67, and for long-grousered,
tracked vehicles with vck,o less than 69.
To interpret the meaning of

Since the slope may be slippery, the operations officer should order all wheeled
vehicles to be equipped with traction
devices and should expect some sliding and
steering difficulty. The photomap in Figure
7- 12 shows how areas can be delineated in
this manner.
Example:
Fifty M60 tanks (102,000 lb) and 50 M923
trucks (32,500 lb) are to be moved from
point X to point Y in the area shown in Figure 7- 12. Movement must be cross-country
because the roadnet is heavily mined.
Solution:
Step 1. From Appendix D:
Vehicle

Tank
Truck

VCll

vc150

20
30

48
68

Step 2. Examine the possibility of singlefile travel through flat terrain. All vehicles
can negotiate areas 1 and 6. The RCI of 50
for area 3 will allow passage of all 50 tanks
but not all 50 trucks. The tanks can
proceed in single file from X through areas
1, 3, and 6, consecutively to Y. However,

Table 7-6.

Wet-season

trafficability

characteristics

Group

Soils

uses

Probable
Cl Range

Well-graded gravels
Poorly graded gravels
Well-graded sands
Poorly graded sands

GW

35 to loo

of fine-grained

soils and remoldable

Probable
RI Range

Probable
RCI Range

Slipperiness
Effects

Not
applicable

Not
applicable

Slight to
none

soils

ness
Effects

Concepts
WIII support
continuous traffic of
tracked military
vehicles or all-wheeldrive trucks with highflotation tires.
Performance wilt
increase with a
decrease in tire
pressure. Moist sands
are good, dry sands
only fair. Wheeled
vehicles with
standard tires may be
immobilized in dry

z
SP

Sad%

Inorganic clays of high

plasticity (heavy clays)

CH

55 to 165

0.75 to
1.35

65 to 140

Severe to
slight

Severe to
slight

Usually will support

more than 50 passes
of military vehicles.
Going will be difficult
at times.

Clayey gravels, gravel-sandclay mixtures

Clayey sands, sand-clay
mixtures
Gravelly clays, sandy clays,
inorganic clays of low to
medium plasticity, lean
clays, silty clays

GC

65 to 175

0.45 to
0.75

45 to 125

Severe to
slight

Moderate to
slight

Cften will not support

40 to 50 passes of
military vehicles but
usually will support
limited traffic. Going
will be difficult in
most cases.

Silty gravels, gravel-sand

silt mixtures
Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures
Inorganic silts and very fine
sands, rock flour, silty or
clayey fine sands or clayey
silts with slight plasticity
Inorganic silts, micacaous or
diatomaceous fine sandy or
silty soils, elastic silts
Organic silts and organic silty
clays of low plasticity
Organic clays of medium to
high plasticity, organic
silts

GM

65to160

0.25 to
0.85

25 to 120

Moderate to
slight

Slight

Usually will not

support 40 to 50
passes of military
vehicles. Often will
not permit even a
single pass. Going
will be difficult in
most cases.

SC
CL

SM
Ml_ CL-ML

MI

OL
OM

FM 5-4300OO-l/AFPAM

Vol

32-8013,

.+;.j:,:,y

the trucks will have to fan out and use

more lanes with less than 50 vehicles in
single file to ensure passage through area 3
(VCIi to 30, RCI less than 50). The slipperiness of area 3 may present an insurmountable problem for the trucks unless traction
devices arc available.
An alternative route that would be safe for
all vehicles would be through areas 1. 5,
and 6, consecutively, provided the slope of
area 5 can be negotiated. For this example,
it is assumed that the combination of
60-percent slope and other terrain obstacles
in areas 2 and 4 would not allow travel
through them.
Step 3. Check the slope-climbing ability
(using Figure 7-7 and Figure 7-8, pages 712 and 7- 131 of both vehicle types in area 5:
1 Pass
Vehicle

Slope

RClx

RClx + VCll

RCIR+

Tank

30%

20

26

Truck

30%

11

11

30

41

50 Passes
Vehicle Slope

Tank
Truck

30%
30%

RClx
15
20

RClx t VCll
15
20

t
t

48 =
68 =

Soil classification of a specific area can be

accomplished rapidly for seasonal (highmoisture) conditions when the sol1 has been
classified in terms of the USCS, the topog-

Soils Trafficability

;i:~::~,:,~.,:~j,,~::;~.;.:.:;:~,:.~:~.:::..

This example indicates the usefulness of

mapped trafficability data in planning operational exercises.
The presentation of trafficabllity data for
strategic purposes is most effective when
one vehicle is used as a standard, reference
vehicle. For example, if the vehicle selected
has a VCl of 49 and the information on
that specific vehicle is presented, trafficability data for that vehicle can be generalized and considered applicable to all
vehicles with a VCI of 49 or less.
Recommended techniques of mapping trafficability data follow:
.

The base of the map should be a standard topographic map printed in a gray
monochrome with streams in a strong
blue color.

The four soil-slope combinations should

be shown as trafficability symbols, as indicated in Table 7-7. (See previous
weather conditions.)
Obstacles should bc indicated by red
added numbers circled in red.

63
88

SOIL-TRAFFICABILITY

,.~:~~:;,~~i~,:..:,~..~~~:~.~:;,~~~,.:_::~.:~~~.:;;;::.-~

through areas 1, 5, and 6, respectively,

provided caution is used with the trucks.
This route is shown as a dashed line.

l%IRqd

The tanks can negotiate the 30-percent

slope in single file (available RCI of 80 is
greater than the required RCI of 63). All
trucks cannot negotiate the slope in single
file (available RCI of 80 is less than the required RCI of 881, but they can fan out and
negotiate the slope on a one-pass basis
(available RCI of 80 is greater than the required RCI of 411. The conclusion is that
all vehicles could travel from X to Y

7-36

:,~:_.::i.II:,.~.:.::.:.:

Forests should be indicated by appropriate open-type patterns in strong

green.
.

The reverse of the trafficability map

should contain an inset map of the principle physiographic provinces,
landforms, geologic areas, and related
data used in making the analysis. The
inset map should show in detail all important data on soils, topography, and
obstacles that cannot readily be shown
on the face of the map.

CLASSIFICATION
raphy (high or low1 has been identified, and
the VCI for vehicle category has been
determined (from Table 7-3, page 7-19, or
Appendix D) or computed, when necessary,
as previously described.

:.:.:..:.::.::i:.:::..:::::::

,:.:,.....
.,,(,.,,,,

:,,,: .:::: ::...C

:. .:.. :. ., ::, :. i :::: ..:.., j..:;..;;:,~,::.,::~.:.:.~,~:~
;: :.: ;f...: ,:.:.::,: :.::::;:g::i+::>::::::::.::,;

;. :;:g.;:,::
.)

.,,

FM 5-4301001l/AFPAM

::~:,,::i;5i,iil:,;i,~,;:.,:.~~:,:.~:~~:,~:::~::::~~:~:~~:~~::::,~
.i..
,:,::::~
.A.

32-8013,

Vol 1

Table 7-7. Trafficability symbols

Dry Porlod

Wet Period

PaSsable
Passable
Passable
DoubtfulAmpassable
Doubtful/Impassable
Doubtful
Impassable
Impassable
Generally impassable due to steep slope
or rough terrain. Soil not evaluated.

FINE-GRAINED

The interpretation
of the example shown in
the Low Topography, High Moisture Condition graph of Table 7-8 for a level area of
MH soil follows:

Color

Dark Green
Liiht Green or Green Stripes
Orange or Yellow
Red
Red Stripes

E
E

greater than 75 percent,

90 percent, of traversing

SOILS

The trafficability
classification
of finegrained soils is shown in Table 7-8, page
7-38.

Letter
Symbol

Vehicles with a VCIso or VCIi equal to

or greater than 84 will have a less than
50 percent probability of traversing the
area.
Vehicles wilh a VCISO or VCIi equal to
or greater than 56, but less than 84,
will have a probability equal to or
greater than 50 percent, but less than 5
percent, of traversing the area.
Vehicles with a VU50 or VCll equal to
or greater than 18, but less than 56,
will have a probability equal to or

but less than

the area.

Vehicles with a VCI50 or VCIl less than

18 will have a probability equal to or
greater than 90 percent, but no more
than 100 percent, of traversing the area.

COARSE-GRAINED

SOILS

The trafficability
classification
of coarsegrained soils can be obtained from Figure
The classification
inter7-16, page 7-39.
pretation is the same as for the trafficability of fine-grained soils from Table
7-8. To use Figure 7-16, identify only the
coarse-graincd
soils (location and origin)
and determine the VCIs from the equation
presented earlier in this chapter.
Figure
7- 16 applies to wheeled vehicles only. The
effect of the strength of coarse-graincd
soils
on tracked-vehicle
performance
is negligible.

Soils Trafficability

7-37

Table 7-8.

Soil-trafficabilitv

classification

20

in USCS terms

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

1200

HGH TOPOGRAPHV,WET-SEASONCONCMllON

196-m

iii

T%:

99-194

0.94
0.74. 1.14

97-257'
160-216'
94-170

0.59-121'
0.45- 1.31'
0.51 .0.99

los.217
90.166
la?-200
95.165
95-135
Z:$

029-m
0.46-0.66
0.27 _ 0.61
0.31 - 0.69
0.39 - 0.74
0.32-0.76
0.45 - 0.67'

34.169
46-146
34-134
34-96
41.69
14-q
41 -51

z
46'

69-167

KG-1.02

4e-146

150-162'
63-151
71-165

0.45 - 0.63 '

0.46 _ 0.92
0.42 - 0.60

66-w

61-183
61-171
71;155

0.15-0.97

12-m
P-69
26-66
49'
21-49
41 * 51'

g:+yi

NOTE:

;g:;g
O..%'
0.26 - 0.66
0.45- 0.61'

NONE

NONE

II

130'
.

:%a
105
125'
111
96
z

LOW TOFOCRAPHY,HOHYOSTURECOIUllON
I

II

II

Isw.cd

43-123
B-117

Probability

Vehicle category and Cl range are given In Table 7-3, page 7-19.

lEased on tl and -1 standard deviation from the mean.

Applies only to wheeled vehicles without traction devices.
Estimated from textural, plasticity, and organic properties of soil under given moisture condition.
Based on analysis of less than five samples.
+A vehicle with a VCI of 60 would have a 50 to 75% chance of GO on an ML soil of
low topography, wet-season condition.

Excellent

[;;;;lw
m
Fair
m
Poor

(Pr) of a vehicle

90% s 100% L 100%

75% 2 PC
.z 90%
50% <Pr
< 75%
0% 5 Pr
< 50%

(or 50 vehicles)
TGccd
x

traversing

level terrain

reliability,
based on analysisof data

Fair reliability,based on $gement

Vehicle

Coarse-gralned

soll

cone index

20

40

60

80

100

Probability

(Pr) of wheeled

I]

pa

vehicle

7-16.

Trafficability

classification

traversing

Excellent

level terrain

19o%<,p,

Good

75% <, P ,<

Fair

5o%IP,<75%

Poor

Figure

(VCI,S)

0%

IP,<

of dry-to-moist,

100%

90%

50%

coarse-grained

soils

120

FM 5-430~OO-l/AFPAM

MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, AND

REHABILITATION OF ROADS,
AIRFIELDS, AND HELIPORTS

32-8013,

Vol 1

CHAPTER

Maintenance is the routfne prevention and correctton of normal

damage and deterioration (from use and the elements) to keep
road and airfield surfaces and facilities In usable condftion.
Repair fs that work necessary (other than matntenance) to correct
damage caused by abnormal use, accidents, hostfle forces, and
severe weather.
Repair includes the resurfacing of a road or
runway when maintenance can no longer accomplish its purpose.
Based on this manual, rehabflitatton is the restoration of captured airfields and heliports to usable condition. Rehabllltatton
resembles war-damage
repair except that It Is accomplished
before occupancy.

MAINTENANCE

AND REPAIR CONSIDERATIONS

The purpose of all maintenance and repair

activities is to keep roads, airffelds, or other
installation surfaces in as usable and as
safe a condition as the situation permits.
Prompt and adequate maintenance is important. Once surface deterioration or destruction has started, it can proceed very rapidly. Postponing minor maintenance jobs can
result in the development of major repair
jobs involving the subgrade, base course,
and surface.

periods of reduced activity. Reopen the

facility as soon as practicable.
.

Use the following guidelines when performing maintenance and repair work:
.

Ensure that maintenance and repair activities interfere as little as possible

with the normal flow of traffic. Whenever feasible, plan and perform maintenance and repair activities to permit
at least partial use of the facility. When
it is necessary to close the facility to all
traffic, select alternative facilities or perform repair work at night or during

Remedy the cause before repairing the

problem. For example, surface repairs
made on a defective subgrade are
wasted. All maintenance and repair
jobs should include an investigation to
find the cause of the damage or
deterioration. To ignore the cause is to
invite the prompt reappearance of
damage. Ignore the cause only when
making temporary repairs to meet immediate, minimum needs under combat or
other urgent conditions.
Maintain and repair existing surfaces as
closely as possible to the original construction in strength, appearance, and
texture. Spot strengthening may create
differences in wear and traffic impact
that can harm adjoining surfaces. Also,
uniformity simplifies maintenance and
repair operations.

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

8-1

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Prioritize
the needed repairs based on
the tactical
requirements,
the traffic
volume, and the hazards
that result
from complete
failure of the facility.
For
example,
roads used for tactical-operations support take priority over less

MAINTENANCE

AND REPAIR OPERATIONS

Maintenance
and repair operations
include
many tasks bcsidcs
improving
the pavement
condition.
To ensure
a comprehensive
maintenance
and repair operation,
incorporate
the following
tasks:
l

Routine

inspections.

Material

stockpiling.

Maintenance
and repair
drainage
systems.

of all related

Maintenance
and repair of the actual
pavement,
including
dust and mud control and snow and ice removal.
Miscellaneous
tasks, including
the
maintenance
and repair of necessary
buildings,
structures,
and utilities,
and
the operation
of necessary
utilities.

MAINTENANCE

INSPECTIONS

The purpose
of maintenance
inspections
is
to detect early evidence
of defects
before actual failure occurs.
Frequent
inspections
and effective
follow-up
procedures
prevent
minor defects
from becoming
major repair
jobs.
Inspect
surface
and drainage
systems
carefully
during rainy seasons
and spring
thaws and after heavy storms.
Surface

Inspection

Surface
defects
can usually
be attributed
to
excessive
loads, inferior
surfacing
material,
poor subgrade
or base conditions,
inadequate drainage,
or a combination
of these
conditions.
Surface
inspections
should include a complete
inventory
of the current
pavement
defects.
Careful
investigation
of
the causes
of the defects
will allow for timely maintenance
to prevent
the pavement
defects
from requiring
repair.

8-2

Maintenance,

essential
facilities.
One pothole in a
heavily used road that is in otherwise
excellent
condition
takes priority over
repairs to less heavily used roads in
poor condition.

Repair, and Rehabilitation

Drainage

Inspection

Ensure
that all drainage
channels
and
structures
arc unobstructed.
Check culverts and drainage
lines for structural
damage.
Inspect
cheek dams for debris and
cxccssivc
erosion.
Investigate
water ponding on or adjacent
to surfaced
areas.
Inspect the system drainage
during or after
cvcry storm.
Also, thoroughly
inspect
the
system
in late fall to prepare
for winter and
in early spring to ensure
minimum
spring
breakup
difficulties.
Inspect
subsurface
drains at least twice a year.

MATERIALS

FOR MAINTENANCE

Generally,
materials
required
in the maintenance
and repair of roads and airfields
are the same as those used in new construcOpen pits and prepare
stockpiles
of
tion.
sand and gravel; base material;
and
premixed,
cold patching
materials
at convcnicnt
places and in sufficient
quantities
for emergency
maintenance
and repair.
Arrange stockpiles
for quick loading and
transporting
to the road or runway.
Build
one of the several
types of trap-and-chute
combinations
described
in Chapter
5 of TM
5-332
for sand, gravel, and base materials.
Prcmixcd,
cold patching
material
may be
prepared
as explained
in Chapter
9 of TM 5337.
Maintain
small quantities
of aggregate
in dry storage
for concrete
patching.

DRAINAGE

MAINTENANCE

Defective
or tnadequate
drainage
causes
most pavement
failures
and deterioration.
Ponding or delayed runoff of surface
water
allows seepage
into the pavement
structure
unless
the surface
is tightly sealed.

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

Surface
-

32-8013,

Vol 1

Drainage

Mark arcas where ponding

occurs
on surCorrect
such problems
by fillfaced areas.
ing or raising
depressions
and by providing
outlets
for water blocked
by high shoulders.
Control
penetration
of storm water through
pavement
by sealing joints
and cracks.
Keep unpaved
roads and airfields
crowned
to prevent
water from remaining
on the
road or airfield
where it will saturate
and
weather
the surface.
Maintain
crowns and
superelevations
with graders
or drags.

Water
undermines road

Shoulders
Keep shoulders
smooth
and graded so water
will drain from the surfaced
arca toward
the ditch.
Replace
eroded shoulder
material
on paved surfaces
with new
material.
Material
clcancd
out of ditches
can often be used to rebuild
shoulders.
Shoulders
should
be kept bladed flush to,
or slightly
below, Ihe edges of the pavement
and should
slope away from lhc pavcmcnt
to prevent
water seepage
into the subgrade.
Drainage

Ditches

Keep drainage
ditches
clear of weeds,
brush,
sediment,
and other debris that
obstruct
water flow.
Maintain
ditches
as to
lint and grade.
Correct
sags and minor
washouts
as they occur.
Side ditches
can
usually
be maintained
with graders.
When cleaning
and shaping,
avoid unnecessary blading
or cutting
that destroys
natural
ground
cover.
Where possible,
develop dense sod to stabilize
open ditches.
Where vegetation
is not cffectivc
because
of
soil or moisture
conditions,
erosion
may bc
corrected
by lining the ditch with riprap,
asphalt-coated
membrane,
or concrctc.
Inspect
check dams in side ditches
and
clean them regularly.
The weir notch of a
check dam must be kept clean or water will
cut into the surfaced
area at the edge of
the dam (Figure
8- 1). The aprons
of check
dams must also be maintained,
and paving
material
must be replaced
when washed
out.
Dikes or berms
may be required
along
the tops of high-fill
slopes to prevent gullies
and washes.

Clear weir notches

Figure

8- 1. Check

dam

Cut-slope
interceptor
ditches
must be considered
for all side-hill
and through
cuts to
prcvcnt
gully washing
and erosion
from the
top of the cuts.
If benching
or terracing
has been used in the design of the cut, ensure that the top of each bench
is sloped
back into the cut to provide for proper
drainage.
Also ensure
that each bench
top
is wide enough
to maintain
that drainage
with earthmoving
equipment.
A good rule
of thumb is to make benches
at least as
wide as a dozer blade.
Figure 8-2, page
8-4, illustrates
proper terraced
side-hill-cut
drainage.
For proper design considerations
of cut
slopes,
refer to Chapter
10 of FM 5-410.
Culverts
Keep culverts
clear of debris and sediment
(Figure 8-3, page 8-4).
This prevents
water
from cutting
around
or undermining
the culvcrts.
Inspect
culverts
frequently
to determine whether
they arc func-tioning
properly. Cleaning
by hand is usually
necessary
after heavy rains.

NONPAVED SURFACES
Basic maintenance
of nonpaved
surfaces
includes
shaping
the cross section
to maintain adequate
drainage
and a smooth,
compacted surface.

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

8-3

FM 514301OO-l/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1

Figure

8-2.

Equipment
Most surface maintenance
consists of light
scraping with grader blades and drags. Multiple-blade drags of iron or iron-shod, heavy
timber may be used for normal scraping.
Drags are frequently used to float mud and
water off a road and to prevent corrugation

.:

.:::Y:.

Side-hill

:::

.::

terracing

or washboarding of the surface.

of drag is shown in Figure 8-4.

One type

Materials
Materials removed from ditches, other than
silt, some clays, and all organic soils (OL,
OH, Pt), may be used on shoulders and
traveled ways. Dispose of silt deposits
when removed: they are not suitable for conAfter heavy storms and spring
struction.
thaws, additional material may need to be
hauled in.
Procedures

Figure

8-4

8-3.

Culvert

entrance

Keep traffic areas and shoulders free of

potholes, ruts, and irregularities.
Light
blading will prevent corrugation or washboarding.
Work from the ditches to the center of the road to ensure good drainage and
proper road crowning.
Since loosened, dry
material cannot be compacted, blading or
dragging should be done during or soon
For prolonged dry spells or
after rains.
when surface material will not compact,
add water or moist subsurface
material

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

........~.i.....
,....,..
..:,
:.,,:,,,,:.,,:.:,:..,~,,,,
,,,: :,.: .,.. .,.,::,.,.,.,.,.~ : .,.,...,.,.:::,,.,.
,,,,,,,,.,.,
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.::.:.:
.,.,,..,.
.,.,:,..:,:,:,:_,,:
:,
. ::,:,::,::>::
: ... ..,...
,..:j:.::,.::~:,:..:.::::.:~..:::.::,:.:~:
,.(,.,,,,
.,-..: ::.,.:....,
.:::.,::
.:,,.:...,y.:.:
..,..,,.,
,,.,,.,,.
,...
:..::..:.:
,,. : :.:

..:.:.):.:.:....:.:...:.:...:~.,:

. .. ..I.
:.. :

y,,
:;:::,,:F::.:.:.,.:
..( ;,:;.:,:,,.

,.;
,:.::

FM !j-43&00=1/AFPAM

32-8013, VOl 1

objectionable material and replace it with a

more stable material. When adequate
repairs cannot be made, soft spots can be
temporarily reinforced by addfng crushed
rock or clean gravel.
Keep nonpaved surfaces crowned to prevent
water from remaining on the surface and
saturating the soil. Maintain the crown
and superelevation with drags or graders.

12 cable W.R.C.6x19)

Dust control may be a problem under some

conditions. Spraying with water or a bituminous stabilizer is the most commonly
used method of controlling dust. Dust control is discussed further in Chapter 12 of
FM 5-430-00-2/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 2.
Examples of road repairs are shown in Figure 8-5, page 8-6.

Crossbeam

OILED SURFACES

The routine maintenance of oiled surfaces

consists of shaping and patching. Shaping
is done with graders or drags. Patching
may be done with a mixture of the soil and
oil. Oiling is necessary each year because
oiled surfaces frequently break up in the
spring and become very rough. Thorough
scarifying, blading (or dragging), and reshaping is necessary before oiling each year.

NOTES:
1. Beams and crossbeams-8-Inch I-beam channel or
8C& to 90-lb RR rails.
2. Cross brace-112
x 4
flat Iron.
3. All joints ars welded.
4. Holes burned In front beam
to receive tow cable.

Figure

8-4.

Improvised

road drag

with a rototiller, plow, or scariffer before

compaction.

GRAVEL SURFACES
Maintenance procedures for gravel surfaces
are much the same as for nonpaved surfaces. Continual shaping is needed to maintain a smooth surface and a uniform
crown, and the drainage system must be
kept functioning.

Compaction of the graded surface material

will reduce maintenance and repair for nonpaved surfaces. The type of roller used will
vary with the material compacted. The correct moisture content will result in the
most economical compaction.
Soft spots, indicated by rutting or shoving
of the surface, are generally caused by excess moisture, poor subsurface drainage, or
unstable material. Determine the source of
excess moisture and correct the drainage.
On traffic areas, cobbles may be used to stabilize small areas of failure. Where surface
failures are caused by pockets of mulch or
peat, it may be necessary to remove the

Surface Maintenance
Heavily-traveled, graveled surfaces require
constant attention by maintenance patrols.
Intensive maintenance is required when the
surface is first open to travel. Bumps compacted at this time remain in the surface
and can be corrected only by scarifying or
adding more material. Blade or drag the
surface soon after rain until all ruts and
holes are filled. Do not work on a dry

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

8-5

32.8013,

FM 50430-OO-l/AFPAM

vol 1

..:. :. ...

.:::.:..

Bring road to grade

111 t

Haul material to
bring road to grade

Figure

8-5.

Road maintenance

surface.
Maintain a crown of
inch per foot. Multiple blade
drags can be used for routine
but graders are necessary for
ing work.

problems

at least l/2
drags or sled
maintenance,
heavy reshap-

Keep a slight excess of gravel available at

the edges of the roadway and blade it
uniformly over the surface in wet weather.
Stockpile additional materials in advance of
fall and winter and prolonged wet periods.
Material added or spread on the surface
during warm, dry weather is of little value.
Repair

of Potholes

Most potholes are caused by material displaced by traffic.

Initially they are shallow
and are readily filled by blading when the
surface is moist.
Deep holes require filling
with additional material.
New material
should be moistened and compacted.

8-6

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

and proper

Treatment

corrective

action

of Corrugations

All gravel surfaces tend to develop transverse or nearly transverse waves, called corrugations, which may progress into ruts as
deep as 4 inches and from 1 l/2 to 3 feet
apart.
After this stage, they become major
grooves needing extensive repair.
Some blade equipment inherently chatters
and starts slight irregularities,
especially
when the operator attempts to move a
heavy cut. Corrugations
often appear to
start from small holes or depressions
made
when the road is wet or from an obstruction such as a stick or rock. Other contributing factors are a soft subgrade, poor
grading of the gravel, poor binder, and an
insufficient amount of binder.
Corrugations
can be prevented to a considerable extent by frequent maintenance
and by
the careful use of maintenance
equipment.
Once corrugations
form, they can be

,j: ,:I,::.:;
: :,j:;
.,

FM 5-4309OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

removed only by thoroughly scarifying,

reshaping,
and compacting.
Regrading,
as
this is called, should begin with a thorough
cleaning and reshaping of the shoulders
and ditches, continuing across the entire
roadway.

The maintenance
and repair of bituminous
surfaces are discussed in Chapter 9 of
TM 5-337.
Some considerations
applicable
to bituminous-surfaced
traffic areas follow.

Use of Calcium Chloride

Inspection

Calcium chloride may be applied to a gravel

surface to control or eliminate dust, prevent
the loss of material under the whippIng action of traffic, and aid in maintaining a
dense surface.
The usual method is to
apply 1 pound of calcium chloride per
square yard in the late spring and l/2
pound per square yard twice during the
However, the amount of
summer season.
rain, the volume of traffic, and the character of the gravel affect the quantities required.
Calcium chloride is corrosive to
metal surfaces and may require more maintenance for aircraft and vehicles.

Maintenance
patrols should frequently inspect bituminous
pavements for early detection of failures.
Small defects quickly
develop into large ones, resulting in pavement failure unless promptly corrected.
Small crews using hand tools can quickly
make minor repairs with a minimum interruption of traffic.
Large, bituminous
repairs require more time, personnel, and
equipmenl.
Such repairs also interfere with
traffic.
In extreme cases, detours may be
required to avoid complete traffic stoppage.

The best time to apply calcium chloride is

following a rain and after necessary blading
or dragging is completed.
If the application
cannot be deferred until rain occurs, water
the surface before applying the calcium
chloride.
For best results, apply calcium
chloride before the traffic area becomes dry
and dusty.

PROCESSED

MATERIAL SURFACES

Traffic areas composed of processed

materials (crushed and screened rock,
gravel, or slag) are maintained by methods
similar to those used on gravel surfaces.
When coarse, processed materials .are used,
surface failures are usually in the form of
sharp-edged
holes caused by poor drainage.
Repairs require cleaning the holes down to
the solid subgrade and ensuring that no
silt, mud, or water remains.
Subgrade
repairs are then made with a well-graded
soil aggregate.
Surface repairs should consist of a well-tamped or rolled-in-place,
coarse-graded
aggregate of the same gradation as the original surrounding
surface.

BITUMINOUS

SURFACES

Patches
All patches should be trimmed square or
oblong with straight, vertical sides running
parallel and perpendicular
to the centerline
of the traffic area, as explained in Chapter
9 of TM 5-337.
Temporary Repairs
Any stable material may be used for temporary repairs in combat areas or where
suitable material is not available and the
traffic area must be patched to keep traffic
moving. Good-quality soil and masonry,
such as concrete rubble, are suitable for
this purpose.
All such patches must be
thoroughly compacted and constantly
maintained with replacement
material.
More permanent patching should be accomplished
as soon as possible.
Maintenance

of Shoulders

Blade shoulders so water drains from the

surface and all ruts and washouts are
filled. Grade shoulder material flush
against or slightly below pavement edges to
restrict water seepage to the subgrade and
to prevent breaking of the pavement edge
caused by traffic driving off the pavement
onto the shoulder.
Replace material displaced from shoulders with material hauled
in, as required.

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

8-7

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

STABILIZED

32-8013,

Vol 1

SOIL SURFACES

Maintenance
of mechanically-stabilized
soil
surfaces and sand-clay surfaces is essentially the same as that for nonpaved and gravel
surfaces.
Procedures described for gravel
surfaces are applicable to surfaces that contain considerable
coarse aggregate.
Procedurcs described for nonpavcd surfaces are
applicable to surfaces that contain little or
no coarse aggregate.
Bituminous
surfaces,
soils, and soil-cement
may require additional maintenance
as dcscribcd in the paragraphs that follow.
Potholes

Clean potholes and trim them rectangularly

with straight, vertical sides running parallel
and perpendicular
to the centerline.
This
provides a shoulder against the movement
of the patch.
Fill the potholes with a stabilized mix of the same character as the adjacent sound area. This material should be
thoroughly compacted in place, one thin
layer at a time.
Ravels

Edge raveling is caused by water softening

the foundation material.
Before proceeding
with the patching operations,
reconstruct
lhe shoulder or lower the subdrainage
so
this condition will not recur.
Then build
up the foundation.
The patching mixture
should conform to the surrounding
area, as
for pothole repair.

CORAL SURFACES
The maintcnancc
of well-built coral traffic
areas is rclativcly simple.
USC fresh, raw
coral of the proper moisture conlcnt for the
repair material.
Maintcnancc
is best done
during or after a rain while the coral is wet.
Fill low spots, rills, and potholes by shoveling or dumping coral directly from a truck
onto the low spots.
Such patches, if rolled
while wet. will bond onto the original
material almost without a mark. Salt water
is usually available where coral is available,
and salt water makes a better bond than
fresh water.

8-8

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

,.: .:;,

..

Occasional blading and rolling a.re necessary to maintain a proper crown and a
In dry seasons, sprinkling
smooth surface.
is necessary to maintain a proper crown, a
smooth surface, and high stability and to
minimize dust. The traffic areas hold up
well in wet seasons.
An asphalt treatment
may be justlfled in prolonged dry seasons,
Careif dust and raveling become serious.
ful attention to shoulders and to the
drainage system is essential.

RIGID PAVEMENTS
Maintenance
of rigid pavements is covered
in Chapter 15 of TM 5-337.
Frequently inspect concrete pavement to detect early
signs of failure, and make prompt repairs
to prevent minor defects from spreading.

CRATER REPAIR
Bombs, shells, land mines, and cratering
charges can produce extensive craters in
traffic areas.
Surface damage does not
present any unusual repair problem, but explosions may displace or destabilize large
areas of the subgrade.
Drainage may also
be disrupted, allowing water penetrating the
broken surface to accumulate
and further
Satisfactory
repairs resoften the subgrade.
quire the restoration
of subgrade stability
to support traffic and prevent undue surface settling after repairs have been comple ted.
Use the following procedures
repairs:

for crater

1. Rcmovc. from around the edge of the

crater, all surfacing that is damaged or not
firmly bonded to the base course.
2. Trim the surface
sound, vertical edge.

and base course

3. Remove water, mud, and debris

the crater.

to a

from

4. Fill the crater with successive

6- to
8-inch layers of suitable material to the
original level of the subgrade.
Compaction
is essential; each layer must be thoroughly

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

tamped with hand or pneumatic tamping

tools. After the material has reached a
suitable level, compaction equipment can be
pulled through or driven across the crater.
5. Repair
surface.

the base course

and wearing

Gravel, rock, masonry debris, sandy soil, or

other suitable, stable materials can be used
to fill craters, as shown in Figure 8-6.
Material blown from craters can be used for
much of this fill. In an emergency,

Vol 1

material from the shoulders of roads or airfields may be borrowed and replaced later.
When the situation permits and where
enemy action may be anticipated,
stockpiles
or material pits should be prepared at conAlternate layers of sandbags
venient sites.
and tamped earth allow good subgrade compaction where other equipment or materials
are not available.
For a detailed discussion
of specific crater
repair techniques
used in air-base damage
repair, refer to Training Circular (TC) 5-340.

Crater line

Crater line
Wearing course
I

32-8013,

, Wearing course

Base course \

Base ourse
\

2 - Subgrade rebuilt with sandbags

1 - Subgrade rebuilt with gravel, rock, masonry

debris, sandy soil, or other select material

Figure

8-8.

/--

Crater backfill

materials

ROAD MAINTENANCE
The importance of preventive maintenance
and the necessity for prompt maintenance
of all types cannot bc overemphasized.
Neglect and delay permit the lraffic and
weather to turn minor defects into major
problems.
Progressive failure of roads is a
serious matter.
The more serious a failure
is, the more quickly it deteriorates.
In forward areas, extensive repairs are often
necessary before roads can be used. Expedient work is usually done by combat en-

gineer units.
Under the pressure of combat
conditions,
temporary repairs are made
hurriedly using the materials most readily
available.
Such repairs are intended only
to rncct immediate minimum needs.
As the
advance units move forward, other engineer
units take over the work of additional
repair and maintenance.
Expedient repairs
previously made arc supplemented
or
replaced by more pern.anent
work. Surfaces are brought to a standard that will
withstand the required use and maintenance becomes routine.

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

8-9

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

MAINTENANCE

Vol 1

PATROLS

Adequate maintenance
requires a workable
maintenance
organization.
Usually engineer
units establish a patrol system to handle
the roadnet for which the unit is responsible. It is desirable to use squads as
patrols and thus retain unit integrity, with
each squad commanded by its squad leader
and using its regular tablets) of organization and equipment (TOE). The platoon furnishes reinforcements
(personnel or equipment) as needed.
Assign each patrol to a specific area. Organize as many patrols as necessary to adequately cover the total area of responsibility. It is sometimes necessary in forward
or heavy-traffic areas to provide enough
patrols to put the maintenance
function on
a 24-hour-a-day
basis.
Personnel

and Equipment

Two plans

are presented for the organization of maintenance

patrols.
Consider the
merits of each plan with respect to the
maintenance
problems of the situation and
the personnel and equipment available for
the patrols.

whenever material must be hauled

face patching accomplished.

or sur-

Winter weather; severe storms; heavy,

destructive enemy action; and other conditions demand that the patrols be reinforced
with additional personnel and equipment or
that the assigned areas be reduced and the
number of patrols increased.
Special conditions often call for special equipment.
Duties

The duties
lows:

of maintenance

Clean out drainage

patrols

are as fol-

facilities.

Mow grass and weeds.

Repair minor washouts

and potholes.

Maintain the road surface: for example,

eliminate ruts, potholes, and washboards.
Maintain road shoulders

and ditches.

Make frequent, thorough inspections of

road conditions, and report to higher
headquarters any need for repair work
more significant than the patrol is
equipped or manned to handle.

One patrol consists of a normal squad

equipped with a dump truck, a grader, and
hand tools, This patrol can handle all the
maintenance
and minor repairs normally encountered on a 5- to 15-mile stretch of
road. The number of people in a squad can
be decreased and more miles can be assigned to a patrol expected to cover a
stretch of permanent pavement in good condition and not heavily traveled.
If a patrol
is to cover a poor dirt road accommodating
heavy traffic, more personnel will be furnished by the platoon and fewer miles will
be assigned.

An officer or senior noncommissioned

officer (NC01 is assigned several patrols to supervise, assist, and inspect.
Normal unit organization should be retained as much as
possible.
A platoon leader should be
responsible
for the patrols composed of personnel from his command.

Another plan calls for the assignment

of a
patrol of one to three people, a grader, and
hand tools. This crew can handle the
routine maintenance
on a 12-mile stretch of
average earth, gravel, or water-bound
macadam road. However, the crew must be
supplemented
with a truck and repair crew

The engineer sending out maintenance

patrols should keep sufficient equipment
and personnel available to send out repair
crews to handle those situations reported
by the patrols.
The repair crew composition will be dictated by the needs of the particular job in terms of equipment and perFrequently, the regular mainsonnel.
tenance patrol can work with the repair

8-70

Maintenance,

Repair, and

Rehabilitation

Inspection

and Supervision

REPAIR CREWS

....

crew, but other maintenance

and inspection
of the patrols area must not be neglected.

MAINTENANCE

Give full consideration

to the importance of
keeping traffic flowing with a minimum of
interference
or delay. Maintenance
of
shoulders and ditches can normally be performed without interference
from, or
hindrance to, traffic.
Repairs to other
drainage structures
may delay traffic or
slow other repair work. Permanent repairs
are often postponed so that temporary and
emergency repairs can be made in order to
maintain traffic flow.
Traffic Control
Repairs should be made on one-half the sur,
face at a time when surface repairs will
deny traffic the use of sections of the pavement. Block off short sections and post
guides to regulate traffic and avoid delay.
When single-lane
traffic must be used, control traffic by the baton method. With this
method, a flagman is placed at each end of
the single-lane traffic section.
The flagman
at one end of the section has a baton or
some other distinctive marker.
Working
under a prepared plan, all vehicles traveling
in one direction are stopped, while those
traveling in the opposite direction are permitted to go through.
After a suitable time
interval, the flagman on the open end of the
section gives the baton to the driver of the
last vehicle permitted to go through.
Upon
arrival at the other end of the section, the
driver of the last vehicle gives the baton to
the flagman.
Vehicles are then permitted to
travel In the opposite direction until all waiting vehicles have passed through and the
driver of the last vehicle carries the baton
to the other end of the section.
This
process continues as long as necessary.

32-8013,

Vol

traffic flow should be carefully planned;

proper procedures should be selected; and
all labor, material, and equipment should
be on hand to complete the work as rapidly
as possible.

WITH TRAFFIC

Sometimes
two-way traffic can be maintained through blocked-off sections by
diverting one stream of traffic to the
shoulder of the road. Grading and stabilization of the shoulder with gravel or bituminous material may be justified in such instances.
Repairs to be performed during

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

Bypasses and Detours

Bridge or pavement failures or the destruction of part of a roadway by floods or combat action may make part or all of the roadway impassable
to traffic.
In such cases, a
bypass or detour around the damaged or
obstructed area is necessary.
The construction of a short bypass around an obstruction may be preferable to a longer detour
on existing roads.
A detour may also be
used while a bypass is being constructed.
Base the decision upon traffic interference,
the work involved. and the time available.
Conduct a reconnaissance
to determine the
best possible route when establishing
a
detour. The road should be as short as possible and must be in condition, or be put in
condition, to handle traffic for the period
when it will be used. Use existing roads
when possible.
Construct short sections of
connecting roads, if necessary.
Check and repair bridges or reinforce them
with timber or planking.
Clean and repair
culverts.
If the need for a detour is anticipated, complete this work beforehand.
Detour roads are usually subjected to
heavier loads and more traffic than their
design specifications.
Because increased
maintenance
is usually required to keep
detours passable, stockpile surfacing
material along the route, carefully plan
maintenance
operations,
and keep labor
and material constantly available.
Place signs at detour entrances,
road intersections, and turns to direct traffic.
Post
warning signs at dangerous points.
Place
other signs or markings, as required, to ensure minimum traffic delay. Install barricades at each end of the road section
under repair.
Refer to Chapter 8 of
FM 5-36 for the types and posting of road
signs.

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

8- 1I

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

Safety

of Maintenance

3243013,

Vol 1

Personnel

Give special attention to the safety of maintenance personnel working where traffic
moves past or around them. Use restrictive
speed and warning signs, barricades, and
flagmen to control traffic and lessen the
danger to maintenance personnel. Instruct
crew members to avoid stepping into the
traveled way and to be continually alert to
passing traffic. Conspicuously mark maintenance vehicles operating in or on the edge
of the roadway with red flags, flashing red
lights, or similar devices.

WINTER MAINTENANCE
Winter weather may present special problems in TO maintenance.
Regions of heavy
snowfall require special equipment and
material to keep pavement and traffic areas
in usable condition. Low temperatures
cause icing of pavements and frost on subgrade structures. Alternate freezing and
thawing may damage surfaces and tend to
block drainage systems with ice. Spring
thaws may result in both surface and subgrade failure. Winter maintenance consists
chiefly of removing snow and ice, sanding
icy surfaces, erecting and maintaining snow
fences, and keeping drainage systems free
from obstruction.
Preparation

for Winter

Organize snow-removal crews and place

equipment in readiness. Stockpile abrasives and chemicals in locations where they
will be required. Perform late fall maintenance before the winter freeze. Continue
with routine maintenance of ditches and
shoulders as far into the winter as possible,
so that the drainage system will be in the
best possible condition for the spring runoff.
Keep earth and gravel surfaces smooth and
shaped to prevent moisture from entering
the subgrade. Smoothing and shaping also
prevent snowplow blades from being
obstructed by rough, frozen shoulder and
surface material. In areas of heavy snowfall, outline bridges, culverts, and narrow
places in the road with poles that extend

8-12

::..

: ,.

j::.:;!..

:.:.

above the snow, and mark these locations

for maintenance crews.
Snow

Fences

Conduct reconnaissance before winter to

determine where snow fences will be needed
to control drifting snow. Because it is fine
and compacts into a dense mass, drifted
snow obstructs traffic more than an equal
depth of freshly fallen snow. Drifts form
when wind-borne snow is picked up in
open spaces, loses velocity, and is deposited
in sheltered places. Danger spots, therefore, are roads at ground level or in cuts adjacent to large, open areas. Drifts also
form in the lee (down-wind side) of buildings, signboards, and similar wind barriers.
Similarly, high snowbanks left close to the
road by snowplows furnish both the conditions and the material for extensive drifting.
Snow fences are not normally required near
high fills, in wooded or brushy areas, or
where vegetation prevents snow from drifting on the road.
Place snow fences on the
windward side of roads according to prevailing winds (Figure 8-7). The height of the
fence determines the distance it is to be
placed from the traveled way. Generally,
the proper distance is 20 times the height
of the fence. This distance is increased
where winds are of high velocity. According
to the above ratio, a 4-foot fence erected
1 foot above the ground should be placed at
least 80 feet beyond the point where drifting is to be prevented. In extreme cases, a
distance as great as 300 feet may be
necessary.
Placement.

Fences should be as long as possible without any holes or openings. Openings provide for dispersion of snow on the back side
of the fencing. The effect of a snow fence
in controlling drifts caused by a road cut is
shown in Figure 8-8. Two or more parallel
fences may be required, but one tall fence
is generally better than two short ones. If
fences are set too far away, they have little
or no effect in reducing drifts, If fences are
placed too close to the road, drifts to the
leeward side of the fence fall on the road.

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

:...

FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Prevailing wind
Prevailing
Snow fence

Figure

8-8.

Drift formation
with snow fence

Snow fence control

drifts

of road cut

Prevailing

windward side. In regions of heavy snow,

use long posts so that fencing may be
raised on the posts as the season progresses. This will increase snow storage to the
leeward side. Install fencing with the bottom about 6 inches above ground level to
prevent the ends of the pickets from freezing fast and to prevent the fence from choking with snow. Frozen ends make it difficult to raise the fence and may cause the
pickets to break when swayed by the wind.
Brace the posts according to the anticipated
wind velocities.
Figure 8-7.

Location

of snow fences

Inspect snow fences after

heavy storms.
Repair broken ties and
braces, and straighten blown-down sections. Raise fences to exceed the height of
accumulated
snow on the leeward side.
Lowering of fences may be required after
midseason thaws or long periods of settling.

Maintenance.

Types of Snow Fences.

Commercial snow
fences are commonly used. They consist of
metal posts and wooden laths or metal pickets about 5 feet long, woven together with
wire. Such fencing is portable, easily
erected and dismantled,
and may be rolled
up and stored in the summer.
Permanent
snow fences include open-board fences on
posts and evergreen or deciduous shrub
hedges.
Plastic snow fencing is lighter and
more efficient than wooden fencing.
Other types of snow fencing include wood
slats or pressed-steel
slats mounted on collapsible A-frames, worm fences, and brush
or branches suspended on wire. Local
materials, such as corn stalks, brush, and
coarse grass anchored in place by wire or
wood, may be used. Figure 8-9, page 8- 14,
shows three types of snow fences.

Erection.
Erect snow fences before the
ground is frozen. Drive metal posts into
the ground and mount wire fencing on the

and Storage.
Remove snow fences
in the spring and repair damaged sections.
The fences are frequently stored on dunnage at the drift location for use the following winter.
Removal

Snow Removal
Prompt snow removal is essential
to prevent
traffic interference
and ice formation on the
road. Begin removal operations when the
The amount of equipment
snow starts.
necessary depends on the intensity of the
If possible, store equipment at interstorm.
vals along road sections or roadnets that
are to receive early attention, and have
operators ready to move promptly when a
snowstorm arrives.

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

8-73

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

fence

Worm fence

Figure

8-9.

Provide for relief crews, since snow-removal

equipment
must frequently
be operated
on
a 24-hour
basis during periods of heavy
storms.
Use snowplows
to patrol areas or
sections
of roads that are subject
to drifting
in windy weather.
Standard
snow-removal
equipment
consists
of various
attachments
mounted
on trucks or similar prime movers.
These include one-way,
reversible,
and
rotary-type
straight
blades; straight
underbody blades; V-type plows; and rotary
snowplows.
These items are described
in
Chapter
1 1 of TM 5-624.
Graders,
dozers,
and loaders are also useful in snow
removal.
Improvised
equipment,
such as
drags, may be used in expedient
situations.
Use comparatively
light and fast snowremoval equipment
for light snowfalls
and
Use
at the beginning
of severe storms.
heavier equipment
to widen traffic lanes
and for heavy snowfalls.
Continue
snowremoval operations
until the snow has been
pushed back, leveled, or hauled to a

8-14

Types of snow fences

disposal
point.
When snow removal
is
delayed or interrupted,
the snow may become too deep for available
equipment
to
handle, drifting may worsen, or wet snow
may freeze.
Trucks with 2 l/2to 5-ton capacltles
and
equipped
with one-way blades are best
adapted
for long stretches
of roads.
This
equipment
travels at speeds of 15 to 25
miles per hour (mph), removes
snow from
the road before it is compacted,
and
provides an open track for traffic.
Use 5- to IO-ton trucks equipped
with
either straight
or V-shaped
blades for
heavier snowfalls
and to widen traffic lanes.
This equipment
operates
at about
15 mph.
Use V-shaped
plows to break through
heavy
drifts.
Use either straight
or V-shaped
plows equipped
with side wings to push the
snow beyond the shoulder
line, to prevent
drifting, and to provide room for additional
snow storage.

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

:.,.,.
::.:.:.:...:.:.:.:.i:j:i:::::::::::::::,::::
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. . . ,: :.:,: :, ,, ,, . . ,,,,,
.
i..
.,.:...
. ,.,. ..,,. . . . ..,

.:::;. .: :::>.. :.:.: : :.

: . .,.

,.,.

.,. ., ,,

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.,:

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :.::.:::::::::::::

..: : . :,:.~;,..~~.:::-:::::.:::::::::::::i::~..........

Trucks used for plowing generally carry

abrasives as a ballast for better traction.
Tractors are sometimes required for heavy
snows and drifts. Graders are satisfactory
for light snow. In areas of very heavy snowfall, rotary plows and blowers may be
needed.
Surface Ice Control
The formation of road ice resulting from
packed snow, slush, or melting snowbanks
is prevented if snow removal is effectively
performed and drainage is provided. When
possible, push snowbanks away from
pavements so that melted water will not
run onto cleared surfaces.
Use plows and graders to remove slush
from the road to prevent freezing and icing
or to remove ice that has previously formed.
Use care to avoid damaging the pavement.
Dry snow compacts under traffic but can
usually be loosened and bladed off without
difficulty. Wet snow or slush, if it is allowed to freeze in place, sticks tightly to the
pavement and cannot be easily removed
without a period of warm weather or the
use of salts.
Various conditions cause icing of road surfaces. Dangerous icing is more likely to
occur during the late fall and early spring
when frequent temperature changes occur.
Midday thawing and night freezing is a common cause of icing. Rain: sleet; or light,
wet snow falling on cold pavement can form
ice films too thin to be removed by mechanical means and can make long sections of
the road hazardous. Curves and grades are
critical points under icing conditions, and
high-crowned roads can become difficult to
travel at any point when iced over.
Use of Salts. At the beginning of a storm,
apply sodium chloride or calcium chloride
to wet snow and sleet to keep it in a
slushy condition and prevent it from sticking to the surface. Limit the use of salts
on concrete pavements to one or two applications per year or the pavement will pit
and scale. Salts do not damage bituminous
surfaces. To prevent blockage of the drains
by freezing, place bags of salts at drain

.,

:,,,,

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

inlets or catch basins so they do not

obstruct flow.
Use of Abrasives.
Treat icy pavements with
abrasives and salts to reduce slipping and
skidding. Sand, both treated and untreated; cinders: and crushed rock or slag
screenings are commonly used. Other
materials include pea gravel, coal stock,
and coke screenings. The choice of materials is based on the availability and the
length of the haul. Sharp, angular material
embeds itself readily, and dark-colored
material absorbs the most heat from the
sun. Untreated materials are fairly effective
on compacted snow but are easily blown or
thrown from the traveled way.
For the most effective use, mix calcium
chloride with abrasive material. The calcium chloride causes the abrasive to embed
in the ice and improves surface traction.
Treat abrasives with 40 to 75 pounds of calcium chloride per cubic yard for stockpiling, and add another 25 to 50 pounds per
cubic yard of calcium chloride when applying it to a road. Sodium chloride may be
used in place of calcium chloride but is not
recommended for temperatures below 10 F.
Store abrasive materials where they are
quickly available when needed. Establish
stockpiles for hand application at critical
locations such as steep grades and curves.
Make wider distribution with trucks by
either hand or mechanical spreading. Heating an abrasive material before placing it on
the road will allow it to melt into the ice
and prevent it from being forced out by
traffic.
Removal
of Ice.
Graders can
sometimes remove ice that is not tightly
bonded to the road surface. Extremely icy
conditions can be reduced by using scarifiers or rotary tillers equipped with special
teeth. Exercise extreme care not to damage
the road surface.

MechanfcaZ

Correction

of Spring Breakup Problems

In regions subject to frost and snow, spring

is a critical time in the maintenance of

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

8-15

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vd 1

......
,:.......,.::
j:,:,:.,
.:.:..

Patch soft spots with crushed rock or

gravel. Place large rocks in soft spots
and cover them with smaller ones. It is
better to remove soft, water-soaked
material beforehand, although more
time is required.

When the spring thaw begins,

open ditches at critical points so that
melted water will not flow onto the road.
Outlets of cuts and road sections next to
snowbanks require special attention. As
the snow begins to melt, snowplows or grading equipment may be required to clear
snow from the shoulders to avoid erosion.
Handwork is usually required to clear the
shoulders and open ditch outlets. Remove
accumulations of ice in culverts and small
drainage structures by hand or thaw them
with truck-mounted steamers.

Dftches.

For best results, provide adequate

drainage along with the repair work to
correct the cause of the problem.
Remove soft material and dig an outlet
ditch to one shoulder. A temporary
bridge of planks or other material permits traffic to pass. The excavated soft
spot and the ditch are backfilled with
rock, gravel, or other suitable material.
Drainage tile may be installed in the
ditch before backfilling.

Frost

Frost Balk.
Frost boils are indicated by the
breaking up of a localized section of road
surfaces and pavements when subjected to
traffic. During thawing, the melted water
produces a fluid subgrade condition with
very limited or no supporting capacity. The
traffic imposes a force on the pavement and
thus to the excess water in the subgrade.
This in turn exerts an equalizing pressure
in all directions. This pressure is relieved
through the point of least resistance (up
through the pavement surface) and
produces a small mound similar in appearance to an oversized boil.
Frost boils are often large and deep enough
to make the road impassable until repaired.
Repairs may be made by one or a combination of the following procedures:

8-16

: ..

Bridge soft spots with timber, landing

mats, sapling mats, corduroy, or other
available material. Store materials in
advance at or near load sections where
frost boils may occur. Such repairs are
temporary; therefore, remove the material when the road thaws and dries.

pavement and other traffic areas. Abnormal and repetitive traffic loads during the
spring breakup period may cause subgrade
pumping of concrete surfaces and breakthrough of bituminous surfaces. Melting
ice and snow, spring rains, and frost leaving the ground all have a tendency to saturate permeable surfaces. Drainage
obstructions may raise the water table and
make subbases unstable.

Heaoes.
Frost heaves are indicated
by the localized raising of road surfaces
and pavements. Damage occurs as a result
of the heaving of the subgrade soil due to
the formation of ice lenses. This expanding
subgrade causes an upheaval of the surface
and subsequent reduction in overall
strength. Frost heaves are most prevalent
in silt and clay subgrades.

.... :.: ...... :::: ......

....

Preventive Maintenance
The best maintenance of any road is preventive maintenance. During the spring
breakup, the best maintenance of a road
subject to frost heaves and boils is to prohibit all traffic during the critical 2- or
3-day period. Methods to eliminate or minimize the damaging effects of frost action are
discussed further in Chapter 12 of FM
5-430-00-2/AFPAM 32-8013. Vol 2.

FORDS AND BRIDGES

The approaches and bottoms of fords must
be kept smooth and clear of large boulders
and debris. Replace marking posts that
have been knocked down or washed out.
Refer to FM 5-446 for additional information.
Frequently inspect bridge abutments,
trestles, piers, and trusses for damage and
Repair defects at the earliest
deterioration.
opportunity. The maintenance crew normally obtains help to rebuild or repair the
bridge.

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

FM 5-430-00-l

AIRFIELD

Vol 1

AND HELIPORT MAINTENANCE

Airfield and heliport maintenance

is the
rcsponsibilily
of lhc primary user. For Air
Force air bases, such mainlcnancc
is normally done by an Air Force civil cnginccring
squadron (CES) or similar unit. Army airfields and heliports arc normally maintaincd by Army cngincer units.
When the
repair and rehabilitation
rcquircmcnls
ol
Air Force bases exceed the immediate,
cmergency-damage
recovery capabilily
of the air
base, Army engineer units will be assigned
lo perform the work.

AIR BASE DAMAGE REPAIR

The immediate,
emergency-damage
recovery
of air bases generally
is considered
to bc
the minimum work required to permit
aircrall to land and lake off.
The Air Force is primarily responsible
for
the cmcrgcncy
repair or the air base. This
includes the cmcrgcncy
repair of lhc air
base paved surfaces,
which is called rapid
runway repair (RRR).
This is accomplished
through the cmploymcnt
of Air Force base
civil eiiginecring
troop assets; prime base
engineer emergency
forces (Prime BEEF),
and rapid engineering
deployable
heavy
operational
repair squadrons,
engineering
(RED HORSE) units.
The Army is responsible for scmipermancnt
construction,
the
beyond-emergency
repair of the air base
and. upon rcqucsl, emergency
repairs
which cxcccd the Air Forces capability.
Join1 service regulation
AR 415-30/
AFR 93- 10 specifies these repair responsibilities for each service.

Army Responsibilities
Damage Repair (ADR)

32-8013,

/AFPAM

for Air Base

Repairing and restoring damaged air

bases wilh beyond-cmcrgcncy
repairs.
Developing cnginccr designs, plans, and
materials to meet Air Force needs as
agrccri upon
by the Air Force. Where
practicable, designs will be based on
the Army Facilities Componcnl
System
(AFCS).
Supplying construction
materials and
equipment, except for that provided by
the Air Force.
Upon request, assisting within their
capabilities
in the removal of UXO
declared safe by EOD personnel and
limited damage assessment
operations.
Managing and supervising
the repair
and restoration of war damage performed by Army personnel.
The Air
Force base commander
scls the
priorities for air base repair.

Air Force Responsibilities

for ADR

The Air Force provides military troop engincering

supporl from its resources.
The
Air Force ensures thal units are equipped,
manned, and trained adequately
to support
its needs.
This support includesEmergency
bases.

repair

of war damage

Organizing
seas).

host-nation

support

to air

(over-

Force beddown of units and weapon systems, excluding Army base development
responsibilities.

The Army provides engineer support to the

Air Force overseas.
It ensures that units
are equipped,
manned, and trained to support Air Force needs.
This support in-

Operation and maintenance

and installations.

cludcs-

Managing force beddown and the emergcncy repair 0r war damage.

Assisling in cmcrgcncy repair of wardamaged air bases where requirements

cxcccd the Air Forces organic repair
capability.

Crash rescue

of facilities

and fire suppression.

Supplying malcrial and equipment

perform its cnginccring
mission.

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

to

8- 17

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

VOl 1

Providing logistical support to the Army

for all classes of supply except II, V, VII,
and IX.
Conducting damage assessment
removal of UXO.

and

Providing nuclear, biological, chemical

(NBC) collective shelters and establishing and operating personnel and
equipment decontamination
sites for
the air base and the Army. There are
shortages of these assets on air bases,
and support to army units may be
limited.

Air base support agreements

may be established in some theaters between the Air
Force and the host nation where ADR support capability exists.
These host-nation
support agreements
may include equipment,
materials, and manpower assets.
For a detailed description of personnel,
equipment, and material requirements
and
critical path schedules for repair of runways cratered by high-explosive
bombs,
refer to AFR 93-2.
For a further, detailed
discussion of general ADR, refer to
TC 5-340.

TURF SURFACES
Plant grass to provide a turf surface on
shoulders and all graded areas.
Turf aids
in camouflage, reduces dust, and minimizes
erosion.
Turf surfaces are limited to areas
where the climate and soil are favorable.
Table 8- 1 gives the characteristics
of many
native grasses to aid in selecting proper
grass seed or sod.

MUD CONTROL
Mud on the runway creates slippery surfaces that impede takeoff and increase the
difficulties and dangers of landing.
Muddy
taxiway and runway surfaces decrease tire
life and increase the wear and maintenance
Flying mud particles may damof brakes.
age propellers, rotors, and jet engines.
Removing mud from wheels, struts, and

8-18

>.

:jl.;::.:::

.:::

.::
..

fuselage
den.

is an additional

maintenance

bur-

Mud on airfield and heliport surfaces is

either deposited by vehicular traffic from adjacent muddy areas or caused by subgrade
failure because of excess moisture and the
pumping of mud to the surface under traffic.
Enforce mud discipline by limiting access to
taxiways only to required service vehicles.
Also, remove mud from the wheels and undercarriages
of vehicles before they enter
the taxiway. The most satisfactory
solution
is to provide surfaced service roads to all
hardstands.
Repairs
Localized soft or muddy spots in an otherwise satisfactory
surface are repaired by
replacing the unsatisfactory
subgrade
material with a more suitable one. If the
muddy areas are widespread, it may be
necessary to stop all traffic until the surface dries. In extreme conditions, resurfacing may be necessary.
Mud Removal
In some instances,
surfaces may be kept in
operational condition by removing the surface mud. Remove mud by hand shoveling,
Light mud or slush is
blading, or dragging.
sometimes removed by hand or with rotary
brooms.
When a grader is used on a landing-mat
surface, take precautions
to prevent the
blade from tearing the surfacing.
A satisfactory method is to bolt a 4- by 12-inch
hardwood moldboard over the cutting edge
and extending 2 inches below it. This
provides a scraping edge with sufficient
spring to remove the mud from irregularities in the landing mat, yet soft enough to
protect the mat. A piece of l/2-inch rubber belting (or the cap from a worn tire)
bolted between the blade and the moldboard and extending an inch below the cutting edge makes an effective squeegee for
removing light mud and slush.
Grader
operations for removing mud and slush
from the runway are similar to those
employed for snow removal.
Start in the

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

Table 8-l.
R8SlStStlU
to tdlk

Nuna of gmu grouped by r&m

of suftablffty

CC0tq

Characteristics

war and
mowing

Drought
Prhrred

sol1 teJctwe

Fall or

Number 2

Good

Fast

z%l

White dover and

number 1

various

______

Medium.
fast

SPk9

Mb with nallw grass

Sandy to clayey loam

----

Fast

seedaloneorwith

Fair

__-._

Fair

-_-_.

Medium,
fast
Fast

spring or
summer
spring or
summer
spring or

_______

Medium,

Spring

Sead blue grama

Loam, clayey bam

2. creeping red fescue and chewing

fescue (FestuCa Nbm and feStWX

good

%z

Mowing,
fair
Good

3.

Smooth brome (Bromus inermis)

1
-

SIOW

Good

fdbx)

of
srtabffshment

Mdtod

Rate of
utablfshm*nt

Fair

1. Kentuchy bfuegmss (Poapmtensia)

Nh

Acfd
tolersnce

URF GRA5 SI ES
-

HUMID REGION

resistsnce

of grasses

to gravely

WARM, HUMID REGfON

4. Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactybn)
5. Common carpet grass (Axonopus
affinfa)
6. St_ Augustine grass (Stenotaphrum
secundatum)

Good
Fair

Moist clays. clayey

barn
Moist. various

carpet
w-

Seed atone or with

carpet grass=

DRY REGION

clayey loam

7. Buffalo grass (f3uchbe dadybkies)

to loam

between buffaiograss-sod blochs

ROUGH 1

IF AND Bl ii CH GRASS
-

COOL, HUMID REGION

Good

various

Good

Good

Fast

seed

Fair

Loam to day

Good

Excellent

Fast

seed

10. Hairy crabgrass (Diibaria

sanguinak)
11. Blues&m (brcomsedge) (Andropogan)

Exceltent

Loam to day

Excellent

Fast

Summer

Fair

Loam to day

Excellent

12. Korean lespedeza (Lespadeza

stipulacea)

Excellent

Loam to day

Excellent

Hayseeding
Hayseeding
Seed

Seed. hayseeding
Seed. hay
seeding
Soed

spring

6. Common rysomss (Lofium muttifbrum and L perenne)

9. @chard grass (Dadytis gbmerata)

Fall or
wing
Fall or
wng

Number 9
Number 6

WARM, HUMID REGION

Excellent

Medium
Medium

Fall
Spring

DRY REGION
13. Me bluestem (Andropogon
scoporfus)
14. Blue grama (Boutebug gracifii)

Moist sandy to toamy

_.____

Loam to day

__.____

15. Crested wheatgrass (Agropyron

aiatatum)

Clayey loam to loam

Slow

.-

Spring
spring

Other grasses suited

to soil
Seed behveen biocks
of buffalo grass
Cther native gr-

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

ccntcr of lhc runway

and proceed
progrcssivcly to rlic edge, overlapping
scvcral feel
on each pass.

SNOW REMOVAL AND ICE CONTROL

Snow removal
methods,
the order of opcralions. and rhc assignment
of equipment
arc
cstablislicd
in advance
of the winlcr season.
Factors
(o bc considcrcd
in plannmg
the
srlo\v-halidlin,$
program
arc climatic~condiLions. Ihc%avcragr
snowfall,
lhc aircraft
lo
bc accolnmodatcd.
the cquipmcnt
available,
and Lhc camouflage
rcquircmcnls.
Aircraft
may bc cquippcd
with cithcr wheels or land.
ing skis.
Ski-cquippcd
aircraft
opcratc
succcssfully
on packed snow.
Aircrafl wilh
landing wheels cannot operate
in more than
3 Inches of loose snow.
This limitation
applies to fresh snow on a clear runway,
fresh
snow on previously
packed snow, or melting
snow prcviouslv
packed on a runway.
For
canioufl~~~i
in undesirable
to remove all
snow from h i tInway when lhe surrounding
terrain is blankctcd
with snow.
Controlling

with

Equipment

Eyuip~t~-n
i ~lscrd for handling snow inclerics rrlbbcr-lircd
tractors.
scoop loaders.
graders.
rotary brooms,
and hand brooms.
Supplcmcntary
cquipmcnt
niay include
sin,glc-\ving.
one-way.
and rcvcrsiblc
snow
plows: V-type plows; rotary plows; blowers;
rollers; and olhcr snow-removal
equipment.
Packing

In rrgions
0r heavy snowfalls with
prolonged
cold wcathcr
rclalivcly
free from
sudden
thaws, snow may bc handled
by
pnckllig.
The runway,
shoulders.
and as
ttluch adjacent
area as practical
arc packcd. Rolling begins as soon as 3 inches of
suow have fallen and conlinucs
during the
snolvfall.
Snow is packed by rollers drawn
bchlnd a tractor with snow lrcads.
Smoothing
is done with a drag equipped
wilh metal cutting
edges on the front and
r-cat or with a grader.
Usually one tractor
is used to pull both the drag and lhe
roll(,rs, wiIh the drag ahead of the rollers.

843

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

Rollers can be rnadc to any desirable

diamctcr
and length with a shell of lo-gage
corrugated
steel.
The shell is supported
on
an axle by two structural
frames, or
spiders,
at the third points, and two steelplated bulkheads
at each end.
One plate
has a hole to permit filling the roller with
sand to increase
its weight.
Clearing

and Removing

Snow clearing
and rcnloval arc rcquircd
whcrc climatic conditions
will not permit
packing or whcrc snowfalls
arc in excess 0r
lhal which can be packed on the runway.
Rcmovc light snowfalls
with a grader or
rotary broom.
Very light snowfalls
can bc
blown off the runway
by the prop wash of
scvcral aircraft
lined up along one cdgc.
Remove heavy snowfalls
with truckmounted
plows, rotary snowplows,
rubbertired tractors,
or scoop loaders.
Drifts may
be opened by a truck or tractor
with a
V-type blade or by a rotary snowplow.
Equip trucks with tire chains and carry ballasl for lraction
while plowing.
Keep all
blades about
l/2 inch above the runway
surface,
cspccially
if the surface
is a landing mat. This clcarancc
is accomplished
by
runners
mollntcd
at each end of the blade.
The assignment
of plows varies with the
condition
at each airfield and the lypc of
cquipmcnt
available.
Arranging
the plows
into units simplifies
coordination
of snow
removal with Lhc control
tower.
Ordinarily,
one-way,
truck-mounLcd
snowplows
opcratc
in cchclon
to expedite
snow removal.
Remove snow near landing lights and olher
obstructions
with a blower, if available.
or
by hand.
The rapid removal of snow requires
a rotar)
blower, snow loader, or other special cquipment.
Trucks used for hauling snow arc
equipped
with high sideboards.
Tractor drawn sleighs built of lumber may be used
as an expedient
hauling device or to supptement snow-handling
trucks.
Abating

Ice Conditions

Sprinkle
ice coalings
on runways,
and hardstands
with urea, coarse

taxiways,
sand, or

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

cinders,
spread by hand or by mechanical
spreaders.
If practical,
heat abrasives
before spreading.
Remove accumulated
abrasives
in the spring by brooming.
Ice
conditions
on airfields
used by jet aircraft
arc a very serious
problem
because
abrasives
cannol
bc used.
Do not use
sodium chloride
and calcium
chloride
for
ice control without
approval
because
these
salts may promote
corrosion
of metal
aircraft
parts.

arrangements
cepted.

MAINTENANCE DURING FLYING

OPERATIONS
Coordinalc
main tcnancc
and repair work
during flying operations,
and plan lhc work
for minimum
intcrbxcncc
with air and
ground
traffic.
Much of lhc maintcnancc
work may riced to be done at night or
during inclcmenl
wcathcr
in order not to interfere with flying operations.

be recognized

Placing delayed-action
and booby traps.
Demolishing
ments.

drainage

Placing
way.

obstacles

Flowing

turfed

Flooding

and ac-

bombs,

mines,

systems

and debris

and pave-

in the run-

areas.

surfaced

Blowing craters
and hardstands.

REHABILITATION OF CAPTURED
AIRFIELDS
The decision
to rchabililalc
a captured
enemy airfield and the decision
as lo the
Cypc and construction
standard
of the
rehabilitated
field arc Air Force and Army
rcsponsibilitics.
The work is ordinarily
accomplishcd
by a combat-heavy
engineer
battalion.
The engineer
mission
is to convert
the existing
facilities,
which arc usually
damaged.
to the standard
decided
upon by
the Air Force and Army, with a minimum
outlay of labor, equipment,
and materials.
Considerable
discretion
must be exercised
in applying
standard
specifications
to captured airfields.
No large-scale
relocation
of
facilities
should be undertaken
merely to
conform
to standard
patterns,
if the existing patterns
will serve the same purpose
in
a satisfactory
manner.
Sensible,
existing
substitutions
and deviations
from specified

Vol 1

An appraisal
of the damage done to a captured field precedes
the decision
lo
rehabilitate
it. Occasionally,
it is necessary
to expend more effort to restore
a badly
damaged
airfield than to construct
a new
one. The damage
to the installation
includes war damage by our forces in any bat.
tle for the airfield and the deliberate
damage that the enemy did before yielding
the field to our forces.
Complete
destruction of an airfield is a major undertaking;
therefore,
the enemy will likely resort to one
or more of the following less dcstructivc
measures:

Do not leave cquipmcnt

hazardous
to
aircraft
on the runway
or other areas.
Clearly mark construction
or repair areas
on the runway
so that they are visible from
the air. Mark repairs
on taxiways
so that
they are visible to pilots while taxiing.

must

32-8013,

areas.
in runways,

Demolishing
buildings,
similar installations.

taxiways,

utilities,

Assume these damages

were inflicted
conducting
such reconnaissance.
Use the criteria
that follow
rehabilitation
operations:
.

and

when

to prioritize

When restoring
a captured
airfield, the
first priorily is to establish
minimum
facilities and utilities to include the establishment
of a minimum
operating
strip for immediate
operation
of friendly
aircraft.
This also includes
removing
UXO, delayed-action
bombs, mines, and
booby traps from the traffic areas; cleardebris from those areas; and repaircraters on the runway and taxiway

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

8-2 7

FM 5_430_0()-1/AFPAM

32-801 3, Vol 1

:j<.:.jij.ji
..;.:
..,::.
Iill;.
.: :.:.:,.,
I::j:ill:~l:~J:~~:~~~:~~~:~.~~~~.~.~.~,~:~,~:..,.
:.... .. ...

surfaces. Promptly repair the drainage

system. Concentrate runway work first
on a minimum operating strip: second,
on an access route: and finally, on other
traffic areas. Give early attention to the
provision of suitable sanitary and water
facilities. Chapter 7 of TC 5-340 gives
detailed information regarding these
areas.
* The second priority is improvements to
the minimum operational facilities. Restore remaining runways, taxiways,
hardstands. parking aprons, access and
service roads, and fuel and bomb
storage areas before rehabilitating
other, less vital facilities.

8-22

Maintenance, Repair, and Rehabilitation

The third priority is the repair of buildings such as the control tower, operational buildings, crew shelters, communication centers, and other maintenance facilities.
The fourth priority is the camouflage of
installations; the restoration of utilities
(making use of any utility map and any
available citizen labor familiar with the
installations utilities); and the repair or
estabishment of bathing, dining, and
recreational facilities. A complete
cleanup of the grounds, including the
removal of debris and seeding and sodding, is the last phase of a rehabilitation project.

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FM 5-4300001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

ROAD DESIGN

Road selection and design depend on the nature of the subgrade; the
traflc and drainage conditions; the construction time available; the
supply of local and imported materials; and the engineer equipment,
The completed design must then
personnel. and expertise available.
meet the requirements for the given load class and allow safe and
emcien t traflc mouement.
The load-carrying capacity of a road surface depends on continuous,
stable support furnished by the subgrade. Subgrade stability requires
adequate drainage and proper load distribution by the surface and base
courses. Surface and base courses of suflcient thickness and qua&y
to spread the wheel loads ouer the subgrade are necessary so that the
applied stress is less than the unit load capacity of the subgrade. In
areas where seasonal freezing and thawing occur, the loud-carrying
capacity of inadequately designed or improperly constructed roads can
be dramatically decreased to the extent that failure may occur.
For safe and speedy traflc movement, the geometric design requirement
for given road classes must be met. In a combat zone, military urgency
dictates rough, hasty work designed to meet pressing needs. An improued network of well-surfaced, high-quality roads may be required in
rear areas and near .maJor airfields, ports, and supply installations.
Road design uses stage construction for the progressive improvement
Road design also uses
of the road to meet increased tramc demands.
many technical terms. Figures 9-1, and 9-2, page 9-2, show terms used
to designate roadfeatures and components. In addition to this chapter,
TM 5-337 provides additional detailed inform&ion on the design of
bituminous and concrete-surfaced roads.

GEOMETRIC

The geometric design process begins with

good-quality topographic surveys. In most
cases, a minimum 5-foot contour interval is
required to clearly describe the terrain.
The design process can be described in the
following steps:

DESIGN
1. Draw the proposed centerline on the
topographic survey.
2. Plot the centerline
paper.

on plan-and-profile

Road Design

9-7

FM 5-430-0()-l /AFPAM 32-80 13, Vol 1

::

: :.: :.:I.:::.i.i.:;,i
i.~,:l,:~::,,.:i:~~,~.~~:~l:~~~~~~~I:~::i:~i:l:i:i,s:~~:~
;;,>:
:.:: ;:; ;.:,:,:.;,:
..

Culvert:

Figure 9- 1. Road nomenclature

3. Calculalc
grades,
the degree of curvaturc of horizontal
curves, and curve lengths
of vertical curves.
4. Compare
lhc values
military road specifications
9-1.

of step 3 with the

stated in Table

5. Adjust the centerline,

reduce any calculated
grades
horizontal
and vertical curves
the specifications.

Width of clearing (roadway

+ min of 8 ft)
-4

on each side
.
ht8rC8~tOf

ditch

Roadway

Figure

9-2

Road Design

Roadbed

9-2.

Road cross section

and nomenclature

if possible,
to
and limit
that exceed

Table 9-l.

Deign

Controts

Dwign

cotrde

1. T&k

Cku
A
(4 Lane)

and Elements

compositb

design data for military

Chs*
6
(2 Lane)

ChS
c
(2 La-It)

roads

Chn
0
(1 L*nc)

I21

2. C-x&v wed
0,
mph lkph)
Average running speed. mph (kph)

3. P*vrments

3,400-6,700
5101,ca
40-O

9353.400
140510
60-O

200-935
30140
60.40

Under 200
Under 30
100

60 (97)
45 (74

60 (97)
45 (72)

40 (641
35 156)

30 (48)
25 (4q

lane. It (m)

wthbmbrcwb

without barrier curb

Minimum dhtmwe between curb laces, ft (m)
Lateral cteArace kom edge
d traffk la-10 to obstructkxw. R (ml
Nonat cross rbpe (ctovm slope) rate
4. Shoulders

12 (3.656)
12 (3.656)
53 (16.154)

12 (3.656)
12 (3.656)
29 (6.639)

10 (3 046)
10 I3 046)
25 (7.6x)!

10 (3.048)
10 (3.048)
15 (4.572)

(4) There should be 4 colol of texture cObast between

traffic hne and shoulder OU~K~S.

6 (1.W
0.0104-0.0106

6 (1.629)
0.0104-O MOB

6 (t 6.291
OOMB-o&t17

4 (1.219)
0.6208-0.0417

(5) Vatues show are cakrrlated CM basii Or maximum

r.3te d 9upfele~a10
d 0 100.

(4)

Minimum width w4 barrier curbs. tt (m)

Normat cross slope, rate
@erm r&l

10 (3.046)
0.0417-0.0&25
Dusttess

10 (3.046)
0.0417-O 0825
Stable

6 (1 s24
0.0417-0.0625
Campacled soil

4 (1.219)
o.@t17-0.0625
Compmcted SOI

2.5 (0.762)

2.5 (0 762)

20

2.0 (0.610)

5. Bridge clea?~~e (pcrm)

6. Curb offset for barrier curb. fi (I)

Alignment

(2) The values show for ths term indicate the combined
effects ot horizontal (curves) and vertical (grade)
atignment on capacity. A v&e of zero percent indicates
a absokdeiy straight. Rat alignment with no restriction on
sight dwance. A vakre Of 1CU percent indkXk?S a road
mth numerous sharp curves and grade change4 on which
the sight diance
)6 less than 1.5W tt(457.201 m) M LLW
point on the road
(3) If the anticipated t&tic inctude$ a significant number
ot vehrks
having widths in excess ot 6.5 ft (2.591 ml.
the tatfic lanes should be widened in the amount bv
rrhrh the vehicle wM
CxdS
8.5 ,t (2.591 f).

(31

Minknum width of traffi

R.ZmWtU:
(t) The DHV show lor all roads IS in total vehicles per
hour for all lanes in both directions. The DHV 8s
approximately 15 percent of the ADT.

Ill

Average daity t&tic (ADT) (45% truckr)

Design hxftj
vokmle (Dtw
Slpht diitnce rerbrtion,
%

Type,

Geometric

(0610)

(s) Pavement widening for a class C or class D mad

varies 2 to 5.5 tt (0 610 to 1.676 m) as the CuNatUre
varies tram 2 to 26.7.. Values obtained may be rounded
on to the nearest 0 5 ft (0.152 m).
0 The term uilical /mgth is used to indicate the
&&urn
tength of a d&ignded
upgrade upon wheh a
loaded truck can qxxate without a unreasonabk
reducbo in speed Craifal lengths may be increased al
an approximate rate of 50 tt (15.240 m) per prcent
decrease I grade from the values show.

Ebmewts
(6) The minimum lengths of vertical curves we
b&mined
b, multip&g
k by the algebraic dlnercnces
n grades (in percent)

7. Sight distmue
Minimum stop right diitance, ft (m)
Minimum pars sight dmtance. ft (m)
6. tiorizor*al

275 (63 620)

1.5~ 1457 20q

5 5
None

t4 5.
2-4 (0610-1.1219)

6
700 (213.364
0.3

6
700 (213 360)
03

10
453 (137 160)
03

&
0.3

160 (46.766)
105 (32.004)
160 (54664)

160 (46766)
105 (32.004)
160 (54 664)

55 (16764)
55 (16764)
120 (36 576)

35 (10.666)
26 (6.534)
60 (24.364)

203 (m.960)
N/A

atigwnent

Maximum horimntal curvature

Pavement widaning. n (m)

9. Vertical

475 (144.780)
2,103 (640.061)

475 (144.76q
N/A

(5)
(6)

26.7
2-5.5 (0.610.
1.676)

argnment

Notes:
1. ASJ can be seen, capacities
are shown aa a raqe
ot vatues, tt maximum (or minimum) deign
value
shown .re rigiity
adhered to, then the resuttant
upacity
d the road witi be on the lower eida of the
capacity r.nga
Therefore. discretion should be used
in selec+tng design vatues by avoiding mulmums
or
minimuma whenever poaaible.

Grade
Maximum g&de, %
CrUcal length, R (m)
Mlnimum gr&.
%

(7)

Vertical

(6)

CrVes

Overt (c&j
vertkd cwc k, tt (m)
lmti
(sag) vefticsl Cwe k. n (m)
Absolute minimum length. R (m)

Bridge

clesrance

(permanent)

2 Turnouts e.hould be provided

(402250 m) intervats cm class-0

at l/4-mile
mdr

(76.200)
3. Curbs
.re..

will

generally

not be provided

width d the traveled way should be equal to the wktth of the lanes plus 5 R (1 524 ml (2.5 ft (0.762 m)] on each side; 14.75 h (4.496 m) vellical clearance.

in open

FM

5-43()-()&l/AFpAM

32-8013,

Vol

::P

. .. . ::..::..

.:..

. . .

::

::

:,,:,;:

;..:

,,,.

..,: ,.,:.

6. Plot new tangents (straight sections of

road) on the plan and profile in those locations where horizontal and vertical curves
exceed the military road specifications.

the road, multiplied by a factor of two, is

suggested as a reasonable estimate.
This
conservatively assumes that each vehicle
uses the road twice (one round-trip) per day.

7. Design horizontal and vertical

for all tangent intersections.

Figure 9-3 shows the relationship

between
DHV and sight distance restriction.
If
either anticipated DHV or ADT is known
and the sight distance restriction can be estimated from preliminary plans, the necessary road type can be determined from Figure 9-3. If ADT or DHV and the road type
desired are known, sight-distance-restriction requirements
can be determined from
Figure 9-3.

8. Plot newly designed

and profile.

curves

curves

on the plan

9. Develop a mass diagram for the project.

Balance the cuts and fills and optimize
ruling grade and earthwork volumes.

fng)

10. Design superelevations

(curve bankand widening for all horizontal curves.
11.

Draw typical

cross

12. Design the required

tures and bridges.

SELECTION

sections.
drainage

struc-

OF ROAD TYPE

Structural
characteristics
should accommodate traffic volumes throughout the
roads design life. Table 9- 1, page 9-3,
shows four possible road types. They are
based on expected traffic volumes and show
the values for the design control elements
for each road class.
The capacities are
shown as a range of values.
Only road classes B. C. and D apply to TO construction.
If the maximum (or minimum) design value
for the various criteria is always adhered
to, the resulting vehicle capacity of the road
will be on the lower side of the range.
Use
discretion by designing the road to the best
possible standard in a given road class.

DESIGN CALCULATION
The values in Table 9- 1 for each geometric
feature must be attained to ensure that the
desired road will have a capacity equal to
or greater than either the average daily traffit (ADTI or design hourly volume (DHV)
shown.
The first step in the design of a
road is to estimate
the daily or hourly number of vehicles
in a military organization.
Where this cannot
be done, the number
of
vehicles organic
to the units that will use

9-4

Road Design

A range of possible DHV values is given for

each road classification
in Table 9-l.
The
actual DHV for a road is a function
of the
sight-distance-restriction
factor, which also
has an allowable
range for each type of
road.
The DHV varies directly with a
change in the sight-distance-restriction
factor. Figure 9-3 shows this straight-line
relationship.
After the sight-distance-restriction
determined
from the design plans
sumed road class, the actual DHV
mined to ensure
that the capacity
quate.

factor is
of an asis deteris ade-

Example:
A road is to bc designed for a military
ganization
having approximately
250
vehicles.

or-

ADT = 250 x 2 = 500 and DHV = 0.15 x

500 = 75. The 0.15 factor clusters the traffic into rush hours.
Otherwise, the hourly
volume = 500 vehicles (per day)/24 hours
per hour.
(per day) = 21 vehicles
solution :
The calculated DHV of 75 could be met by
a class C road. Therefore, assuming a
class C road is used, plan-and-profile
designs could be drawn and a sight-restriction factor can be determined
from the
design.

.:

: ., .,:

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

600

DHV

20

40

Sight distance

Figure

9-3.

Interpolation

60

restriction,

60

percent

of DHV for selection

From Figure 9-3, a sight-distance-restrlction factor of 62 percent is determined

(based on a class C road and a DHV of 75).
Using Figure 9-3, the maximum sight-distance-restriction factor for a class C road is
80 percent. This provides a DHV for a
class C road of only 30. Since the sight-distance-restriction factor for the example (62
percent) is less than the maximum of 80,
this meets the initial requirement of the
DHV being greater than or equal to 75.
Therefore, the class C road assumption is
adequate. If a DHV of 75 could not be
handled by the class C road, it would be
necessary to construct a class B road.

100

of road class (not to scale)

ESTIMATING

CAPACITY

The information in Figure 9-3 and Table 9I, page 9-3, is adequate for the geometric
design of military roads. However, additional information is available in TM 5-822-2.
The information can be used to evaluate the
capacity of existing roads by obtaining pertinent characteristics and comparing them
to the values in Table 9- 1. If the data does
not conform to that shown for a given road
type, use discretion in estimating the road
type and ADT or DHV to which the data
best conforms. The volume and capacity
values in Table 9-1 are for roads of a given
class when they are new or in good condition. As the road surface deteriorates, the
road is less able to accommodate the traffic

Road Design

9-5

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

for which it was designed.

Plan and carry
out a maintenance
program to keep the
road in good condition.

GRADE AND ALIGNMENT

Before building a road or an airfield, the engineer must determine the best vertical and
horizontal alignment of the facility concerned.
Design both horizontal and vertical
alignment to keep sight distance restrictions to a minimum.
Define the route by a
series of straight lines and curves to meet
the stated mission and capacity.
This
provides the shortest, most efficient route
that requires the least construction
effort.
Define the route vertically in a series of
grades and curves that fall within acceptable specifications
and requirements.
Horizontal and vertical alignment are interrelated and must be considered concurrently. However, the principles on each are
best studied separately.
Horizontal and vertical curves of all types are discussed in FM
5-233.

alignment

Tangents should intersect other roads and

railroads at right angles.
Military roads normally supplement existing roadnets and
have intersections
at one or both ends of
the military road. Operating efficiency
usually is improved when these intersections approach right angles.
Frequently used horizontal curves are
shown in Figure 9-4. The most common
are the simple curve, the reverse curve, the
compound curve, and the spiral curve.
.

HORIZONTALALIGNMENTAND
HORIZONTAL CURVES
The principles of horizontal
summarized as follows:

compared to the benefits gained by reducing the total number of curves.

are

A simple curve uses the arc of a circle

to provide a smooth transition between
two tangents.
This curve is used frequently in the TO because it fills the
needs of the low-speed design roads normally used and is easy to construct.
A
reverse or compound curve can be
designed using the same basic equations.
A reverse curve uses two simple curves
tangent to a common line at a common
point. Their centers are on opposite
sides of the common line. The radii of
the curves may or may not be equal in
length.

Tangents (straight sections of road) should

be as long as possible, because the shortest
distance between two points is the connecting straight line. Terrain conditions,
however. seldom permit the construction
of a
route between two points in one tangent
line. Therefore, the engineer should make
each tangent as long as possible, limit the
number of curves, and provide long straight
stretches,
thereby improving the route
capacity.
Make curves as gentle as possible.
Long,
gentle curves increase the capacity of the
roadway by permitting higher speeds.
They
also provide a safer path of travel for the
vehicle.
Making gentle, horizontal curves
will increase the curve length, thereby
decreasing the tangent length.
However,
this reduction in tangent length is minor

&
Compound

Figure

9-6

Road Design

9-4.

%*

Spiral

Types of horizontal

curves

,j :. : : .i .: ,:

A compound curve has two simple curves tangent to a common line at a common point. The centers of these curves
are on the same side of the common
line, and the curves have radii of different lengths.
A spiral curve is a simple curve in the
center with parts of a spiral on each
end to smooth transition to the tangent.
The spiral is used only on high-speed
roads (classes A and Bl. Detailed steps
for the design and layout of spiral transltion curves are In FM 5-233. Low
design speeds of class-C and -D roads
do not require spiral transition sections.

ELEMENTS

OF A HORIZONTAL CURVE

The following are elements of a simple,

horizontal curve as shown in Figure 9-5:
l

The PC is the point where the curve

begins or leaves tangent A-the tangent
nearest the origin of stationing (station
0 + 001 or start of the project.
The PT is the point where the curve
ends or joins tangent B.

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

The tangent distance (T) is the distance

from the PI to the PC or from the PI to
the PT.
The radius (R) of curvature is the radius
of the circle whose arc forms the curve
from the PC to the PT.
The length of curve (L) is the distance
from the PC to the PT along the curve,
measured as an arc or as a series of
lOO-foot arcs. Railroad engineers
measure L as a series of lOO-foot
chords.
The angle of intersection (I) is the exterior angle at the PI formed by tangents A and B. The central angle, between the radius points at 0, is equal to
the exterior angle.
The external distance (E) is the distance
from the PI to the midpoint of the curve.
The long chord (Cl is the straight-line
distance from the PC to the PT.
The middle ordinate (Ml is the distance
from the midpoint of the curve to the
midpoint of the long chord.

The PI is the intersecting point of two

tangents that must be connected by a
horizontal curve.

Figure 9-5. Elements of a simple, horizontal curve

Road Design

9-7

FM 5430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

DEGREE OF CURVATURE
The connecting
curve between
two tangents
may be short and sharp or long and gentle.
depending
on the properties
of the circle
chosen.
Sharpness
is defined by the radius
of the circle.
For example,
a curve may be
called a 150-foot curve.
However, a curve
is seldom referred
to by its radius because
the center of the curve is often inaccessible
on the long, gentle curves used on modern
highways.
The more practical
and common
reference
term for defining curve sharpness
is the degree of curvature
(D). The degree
of curvature
is established
as a whole or
half degree.
The degree of curvature
may
be stated in terms of either the arc or the
chord.
Arc Definition
The degree of curvature,
D, is that angle
which subtends
a lOO-foot arc along the
curve.
(See Figure 9-6.) This definition
is
used by state highway departments
and the
Corps of Engineers
in road design.
Chord Definition
The degree of curvature,
D, is the angle
which subtends
a lOO-foot chord on the
curve.
(See Figure 9-7.) This definition
results
in a slightly larger angle than the
arc method,
and it is used by the railroad
industry
and the Corps of Engineers
in railroad design.
The difference
between
the arc and
definitions
is very slight and nearly

-4

nificant (frequently
well below 1 percent)
for
TO construction.
However, because
the arc
definition
is the most widely used procedure in road design, only its definition
will
be used throughout
the rest of the chapter.

EQUATIONS FOR THE SIMPLE,

HORIZONTAL-CURVE
DESIGN
The two methods
commonly
used to solve
horizontal
curve problems
are the l-degreecurve method and the trigonometric
method.
Both methods
may be used with
the same degree of accuracy.
The l-degreecurve method requires
the Functions
of a
l-Degree
Curve table shown in Appendix
F
of this manual.
Appendix
F is based on the trigonometric
relationships
for a curve of D = 1. Curves
of different
degrees of curvature
can be
readily designed
because
of the proportionality
between all curves and the l-degree curve.
For example,
a curve of D =
15 has one-fifteenth
the L, E, T, and M
values as for a l-degree
curve ID = 1). The
only information
needed to obtaln the L, E,
T, and M values for a l-degree
curve is the
angle of intersection
(I), and I is always
known at the onset of the design process.
The trigonometric
method requires
a calculator with trigonometric
functions
or
trigonometric
tables found in TM 5-236 or
any surveying
manual.

chord
insig-

Figure 9-6. Arc definition for degree of

curvature

9-8

Road Design

.
8
4
R

Figure 9-7.

Chord definition
curvature

for degree of

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FM 5_430_0&1/AFPAM
,,,,,,,,,,((,

.
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: : : : :: : : : : : : : : :
W..
.v./.
:i+h........
.,.,.,.,.,.(...,.,...,

Radius of Curvature

External Distance

As previously described in the arc definition, D is that angle subtended by a lOOfoot arc on a circle.
By comparing the lOOfoot arc and the total circumference
of the
circle, an equation for R is developed in
terms of D.

Using the l-degree-curve

Figure 9-81. the external
found as follows:

Tangent

5,729.58
D

Distance

= 50

(arc definition)

Measure the length of the curve in IOO-foot

arcs.
Because D subtends a lOO-foot arc,
the total number of such arcs in a horizontal curve must be the number of times that
D can be included In the central angle I.

T1 o (arc definition)
D
L=

Tl* is found in Appendix F, Table F-l, for a

given I. Use Table F-2 to determine the
chord correction.

(arc definition)

Length of Curve (L)

In the right triangle shown in Figure 9-5,

page 9-7, the vertices are at PC (or PT), PI,
and 0. The tangent distance (Tl is found
using the l-degree-curve
method, as follows:
T=

(refer to
(El is

Using the l-degree-curve

method (refer to
Figure 9-81, the middle ordinate (Ml is
found as follows:

for RR = (IOOl(360)
2xD

= E!

method
distance

Middle Ordinate

360
100=- 2xR

D arc

Solving

32-801 3, vol 1

Figure 9-8. Derivation

x 100

The central angle subtended by the entire

horizontal curve has sides that are radii to
the PC and PT. Both of these radii are perpendicular to the tangents that form the

of external distance

Road Design

9-9

FM 5-430.OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol

intersection
angle 1. The quadrilateral
formed by the four points of PI (180-I), PC
(901, 0 (Il. and PT (90) must total 360.
Hence, the
I( 180-I) t 90 t I t 90 = 360.1
central angle is equal to the angle of Intersection I.

:.:

.:

:.:

:.c.,:

HORIZONTAL

I.:

horizontal
method:

:.:

curves

If the curve

where
l

the

.:.i.:I>,:,;,.

. . . ..

.:.

..

..,.

1 -degree-curve

of curvature,

D. by one

is unrestricted,

D=

The engineer
designing
horizontal
curves
must know two facts about the curve from
the preliminary
survey:
the location
and
station of the PI and the angle between
intersectlng
tangent
lines (Il. The curves can
be designed
after this information
is obtained.

i.<.:,

:....

using

CURVES

The first step is to determine

the desired
sharpness
of the curve.
This is defined by
the radius or the degree of curvature.
Topographic
conditions
govern the final locatlon of the centerline
and sharpness
of the
curve.
A maximum
or minimum
tangent
distance
may fit the terrain conditions,
or
there may be a limit on the external
distance or the middle ordinate.
If a restriction exists, solve for the degree of curvature
by transposing
the equations
previously
given.
Where no terrain condition
dictates
the sharpness
of the curve, choose a degree
of curvature
within allowable
specifications.

. . .. . .

1. Find the degree

of three methods:
l

DESIGNING

5.729.58
R

R = the radius

If the curve
distance,

of the curve

is restricted

by the tangent

Tl

D=

T(restrkted)

whereTl* = tangent
distance
for a l-degree
curve
(found In Appendix
F, based on the angle of
intersection)
T(restrkted)

horizontal
l

restricted

tangent

distance

for a

curve

If the curve
distance,

is restricted

by the external

El<

D=

Efrestricted)

When choosing
a degree of curvature,
remember
that gentle curves are more
desirable.
However, these long curves may
increase
surveying
and construction
time,
materials,
and effort required.
There is no
restriction
on the length of the curve with
respect
to a minimum
degree of curvature.
However, the maximum
allowable
degree of
curvature
is specified
by the road classification. Table 9- 1, page 9-3, specifies
the maximum degree of curvature
for each class of
road as stated in the row titled Maximum
horizontal
curvature.
After the degree of curvature
is selected,
determine
the stations
of the PC and the
PT. Next, design the curve except for the
calculations
needed to locate statloning
points of the curve between
the PC and PT.
The following steps show the design of

9-10

Road Design

whereEl? = external
distance
for one-degree
curve
(found in Appendix
F, based on the angle of
intersection)
E(restrlcted)

a horizontal

= restricted
curve

external

distance

2. Round up the degree of curvature

next half degree when possible.
3.

Determine

the length

of the tangent.

T = TL
D

4.

Find

the stationing

PC = PI - T

of PC.

to the

for

.. .

5.

.. :. ..:,.: ,,:..., ,,j,.:( ::;::yii,_:;:

:.

Calculate

,: . . :
,. /.. .:

the length

:;. ;,.,;,..;::i;,:: : : ..,

::

of the curve.

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

6.

6
0

Find the stationing

R=

100
of PT.

T-5=

PT = PC + L
Horizontal-Curve

Design Examples

No terrain restriction
E.

which limits T or

Terrain restriction
tance.

of the tangent

dls-

* Terrain restriction
tance.

of the external

dis-

5,729.58
D
Tl

= 5,729.58
6

2,671.58
6

= g54 g3,

= 445.30 (arc

definition)

This section describes the horizontal-curve

design procedures
for three common situations:
l

Vol 1

else D = 6

-_-

L=

32-8013,

Example:
Degree of Curvature with No Terrain RestricLion. Figure 9-9 illustrates
the following

833.33

L=

PC = PI - T = (14 + 28) - (445.29)

= (9 t 82.71)
PT = PC t L = (9 t 82.711 + (833.33)
= (18 t 16.041
The station of the PT is determined
by adding the curve length to the station of the
PC, not by adding T to the station of the PI.
However, the actual point of the PT is found
by measuring a distance T (at angle I) from
the PI. The station is the distance from the
point of origin at station (0 t 001, as
measured along the ten terline.

computations:

Example:

Given:

Terrain Restrfctfon

I = 50, PI at 14 t 28

Find the station and location

for a class C road.

of PC and PT

Solution:
A degree of curvature,
D, of 6 is selected
as a flat, gentle curve. D = 6 is far below
the maximum allowable of D = 14.5 for
class-C roads and is slightly sharper than
the maximum allowable of D = 5.5 for
class-B roads.

Figure 9-9. Horizontal curve with no

sharpness restriction

of Che Tangent

Figure 9- 10 illustrates
putations:

Dklance.
the following com-

Given: I = 32, PI at 25 t 87, TR~S IS 282

(due to bridge)
Find the station

and location

of PC and PT.

Solution:
Knowing thal T must not exceed 282 feet
and that the D that will give this value is

Figure 9-10.

Horizontal curve with restriction

on tangent

Road Design

9-l 1

probably not equal to a whole or half degree, it is necessary to first find which D
gives 282 feet for TR~S and then round it
off, as shown.

- Tl

D-

1,643

5.83

282=

= 550

If the value of T was specified as exactly

282 feet (as opposed to a maximum or
restrfcted value), the value for D of 5-50
must be used. Rounding D up to the next
half degree (D = 6) will slightly sharpen the
curve and will reduce T slightly below the
282-feet maximum.
Use D = 6
R

5*7r58 = 5,729.58
6

T = s
T=

L = ;

= 954.93

= 273 82,

x 100 = T

PT = PC t L = (23 t 13.18)
= (28 t 46.51)

D=

t (533.33)

Increasing the degree of curvature decreases

the values of the radius and tangent distance and vice versa. When the degree of
curvature was changed fiorn 5-50 to 600,
it caused the radius and the tangent distance to decrease from 983.5 feet to 954.9
feet and 282 feet to 273.8 feet, respectively.
Therefore, if the mtimum
value of the tangent distance is used to determine a trial
value of D, the rounding must be to the
next higher half degree. If minimum value
of the tangent is given, the rounding is to
the next lower half degree.
Example:

1,749.g
85

D=

= 20.59

Road Design

= 2035

Because the limiting value for the external

distance and the value used to get this trial
value of D are maximums, it is necessary to
round to the next higher half degree, thereby decreasing T and E.
Use D = 21

= p

E
L-

4t807.6867 =
21

1,749.8548
21

=EC=
D
-:,

= 272 83

100 - e

228

= 83.33

g4,

I 85 (check)

x 100 = 380.95

PC = PI - T = (43 t 32.75)
= (41 t 03.81)
PT = PC t L = (41 t 03.81)
= (44 t 84.76)

--

- (228.94)
t (380.95)

Building

PI = 43 + 32.75

Terratn Restrtctfon on the ExternaZ Dfstance.

Figure 9- 11 illustrates
the following computations:

of PC and PT.

ERes

x 100 = 533.33

and location

will

Solution :

PC = PI - T = (25. + 87) - (273.82)

= (23 t 13.18)

9-12

If E exceeds 85 feet, the road centerline

be closer than 25 feet to the building.

R = 5*72g.58
21

(arc definition)

la642.9300
6

E < 85 feet, I = 80, Sta PI at 43 t

Find the station

Toes

Given:
32.75

EC 86

Figure 9-11. Horizontal curve with restriction

on the external distance

-/

FM 5-4300OO-l/AFPAM
Station Adjustments
lation

Due to Curve Instal-

Horizontal
curves occasionally
are designed
at the site by the surveying
team.
When
this is done, the route is staked out and
stationed
progressively
along the centerline
from the point of origin of the project.
It is
not necessary
to calculate
station adjustments required
by the shortening
of the
overall centerline
length by a distance
of
2T-L.
However, when horizontal
curves are
designed
in the office with data supplied
by
the preliminary
survey,
the adjustments
must be calculated.
When the preliminary
tangent alignment
of
a route is first determined
and stationing
along the tangent
lines is accomplished,
the
station
of any point represents
its distance
from the point of origin as measured
along
straight
lines only.
When a horizonlal
curve is installed
and becomes
the centerline of the route, the stationing
distance
from the PC to the PT is shortened
by 2T-L
for each horizontal
curve.
In Figure 9-5, page 9-7, the initial centerline distance
from the PC to the PT is
measured
along the two tangents
and is
equal to 2T. When the curve is installed
and the new centerline
is created,
the final
centerline
distance
from the PC to the PT
becomes
L. At this point, the centerline
stationed ahead would need to be restationed
or adjusted
in some manner.
To prevent
restaking
the rest of the project centerline,
an adjustment
is made to the construction
stake at the PT. The method of adjustmenl
will produce
a stationing
equation
at the
point of adjustment
that will satisfy both
the stationing
back and the stationing
ahead.
The equation
will have a station
which corresponds
with the correct station
to the rear (or back) and the correct
station
forward (or ahead).
The equation
will be
written on the construction
stake as follows:

wherePT
EQ
BK
AH

= point of tangent
= equation
= correct
station
back
= correct
station ahead

32-8013,

Vol 1

Equations
most often will occur at the PT
but may be used anywhere
an adjustment
to the centerline
stationing
is required.
The
equation
indicates
that an adjustment
to
the centerline
stationing
has occurred
for
some reason.
For example,
if the survey
crew accidently
placed two centerline
stakes
with the same station
number,
say 13 + 00,
the equation
stake would look like this:
K
EQ

:ti

13 t 00
12 t 00

The adjustments
shown in the preceding
equation
indicate
that the total length of
the road has been shortened
by the difference of 24 feet in the first example
and
lengthened
by 100 feet (or one station)
in
the second example.
Equations
normally
are shown in the profile
section of the plans as a gap in the grade
with the back and ahead stations
written
out.
Field Methods of Curve Layout
The location
and station
of the PC and PT
of a horizontal
curve constitute
only two
points on the curve.
They do not adequately define the necessary
construction.
The
following methods
are applicable
to military
construction
for locating
points on the
curve:
Arc Method.
When the radius
of a curve is
less than 100 feet and topographic
conditions permit, locate the center of the circle
and swing an arc to locate a curve or flllet.
Curves with a small radius are seldom used
except at street intersections
and for fillets
between
hardstands,
taxiways,
or other
operational
features
of an airfield.
External-D&tame

Method.
For short curves
where three points are adequate
for the construction
standard
desired,
calculate
the external distance
and use it to locate the center of the curve.
This method is not recommended
for precise construction
or for long
It
is
impractical
when
the
terrain
curves.
on the curve side of the PI is difficult to
negotiate
and measure.

Deflecllon-Angle
Method.
This method of
curve layout usually
is the fastest and most

Road Design

9-13

FM 543&()&l

/AFPAM 32-801 3, Vol 1 ::,.:j.:.jjj:,::

i.;,::.:.:cjj
j).j.:
:.:iT.:...:
..., . .;j ::ji y::.::....
: ii .::::.:I.::::...:::.j:.,

exact method,
particularly
for curves with a
long radius.
In the arc definition,
a deflection angle is the angle formed between
a
tangent
line and a chord from the same
point.
(Set Figure 9-12.1

Figure 9- 12. Deflection

In triangle

.,,,:;.

When laying out a curve, it is common

practice to locate stakes at every full station.
In view of this and because
the PC of any
curve rarely falls on an even station,
the
first arc will be something
less than 100
feet in length (called a subarc).
The deflection angle for the subarc
to the first full station is the same proportion
of D/2 thal the
subarc
is to 100 feet (Figure 9-14).

angle

OAB-

Angle ABO (at Bl = 90 - t

d=

180-(9O+B)

d=

180-90-90+;

NOTE: InLother words, the deflection

angle is always one-half the intercepted
central angle.

0
Figure 9-14.

Subarc deflection

angles

Once located at a full station,

the curve continues by lOO-foot arcs.
Therefore,
the
central angle increases
by D and lhe deflection angle increases
by D/2 (Figure 9-151.

If the initial arc is 100 feet long, the central

angle will be the degree of curvature
D, and
the deflection
angle will be one-half
the degree of curvature
D, or D/2, as shown in
Figure 9-13.
With the addition
of each lOOfoot arc, the total central
angle increases
by
D and the total deflection
angle increases
by D/2.

Figure 9-15.

Figure 9-13.

9-14

Deflection angles for 700.foot

arcs

Road Design

Calculation

of chord lengths

The length of the chord for a lOO-foot arc

on the curve is equal to 2R Sin (D/2).
For the first and last arcs, which are almost always less than 100 feet, the
measured
chord is equal to 2R Sin
[(Dl21(Ll IOOj] where L is the distance from
the PC or PT to the closest full station.

.......................
:.:+::.:.
:...:..
~~:~:::::::::::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.::.:.;:,,::,,,:::
........................
:::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.~.:.:.:.:.:.:.:,:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:::~::,:~:~:~:~:.:~
:.::.:....... ...... ... :.,.,:
:.:,:,:
....................
..:......................................
.....................................................................................................
:.:.: ............
FM 5.430~00.l/AFPAM
............................................................
............................................................................................

. ...........

:,:.;.::::p,;,>

j:::,::,::

.:.:.

.::: ,++.y:

A summary
chord-length
ure Q- 16.

of the deflection-angle
and
calculations
is shown in Mg-

LOCATION ON
ARC
PC to

CHORD LENGTH

WECTION

firstfull

StatiOn

dl-pigj

Full stationto
full station

dn-- D+dn_,
2

Last full

to PT

station

df-

:j: :

32-8013,

Vol 1

Example:
In the example of a horizontal curve with
no terrain restrictions,
the station of PC is
9 + 82.71, the station of PT is 18 t 16.04,
and the deflection angles and chord dlstances are shown in Table Q-2. A useful check
on the long series of computations
is that
the final deflection angle from the PC to the
PT must always equal I/2. This is based
on the previously stated principle that the
deflection angle (from PC to PTI is one-half
the total angle subtended
(I). This check is
illustrated in Table 9-2 for d = 25 = I/2 =
50/2 for station,(l8
+ 16.041, which is the
PT.
Layout Techniques

Figure 9-16.

Deflection-angle
de terminations

and chord-length

When using the deflection-angle

method,
set the transit up at the PC. Set zero on
the vernier, sight the PI (or take a backsight down the centerline), and turn the
first deflection angle. Measure the subarc
distance along the instruments
line of
sight. To locate the second point on the

Table 9-2. Deflection angles and chord distances

I
c=2Rsil~j$
!

003l'V
3031'6-

12+00
I

(6=&+$

3.+6516"

6031'6.
I
0031'6.
I
12031's.
15031's.

chordcamputalion

=2(954.63)(0.52336)
+f
(

4%
17.26
1

c=2!?&-2(654.63)(0.52336)
c =2Rs+

2(954.63)(0.52336)

c=2Jwh~

- 2(654.83)(0.52336)

c =WS@

- 2(854.63)(0.52336)

99.854
B9.w
@Q.B54
89.854

c = 2RsL,$2(@54.@3)(0.62336)

PT

16.032'

16tl6.04

Road Design

9-75

FM 50430-001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

..

Vol 1

curve (station 11 + 001, turn the second

deflection angle (the angle is measured turning from the PI to station 11 t 00) with the
transit still at the PC. Measure the intersection of this line of sight and the lOO-foot
arc from the preceding
station to locate station 11 t 00. Lay out the rest of the curve
in this manner.
If the curve is long so that the transit must
be moved or if an obstruction
prevents a
clear line of sight, move the transit to an intermediate station.
The same deflection
angles previously calculated may be used to
locate the rest of the curve. (See Figure
9- 17.1
If station 17 + 00 cannot be sighted, move
the transit to station 16 + 00. Set zero on
the vernier, backsight the PC, and turn the
angle 21316 to sight station 17 t 00. Figure 9- 17 shows that angle D must be
turned for the transit at station 16 t 00 to
become tangent to the curve at that point.
Once the transit is tangent to the curve,
angle D/2 must be turned to locate the
next station because the arc is 100 feet
long. The total angle turned is d7 t D/2,
which is ds as originally calculated.

Figure 9-77.

9- 16

Road Design

Frequency

: ;,....
:.,:
.:

of Placing Survey Stakes (In

Peet]

Horizontal curves should be staked at a

minimum interval of 100 feet. The staking
interval on horizontal curves should be
based on the degree of curvature and can
be determined
from the following table:
Degree of
Curvature
(100)

Radius
(meters)

Staking
interval

0 to 3

> 1,910'

100'

> 3 to 8
> 8 to 16
> 16

1,910 to 721
720 to 360
< 360

50

25
10

Horizontal Curve Design Using Metric

Units

The design of horizontal curves using

metric units is essentially the same as in
English units. The only difference lies in
the relationships
of arc length to the degree
of curvature as shown in Figures 9- 18a.
9- 18b, and 9-18~.
NOTE: The functions of a 1 curve table
are also applicable to metric design based
on the relationship shown in Figure
Q-18b. However, if designing using
metric units, the lengths of T, E, M, and
R are in meters.

Obstruction on a curve

i:,>
,.,..
..,,
. :.:..:.a
,..,.
.,,.,.,.,.
.,

I.. ...I. i.....

../.....i.
. .A....
,A:.:.:.:.:.:.::..........:.:.::..:.:.:
,.

...

.::,.:::.,,:

.,.. .:.:..:.,:

.,

,:.,.:

,.

. ..

,.:,:,:.:.:

:.

:,:,,:,:,,..:,
~:,:
,...,..,
.,...
....-...
.,.,.,.,.........,.....,.,.........,.

.. .

:.,:,:...:
:,.:.,...:::,..., j ,. ;,. : :
...,.,.

..

..

.,.?

....

..,..,::

,:

:,

.(

:,:,,,

.,

,,_ ..:.
,,

,.

.,.

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Dtmrn
100rnIR

Qooa
360
looft-2xR

360

360

20mg2xR
5729.56

Dz0mm R(m)

If you design the curve based on Dloo m,

but intend on staking at an interval of
20 m, you must determine the degree of curvature based on 20 m (D20 m) to determine
the correct deflection angles. A summary of
the deflection-angle
and chord-length calculatjons based on D20 m is shown in Figure 9-18d.

Horizontal curves should be staked at a

maximum interval of 20 meters (m). The
staking interval on horizontal curves should

PC

to firstfullstation

Full station to full station

be based on the degree of curvature and

can be determined from the following information:
Degree of
Curvature
(100)
0 to 3
>3 to 8
>8 to 16
>16

Frequency of Placing Survey Stakes (In

Meters]

LOCATION ON ARC

Figure 9-18~. D based

on a 20-m arc

Figure g-186. D based

on a 700-m arc

Figure 9-18a. D based

on a IOO-ft arc

Radius
(meters)
>585
585 to 221
220 to 110

CHORD LENGTH

&!q&

G 2(+%4

dn-

d_1 +

20m
p&n
2

20
10
5

<llO

DEFLECTION ANGLE
2

Cord Lengths
(meters)

him

C - 2RSin 2
(

Lastfull station to PT

NOTE: R is the distance from the PC or PT to the closest hrll station.

Figure

9- 18d.

Deflection-angle

and chord length

selection

based

on D20 m

Road Design

9-17

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
The capabilities
of vehicles
or aircraft
using
any particular
road or airfield determine
the maximum
allowable
grades that should
be established.
However, other factors may
be considered.
Excessive
grades can be installed where speed and capacity
are not essen tial. Whenever
possible,
grades should
be less than the prescribed
maximum
values stated in Table 9-1, page 9-3.
Within limitations
imposed
by various
other
criteria,
place tangent
grade lines so that
earthwork
is minimized.
The earthwork
required in most road-construction
projects
is
usually
the largest,
single work item.
Anything that reduces
earthwork
will improve
job efficiency
and economy.
Attempt
to
balance
the earthwork
operations
between
cut and fill in any area, within the
capabilities
of available
equipment.
When
drawing
the grade lines, the engineer
can
usually do this balancing
by inspection,
keeping the profile area of cut equal to the
profile area of fill. These areas are not
necessarily
proportional
to the actual
volumes
involved,
but they serve as a basis
for comparison.
It is impractical
to balance
a volume of cut with an equivalent
volume
of fill at a distance
beyond the hauling
capabilities
of the available
equipment.
Along any proposed
route will be points at
which the elevation
is already
fixed.
Intersections
with existing roads and railroad
crossings
present
predetermined
elevations
that the engineer
must meet when locating
the tangent
grade lines.
In addition
for grades,
placement
clude the
maximum
intersection
cut or fill,
approaching
tion.

9-18

to the controlling
specifications
other criteria
may control the
of grade lines.
These criteria
inminimum
allowable
gradients,
the
allowable
change
in grade at any
point, the permissible
depth of
and the maximum
gradients
in
bridges or points of intersec-

Road Design

PLOTTING A PROFILE VIEW

The proflle of a road or airfield is a side
view of the project.
It represents
the
horizontal
distance,
or stations,
as abscissa
(x axis) against
the elevations
at these stations, which are plotted as ordinates
(y
axis).
When a horizontal
alignment
is set
and the project stationed,
determine
the
elevation
of critical points along the centerline.
Engineers
usually calculate
the elevation at all half and full stations,
PVC, PVT,
and HP and LP elevations.
A break point where the prevailing
grade
makes an appreciable
change should be stationed and the elevation
ascertained.
The
most common
procedure
for determining
existing terrain elevations
is by a ground survey. However, it is possible
to obtain elevations for specific points from a contour
map
on which the proposed
horizontal.
alignment
has been plotted.
Unless the scale of the
contour
map is large, this method is inaccurate and should be used only for preliminary planning
and initial location.
The
centerline
profile may not represent
the typlcal or prevailing
condition
across the entlre
section at any particular
point.
This error
may be noticeable
when the section is wide,
as for an airfield.
In such cases, additional
profiles may be needed along the shoulder
line.
It is also possible
to make a typical
profile that represents
the average elevation
across the entire section.

PLOTTING TRIAL GRADE LINES

After studying
the profile, determine
the tangent grade lines.
These grade lines serve
as the proposed
final profile of the project.
It is possible
for rough, pioneer construction to follow existing contours
with a little
smoothing
of rough spots.
Such a route
provides
a rough and relatively
unsafe
roadbed
that is not capable of carrying
a
large volume of traffic.
A well-designed
route has a series of tangent
grades with a
smooth transition
between
them.
These tangent grade lines can be determined
with a
good profile.

;:::.
:: ... ....

.: /

,:.I

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:.

........

:.;j

::j;.:

..

:,:

yI

..:

:;;

.:

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.:

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.:

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FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

GRADE DETERMINATION
The degree of steepness measured longitudinally is normally defined as the percentage of grade.
It is established
as a
relationship
between vertical rise or fall for
each lOO-foot horizontal distance and is expressed as a percentage (per 100).
The equation

for determining
c =;

grades

is-

(100)
Figure 9-19.

where= percentage of grade

V = rise or fall between the two points
H= horizontal distance between the two
points
G

NOTE:
units.

V and H must be in the same

To differentiate
between rising and falling
grades along the centerline,
a plus sign is
used to denote rising grades in the direction of increasing stations and a minus sign
is used to denote falling grades.

VERTICAL

CURVES

After grade lines are placed, define the

route vertically in a series of grade lines
(straight segments of constant grade) between points of vertical fntersectlon.
Design a transition that provides smooth,
easy movement from one grade line to
another at these intersections.
The vertical
curves used for this transition and its pertinent dimensions
are easily calculated.

Types of vertical curves

The PVl IS the intersection of two grade

lines. This station is always read from
the profile view.
The PVC is the point along the first
grade line at which the vertical curve
begins. The grade line is tangent to the
parabolic curve at this point. By convention, the PVC is always one-half the
length of the vertical curve from the
PVI, measured horizontally.
The PVT is the point along the second
grade line at which the vertical curve
ends. It has the same properties as the
PVC.
The percentage of grade (G) on the
grade line nearest the pofnt of origin is
called G 1, and the other grade line percentage is called G2. These two grade
lines, which are tangent to the parabolic
curve at the PVC and PVT, intersect at
the PVI.

Types of Vertical Curves

Two types of vertical curves must be considered:
overt and invert. (See Figure
9-19.)
Overt curves are commonly called
crest curves, and invert curves are referred
to as sag curves.
Both types are designed
the same way but different specifications
govern their dimensions.
Elements of Vertical Curves
Figure 9-20 shows a typical vertical curve
installed between two grade lines. The
parts of a vertical curve include the following:

Figure 9-20.

Elements of a vertical curve

Road Design

9-79

FM 5-4309OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

. The length of vertical curve (Ll is the

horizontal distance from the PVC to the

PVT. The walkfng distance along the actual curve has no significance.
The PVI
is horizontally midway between the PVC
and PVT. Therefore, the distance from
the PVC to the PVI is L/2, and the distance from the PVI to the PVT is also
L/2.

. Offsets (a) are the vertical distances

from the grade lines to the vertical
curve. The heights of offsets are computed for selected points along the
length of the vertical curve. The
selected points are usually at every station and half station.

. The maximum offset (MO) is the offset

at the PVI. It is always the greatest
set along the vertical curve.

off-

Design of Vertical Curves

The design of vertical curves includes two
tasks--determining
the curve length and calculating the heights of a sufficient number
of offsets to adequately define or locate the
final grade line.

. .

acteristics
of the vehicles or aircraft using
the facility.
One criterion (called r) is expressed as an allowable rate of change of
grade for a specific horizontal distance.
For
example, with a criterion of 0.5 percent
change in grade over 500 feet, a AG of 1.0
percent requires a curve length of 1,000
feet. However, r is usually expressed as the
allowable gradient change in 100 feet of
length.
The term r is frequently used for
airfield vertical curve design.
(S). When an overt curve is
traversed, the ability of the driver to see
down the road or airfield is curtailed.
If a
vertical curve is quite short, the distance
that can be seen ahead becomes critically
short.
Reduced speed is required to reduce
the safety hazard.
Sight distance depends
upon the design speed permitted.
SLght Ofstance

Factor /k). This factor

is used when determining road vertical
curve lengths.
It is equal to the horizontal
distance, in feet, required to effect a l-percent change in gradient while providing the
minimum stopping distance.
Vertical-Curve-Length

Determlnatlon

of the VerticaZ Curve

Length.

It is possible to
design vertical curves to be long and gentle
(flat) or short and abrupt.
This is done by
varying the curve length.
Depending on the
facility to be constructed
and the standards
of construction
desired, there are certain
limitations on curve length.
Minimum
lengths usually are specified.

Determine the vertical curve length by

using the vertical-curve-length
factor (see
Table 9- 1, page 9-31 for the given class of
road (A, B, C, or D) and for the type of
curve. The factor k is used in the following equation:

Change of Grade (AC). The difference in

grade between the two grade lines is called
the change of grade. This difference, which
is symbolized as AC, is computed as 1G 1 G2 1 which represents
the absolute value of
- G2. The curve installed between two
z!ade lines with a large AG, which might
occur at the top of a steep hill, is longer
than the curve required between two grades
with a smaller AG.

where-

Length

Determfnatton.

Allowable

Rate

of Change

of Grade

(I-).

Criteria
that the
gradient
curve is

have been established

to ensure
rate at which the change in
is made throughout a vertical
consistent
with the operating char-

9-20

Road

Design

kAG
=i

L = length of vertical curve in lOO-foot stations

k = vertical-curve-length
factor (Table 9-l)
AC = change of grade

If length L, as computed, is not in whole

stations, round up to the next full lOO-foot
The length derived by this procestation.
dure is compared to the absolute minimum ,
length found in Table 9-l.

,,.(.(

,..,.,.
,.,
.,.,.,
,.,( .,.
............ ..(...
/,,,,,
,,,,
,,,
._,,.,,,._,,:,,,,,,,,,,,,,,~,,,,
,,,,
..(,(
.....(((,,.
......i.,..

.: :.:.:.:,:;.,..::~:::::~:
., . ..,.,.,.,...._..
,... ., . . . . . .
..A.
,..:::::.:.:.:
.A :.
,...,.,.,.
.,.,. .,.,. .,.,. .,.

.:.:.:.~..:.:..:,:.:...:.

. ..

.,.,.

.. . . .,.:.:.:.:,,:::::,::::.:.:,:.:.:.:
. .. .

a.. . .. . . . . i,
.,.,.,.,.,.,.,,,,,,,,,

.,,,,
,.,
,,., ..:.:.:.:.i.,:.:.
I:
.A....., : :;~.,:~:~:::::::.::

.,.

.,

(..,.

,::.:i.~.:,:.:.:c.t~r?..~:,,.:
,,.>
: :::
:: :.

:,.:::.:::.:::,;~~,~:~,~~

.,.,.,_.,.

.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.

Knowing the curve length and the station

the PVI, compute the station of the PVC
and the PVT.

.,. .\:.

of

PVC = PVI - L/2

PVT = PVI t L/2
Offset Determfnatlons.
For the curve to be
defined, the engineer must determine elevations at various locations along the curve.
In order to do so, the engineer must determine the offset (0) which is the vertical distance from the original grade line to the
designed curve.
Oflset.
As previously stated, the
MO will always be located at the PVI. The
following formula is used to calculate MO:

Maxfmum

MO

LAC

3-

where-

Offsets at locations
along the curve other than the PVI are
referred to as intermediate
offsets.
Since It
is common practice to stake vertical curves
at whole and half stations, intermediate
offsets are determined at every whole and half
station along the curve. Use the following
formula to calculate the intermediate
offsets:
Oflsets.

&dc&
where-

,:,,,:,

~,.

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

NOTE:

The offsets at equal distances

In other
words, the offsets are symmetric about
the PVI. (This does not mean that the
resulting curve is symmetric (unless Gl =
Gz).)
Thus, the offset for only one side
of a vertical curve needs to be calculated.
Therefore, the above equation can be
used to calculate the offset at any point
within the vertical curve.

from the PVC or PVT are equal.

Elevatlork Along VertfcaZCurves. Vertical

curves have the shape of a parabola. Use
the following equation to calculate elevations along the vertical curve:
Invert curve:
Y= elev PVC - change in elevation t offset
Y = elkv PVC - Cld

t $d

Y= elev PVT f change

in elevation

t offset

in elevation

- offset

Y =elevPVT&Gadts2

MO = vertical height of the maximum

offset in feet
L = length of vertical curve in sections,
AC = change of grade in percent
Intermedtate

.,.,,.,.,.,.
,.,
. . . . . .,,,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.

2L

0 = offset at a distance, d, from the PVC

or PVT in feet
d = selected distance (in stations) from
the PVC or PVT at which an offset distance
is to be calculated
L = curve length in stations
AC = change of grade in percent
Since AG and L have been determined prior
to using this equation, the term AG/2L is a
constant.
Finding the offsets is a simple
matter of varying the value of d.

Overt curve:
Y = elev PVC t change
Y =elevPVCtGl

-s2

Y = elev PVT f change

Y

= elev

in elevation
PVT f Gzd - p*G 2

- offset

where= elevation of point on curve in feet

= horizontal distance of point on curve
2
from PVC or PVT in stations
AC = change of grade in percent
Gr = percent slope of first grade line
= percent
slope of second grade line
32
Elev PVC = elevation at point of vertical
curve in feet
High or Low Point of a Vertical Curve.
When the tangent grades (G 1 and G21 are
equal, the high or low point of the curve OCcurs at the PVI. (See the following example:)
PVI

Hi h

poBnt
PVI

Road Design

9-21

FM 5-430~OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

VOl 1

When the tangent grades are the same sign

(both positive or both negative), the high
and low points correspond with either the
PVC or PVT. (See the following example:)

,..,.
.,:,:::::,,.,,;
.....
..:,.::::,::::..:.:.:::,
..,.....::.,.::...:.:.,.:
.,.::::::::.:,::,
::y::,,:.
:.j:.
..I.
...,,..i.. ... . .,.L..
..:.j:
F,:,
i...
i...... ..:,:,~.:,:.:.,,,.,.,.,.
:.i..:.:,~,::.::i::::::;jj
::::
j:j:j:j:j:i:j:;::
i.i,~:::::~
.,,,.,.,
....
...I..
,..
..,,.,.
.:,,i:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.::::::::::::::::.:.:~:,~.:::::.:.:~:.:::~.~::.:~.:.
:::
..,.,.:,.
...\.........,..,..j,.,.(.,.,.(,.,.,L,
.v,.,..

Design Steps.
The following steps show the design
dure for vertical curve:
1.

Compute

the change

AG=
-6+

PVT
When the tangent grades are unequal, the
high or low point of the curve always falls
on the flatter of the two grades.
(See the
following example:)

2.

Compute

of grade.

jG~-Gzl

the vertical
L

curve length

Determine

(L).

kAG
-100

Round up to the next higher

possible).
3.

proce-

full station

(if

the PVC.

PVC = PVI - (L/2)

To determine the location along the curve of
the maximum (or minimum) elevation, use
the following equation:

4.

GL
=G
6.

distance along curve from

PVC (or PVT) in stations
L = length of vertical curve in stations
G = percent slope of flattest grade
AC = change of grade in percent

= horizontal

By using the calculated

curve elevations and the existing ground
elevations, we can determine the cut or fill
values to place on the grade stakes for construction operations.
The ground elevations
can be determined from the profile view established from the initial survey. The difference in elevation between the curve and
the ground elevation constitutes
the cut or
fill value.
For example, if the ground elevation at a point on a curve was 86 feet and
the curve elevation at that point was 82
feet, the construction
stake would indicate
a cut of 4 feet (86 feet - 82 feet).

Determine

the elevation

ELPVC = ELPW f

whered

the PVT.

PVT = PVI + (L/21

5.

Determine

Determine

7.

Determine

IGI I x(L/21

the elevation

ELPVT = ELPM f

of PVC.

of PVT.

I G2( x (L/21

the maximum
MO I- LAG

Cut or Fill Values.

8. Determine final curve elevations.

Compute at every half station and full station
along the curve.
a.

Determine

grade-line

GLE = ELpvc f
GLE = EL~vT f

b.

Determine

Determine

1GI 1 x d from
1G2 I x d from

offsets

(%)d2

curve elevations,

Elev curve = GLE f 0

Road Design

elevations

intermediate

0 = MG+$or
c.

9-22

offset (MO).

(GLEN.
PVC
PVT

(8).

..:.-;..-.-.~.-....-.
:. :, :.

.L...
.. . ...... .
,._/,..,.,..,..,.

.,

. ..

.. . .

..:

:
:

.,:

..:I::

:, .:.: ..:,: :y.,

>;.,,.

..,.

..:.:.:

,.

:...:.:

,.,:.....:.:.:

. . . . . ~..:.:.:.:.:...:.:.:...:.,.....:....:..:

,.,:

,..:

.. . ..

.a: . ,:.: .:: ,,,

..

:.:.:

::::.:,::,::::::.::

.::?::

::.>.. .,..,..,,. ., .,..,... .,.:

9. Determine the location of maximum (or

minimum) elevation, if required.

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

(5)

ELpvc

AC

(6)

y = -AGx2
~
+ Glx + eZev PVC
2L

ELPW

= ELPW i 1G2 I CL/21

= 73.00 - I-O.05751 (400/2)
or 73 - 5.75 (4/2)

= 61.50

Complete the design of a vertical curve to include PVC, PVT, and offsets, with cuts and
fills determined every 50 feet (one-half station).
Given:

(7)

(8)

PVI = 5 t 00, elevation = 73.00

- (-5.7511

= 4.43

Determine GLEs (Figure 9-21).

I GI 1 x d from

PVC

GLE = ELPVT f

I G2 1 x d from

PVT

Determine AG.

GLE = ELpvc f

(b)

G1 = +3.1%, Ga = -5.75%

= 40

Determine final curve elevations.

(a)

Solution:

AC=
/Cl- G21 = l(t3.1)
= 8.85%

Determine the maximum offset (MO).

&fG _ !&?
8

The unit survey section has completed a

centerline survey for a proposed vertical
curve. The road is class D.

(2)

= ELPW i IGI I (L/2)

= 73.00 - 10.031 1 (400/21
or 73 - (3.1) (4/2)
= 66.80

Determine the elevation of PVT.

Example:

( 1I

Vol 1

Determine the elevation of PVC.

d I- GL

10. Determine the highest (lowest) elevation, if required.

32-8013,

Determine intermediate
=

(~)&($$d=

offsets (0).

l.106d2

NOTE: The term AG/2L becomes a constant (1.106).

Determine L.

From Table 9-1, page 9-3, k for crest vertical curve on a class-D road is 35.
L _ kAG _ 35(8.85)
= 3.10 stations
100
100
Use L = 4, stations = 400
(3)

Determine the PVC.

PVC = PVZ - L/2 = (5 t 00) - (2 t 00)
= (3 t 00)

(4)

Determine the PVT.

Figure
PVT = PVI t L/2
= (7 t 00)

= (5 t 00) t (2 t 00)

9-21.

Compiling vertical
data

curve design

Road Design

9-23

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Where,0= offset from the GLE to

d = distance,
from the PVC
tions
@zero stations)
=
1. 106(0)2 =
no offset at the PVC and PVT.)
mo.5 StationJ
=
1.106tO.5) =
stations 3 t 50 and 6 t 50)
gi1.0 station)
=
1.106( 1.0)2 =
stations 4 t 00 and 6 t 00)
Qil.5 station) = 1. 106(1.5)2 =
station 4 + 50 and 5 t 50)
B72.0 station) = 1.106(2.0)
=
station 5 t 00)
(9) Determine
mum or minimum

~=GL=(3.1)(4)
AC

8.85

the curve
or PVT in sta
0 (There
0.28

is

(at

Where-

1.11 (at
2.49

(at

4.43

(at

A = horizontal
distance from PVI to known
point
0 = offset between elevation of known point
and GLE of known point

NOTE:

the location of the maxielevation,

if required.
= 1.40 stations

or 140

(The maximum
or minimum elevation is always on the flattest grade when grades
have opposite signs.)
Station maximum
elevation
PVC t d (or PVT - d)

point

Station maximum elevation point

(3 t 00) + (1 + 40) = 4 t 40
( 10) Determine
required.

the highest

When the known point is at a location

other than the PVI, the length of the curve
can be determined
using the following formula:
n
f

elevation,

AG must be entered as a decimal.

Once the length of the curve has been determined, the remainder
of the design must be
completed
according
to the vertical curve
design procedures
previously
outlined.
Example:
A new road with a PVI at station 12 t 50
and an elevation at 73.00 feet is to pass
over a 24-inch culvert at station 11 t 00.
The invert of the culvert is at elevation 85.8
feet.

if

y = elev PVC (or PVT) t Gd f 0

NOTE:

+ or - is determined

by inspektion.

PVI = 12 t 50
Elev = 73.0

Solution:
y =

66.80

y = 66.80

t 3.1(1.4)
t 4.34

-y

(1.4)2

- 2.17 = 68.97

VertfcaI Curve Through a Known Point.

When the vertical curve must go through a
known point and the known point is at the
PVI, the length of the curve can be determined using the following formula:

L-;M0(8)
AC

9-24

Road Design

Determine
the length of the vertical curve
required to clear this culvert with 1 foot of
cover.
1. Determine
the horizontal
distance
from the PVI to the known point.

2.

A = 1,250

- 1,100

Determine

AG (as a decimal).

AC = [Cl - G2I
AG = 0.165

= 150

= l-0.081

- 0.0841

(A)

., ... .,.>,._I:.
,<j::jj,.,:::.

..::i,jy
..,

:::,:.,I

,.,,, y,;,: :

..:

:,

..;:

.,.,

.,. :

,, :

ELcunv~

= 88.8

point

d (from PVI to

GLE = 85.15
5. Determine the offset (0) between the
elevation of known point and the GLE of
known point.
88.8 - 85.15 = 3.65

6. Determine
curve.

the length

Using

Metric

Vol 1

Units.

The design of vertical curves using metric

units is the same as in English units. The
only difference lies in the use of meters as
units of measurement
for elevations and distances.
of Placing Survey Stakes.
Vertical curves should normally be staked at 50foot (every half station) or IO-meter intervals. On extremely rugged terrain, the interval should be reduced.

THE CROWNED SECTION

GLE = 73.0 t IO.081 1 x 150

0=

Design

32-8013,

Frequency

4. Determine the GLE at the known

(directly below the culvert).
GLE = ELPVI t 1Cl 1
known point)

FM 5-4301000l/AFPAM

Vertical-Curve

3. Determine the elevation of the vertical

curve required to clear the culvert with 1
foot of cover (at the known point).
= 85.8 + 2.0 (pipe diameter)
ELCURVE
1.O (cover required)

. ,.

of the vertical

The typical cross section of a road is the

crowned cross section.
The amount of
crown provided depends on the type of surface used.
Normal crown slopes are provided in Table 9- 1, page 9-3. Figure 9-22
shows a typical cross section for a class-A
road. If the road is to be surfaced, the subgrade and the finished surface will have the
same crown.
SUPERELEVATION

= 388.48
= 635.30

The outer edge of a road is elevated to

balance the overturning
forces experienced
by a vehicle rounding a horizontal curve.

The amount of superelevation

is governed
by the degree of curvature (or the curve
radius) and the design speed. Detailed information for designing superelevation
on

t 246.82

Width o; clearing
Roadway
Roadbed
24-h traveled way
_
I 124 traffk lane I .12-ntraffic

6 R no obstructions

NOTE: Ml mhoulder wldmlng Is rsquirad for guardralk and guideposts.

Figure G-22. Normal crown cross section

for a class-A road

Road Design

9-25

FM 5-430-000l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

curves is in FM 5-233.
Table 9-3 lists SIIperclcvation
rates and appropriate
lransilion lengths to dcvclop the supcrclcvatcd
section as a function of the design speed
and degree of curvature.
Figure 9-23
shows a class-A road section with a supcrclcvatcd curve.

Table 9-4 lists pavcmcnt widening rcquireAs shown in Figure 9-24, the lransimcnts.
tion from a normal cross section on a tangent (A-A) to a fully supcrelevated.
widened
cross section on a curve (D-D) is a uniform,
gradual change.
The length of highway
needed to accomplish
this transition
is
given in Table 9-3. Two-thirds
of the
specified transition length is affected on the
tangent and one-third
is affected on the
curve.

As a safety faclor, the pavement width on

lhc inside lane of a curve is incrcascd.
The
amount of incrcasc is govcrnccl by the dcgree 01 curvature
and the design speed.

Table 9-3.

v -60 mph (37Lkph)

V - 40 mph (64Lkph)

ft

In

ft

NC
NC
NC
NC
Rc
Rc
021

0
0
0
0
105
100
100

0
x

0
0
0
125
125
125
126

0
0
0
36.100
35.100
36.100
33.105

i:

0
30.430
90.430
30.430

NC
NC
NC
Rc
.021
026
034

1310
1637
1432
1143
mi6
613
716

532163
436.869
436.474
343.301
231a86
rizz

.025
.w3
St33

100
100
1w
IW
110
IW

30.430
30.430
30.430
30.4&I
:z

:tZ
.061
x)Bl
.070
.077

126
125
130
IO
130
160

33.105
36.100
33.lW
33.624
46.720
46.736

.073
210
.067
230
.093
250
.063
.lW
I aszi
0 MAX - 6.6.

e37
573
z

134.154
174.361
156.601
146.330
134.417
124.633
103.113
37.173
36.327

:it

120
::

36.576
36.676
ii%

:Z
130
XL03
z
.037
xl00
210
.lW
210
.lW
210
,100
210
D MAX - 14.6.

it=
3&60
60.330
Z:ii

3-W
53(r
4. w
:ii

Ul
409
363
236
316
it
2mi

73.246
72.347
82.484

is
:z

.073
.077
ifi
.Ow
:Z

140
140
160
160
170

42.672
46.720
43.763
51.310
51.016

.mcl
180
.lW
180
.lW
26:;
D MAX -

6 11 nc

64.005
64.005

~~

Roadbed

_~

ctions
6 rl no otmru
. I.
Jcrl

Figure 9-23.

Road Design

a24
:Zi
:Z

ft
0
176
176
175
175
175
130

m
0
63.340
63.340
63.340
63.340
63.340
57.312
:zi
70.200

D-D~rndcunrature
A-R&u
d curwtur*
V-D-bnW-@
E-Flabdqudwdbn
kMMhkbby5bn
RC-RWlDVO*aom.
~rdevdednormdorwm
alop
Tmmit~drir8bl~bulno(u
umtld&ova
w
Mm

64.804

Width dr clearing
Roadway

9-26

lengths

nl

22316
11463
7(139
6730
3320
2365
22.w

PW
a4.W
2PW

and transition

6936.42u
3492.710
2323.372
1746.507
1134.335
873254
636.a

ft
w 16
0-w
P46
1.W
I' 3r
TOO
F3(y

PW
woo
11'w
12-w
13-w
149w
16-w
*oQ
1FW

lengths

V=30mph(43kph)
L

z:

Superelevation

Superelevated

cross section

., .. :(..
,. .,
,,.

: ..,

,.

.::.

FM 5-430-001i/AFPAM

Table 9-4.

Pavement

32-8013,

Vol 1

widening

I-

Wldenlng

for 2Jane psvements on

width of pavement on
tangent of 20 fl
curvea

for

Dealgn Speed

07-

curve

gh

;*;:

lo-11
12-14.5
15-18
lQ21
22-2s
26-26.7

3:o
43.x:

z$l

50
mph

:::i-8,
410

415
f:$

L I superelevation
and widening transition
Normal crown

Cross sections
indicate pavement

L_

cross slope condition

Figure

9-24.

Method

for transition

STRUCTURAL
In the TO, few roads receive a bituminous
or port-land-cement concrete surface. Most
two-lane roads are surfaced with sand,
gravel, crushed rock, or the best locally
available material. Expedient surfacing
methods are used when required.

This section describes the procedures to

prove natural earth surfaces and to resurface them with sand, gravel, or other materials. Included are some common methods of

(not to scale)

DESIGN
expedient surfacing, guidance, and criteria
to determine thickness requirements for bituminous pavements in the TO. The design
of mixes and aggregates and the procedures
for placing bituminous and concrete surfaces are in TM 5-337. For subgrade and
base-course requirements, refer to Chapter
5 of this manual. Additional information in
Chapter 12 of FM 5-430-00-2/AFPAM
32-8013, Vol 2, supplements the frost-design procedures in this chapter.

Road Design

9-27

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Road surfaces in the TO consist of earth in

the most expedient circumstances.
When
in-place soil is not strong enough, it may
be chemically or mechanically stabilized or
covered with a bituminous surface treatment. As time becomes available, earthen
roads can be improved for increased traffic
loads by covering them with material from a
borrow pit or with processed material.

EARTH
Earthen roads consist of native soils graded
and drained to form a surface for carrying
traffic. They are designed to satisfy immediate traffic needs and provide a subgrade for
surfaces of better quality. Their use is
generally limited to dry weather and light
traffic. For continued use, periodic maintenance by graders and drags is necessary
to maintain a high crown and smooth surface for draining surface water. Dust control must also be provided in dry climates
or during dry weather.
Earthen roads become impassable in wet
weather because of the rutting action of
heavy traffic. Generally, they are used in
combat areas where speed of construction
is required with limited equipment and personnel. They are also used as haul roads
in construction areas and as service roads
for military installations.

TREATED SURFACE
Earthen roads may be treated with
bituminous materials to control dust and to
waterproof the surface. This helps prevent
softening of the surface in wet weather.
Treated surfaces are most successful with
silt or clay soils. The bituminous material
should be of low viscosity and should contain a wide range of volatile materials of
light fractions. Slow-curing liquid asphalts
are frequently used, particularly grades SC70 and -250. Medium-curing cutback asphalts, grades MC-30, -70, and
-250, have also been used successfully.
Road tars have been used to some extent,
especially RT - 1.

9-28

Road Design

Many residual oils from oil refineries have

been used in this work. In only expedient
situations, waste military oils (such as
crankcase oils) can be used. The amount
of oil ranges from about l/2 to 1 gallon per
square yard and is applied in two or three
increments, depending on the type and condition of the oil. The serious environmental, ecological implications of these methods
must be considered. Also, using these
methods will greatly impair the ability of
bituminous admixtures and surface applications to properly cure, if applied later.

STABILIZED

SOIL

Bituminous, stabilized soil mixtures and

soil-cement are used as road surfaces to
carry light traffic in expedient situations for
relatively brief periods. Mechanically stabilized soil mixtures are widely used as surfaces for military roads under favorable conditions. Requirements for mechanically stabilized surfaces are discussed below:
Gradation requirements for mechanically
stabilized soils used directly as surfaces are
shown in Table 9-5. Mixtures that have a
maximum size of aggregate of 1 to 1 l/2 inches are preferred because the large particles tend to work to the surface under traffic. Somewhat finer soil is desirable in a
mixture that will serve as a surface compared with one used for a base. The finer
soil makes the surface resistant to the
abrasive effects of traffic and to the penetration of precipitation.
Such a surface will

Table 9-5. Suggested grading requirements

for gravel and composite-type
surface course
of processed
materials

No. 10
No. 40
No. 200

40-70
25-45
1O-25

.:...:..
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;:

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,.

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. ..,., ,. ..
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. . . . . :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.;...

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,, ,.: :,,. :.: ,..
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.,.,)

:\/,:

,.,.. ..:
:.: ..:,:.,.:.:
:.,.,..,.,:

also more easily replace (by capillary action)

moisture that is lost by evaporation,
Road surfaces require an LL of 35 or less
and a PI ranging between 4 and 9. For
best results, the PI of a stabilized soil that
will function first as a wearing surface and
then as a base, with a bituminous surface
to be provided later, should be 5 or less.
The LL should be less than 25. Compaction, bearing value, and frost action are important considerations for surfaces of this
type.

SAND CLAY
One type of mechanically stabilized soil surface is called a sand-clay road. It consists
of a natural or artificial mixture of sand
and clay that is graded and drained to form
a road surface. Although difficult to obtain, the PI should be less than 5 and LL
less than 25, in case this layer becomes a
subbase after placing additional layers
above the sand clay. The gradation requirements for a typical sand-clay surface are in
Table 5-4, page 5-12, under the column for
l-inch sand-clay. The addition of fine
gravel (slightly larger than the No. 4 sieve)
usually adds stability.
Sand-clay roads will carry light traffic
reasonably well and heavy traffic except
under bad weather conditions. The amount
of moisture these roads absorb determines
their stability under traffic loads. Dust control, blading, and dragging are needed.
Sand-clay roads withstand traffic better
than ordinary earthen roads, but their use
is limited to areas where a suitable mixture
of sand and clay occurs naturally or where
a deficiency of either is readily corrected.
As a base course for future surfacing, sandclay roads produce poor results, unless the
plasticity can be reduced by adding a chemical stabilization agent such as lime.

,...:. :.:

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

to fine, with a maximum allowable size of 1

inch. Recommended gradation requirements for a gravel surface are given in
Table 9-6. A natural pit- or bank-run
gravel may meet these requirements without
further processing other than screening.
Some pit- or bank-run gravels may require
both screening and washing to meet the requirements. River -run gravels normally require the addition of binder to the soil, as
do mechanically stabilized soil mixtures.
River-run gravels may also require crushing
to provide a rough, angular surface rather
than the natural, smooth surface characteristic of river-run materials. The ability
to carry heavy, sustained traffic depends on
the strength and hardness of the gravel, the
cohesiveness of the clay binder, the thickness of the layer, and the stability of the
subgrade. These roads can be built rapidly,
even in cold weather. Organizational equipment of combat engineer units is readily
adapted to hauling and placing a gravel surface.
Like other untreated surfaces, gravel roads
require considerable maintenance such as
blading and dust control;in dry weather.
During wet weather, proper maintenance is
difficult, especially under heavy traffic.
Gravel road surfaces with low plasticity
make excellent base courses for later-stage
pavements.

Tab/e 9-6. Suggested grading requirements

for coarse-graded type surface course of
processed materials

Sl8vo Ddgn8tlon

PwOalI
P888lng
by Wdght

3/4 in
Elm
k%
No:40
No. 200

%F

GRAVEL
Gravel roads consist of a compacted layer
of gravelly soil that meets the plasticity requirements for mechanically stabilized soil
mixtures. The gravel is graded from coarse

Road Design

9-29

FM 5_430_()()_j/AFPAM 32-801 3, j/o1 1

PROCESSED

MATERIALS

Processed materials are prepared by crushing and screening rock, gravel, or slag. A
composite-type
surface material should
meet the gradation requirements
of Table
9-5, page 9-28.
A coarse-graded
type of
surface material should meet the gradation

~i:.ilil:ilililillil:i::~;~:~.:.,i:~:.:I::::::l.i::i..::1i,:.:.,i:~~l:~::.I.il:i:II:.
.: ,,,:::::.:
..:~,i::i:i::,,i,.~,:~~,~~~..:..:
::j):c:
,....,::.

requirements
in Table 9-6, page 9-29.
The
information presented here about gravel
roads generally applies to roads of
processed materials.
When gravel or sandclay is available, processed materials should
not be used except when their use will save
time and effort.

EXPEDIENT-SURFACED
Several types of roads are considered expedient surfaced.
These are unsurfaced
roads and roads where some material has
been placed on the natural soil to improve
the roadway.
Types of expedient-surfaced
roads include corduroy, chespaling,
landing
mats, Army track, plank tread, wire mesh,
snow and ice, and sand grid.

CORDUROY-SURFACED

ROADS

A corduroy road is an expedient road which

uses logs or small trees as the road surface
(decking).
This method of construction
is
used in extremely muddy terrain when
there is a sufficient supply of natural
material.
There are three types of corduroy
construction:
standard corduroy, corduroy
with stringers, and heavy corduroy.

The most frequently used corduroy road,

shown in Ngures 9-25 and 9-26, is built of
6- to 8-inch diameter logs about 13 feet
long. The logs are placed across the road
surface adjacent to each other from butt to
tip. Along the edges of the roadway, place
6- to 8-inch-diameter
logs as curbs and

9-30

Road Design

attach them in place with driftpins.

Drive
pickets about 4 feet long into the ground at
regular intervals along the outside edge of
the road to hold the road in place. To give
this surface greater smoothness,
fill the
gaps between logs with brush, rubble, or
twigs. Cover the whole surface with a layer
of gravel or dirt. Construct side ditches
and culverts as for normal roads.
Corduroy with Stringers
A more substantial
corduroy road is made
by placing log stringers, as shown in Figure
9-27, parallel to the centerline on about 3Lay a standard corduroy over
foot centers.
them. Securely pin the corduroy decking to
the stringers, and prepare the surface as
described in the preceding paragraph.
Heavy Corduroy

Standard Corduroy

Figure S-25. Standard

ROADS

corduroy

Sleepers (heavy logs 8 to 10 inches in

diameter) are used for heavy corduroy
roads. The sleepers must be long enough
to span the entire road. Place the sleepers
at right angles to the centerline on 4-foot
Build a corduroy with stringers,
centers.
as shown in Figure 9-28, on top of the
sleepers.

Figure S-26. Standard

corduroy

- oblique

view

FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM

Figure

9-27.

aoctlon

Corduroy

Vol 1

capacity of the decking. They serve as a

crib, keeping the road surface above the
level of the surrounding mud. They sink
into the ground until a stratum capable of
supporting the load is reached. On fairly
firm ground, the standard corduroy may be
adequate; on softer ground, stringers are
needed. Portable corduroy mats can be
prefabricated and put down quickly when
needed. They are made by wiring 4-inchdiameter logs together.

.-

Croa

32-8013,

with stringers

Diagonal corduroy is preferred for heavy

traffic. It is made by placing the decking at
an angle of 45 degrees to the centerline.
This modified construction is applicable to
all three corduroy types. The angled decking decreases the impact load because each
log supports only one wheel at a time and
there is longitudinal and lateral weight distribution.
Qo8s section

Figure

Choice

9-28.

of Corduroy

Heavy

CHESPALING
Chespaling is a hasty expedient used in
either mud or sand. It is made from small,
green saplings, preferably about 1 l/2 inches in diameter and 6 l/2 feet long. They
are wired together to form a 12-foot-long
mat as shown in Figure 9-29. Chespaling
is often rolled into bundles and carried on
each wheeled vehicle. The mats are used to

corduroy

Type

Generally, softer ground requires a heavier

type of corduroy. The stringers and
sleepers do not increase the bearing

Figure

9-29.

Chespaiing

Road Design

9-31

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

cross sandy terrain or to get out of mud.

Some mats are constructed
from dimensioned timbers wired together to resemble a
picket fence.
A variation
slightly more effective for crossing sand is made by attaching
chicken-wire
netting to the bottom of the
mats.

Place the mat so that its long axis is perpendicular

to the flow of traffic.
If a width
greater than the effective length of one
plank is required, use half sections to stagger the joints.
A second layer of the steel
mat, laid as a treadway over the initial
layer, increases its effectiveness.

To build a chespaling

Landing mats tend to curl at the edges.

This problem can be overcome by anchoring
the edges properly.
Screw-type earth
anchors furnished with the mat sets pro-

road, lay a double

row of mats. each mat having its long axis
parallel to the centerline.
wilh a l-foot overlay at the centerline.
Wire the mats
together.
Keep the road wet to prevent the
saplings from becoming
brittle and breaking.
Bamboo mats are an excellent chespalingtype expedient
for beach roadways.
These
mats are light and comparatively
strong.
They are made by splitting a-inch bamboo
rods and weaving them into a mat in a manner similar to rug weaving.
Soak the rods
before weaving, and keep the mats moist
while they are in use. An 1 l- by 4-foot
mat takes about 15 man-hours
to conThe mats are placed with the long
struct.
dimension
parallel to the centerline.
The
mats remain serviceable
for three or four
months on firm ground or sand.
Bamboo
mats can also bc used over mud.

LANDING MATS
The demand for rapidly constructed
airfields led to the development
of several portable, metal landing mats.
When metal airfield landing mats became a standard supply item in the TO, they were quickly put to
use on beaches as well as on airfields.
They arc still the foremost expedient
for

crossing sandy terrain.

Landing-mat
designs fabricated from aluminum alloys
can support heavier loads. They also provide smoother surfaces and have a lower
weight per square foot.
When used on sand, place the metal landing mats directly on the sand to the length
and width desired.
If pierced steel mats are
used, place an impervious
membrane
under
the mat to smooth and firm the subgrade,
thus improving
the road.

9-32

Road Design

vide the best tncans of anchoring.

Another
method of securing the edges is to use a
curb of timber on the outside edge of the
road and either wire it tightly to buried logs
laid parallel to the road or stake it. One
type of landing-mat
surface is shown in Figure 9-30.
If MO-MAT (a reinforced
plastic
material) is available, it may be used as a
roadway surface for vehicular traffic.

ARMY TRACK
A portable

timber expedient called Army

track, shown in Figure 9-3 1, can be used to
pass vehicles across sandy terrain.
The
track consists of 4- by 4-inch or larger timbers threaded at each end onto a l/2-inch
wire rope or a 3/4-inch hemp rope. The
timbers resemble railroad ties, and a cable
runs through them on each side. Space
the timbers so that the smallest-wheeled
vehicle using the road can obtain traction.
Drill cable holes at a 45-degree angle to the
centerline so the cable will bend. This practice will prevent individual timbers from
moving together.
Anchor the cables securely at both ends. Fill spaces between the
timbers with select material to smooth out
the surface.

PLANK-TREAD

ROAD

The plank-tread
road is shown in Figure 932, page 9-34.
To construct a plank-tread
road, first place sleepers 12 to 16 feet long,
perpendicular
to the centerline on 3- to 4foot centers, depending
on the loads to be
carried and subgrade conditions.
(If
finished timber is not available,
logs may be
used as sleepers.)
Then place 4- by loinch planks parallel to the line of traffic to

.,........ .
..:...
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.,.:. ,..,.
..,...:...

:.:+:::,:::;.;:j

1.

.. .

?.._+y ., .i:..,: :...: >:.. ... ..:i,;:,

...

,.,,,,.,.:.:..
:,,. ., . .
_(. : . : ;,:.y...,.
,.

,.

,y::

>,.

:y:,>.::.;,;

>.: :::,:;.:: ,:,,,:, ,.

,.:

,_ .,,:

,;.y.,

:..

.. .

,.

,:,,

::;

,,I ..:::;.:

: ..:

; :. ,:,

FM +430=004/AFPAM

32-8013,

VOl 1

:;

Figure 9-30.

Landing-mat road
Sand

1/p

wire cable

314hemp

Figure

9-31.

or

1OPe

Army track

Road Design

993

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

form two treads about 36 inches apart.

Stagger the joints to prevent forming weak
spots.
If desired, 6-inch curbs may be installed on the inside of the treads.

Sleepers
4 x 10 x 12 to 16

Staggered
joints

3 to 4
Plan

Position stringers in regular rows parallel to

the centerline,
on 3-foot centers, with staggered joints.
Lay floor planks across the
stringers with about l-inch gaps when
seasoned lumber is used.
The gaps allow
for swell when the lumber absorbs moisture. Spike the planks to every stringer.

Croa8 Sectlon

Figure

9-32.

Use plank roads for crossing short sections

of loose sand or wet, soft ground.
When
built with an adequate base, plank roads
last for several months.
Planks 3 to 4 inches thick, 8 to 12 inches wide, and at
least 13 feet long arc desirable
for flooring,
stringers, and sleepers.
When desired, 3by lo-inch planks (rough, not finished) can
rcplacc the 4- by lo-inch
timbers shown in
Figure 9-33.
Rough 3- by 8-inch and 3- by
lo-inch planks can be cut to order.

Plank-tread

Place 6-inch-deep
guardrails
on each side,
with a 12-inch gap left between successive
lengths of the guardrail for surface-water
drainage.
Place pickets along each side at
15-fool intervals to hold the roadway in
line. Where necessary,
use corduroy or
other cxpcdient cross sleepers spaced on

road

Flooring

4 x 10 x 13

\
Guardrail 6 x 6

Pickets 6 x 6
Stringers 4 x 10 X 13
Cross sleepers 4 x IO x 13
(when necessary)

Figure

9-34

Road Design

9-33.

Construction

details

for a plank road

,:.

--

::

FM 51430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

3- to 5-foot centers to hold the stringers in

place and to gain depth for the structure.

and reshaping of the surface when ruts appear.

For drainage, construct the base for a

plank road with a transverse slope instead
of a center crown. To provide a smootherriding surface, place treads parallel to the
line of traffic over the floor planks.

Any wire-mesh surface is much more effective if a layer of burlap or similar

membrane material is placed underneath it
to help confine the sand. (See Figure 9-34.)
Lighter forms of wire mesh, such as chlcken wire or cyclone fencing, require an extra
layer. Often a sandwich type of construction is used-one layer of wire mesh followed by one layer of burlap, then a second
layer of wire mesh..

WIRE-MESH

ROAD

Most wire-mesh surfaces are expedient

measures. Applied directly to the subgrade,
they provide passage for a limited number
of vehicles for a short time. Longer life can
be obtained by proper subgrade preparation, multilayer or sandwich construction,
and frequent staking. Wire-mesh roads
should never be crossed by other roads unless planking or some such material is
placed over the mesh to protect it.

Wire mesh must be kept taut. Anchor the

edges of a wire-mesh road at 3- to 4-foot intervals. Diagonal wires crossing the centerline at a 45-degree angle and attached
securely to buried pickets reinforce the
light mesh.

SNOW AND ICE ROADS

Chicken wire, expanded metal lath (used for

plastering walls), and chain-link wire mesh
may be used as road expedients in sand.
Mesh surfaces should not be used on
muddy roads because they prevent grading

In regions with heavy snowfall and where

temperatures are below freezing for extended periods, expedient roads can be constructed over the snow. When the road is

3 (1 m)

3 (1 .m)

Anchors

Figure

9-34.

Construction

details

for a wire-mesh

road

Road Design

9-35

FM 50430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

laid out, make grades and curves as gentle

as possible.
Compact the snow until it is
capable of supporting
the weight of
vehicles.
Add waler on the compacted
snow and allow it to freeze to produce a
hard surface.
Frozen lakes or streams can
be used to move traffic, but first carefully
reconnoiter
the route for quality of ice,
thickness,
cracks, and shore conditions.
Determine
the load-bearing
capacity either
by an actual test or by consulting
Table 9-7.

.:c

Table 9-7,

Load capacity

of ice

Ico
MaxImum

Thlcknoas
(lnchee)

Capacity

Spacing

1 l/2

lndiviiual soldiers

20 paoes

Individual soldiers

5 paces

Single infantry columns

65 feel

Administrative vehicle, artillery. up

to 2 ln tons, or 4.ton vehicles with
maximum ada bad of 2.7 Ions

65 feat

10 to 13

&ton (gross) vehicles, including

65 feet

loaded 2 1Blon

lrucks

12 to 15

lo-ton vehicle (gross)

65 leet

14 to 16

2O-ton vehicle (gross)

65 feet

20 to 36

40-tori vehicle (gross)

100 feet

USE OF POLYMER CELLS (SAND GRID) TO BUILD ROADS IN

SANDY SOILS
Trafficability
over sandy soils is difficult to
The soil strength is adequate,
maintain.
but the soil will displace under a load, due
to its cohesionless
nature.
Wheeled
vehicles arc particularly
affected.
In order
to improve trafficability,
sand-grid base
layers can be used.
Sand grid involves the confinement
and compaction of sand or sandy soils in interconnected cellular elements called grids to
produce a load-distributing
base layer.
Uses of the grid include road and airfield
pavements,
airfield crater repair, erosion
control, field fortifications,
and expedient
dike repair.
Plastic grids (national stock number (NSN)
5680-01-198-7955)
are manufactured
and
shipped in collapsed
4-inch thick, 1 lopound sections.
(See Figure 9-35.)
Each
expanded grid section is 8 by 20 feet and
contains a honeycomb
arrangement
of cells.
Each cell has a surface area of 39 square
inches and a depth of 8 inches.
Grids are
delivered in 3,000-pound
pallets, each containing 25 collapsed
8- by 20-foot sections.

9-36

Road Design

A sand-asphalt
surfacing
is incorporated
within the top portion of the sand-grid
cells.
Its function is to seal the sand into
cells and provide a wearing surface for
moderate amounts of rubber -tired traffic.
The sand-asphalt
surfacing
is formed by
spraying a suitable liquid-asphalt
cement,
emulsion,
or cutback (rapid-curing
(RC) 250
at 165+ F is preferred) on the surface of

-_

Figure

9-35.

Plastic

grids

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

the sand-grid
layer.
The asphalt
used
should
penetrate
into the top l/2 to 1 inch
of sand in the cells.
Over a sand subgrade,
such a sand-grid
road is capable
of handling over 10,000
passes
of heavy truck traffic, including
tandem-axle
loads of up to
53,000
pounds.
Avoid tracked vehicles
traveling
over this road, as their tracks
will
easily damage
the grid cells.
The following
arc
ing sand grid.

the

EQUIPMENT

procedures

Vol 1

SITE PREPARATION
Site

preparation

includes

the following

1. Perform
normal
cut
reach dcsircd
road grade.
2.

Back

blade

the

steps:

or fill operations

surface

3. Compact
the sand
turc contcnl
approaching
the vibratory
roller.

for emplac-

for smoothness.

subgradc
saturation

at a moisusing

Grid installation
steps:

includes

the

following

1. Set up slakes
and string lines in S-foot
by 20-foot
boxes.
See Figure 9-36 for
layout patterns.
2.

Deliver

grid

pallets

with

the

forklift.

20
?*

11
20
Y

4L
20

1
20

I
+

NOTE:

Strrlght road

Numbers indicate order

of grid installation.
curve

Figure

9-36,

to

GRID INSTALLATION

RECOMMENDED

Equipment
recommended
for the emplaccment of sand grid includes
bulldozers;
smooth-bucket
(no tcethl scoop loaders;
rough-terrain
forklifts;
vibratory
rollers;
water distributors;
bituminous
distributors;
long-handled,
round-pointed
shovels;
and
3/8-inch
by S-foot by 4-foot plywood sheets.

cI -&?

32-8013,

Sand-grid

layout patterns

Road Design

9-37

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

3. Expand
each grid section
using three
people on each end, pulling outward
to
slightly
over 20 feet, then shaking
the section in midair lo obtain
uniform
cell openings
(See Figure 9-37.)
Place the section
whcrc string lines dictate.
(8-foot by 20foot steel frames
can be order-cd.1
4. Shovel sand from road shoulders
into
each end ccl1 and approximately
every fifth
side-cdgc
cell to anchor
the grid in place.
5. To construct
joints
between
grids, USC
small, 3/8-inch
pl_ywood sheets
to allow soldiers to stand on top of the unfilled
grid, allowing access
to the joint cells.
For end
joints,
the rounded
end cells from different
sections
should
touch each other.
For longitudinal
(side-by-side)
joints,
interlock
the
wcldcd cell portions
of each section,
as if
fitting a puzzle.
Fill the jointed
cells with
sand.

Figure

9-38

Road Design

9-37.

Plastic

6. Level the joints

the joints
and having
of the plywood.

by placing
plywood over
soldiers
walk on top

7. Completely
fill each grid using scoop
loaders.
(See Figure 9-38.)
Drop the sand
vertically
into the cells from a height of at
least 2 feet.
Do no1 push the sand forward
or the cells will be displaced.
Overfill grids
by 2 to 4 inches
so scoop loaders
can
operate
on the sand-filled
grid layer without
damaging
any cells.
Have scoop loaders
vary wheel paths to achieve
uniform
initial
compaction
of the road.
8. If water is readily available,
wet the
sand using a water distributor.
This will
significantly
aid in the compaction
process.
9. Compact
the road surface
with one
two passes
of the vibratory
roller.

sand-grid

section

emplacement

or

FM 5430=004/AFPAM

324013,

Vol 1

-.

Figure

9-38.

Sand-grid

road - filling cells with sand

10. Remove excess sand from the grid surface with a grader or by back blading with
a smooth-bucket
scoop loader. Do not use
a bucket with teeth, as cell damage can
result.
11. Recompact the road with one pass of
the vibratory roller. (See Figure 9-39, page
g-40.1
12. Spray the asphalt product on the road
surface and allow enough time for the asphalt product to completely soak into the
grid structure
(usually about 10 hours).
(See Figure 9-40, page 9-40.)

13. Apply a very light coat (l/4

blotter sand using shovels.

inch) of

14. Compact the road using one pass of a

nonvibrating roller. Vibrating the road at
this point will break the asphaltic bonds.
15. Apply and compact a 3-inch surface
coat of l-inch (maximum) gravel, if available. This layer will add a protective cover
material over the sand-grid road, significantly increasing the road life.

Road Design

9-39

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

--A-.

32-8013,

Figure

Road Design

.. ,, :..:

_-

---

Figure

9-40

Vol 1

9-39.

9-40.

Sand-grid

Sand-grid

road - compacting

road - spraying

__-

sand with roller

asphalt

coating

_ - --

.._...

;:i,::::,:;y
s:.i

..z:..:

: .,,: : ,:

,,.

-:

:.:

: j

.,

FM 54301OO-l/AFPAM

..

SPRAY APPLICATIONS

Spray applications

surfaces

provide soil or agwith the following:

Tack coat (binding bituminous

ment to surface).

pave-

Dustproofing.

surface
provides a waterproof, abrasive, wear -resistant surface with no structural
strength.
Bitumen with aggregate surface pavements
will be either of the following:

-_

charge) or cationic
charge).

(carrying

a positive

Tars are the residue from the high-temperature conversion of coal to coke. (See Figure
9-43, page 9-44.)
They may be modified by
cutting them with a light to medium coal
oil to form a road-tar cutback.
Tars do not
dissolve in petroleum products.
They become soft and bleed at high temperatures
and are brittle at cold temperatures.
Because of their susceptibility
to temperature
change, tars normally are used only in
areas where fuel spills are commonplace,
such as tank farms, fuel depots, and
aircraft refuel points.

Prime coat (waterproofing).

Sprayed bitumen with an aggregate

Vol 1

AND SURFACE TREATMENTS

Surface treatments
are the most economical
troop-constructed
surfaces.
They require
the fewest resources
and minimal quality
control effort, and they are placed in the
shortest period of time. Surface treatments
range from single, light applications
of
bituminous
material to multiple surface
courses made up of bitumen and aggregates.
Surface treatments
can be
divided into two categories:
sprayed treatments and sprayed bitumen with an aggregate surface.
gregate

32-8013,

Single surface

treatment.

Multiple surface

treatment.

Bituminous
materials are either tars, roadtar cutbacks,
asphalt cement, asphalt cutbacks, or asphalt emulsions.
Uses of
bituminous
materials are shown in Figure
Asphalt cement is the
9-41, page 9-42.
heavy material left at the end of the
petroleum distillation process.
Crude oil is
refined into gasoline, kerosene, diesel,
motor oil, asphalt, and many other
products as shown in Figure 9-42, page 943. Asphalt cement may then be further
modified by cutting back the asphalt with
some petroleum product, specifically naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, or diesel, to form
an asphalt cutback.
Asphalt may also become an emulsion by mixing asphalt cement, water, and an emtilsifying agent
together with variable-speed
pumps to form
an asphalt water suspension.
Emulsions
are either anionic (carrying a negative

FIELD IDENTIFICATION
Field identification
consists of a series of
simple tests designed to identify an unknown bitumen product in the field. The
purpose of these tests is to determine the
uses of a bituminous
material and how to
use it safely, rather than the exact specifications to which it conforms.
Field-identification procedures are applicable to both tars
and asphalts.
Bituminous
materials are often found stockpiled in unmarked or incorrectly marked
containers.
This leads to confusion and
delay in construction
since the various
types and grades of bituminous
material
are manufactured
for a specific purpose.
Field identification
is important
military engineer because-

to the

Once the type and grade of material are

known, the type of surface that can be
constructed may be determined.
The
safety procedures to be followed also
depend on the material identification.
Once the surface type is known, the construction procedure may be outlined
and scheduled for a specific target date.
Once established,
the procedure
determine the proper equipment
job.

Road Design

will
for the

9-41

Road Design

FM 50430=00=1/AFPAM

942

32-8013,

Vol 1

... :. ,.

:,,

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

ELD

STORAGE

PUMPING STATION

KEROSINE
UGHT BURNER 011
DIESEL
-;3

aL

LUSRlbATlNG 01

MATERIAL

This slmptltisdgraphb chart shows the

lntefrdatbnships ot petroleumproducts,
wlth gasoline,011and asphalt

1
r

UOUID
ASPHALTIC
MATERIALS

SC-260
SC400
RESIDUAI
FUEL OIL

SLOW CURING
ASPHALTS

MEDIUM CURING
ASPHALTS

ASPHALT CEMENTS

PETROLEUM

SAND AND WATER

OXIDIZED
ASPHALTS

Figure 9-42. Petroleum-asphalt

Mowchart

Road Design

9-43

2
BITUMNOUS

COKE

Domeslic
coke

COAL
/
LIGHT OIL

II

STORAGE

AquaAmmonia,
Anhydtuus Ammonia
&mnonium
Sulfate

LIQUOR
,

COKE OVEN

PLANT

FRACTIONATING
COLUMN

Xi-l
STORAGE

Sulfer.Cyanogen Compounh

DECANTATK)N

TAR

\t5zumsroneResins

llbminating
Gas,FuelGas

GAS

kmzeneTok-m
Xvlene. Solvent Naphtha6

I
CONDENSER

TUBE
STILL

Cold pa&q,

Seal coat and Road Mix

Wd pakhing, Seal coat and Road Mix

I
/

RmskWalTar

RT 1 Dust Laying

VARIOUS DEGREES

RT 2 PrimeCoating
RT 3 him Coating and Surface Treatmats

OF DISTILIATION

I
4

RT 4 Ptitna CotsUngand Surface Treatments

TAR REFINERY

RT 5 Surtaw Treatments and Road Mixes

---

BROUEllES

Figure 943.

Tar simplified

(,

flowchart

.,:

..

Field tests may be performed to identify the

bituminous
paving material as asphalt cement, asphalt cutback, asphalt emulsion,
road tar, or road-tar cutback.
In addition,
it is necessary to identify as closely as possible the viscosity grade of the bitumen.
In
order to distinguish
among the several asphaltic and tar products, it is necessary to
know something of their origin, their physical properties, and the manner in which
they are normally used. The identification
procedure outlined in Figure 9-44, page
9-46, is based upon the physical properties
of these materials.
Asphalts

and Tars

The first procedure in the identification

of
an unknown bituminous
material is to
determine whether it is an asphalt or a tar.
Asphalts and tars may be differentiated
by
a simple solubility test. To perform the
test, simply attempt to dissolve an unknown sample (a few drops, if liquid, or
enough to cover the head of a nail, if solid)
in any petroleum distillate.
Kerosene,
gasoline, diesel oil, or jet fuel is suitable for
this test. Since asphalt is derived from
petroleum, it will dissolve in the petroleum
distillate.
Road tar will not dissolve.
If the
sample is an asphalt, the sample distillate
mix will consist of a dark, uniform liquid.
If it is a road tar, the sample will be a
dark, stringy, undissolved mass in the distillate. A check can be made by spotting a
piece of paper or cloth with the mix. The
solubility test provides a positive method of
identification.
Grades

of Asphalt

Cement

The various grades of asphalt cement are

distinguished
principally by their hardness,
as measured by a field penetration test explained in TM 5-337.
This information may
be sufficient for planning or, in some cases,
actually starting emergency construction.
Asphaltic

Cutbacks

The pouring or nonpouring quality is one

way to distinguish between an asphalt cement and a cutback or emulsion.
Asphalt
cement is cutback with a petroleum distillate to make it more fluid. If the material

...

FM 5-4301OOWAFPAM

32-8013,

Vol II

does not pour, it is an asphalt cement.

Note that at 77 F, even the softest asphalt
cement will not pour or deform noticeably if
the container is tilted. If it pours, it is a
cutback or emulsion.
If it is soluble or
dilutable in water, it is an emulsion.
In addition, the manner in which it pours will
furnish a clue to its grade.
To determine whether a cutback is a RC asphaltic cutback or not, the smear test is
performed.
This is done by making a
uniform smear of the substance
on a piece
of glazed paper or other convenient,
nonabThis will give the volatile
sorbent surface.
materials, if present, a chance to evaporate.
Since RCs are cut back with a very volatile
substance,
most of the volatiles will evaporate within 10 minutes.
The surface of
the smear will then become tacky. This is
not true of the lighter grades of mediumand slow-curing asphaltic cutbacks (MCs
and SCs), which remain fluid and smooth
for some time. An MC will not result in a
tacky surface for a matter of hours; for SC
materials, several days may be required.
To identify an 800- or 3,000-grade
MC or
SC cutback, a prolonged
smear test is used.
This process is necessary because these
grades of MCs and SCs contain such small
quantities of cutterstock
that they, too, may
become tacky In the lo-minute
period
specified above. A thin smear of the
material is made on a nonabsorbent
surface
and left to cure for at least 2 hours.
By
the end of that time, if the material being
tested is an RC, the smear will have cured
and will be hard or just slightly sticky.
However, if the material being tested is an
MC or SC, the smear will not be cured and
will still be quite sticky.
If the material is
an RC 3,000, it will cure completely in 3
hours, whereas an RC 800 will take about
6 hours.
Even after 24 hours, an MC or
SC will still be sticky.
Since MCs are cutback with kerosene and
SCs with oil, this fact may be employed to
differentiate
between them. Heat is used to
drive off the kerosene, if present, and make
it show up in the form of an odor. It is

best to heat the unknown

sample

in a

Road Design

945

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Solubility

test in petroleum

distillate

I
Dissolves
asphalt

Beads
emulsion

Strings
tar

(Color testj - dark brown

(Water mixing test) - mixes with water
(Flame test) - will not burn
Sand coating test
Pour test

Will mix
MS or SS

Fnotmix

I
I-3

Will pour
asphaltic
cutback

Will not pour

asphalt
cement

(Determine

Pour test

RT

vrscosity

1
4-7

8-12
RT

303,000)

I
Penetration

1
40-85
Hard
AC
40

test

Smear test

I
85-I 50
Medium
AC
20/30

150-300
Soil
AC
5110

I
I
Smear

test

Tacky
RTCB

Oily
MC or SC

Tacky
RC

Heat odor test

II
Kerosene/petroleum
MC

Figure

9-46

Road Design

9-44.

smell

No odor
SC

identification
of unknown
materials

bituminous

Oily
RT

:..,:;::.. ...: :.:.::...

,...,.,.,.,.

... . .,:..:
,:..,:,:
:,.::,:
:,

iji::::::.;,::.j-.:~:.~:::?::

:::::..::..:,.
:...:,:,
,. .., ,../.

.:-.:i.::i:i~ji:~::::::-:::::

closed container in order to capture the estaping vapors, being careful not to apply
too much heat. If the sample is an MC, it
will have a strong petroleum or kerosene
odor. On the other hand, if the sample is
an SC, no kerosene or petroleum odor will
be detected.
It might smell somewhat like
hot motor oil. The ability to distinguish
an
RC from an MC and an SC from either, is
perhaps as important as any other part of
field identification.
Asphalt Emulsions
Another asphaltic material used in paving
work is an asphalt emulsion, which is a
mixture of asphalt, water, and an emulsifying agent, It is easy to identify, since it is
usually distinguished
by its dark brown
color, while the other bitumens are black.
If mixed with kerosene or some other
petroleum distillate, the emulsion can be
detected by the appearance
of small black
globules or beads which fall to the bottom
of the container.
If mixed with water, an
emulsion will accept the extra water and
still remain a uniform liquid. The other
bitumens will not mix with water. Since an
emulsion contains water, a small piece of
cloth saturated
with it will not burn if a
flame is applied.
The other bitumens will
burn or flame. After it has been established that the material is an emulsion, it
is still important to know whether or not
the emulsion is a mixing grade. The best
way to tell if the emulsion is a mixing grade
(slow-setting (SS) or medium-setting
(MS11 is
to try to mix a small amount (6 to 8 percent, by weight) with damp sand using a
metal spoon. A rapid-setting
(RS) emulsion
cannot be mixed: it breaks immediately,
gumming up the spoon with the relatively
hard original asphalt cement.
A SS or MS
emulsion mixes nicely, coating the sand.
Be careful not to add too much emulsion to
the sand. This will saturate the sand and
not give conclusive results.
No further identification is necessary, since both MS and
SS grades are largely used for the same
jobs.
Road Tars
If the unknown bituminous
material did not
dissolve in the solubility test but formed a

: :,::.,>>$.,,

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

stringy mass, as shown in Figure 9-44, the

material is a tar. The next step is to determine its viscosity grade by the pour test.
By comparing the flow to that of common
materials, such as water or honey, the viscosity of the tar may be closely estimated.
The grades vary from road tar (RTI- 1 to RT12. If the identified tar has a viscosity in
the range of RT-4 to RT-7 material, a
smear test must be performed to determine
whether it is a road tar or a road-tar cutback. The smear test is performed in the
manner previously described for cutback asphalt. A great increase in stickiness in
about 10 minutes identifies a road-tar cutback. No apparent change in consistency
after 10 minutes indicates a road tar. It
does not matter which grade of cutback is
available, since both are used under approximately the same conditions.
AGGREGATE

IDENTIFICATION

The aggregate must also be tested to determine its suitability for bituminous
construction. The desirable characteristics
of an aggregate used in bituminous
construction
includel

Angular and rough.

Tough, hard, and durable.

Clean and dry.

Hydrophobic.

Available aggregate may not always have all

desirable characteristics.
An aggregate
meeting most of the requirements
is usually
selected, unless rejected for reasons such
as availability, length of haul, or difficulty
in conducting
borrow-pit or quarry operations.
Angular and Rough
The aggregate in a pavement must transmit
the traffic load to the base, usually by the
interlocking and surface friction of the different particles.
Angular particles with a
rough texlure arc best for this purpose
since they do not tend to slide past each
other. More binder may be required since

Road Design

9-47

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

:.

.:::; ,.:

... ....

.: :

the angular shape has a greater surfacearea-per-unit

volume than a round particle.

sible with the equipment

available.

Tough, Hard, and Durable

Hydrophobic

The aggregate must withstand loads without

cracking or being crushed.
Resistance
to
weathering is also a function of the
durability.
The resistance-to-wear
of an aggregate can be determined by the Los Angeles Abrasion Test, if the equipment is
available.
The equipment and procedures
are detailed in the American Association of
State Highway and Transportation
Officials
(AASHTO) method T96. The equipment for
the above test is usually not available for
field testing.
The Mohs hardness scale
may be used to determine the hardness of
the aggregate.
The Mohs scale ranges from
1 for talc or mica to 10 for diamond.
By
trying to scratch the aggregate or the common materials and vice versa, it is possible
to establish which is harder; from this
analysis the hardness of the aggregate can
bc determined.
If both materials scratch
each other, the hardness of each is the
same.
Be sure to rub the scratch mark to
see that it is really a scratch and not a powdering of the softer material.
Some common materials and their hardness are:
fingernail, about 2; copper coin, between 3
and 4; and knife blade, nail, and window
glass, about 5.5. If the material can be
scratched with one of these common items,
it is considered to be soft. If it cannot be
scratched,
it is considered to be hard.

Affinity for water can make an aggregate undesirable.

If the aggregate is porous and absorbs water easily (hydrophilic), the binder
can be forced out of the pores. When this
happens, the bond between the aggregate
and binder weakens and breaks and stripping occurs.
Stripping is the loss of the
bituminous coating from the aggregate particles due to the action of water, leaving exposed aggregate surfaces.
One of the following three tests can be used to determine
the detrimental effect of water on a
bituminous mix:

Clean and Dry

The bituminous
binder must penetrate into
the pores of the aggregate and adhere to
the surface of the particles.
Coated (with
clay or dust) or water-filled aggregate will
prevent the penetration or the adherence of
the binder and result in stripping of the
binder.
For hot mixes, the aggregate must
be hot as well as dry. If the aggregate is
not clean, it should be washed either as
part of the crushing operation or by spreading it on a hard surface and hosing it with
water. When washing is impractical,
dry
screening may remove a great deal of dust
and clay. Hand picking may be necessary
if no other method can be used. The aggregate should be made as clean as pos-

9-48

Road Design

and manpower

StrlppIng Test. A test sample is prepared

by coating a specific amount of aggregate
with bituminous material at the applicable
temperature
for the grade of bitumen to be
used. The mixture is spread in a loose,
thin layer and air-cured for 24 hours.
A
representative
sample is placed in a jar (up
to no more than one-half of its capacity)
and covered with water. The jar is closed
tightly and allowed to stand 24 hours.
At
the end of 24 hours, the jar with the
sample is vigorously shaken for 15 minutes.
A visual examination
is made to determine
the percentage of exposed aggregate surface
which is reported as percent stripping.
Swell Test. Asphaltic mixtures containing
fines of doubtful quality are sometimes
measured for swell as a basis for judging
the possible effects on a pavement.
This
test is more frequently used with densegraded mixtures using liquid asphalts.
A
sample of the mix is compacted in a metal
cylinder and cooled to room temperature.
The specimen and mold are placed in a pan
of water and a dial gage is mounted above
the sample in contact with the surface.
An
initial reading is taken.
The specimen is allowed to soak for a specified period (usually
24 hours) or until there is no further swelling. Another reading of the dial is taken.
The difference in reading is the swell of the
mixture.
Experience has shown that
bituminous pavement made with clear,
sound stone; slag; or gravel aggregate and

: ..:....:,.,,::.:: ,.;,: ,:

: : :

.:f

: .:...;.

,.

.y/;

.I:

y:

i .,:.,.

:,

:.

..:y

. . .:.

mineral filler produced from limestone will

show test values of less than 1.5 percent.

CONSTRUCTION
PRIME COAT
A prime coat is used when a surface treatment or pavement is placed on a soil or aggregate base. The prime coat should
penetrate the base about l/4 inch, filling
the voids. The prime coat acts as a
waterproof barrier to prevent moisture that
may penetrate the wearing surface from
reaching the base. Also, the bitumen acts
as a bonding agent, binding the particles of
the base to the wearing surface. Plan priming operations so that there will always be
an adequate amount of cured, primed base
ahead of the surfacing operations; but not
so far ahead that the base will become dirty
or completely cured (dead).
To preserve the
base, a prime coat should be applied as
soon as the base is ready; however, the
prime coat will lose its effectiveness as a
bonding agent if the wearing surface is not
placed soon after curing.
Base Preparation
The base should be well-graded, shaped to
the desired cross section, compacted to the
specified density, well-drained, free from excessive moisture but not completely dry,
and swept clean. The surface of the base
should be broomed if it contains an appreciable amount of loose material, either fine or
coarse, or if it is excessively dusty. When
brooming is omitted, apply a prime coat to
the base and lightly roll it with a
pneumatic roller, or use a light sprinkling
of water to settle the dust. Sprinkling is
usually undesirable: but when it is necessary, lightly apply a spray of water at the
rate of approximately 0.2 gallon to 0.3 gallon per square yard, depending on the condition of the base, the temperature, and the
humidity. Completely cover the base with a
minimum amount of water and allow it to
become dry or almost dry before applying
the prime coat so that it will absorb the

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vd 11

Aggregates of doubtful character should be

tested for conformance to ASTM tests.

METHODS
prime material. If the base is too wet, it
will not take the prime properly and the
moisture will tend to come oul, particularly
in hot weather, and strip the prime from
the base during construction.
Rains also
tend to strip the prime from a base that
was too wet when primed. Heavy rains
may also strip a properly primed base to
some extent, but less than an improperly
cured base. In general, the lowest acceptable moisture content for the upper portion
of the base course prior to priming should
not exceed one-half of the optimum moisture content. On the other hand, if the
base dries out completely, cracks may
develop and a heavy rain may then cause
swelling and loss of density. See Chapter 5
of this manual for subgrade, subbase, and
base-course preparation.
Materials
Bituminous materials used for prime coats
will depend on the condition of the soil base
and the climate. In moderate and warm
climates, RT-2, RT-3. RT-4, MC-30, MC-70,
SS- 1, SS- 1h, cationic slow-setting emulsified
asphalt (CSS)- 1, and CSS- 1h are satisfactory. In cold climates, rapid-setting asphalt
cutbacks, such as RC-70 and RC-250, have
proved more satisfactory. If the climate is
very cold, the prime coat may be eliminated
because it is likely to be extremely slow in
curing. RT-2 and MC-30 are satisfactory
for a prime coat used on a densely graded
base course. MC-70 is generally used on
loosely bonded, fine-grained soils, such as
well-graded sand. MC-250 is usually satisfactory for coarse-grained sandy soils.
The formula used to determine the quantity
of prime coat material required isL x [W t 2) x AR x LF
9 (ft/yd)

= Qp Gallons

Road

Design

9-49

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

whereL = length of untrcatcd

surface
in feet
W = width of untreated
surface
in feet
(t2 in the formula
is to include
for ovcrspray of shoulders
1 fool on both side of
the road.)
AR = application
rate of prime coat in gal
lons per square
yard
NOTE:
AR for dense soils = 0.2. AR for
soils with a lot of cracks = 0.5
LX = handing
loss factor for prime coat
(usually
1.05 - 1.10)
Qp = quantity
of prime-coat
material
in
gallons
Example:
Compute
the quantity
(in gallons)
of primecoat material
(&,I required
to prime an untreated
surface
with dense soil.
The surface is 1,000
feet long and 12 feet wide.
Use a loss factor of 1.05.
Solution:
L x (W + 2) x AR x LF
Qp

9 (fP/yrPl
1,000

= __
=

x (12t2)

x 0.2

x 1.05

9 (ft2/yd2)

326.67

or 327

gallons

TACK COAT
A tack coat is a sprayed
application
of a
bituminous
material
that is applied
to an existing wearing
surface
of concrete,
brick,
bituminous
material,
or binder course
before a new bituminous
pavement
is
placed over the existing
surface.
The purpose of the tack coat is to provide a bond
between
the existing
pavement
and the new
surface.
The tack coat should become
tacky within a few hours.
A tack coat is
not required
on a primed base unless
the
prime coat has completely
cured and become coated with dust.
Figure 9-45 shows
the sequcncc
of operations
for the applica-

9-50

Road Design

tion of a tack coat.

Operation
of asphaltsurface-treatment
equipment
is explained
FM 5-434.

in

The proccdurc
for cslimating
the bitumen
required
for a tack coat is similar
to that
described
for a prime coat except
that the
tack coat is generally
applied only over the
proposed
width of the pavcmcnt.
The formula used to determine
the quantity
of
tack coat required
isLxWxARxLF
9 (ftLlydLl

= Q

gallons

whereL
= length of treated
section
in feet
W = width of treated
section
in feet
AR = rate of application
of bitumen
in gallons per square yard
LF = handling
loss factor for bitumen
(usually 1.05)
Qr = quantity
of tack coat material
in gallons
The tack coat is generally
applied only over
the width of the existing
area that is to be
surfaced.
A tachometer
chart may be used
to establish
the rate of application.
The
usual rate of application
v?ries between
0.05 and 0.25 gallon per square
yard.
On
a smooth,
dense,
existing
surface,
the minimum rate of 0.05 gallon per square
yard
should produce
a satisfactory
bond.
If the
surface
is worn, rough, and cracked,
the
maximum
rate of 0.25 will probably
be required.
An extremely
heavy tack coat may
be absorbed
into the surface
mixture
resulting in a bleeding
and flushing
action and
loss of stability.
Roll the surface
lightly
with a rubber-tired
roller or truck tires for
uniform
distribution
of the bituminous
material.
Example:
Compute
the quantity
(in gallons)
of tackcoat material
((&I required
to cover a worn,
rough, and cracked
surface.
The surface
is
1,000 feet long and 12 feet wide.
Use a
loss factor of 1.05.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

Figure

G-45. Tack-coat

Solution:

Q,=
Q _
t-

LxWxARxLF
9 (ft2/yd2)
1,000

= 350.0

x 12 x 0.25
9 (ft2/yd2)
gallons

x 1.05

(gal)

DUSTPROOFING
Dustproofing consists of spraying an untreated surface with a diluted, slow-setting
asphalt emulsion or a low-viscosity cutback.
The asphalt and dilutent penetrate the fine
soil particles and adhere to the dust particles.
An asphalt cutback is usually sprayed at a
rate of 0.1 to 0.5 gallon per square yard
(gal/yd2). When using an emulsion, dilute
it with up to five parts of water by volume.
Diluted-emulsion
dustproofing
treatments
usually require several treatments.
The
dust stirred by traffic between applications
eventually conglomerates
and no longer
rises.
This is an effective treatment in very
dusty areas where one application of cutback asphalt is insufficient.
In all cases,
lay a test strip to determine what application rate will be the most effective.
Apply

sequence

Vol II

Curing

TackQwime
appllcatbn

Swwplng

32-8013,

of operations

with either an asphalt distributor or something as simple as a common watering can.

Dustproofing is usually a short-lived solution and project plans should include
regular inspections
and maintenance,
as required.

SPRAYING ASPHALT WITH

COVERED-AGGREGATE
AND SINGLE
AND MULTIPLE SURFACE TREATMENTS
A sprayed asphalt with a cover-aggregate
surface treatment consists of an application
of asphalt followed by an application of aggregate.
If the process is repeated, the
resulting surfaces are referred to as double,
triple, quadruple, and so on, surface treatments, depending on the number of applications.
Apply these surface treatments
on a
primed, nonasphaltic
base; an asphalt base
course: or any type of existing pavement.
This type of surface treatment,
with a good
prime coat (see preceding paragraph),
provides the lowest-cost waterproof covering
for a road surface.
With good aggregate,
this type of surface treatment will economically provide a wearing surface to meet the
needs of medium and low volumes of traffic.

--

Road Design

9-51

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

This type of surface treatment is very uscful as a wearing surface on base courses in
the staged construction
of highways pending placement of asphalt-concrete
surface
courses.
Limitations in the use of sprayed asphalt
with cover-aggregate
surface treatments
are*
l

Weather

conditions

must be favorable.

The surface on which the asphalt is

sprayed must be hard, clean, and dry
for the surface treatment to adhere
properly.
The amount and viscosity of the asphalt
must be carefully balanced with the size
and amount of cover-aggregate
to assure proper retention of the aggregate.
Heavy, high-speed traffic tends to dislodge the aggregate from the asphalt.

Because of these limitations,

consider using
plant-mix surface treatments
when the
above conditions arc anticipated.
Single Surface Treatment
A single surface treatment usually consists
of a sprayed application of a bitumen and
an aggregate cover one stone thick. Surface treatment may be referred to as a seal
coat, armor coat, or carpet coat. A single
surface treatment,
shown in Figure 9-46, is
usually less than 1 inch thick.
Surface
treatments
serve only as an abrasive and
weather -resisting medium that waterproofs
the base. They are not as durable as
bituminous concrete and may require frequent maintenance.
Although they are not
recommended
for airfields, they may be
used as an expedient measure.
They are
particularly suitable for TO construction
because they can be laid quickly with a minimum of materials and equipment, constructed in multiple layers with little interference to traffic, and used as the first step
in stage construction.
Surface treatment
will not withstand the action of metal
wheels on vehicles, tracked vehicles, or nonskid chains on vehicle wheels.
Do not at-

9-52

Road Design

tempt surface treatments

ture is below 50 F.
The three requircmcnts
ment arc as follows:

when the temperafor a surface

treat-

The quality of the bitumen must be sufficient to hold the slonc without submerging il.
Sufficicnl aggrcgatc
cover the bitumen.

must bc used to

The base course on which the surface

treatment is laid must bc sufficiently
strong to support the anticipated traffic
load.
Uniformly graded sand or crushed stone,
gravel, or slag may be used for surface
treatments.
The purpose of the surface
treatment dictates the size of aggregate to
be selected.
For example, coarse sand may
be used for sealing a smooth, existing surface. For a badly broken surface, the maximum size of the aggregalc should be about
3/4 inch; the minimum size should pass
the No. 4 sicvc. Surface treatments
include
the following: dust pallialives, prime coats,
and sprayed asphalt with a cover aggregate
(single and multiple surface treatments).
Material
RC and MC cutbacks, road tars, rapid-setting emulsions, and asphalt cements may
be used for surface treatment.
RC cutbacks arc most widely used because they
evaporate rapidly and the road can be
opened to traffic almost immediately after
applying the surface treatment.
Viscosity
grades of the bitumen depend on the size of
aggregate used as cover stone.
The larger
particles of aggregate require a bitumen of
higher viscosity so that the bitumen will
hold the aggregate.
For example, RC-70 or
RC-250 may be used with coarse sand for a
surface treatment to seal cracks in an otherwise satisfactory
surface.
For resurfacing
a
badly cracked or rough surface, RC-800 or
RC-3,000
may be used with 3/4-inch aggrcgatc.
To assure uniform distribution,
the bitumen
should bc applied with a bituminous

,j

FM S-430-001l/AFPAM

Figure

9-46.

Single surface

distributor.
The quantity of the bitumen required is based on the average particle size
of the cover stone. The bitumen must be
sufficient to hold the aggregate in place
without leaving a sticky surface.
The aggregate must not be completely submerged in
the bitumen.
One-quarter -inch aggregate
should be submerged approximately
30 percent; 3/8-inch aggregate, 32 percent: l/2inch aggregate, 35 percent: and 3 /4-inch aggregatc, 43 percent.
Approximately
1 gallon
of bitumen is usually used for 100 pounds
of aggregate.
The recommended
rate of
bitumen application
is given by the following formula:
wt of aggregate (lbj
area (yd2)

I gal bftumen
100 lb aggregate

= quanlity of bitumen in gal/yd2

Example:
Compute the recommended
rate of bitumen
application,
in gallons per square yard, if

32-8013,

Vol 1

treatment

30 pounds of aggregate are required

cover an area of 1.O square yard.

to

Solution :
9

Requirements

1 gal bitumen
loo lb agg

= 0.30 gal/yd2

for a Surface Treatment

In bituminous
surface treatments,
the unit
quantities of bitumen and aggregate can be
determined
by a lest strip, by the specifications of the job, or by adding approximately
1 gallon of bitumen for every 100 pounds of
aggrcgatc or 0.1 gallon of bitumen for every
10 pounds of aggregate.
The weight of the
aggregate, one stone deep, required to cover
1 square yard is determined
by spreading
the aggregate to be used a depth of one
stone over a measured surface, weighing it,
and computing the amount in pounds per
square yard.

Road Design

9-53

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

The formula used Lo determine the quantity

of binder material required for a surface
treatment isL X W

XARB

X LF =

XARA

Q~ Gallons

91ft 2/yd2)

whereL =
W =
ARE =
per lb of
aggregate

length of treated surface in feet

width of treated surface in feet
application of bitumen in gallons
aggregate (usually 1 gal per 100 lb
or 0.0 1 gal per lb)
ARA = application of aggregate in lb per
square yard
LF = handling loss factor for bitumen
Qb = quantity of binder material required
in gallons
9 = square feet per square yard (ft2/yd21
conversion factor
Example:
Compute the required quantity of binder
material needed for a single surface treatment. The surface is 1,000 feet long and
12 feet wide. Use a bitumen application
rate of 0.01 gal per lb of aggregate and a
loss factor of 1.05. The aggregate is 3/8inch crushed stone with a unit weight of
100 lb/ft3.
SOlU

tion :

letermine the application rate of the ag{regate in pounds per square yard.
ERA = 100 lb/ft3 x (3/8 in) x (1 ft/l2 in)
x (9 ft2/l
yd21
= 28.125
Vow determine

lb/yd2

rt

x 12 x

ft

0.01
x 28.12%
gal/lb
lb/yd
9 ft2/yd2

= 393.75

9-54

Treatment

The first layer of a multiple surface treatment is laid according to instructions

previously given for a single surface treatment.
Loose aggregate remaining on the first layer
must be swept from the surface so that the
layers may be bonded together.
As stated
previously, the size of the aggregate and the
amount of the bitumen will decrease for
each successive layer. For the second
layer, the bitumen will usually be reduced
to one-third or one-half the amount of the
first application.
The aggregate used in the
second application should be approximately
one-half the diameter of that used in the
first application.
The final application of aggregate should be swept clean, if necessary,
so that an even layer of aggregate will
remain. It should also be rolled with a
pneumatic roller so that the aggregate will
become embedded in the bitumen.
After
the surface is rolled and cured, it is ready
for traffic.
If the multiple surface treatment
has been laid on an airfield, loose aggregate
must be swept from the surface so that it
will not damage the aircraft.
Final sweeping is also recommended
for roads.

CONSTRUCTION OF SURFACE
TREATMENTS USING SPRAYED
ASPHALT WITH COVERED AGGREGATE

9 ft2/yd2
1,000

Surface

When a tougher, more resistant surface is

desired than that obtained with a single surface treatment, a multiple surface treatment
may be used. A multiple surface treatment
is two or more successive layers of a single
surface treatment (as shown in Figure 947). Smaller particles of aggregate and correspondingly less bitumen are used for each
successive layer. Although multiple surface
treatments
are usually more than 1 inch
thick, they are still considered surface treatments because each layer is usually less
than 1 inch and the total surface treatment
does not add to the load-carrying
capacity
of the base.

the binder quantity.

Qb = L X W x AR, x AR, x LF

Multiple

or 394

gallons

Road Design

1,05

Weather

Weather conditions are an important factor

for success in the construction
of sprayed
asphalt with covered-aggregate
surface treat-

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

Second
blnder

32-8013,

Vol 1

.A
yj

First
aggregate

,Flrst

First prime/tack
coat

Second
.^^I_
coat

1 gal/l00 lb
aggregate

Figure

9-47.

Multiple

ments and seal coats.

For best results in
aggregate retention, the pavement
temperature
should be relatively high
during the application of the seal coat and
considerably
lower before fast traffic is allowed to use the new seal coat. A certain
amount of curing, or setting, is required
even with the heaviest liquid-asphaltic
materials.
This curing takes place best
when the air temperature
is well above 50
F and the relative humidity is low. A survey of surface treatments
rated excellent
shows more than 85 percent were placed in
the hot summer months.
Every effort
should be made to plan the work for placement in summer weather.
After completion
of the surface treatment,
traffic should be
controlled until the surface has cured.
Aggregate
Once an aggregate has been selected for
use based upon the desirable characteristics, it is then necessary to determine

surface

treatment

what quantity of the aggregate will be required for a specific job. When placing a
surface treatment with an aggregate cover,
the quantity of aggregate required can be
determined from the following formula:
L ~,~~Ox

LF = Q,Tons

whereL
= length of treated surface in feet
W = width of treated surface in feet
LF = handling loss factor for aggregate

(10

percent or 1.10).
ARA = application rate for aggregate
QA = quantity of aggregate in tons
The materials for a multiple surface treatment are determined by the same method
as above except that the results are multiplied by the number of treatment passes.
The aggregate size (not quantity) must be
cut in half for the second layer and each
layer thereafter.

Road Design

9-55

FM 51430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Spreading Aggregate.
Before the application
of asphalt begins, an adequate aggregate
spreader should be available and properly
adjusted for the aggregate actually to be
used. The spray-bar width of the
bituminous
distributor should be equal to
the width of the aggregate being spread in
one pass.
Normally, this is the width of
one traffic lane. An adequate supply of aggregate should be on hand to cover the asphalt that has been spread, without interruption, in the shortest practical time after
the asphalt hits the surface.
In addition,
the aggregate spreader should be filled, in
place, and ready to spread aggregate before
commencing the asphalt spray. A common
fault is to operate the distributor
too far
ahead of the aggregate spreader.
Aggregate spreaders vary from a simple, con
trollable gate box attached to the dump
truck, to very efficient, self-propelled
units
which apply the larger-size aggregate on the
bottom and the finer on top. The more effi-

Figure

9-56

Road Design

9-48.

..

Vol 1

cient, self-propelled
desirable.

,:

units are most

Standard, Hopper-Type Aggregate Spreaders.

The standard aggregate spreader shown in
Figure 9-48 can handle aggregate which ranges from sand to 1 l/2-inch gravel. The
rate and depth of application depend upon
The width of spread may
the gate opening.
be varied from 4 to 8 feet in l-foot increDepending upon the manufacturer,
ments.
the spreader has either two or four wheels.
It hooks on the rear of a 5-ton dump truck
and the truck backs up. This allows the aggregate to be spread on the bitumen ahead
of the truck tires, thus preventing pickup of
the bitumen.
As a safety precaution,
men
should not be allowed to stand on the aggregate, either in the truck or in the
spreader, at any time.
Rolling. Pneumatic-tire
rollers should be
used for surface-treatment
construction.
Steel-wheeled
rollers are not recommended
for rolling, but if they are all that is avail-

Typical hopper-type

aggregate

spreader

,.,

.__

FM 51430=00=1/AFPAM

..

able, rollers should not be so heavy as to

crush the aggregate particles.
Pneumatictire rollers are essential to firmly embed the
aggregate into low areas or graded deformities that would normally be bridged over
by use of steel-wheel
rollers and to produce
conformity across the width of the roadway,
particularly over the outer quarters of the
surface where there is the least traffic.
The
rollers should be heavy enough to properly
imbed the aggregate, but rolling should be
stopped as soon as crushing becomes evident. When double or triple surface treatments are used, each course should be
rolled before subsequent
applications
of asphalt. When an asphalt fog seal is used, it
should be applied after the rolling is comple ted.
Control.
It is extremely
important
that traffic be controlled to prevent loss of
aggregate.
One method of controlling traffic
is to form a single line of traffic behind a
pilot vehicle with a red flag between stops
at each end of the work area.

Trafllc

The Asphalt

.-

Distributor

The asphalt distributor

is the key piece of
equipment in the construction
of surface
treatments.
It consists of a truck (or a
trailer) equipped with a mounted, insulated
tank with a heating system, usually oilburning, with direct heat from the flue passing through the tank.
It is further supplied
with a power-driven pump, suitable to handle products ranging from light, cold-application liquid asphalt to heavy asphalt cements heated to spraying viscosity.
Attached to the back end of the tank is a system of spray bars and nozzles through
which the asphalt is forced under pressure
onto the construction
surface.
The construction of the spray bars should bc such
that there will be full circulation
of the asphalt through the bar when not spraying.
These spray bars should hav? a minimum
application width of 8 feet. On larger equipment, the spray bars will cover as much as
a 24-foot width in one pass when equipped
with a suitable capacity pump. The height
of the spray bar determines
the type of
coverage:
single lap, double lap, -or triple
lap, as shown in Figure 9-49.
A suitable

32-8013,

Vol 1

Single
lap
Double lap

Triple lap

Figure 9-49. Spray

bar coverage

thermometer
should be installed in the
tank to readily ascertain
the temperature
of
the contents.
A connection
should be available to attach a hose for a single- or doublenozzle outlet to cover areas not reached by
the spray bars or as a means of forcing a
stream of asphalt to a desired point as in
subsealing rigid, slab pavements.
Distributors are made in sizes ranging from
800- to 4.000-gallon
capacity.
Some maintenance distributors
as small as 400 gallons are available.
It is essential that the distributor
be
capable of distributing
the asphalt uniformly over the surface to be treated.
For best
results in surface treatments,
observe the
following points:
.

Maintain uniform pressure and temperature on all spray nozzles. The fan of the
spray from each nozzle must be uniform
and set at the proper angle with the
spray bar (according to the
manufacturers
instructions)
so that the
spray fans do not interfere with each
other.
Maintain the spray bar at the proper
height above the road surface (according to the manufacturers
instructions)
to provide complete and uniform overlap
of the spray fans.
Ensure that the distributor
is uniform.

road speed

Before beginning work, check the

spread of the distributor spray bar.

Road Design

9-57

FM 54309000l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Valve action should be instantaneous,

both in opening and closing. The spraying operation should be inspected frequently to ensure that the nozzles are
the proper height from the road surface
and working fully. An otherwise good
job may be spoiled if one or more spray
nozzles are clogged.

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR OF

BITUMINOUS SURFACES
Inspection
Maintenance
patrols frequently inspect
bituminous
pavements for early detection of
failures.
Small defects quickly develop into
larger ones under the effects of weather and
traffic and may result in pavement failure
unless promptly corrected.
Minor repairs
are quickly made with small crews and
hand-tools,
with a minimum interruption
of
traffic.
Larger bituminous
repairs require
more time, personnel, and equipment, and
may result in interference
with traffic or, in
extreme cases, requ!re construction
of
detours to avoid complete stoppage.

:.

::

::

j ::

: .,...

: : :

parallel and perpendicular

of the traffic area.

::

_:

j.,

: . .. . .

:::.::ii

; i,j;..:i.:iii::i;i.iii:.j:;:iii:

to the centerline

Temporary Repairs
Any stable material may be used for temporary repairs in combat areas or where
suitable material is not available and the
traffic area must be patched to keep traffic
moving. Good-quality soil and masonry or
concrete rubble are suitable for this purpose. All such patches must be thoroughly
compacted and constantly maintained with
replacement
material.
More permanent
patching should be accomplished
as soon
as possible.
Maintenance

of Shoulders

Shoulders are bladed LOfacilitate drainage

of rainwater from the surface.
Ruts and
washouts are filled. Shoulder material is
kept graded flush against pavement edges
to restrict seepage of water to the subgrade
and to prevent breaking of the pavement
edge by traffic driving off the pavement
onto the shoulder.
Material displaced from
shoulders is replaced with new material as
required.

Patches
All patches should be trimmed square or
oblong with straight, vertical sides running

GENERAL

ROAD STRUCTURAL

TO roads will normally be designed as unsurfaced, aggregafe, or Jexfble-pauement systems. The design procedure for each type
first involves assigning a class (A - G) designation to the road based upon the number
of vehicle passes per day. A design category (I - VII) is then assigned to the traffic
based upon the composition of the traffic.
A design index (1 - 10) is determined from
the design category and road class. This design index is used to determine either the
CBR strength requirements of the unsurfaced roads or the thickness of the aggregate surface or flexible-pavement system required above a soil with a given CBR
strength.

9-58

Road Design

DESIGN

NOTE: As mission requirements change

(a forward-area road becomes a rear-area
road), the road class and design index
will change. The design procedures outlined in this section allow for the easy
upgrading of roads as the mission changes. This ensures the ability to easily
convert an unsurfaced road to an aggregate-surfaced road to a flexible-pavement road without major changes in the
design procedure.

CLASSES

OF ROADS

The classes of roads vary from A to G.

Selection of the proper class depends upon
the traffic intensity and is determined from
Table 9-8.

.:

Table 9-8.

Road-class

selection

criteria

Number
of, Vehicles
Per Day

Road
Class

.
.
.
10,000
8,400-l 0,000
E :::::::::::::::::::
6,360-8,400
2 100-6 300
E : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : . .210-2:100
70-210
: :::::::::::::::::::::.tinder70

FM 514301001l/AFPAM

Table 9-9.

iGroup

Category I

2 99%

Category II

2 90%

5 10%

Category III

2 84%

5 15%

sl%

Category

5 65%

< 25%

<

Any

> 25%

>

IV

Category WA

51%

10%
10%

having three or more axles (Group 3

vehicles) are permitted in this category.
Category III. Traffic containing as
much as 15 percent Group 2 but with
not more than 1 percent of the total traffic composed of trucks having three or
more axles (Group 3 vehicles).
Category IV. Traffic containing as
much as 25 percent Group 2 but with
not more than 10 percent of the total
traffic composed of trucks having three
or more axles (Group 3 vehicles).

(excluding

Category WA. Traffic containing more

than 25 percent Group 2 or more than
10 percent trucks having three or more
axles (Group 3 vehicles).

four-, and five-axle

The design index to be used, if designing a

road for the usual pneumatic-tired
vehicles,
will be selected from Table 9- 10 based on

Traffic composition will then be grouped

into the following categories (summarized
for easy reference in Table 9-9):
l

I
1

Group 2

Category

cars and panel and

Group 2. Two-axle trucks

pickup trucks).
Group 3. Three-,
trucks.

traffic categories
composition
e of total traffic for

The design of roads will be based on a

design index representing
all traffic expected to use the road during its life. The
design index is based on typical magnitudes
and compositions
of traffic reduced to
equivalents
in terms of repetitions of an
18,000-pound,
single-axle,
dual-wheel load.
For designs involving pneumatic-tired
vehicles, traffic is classified into three
groups, as follows:
Group 1. Passenger
pickup trucks.

Vol 1

1Traffic

DESIGN INDEX

Pneumatic-tired
based on traffic

32-8013,

Category I. Traffic composed primarily

of passenger cars and panel and pickup
trucks (Group 1 vehicles) but containing not more than 1 percent two-axle
trucks (Group 2 vehicles).
Category II. Traffic composed primarily
of passenger cars and panel and pickup
trucks (Group 1 vehicles). and containing as much as 10 percent two-axle
trucks (Group 2 vehicles). No trucks

Table 9-10.

Design

index for pneumatic-tired

vehicles

Design Index

Category Category Category Category Category

Class

II

III

IV

IVA

2
2
2
1
1
1
1

3
2
2
2
2
1
1

4
4
4
3
3
2
1

5
5
5
4
4
3
2

6
6
6
5
5
4
2

6
C
D
E
F
G

Road Design

9-59

FM 5-4301001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

.,.-;
,..,...:..,.,.
.,.,:..:,.
.;.

the road class (A to Gl and category (I to

IVA).

Tracked vehicles not exceeding 15,000

lb and forklift trucks not exceeding
6,000 lb are treated as two-axle trucks
(Group 2 vehicles) in determining the
design index,

NOTE:
DO NOT include
any wheeled
vehicles in the total number of tracked
vehicles and forklifts when using Table
Q- 12.

Tracked vehicles exceeding 15,000

pounds but not 40,000 pounds and
forklift trucks exceeding 6,000 pounds
but not 10,000 pounds are treated as
three-axle trucks (Group 3 vehicles) in
determining the design index.

Design Life
The life assumed for design is less than or
equal to 5 years. For a design life of more
than 5 years, the design indexes in Tables
9-10 and 9-12 must be increased by one.
Design indexes below 3 need not be increased.

Traffic composed of tracked vehicles exceeding 40,000 pounds and forklift

trucks exceeding 10,000 pounds has
been divided into the three categories
shown in Table 9- 11.

.,... j :.: ..... ., : ;. :: .:, ,,.:; :.,:/:.j:

Roads sustaining traffic of tracked vehicles

weighing less than 40,000 pounds and
forklift trucks weighing less than 10,000
pounds will be designed according to the
pertinent class and category from Table 910, page 9-59. Roads sustaining traffic of
tracked vehicles heavier than 40,000
pounds and forklifts heavier than 10,000
pounds will be designed according to the
traffic intensity and category from Table 912.

Where tracked vehicles or forklift trucks are

involved in the traffic composition, the following three considerations apply:
l

:, ,,~.,.,.,:. ., :

Entrances, Exits, and Segments

Table 9-11.

Regardless of the design class selected for

hardstands, special consideration should be
given to the design of approach roads, exit
roads, and other heavy-traffic areas.
Failure or poor performance in these channelized traffic areas often has greater impact than localized failure on the hardstand
itself.

Tracked-vehicle and forklift traffic

categories

Vehicle Welght, Pounds

Tracked
Vehicles

Category
V
VI
VII

Forklift
Trucks

40,001-60,000
60,001-90,000
Over 90,000

10,001-15,000
15,001-25,000
Over 25,000

Ta@ie 9-12.

Since these areas will almost certainly be

subjected to more frequent and heavier
loads than the hardstand, the design index
used for the primary road should be used
for entrances and exits to the hardstand.

Design index for tracked vehicles and forklifts

Traffic

Number of Vehicles

per Day (or Week as Indicated)

Category

NOTE:

G-60

500

200

loo

40

10

__

VI

VII

10

10

If number

of vehicles is between values, round up to the next higher number.

Road Design

1 Per Week

. . i:,.,:.
,.....

j.

.:j .,

,.:;y,.

,j,:..:

.: k.1

:j

:,:: ,:.:.

::j

..;,:,j,::.jj

;.:,

.::

In the case of large hardstands having multiple uses and multiple entrances and exits,
consideration should be given to partitioning and using different classes of design.
The immediate benefits that would accrue
include economy through elimination of excessive design in some areas and better organization of vehicles and equipment.

UNSURFACED

FM 514301OO-l/AFPAM

:I ,,. .:::,,z;::+;

32-8013,

Vol 1

4. Determine the design index from Table

9-10, page 9-59, or Table 9-12.
5. Read the soil-surface strength required
to support the design index from Figure
9-50.
6. Check whether the design (compacted)
CBR value of in-place soil exceeds the CBR
value required. If the in-place design CBR
value is less than the CBR required, the
engineer must decide whether to decrease
the design life or improve the in-place soil
to meet the CBR required by one of the
following methods: soil stabilization, soil
treatment, or placing aggregate.

ROADS

An unsurfaced road is one in which the inplace natural soil or borrow soil is used as
the road surface. Typically, the construction effort required includes only clearing
and grubbing followed by scarifying, grading, and compacting.

7. Determine the required unsurfaced-soil

thickness. Given the required CBR from
step 6 and the design index from step 4,
the required unsurfaced-soil thickness or
depth of compaction can be obtained from
Figure 9-51, page 9-62.

Designing unsurfaced roads consists of the

following steps:
1. Estimate the number of passes of each
type of vehicle expected to use a road on a
daily basis.

Example (Unsurfaced-Road

Design):

To illustrate the procedure for determining

soil-surface strength requirements, assume
that an unsurfaced road is to be used one
year. The road will be subjected to the following average daily traffic:

2. Select the proper road class based upon

the traffic intensity from Table 9-8, page
9-59.
3. Determine the traffic category based
upon the traffic composition criteria shown
in Table 9-9, page 9-59.
100

SO
40

a JO
t? 20
G
2

10

ii
'5

2
I
1

I,,,,

11111111
I l11111 II !I
11111111 II II I111111

I111111

l111111

I I I111111

I Irlllll

I I1111111

I II
4

I I I11111
5

1I
6

Design index

Figure 9-50.

Unsurfaced-soil

strength

requirements

Road Design

9-61

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Design Index
Figure

5-ton

(three

Unsurfaced-soil

Average
Daily Traffic
180

Vehicle
M998 HMMWV
(two axle)

M929

9-51.

dump truck

50

axle)

thickness

requirements

quired.
If not, consider using either
stabilization
or an aggregate road.

soil

7. Determine the required unsurfaced-soil

thickness from Figure 9-51.
Given a design
index of 3 and a required CBR of 10.8, the
required thickness from Figure 9-51 is 6 inches.

Solution:
1. Determine
(given).

the average

AGGREGATE-SURFACED

daily traffic

2. Select road class E from Table 9-8, page

9-59, based upon 230 vehicles per day.
3. Select traffic category IVA, based
the percentage of Group 3 vehicles.
4. The design
page 9-59.

upon

index is 3 from Table 9- 10,

5. The soil-surface
strength requirement
for a design index of 3 is 10.8 CBR.

6. Check to ensure the design CBR value

of the m-place soil exceeds the 10.8 CBR re-

9-62

Road Design

ROADS

The design of aggregate-surfaced

roads is
similar to the design of unsurfaced
roads.
However, in aggregate-surfaced
roads.
Layers of high-quality material are placed
on the natural subgrade to improve its
strength.
Materials
Materials used in aggregate roads must
meet the requirements
as stated in Chapter
5 of this manual and in the following
paragraphs.
The materials should have
greater strength than the subgrade and
should bc placed so that the higher-quality
malerial is placed on top of the lowerquality material.

..,: : :

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._-

;, ;:I ..::g,.

.,.: j;.:;,;,

: : j

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.,.

.,. ,, ,:.

.:..

::

..

requirements
,50, 80, 100

Compaction
requirements
100 - 105%

Layer
Base course

FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM

Cohesionless:

95 -

100%/
I

Uncompacted
subgrade
l

NOTES:
1. All lifts in a road design must be at least 4
inches.
2. A cohesive soil is one with a PI above 5.
3. A coheslonless soll Is one with a PI of 5 or less.
4. Percent compactlon is compared to the
CE 55 curve according to ASTM D1557.

The cost of the dry or water-bound

macadam base does not exceed the cost
of a stabilized, aggregate base course.
The construction unit has the equipment and expertise to place a macadam
surface (wet or dry) to acceptable standards of smoothness and grade.

CBR of Base Cpurse.

Where subbase material is used for base-course construction, the base course CBR must be at
least 50 and the material must conform to
the gradation and Atterberg limit requirement for a 50-CBR subbase as shown in
Table 9-14. Otherwise, the design CBR of
the base course must meet the requirements of Table 9-15, page 9-64.
Design

Select and Subbase Materials

Select and subbase materials used in aggregate and flexible-pavement roads must
meet the requirements of Table 9-13.
Base Course

Requirements.
Gradation requirements for aggregate-surfaced roads and for
macadam base courses are given in Chapter

Gradation

Only good-quality materials should be used

in base courses of heavy-duty aggregate
roads. Specifications for graded, crushed
Tab/e 9-14.

Vol 1

Specifications for dry and water-bound

macadam base courses may be used for
design of heavy-duty roads only when the
following two conditions are satisfied:
l

subgjade
(SCIP)

32-8013,

aggregate; lime rock: and stabilized aggregate may be used without qualification
for design of roads, streets, and parking
areas.

Table 9-13. Compaction criteria and CBR

requirements for an aggregate road structure
CBR

5.

Maximum permissible

values for subbases and select materials

Maxlmum Pormlssabk Values for Gradation

and Attorbsrg Llmlts
Gradatbn Roqulnments

Mats&l

Ysxlmum
Dsalgn
CBR

Sullbaae

50

subbase
Subbase
Select
material

:
20

SlXS
In

No 10
SlWO

Porosnt Passing

No 200
Slovr

Llquld
Llmlt

Plastklty
In&x

50
80

::

3:

5
5

__
100

__
15

35
25

1:

Road Design

9-63

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

i. .. :

.: ::i

Table 9-15. Assigned CBR ratings for basecourse materials - aggregate-surfaced road

..

in its natural state. However, in cases where

the moisture content is out of the specification range, it may be necessary to scarify
the soil (thereby aerating the soil to adjust
the moisture content) and then compact.
This process is called scarify and compact
in place (SCIP).
Subgrades.
The procedures for compacting subgrades of clays that lose
strength when remolded, silts that become
quick when remolded, and soils with expansive characteristics are described in Chapter 5 of this manual.
Special

NOTE: It is recommended
that stabilized-aggregate
base-course
material not be used for tire pressures
in excess of 100 psi.

Thickness Requirements.
Thickness requirements for aggregate-surfaced roads are
determined from Figure 9-52, page 9-65, for
a given soil strength and design index. The
minimum thickness requirement will be 4
inches.

Figure 9-52 provides the thickness of aggregate based on CBR and design index.
The thickness determined from the figure
may be constructed of compacted granular
fill for the total depth over the compacted
subgrade or in a layered system of granular
fill with subbases for the same total depth.
The layered section must be checked to ensure that an adequate thickness of material
is used to protect the underlying layer
based on the CBR of the underlying layer.
The granular fill may consist of base, subbase, and select material, provided the top
4 inches meet the gradation requirements.
Compaction

Requirements

Compaclion requirements for the subgrade

and granular layers are expressed as a percent of maximum CE 55 density as determined by using MIL-STD-621 Test Method
100.
Subgrades. Compact the subgrade
to go-percent CE 55 density for cohesive
soils (PI>5; LL>25) and 95-percent for
cohesionless soils (PIs5; LL125).

Normal

NOTE: It may be possible to compact the

subgrade material to the required density

9-64

Road Design

Subgrade in cuts and fills must have densities equal to or greater than the values
shown in Table 9-13, page 9-63, except
that fills will be placed at no less than 95
percent density for cohesionless soils or 90
percent for cohesive soils.
Where this is not the case for cuts, the subgrade must (11 be compacted from the surface to meet the densities shown; (21 be
removed and replaced, in which case the requirements given above for fills apply; or (31
be covered with sufficient select material,
subbase, and base so that the uncompacted
subgrade is at a depth where the in-place
densities are satisfactory.
of Compaction.
Compact the subgrade to the depth specified in Table 9- 16,
page 9-66. for cohesive soils (PI > 51 and
Table 9-17, page 9-66, for cohesionless
soils (PI 5 5).

Depth

NOTE: When depth of compaction from

Table Q- 16 or Q- 17 is not feasible or attainable in cut sections, perform a 6-inch
SCIP and continue design based on the
uncompacted subgrade CBR.
Select Materials.
The procedure is the same
as for the subgrade.

Compact the subbase to not less

than loo-percent CE 55 density.

Subbase.

Compact the base course to

Course.
the maximum degree practicable but not
less than loo-percent CE 55 density.

Base

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.:.

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.I,

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.:I:

::::.:I,

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.,:

FM 514301OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

i
1

l
1
4

I
1

6910

15

20

30

40

60

Thickness, inches

Figure Q-52. Design curves for aggregate-surfaced

roads

._

Road Design

9-65

FM 5.4304&1/AFlWUl

Table 9-16.

32.8013,

Required

depth

of subgrade

compaction

for roads,

. : .: .. .: :..

.;: <.;.

cohesionless

.:

soils (Pk5)

Depth of Compaction (in inches) for Indicated Design Index

Percent

Compaction

; .:

.. : ::...:

Vol 1

10

95-100

10

11

12

14

15

17

19

21

90-952

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

28

30

Normally used.
Use if on-site test strip results show the 95100 range is not attainable.

Table 9-17.

Required

Percent
Compaction

depth

of subgrade

compaction

for roads,

cohesive

soils (Pb5)

Depth of Compaction (In Inches) for Indicated Design Index

1

90-95

10

11

12

13

15

95-1 oo2

10

10

17
11

Normally used.
%se if on-site test strip results show these ranges are attainable, and shear failure is unlikely..

w-

Determine the depth of compaction for

the subgrade soil from Table 9- 16 or 9-17.

Design Steps for Aggregate-Surfaced

Roads

6.

1. Estimate the number of passes of each

type of vehicle expected to use the road on
a daily basis.
2. Select the proper road class based upon
the traffic intensity from Table 9-8, page
9-59.

7.

Determine the traffic category based

upon the traffic-composition criteria given
in Table 9-9, page 9-59.

-Design index.
-Design CBR values for subgrade, select, and subbase materials.

4.

Determine the design index from Table

9-10, page 9-59, or Table 9-12, page 9-60.

b. Determine the minimum cover thickness, in inches, for each layer of the aggregate road structure.

5. Check soils and construction aggregates

using standard criteria in Tables 5-4, page
5-12; 9- 14, page 9-63; and 9-15, page 9-64.

8. Determine the required percent compaction in terms of CE 55 for each layer from
Table 9-13, page 9-63.

3.

9-66

Road Design

Determine the total road-structure

ness and cover requirements.

thick-

a. Enter Figure 9-52, page 9-65, for each

layer of sofl or aggregate with the following
information:

.....
........

..:i::..............
:.::.::.:,

....

.....

9. Draw the section of the aggregate road

structure, as shown following.

Minimum
reauired

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Available material CBR:

Natural subgrade = 5 (clay, PI = 15)
Design (compacted)
subgrade = 8
Clean sand subbase = 30
Lime rock = 80; meets gradation
requirement
for maximum size aggregate of 1.

Compaction

Laver

Solution:
1. Number of daily passes = 70 (given).
2. Select road class F from Table 9-8, page
9-59, based upon average daily traffic of 70.
3. Select traffic category VII from information
previously given, based upon the presence of
the 60-ton tracked vehicle.
4. Select design index of 9 from Table
9-12, page 9-60. NOTE: You must round the
average daily tracked-traffic value of 36 to
the next higher value (40) in Table 9-12.

Natural
subgrade
CBR =
B = Y - A or 4, whichever is greater
C = X - Y or 4, whichever is greater
D = Depth of compacted
SCIP
X = minimum

cover over compacted

subgrade (Figure 9-52, page 9-65)
Y = minimum cover over select (Fi ure 9-52)
Z = minimum cover over subbase f Figure 9-52)

Total thickness above compacted subgrade = A t B t C

NOTES:
1. All layer thicknesses should be rounded up
to the next full Inch for construction purposes.
2. After all posslble desl n sections are
determined, the flnal sect7on used should be
determined on the basis of an economic analysis.

Example (Aggregate-Road

Design):

An aggregate-surfaced road is to be used for

two years. The road will be subjected to-

M998

HMMWV

Average
Daily Traffic
10

M929 5ton
dump truck
(dual axle)

25

combat
engineer vehicle
(CEV) (604on
tracked vehicle)

35

M729

5. Clean sand CBR 30. (Suitable for subbase

CBR 30.) Crushed rock CBR 80. (Suitable
for base course.)
6. Depth of compaction based on CBR 5 for
compacted subgrade is 15 inches. (See Table
9-17.

Determine the road-structure thickness required to support a design index of 9.

7.

a. First, look at the required road thickness

if the subgrade was not compacted to the
design CBR. In this case, the natural subgrade
CBR 5 is used in Figure 9-52. This results in
a required total thickness of 16 inches, as
shown.

16 inches

I~~~Natural

of cover

subgrade

CBR=5

I
1
1

b. Now, look at the required thickness

when the subgrade is compacted. In this
case, the design subgrade CBR = 8 is used
in Figure 9-52, resulting in a required total
thickness of 12 inches, as shown.

Road Design

9-67

FM 5-430-00-l/AFPAM

32-801 3, Vol 1

..i.:::i::.:.y.:.:.:
.i: :..::..i.i.::~:..!~.:~.::i.:..~~:~i.:.:i
.,,:_:_:::::..
::,:.>
.: ,: ,,. .:.,.:,.,.:, ...,:.j,,..:..~...:.,.

8. The required percent compaction of each

layer is determined from Table 9- 13, page
9-63, as follows:

12

inches of cover

15 inches design
subgrade CBR = 8

Crushed rock base course:

100-l 05 percent
Clean sand subbase course:
100-l 05 percent
Compacted subgrade-since
the PI = 15, it is a
cohesive soil: 90-95 percent

Natural subgrade
CBR = 5
Notice how compacting the subgrade greatly
reduces the required thickness of the cover
material. This is why the subgrade is always compacted.
Finally, look at the total thickness and
required cover for each layer when the subgrade is compacted and a clean sand subbase
with CBR 30 is used. First, the design subgrade CBR 8 is used in Figure 9-52, page 9-65,
to determine the la-inch total thickness required above the compacted subgrade. Next,
the clean sand CBR 30 is used in Figure 9-52
to determine the required cover of 4 inches
above the subbase. This results in the section,
as shown.
C.

vlinimum
,equired
:over

9. Draw the section of the aggregate road

structure. Since two sections were
designed, one with a subbase and one
without, both should be drawn.
a. First, design the section without the subbase layer.

Minimum
required
cover

A=12

Layer
thickness

Layer

Total thickness

Layer
thickness

E;-t#action
Layer

,~,,~~~~
/
above

compacted
subgrade (Figure 9-52
compacted subgrade = A = 12

b. Now, design the section with the

subbase layer.
Ainimum

equired
:over

Layer
thickness
A = 4

Natural
subgrade
CBR = 5
A = Z = 4
B=X-A
= 12 _ 4
= 8
Total thickness

B = 8

Z = 4 = minimum cover over

subbase (Figure 9-52)
X = 12 = Minimum cover over
compacted
subgrade
above

compacted

subgrade

= A + B
= 8+4
= 12

Notice how the addition of the clean sand

subbase reduces the required thickness of
the more expensive lime rock.

9-68

Road Design

Laver

Compaction
Effort

Base course
CBR = 80
Subbase
optional)
& BR = 30
Compacted
sub rade
CB w = 8

CE =
100 - 105%
CE =
100 - 105%

E-=95%

Natural
subgrade
CBR = 5
A = Z = 4

B=X-A
= 12 - 4
= 8
Total thickness

Z = minimum cover over subbase

(Figure 9-52)
X = minimum cover over compacted
subgrade (Figure 9-52)
above

compacted

subgrade

= A + B
= 8t4

:.:.:.z.:.:,:
:,.,:),,~
;,.,:,:,:
,,,,,(,,
... ::x::
.:x.x:::
..... ::::::::::>::.::::,:.:::,:~:~:y:~:~:
.
. .A. i

..L.

.,

:::::,;::::::l:i:l:!;;~:~;~:~:~:~:~:::~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~:~,.~
:.:j .y:.: : : : ..,.,.
.. .
,.

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,.

: .,.

. .,. ....

,.

.,,. ,.~::,:,:
,) :,,,:,:,:,:
.:.

Given that the base-course material is more

expensive than the clean sand subbase, section b would be the most economical design.
Note, however, that all possible design sections for the available materials must be
evaluated economically. There may be rare
instances where the subbase material may
be more expensive than the base course.
In that case, only the base course would be
used.

BITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS
Bituminous-, or flexible-, pavement designs
permit the maximum use of readily available local construction materials. They are
easier to construct and upgrade than rigid
pavement designs. Thus, they permit
greater flexibility in responding to changes
in the tactical situation.
Flexible-pavement design procedures are different from airfield design procedures. This
chapter is limited to flexible-pavement designs for roads. Chapter 12 of FM 5-43000-2/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 2 covers airfield
flexible-pavement designs. TM 5-822-6 covers rigid-pavement designs,
Pavement

Type6

and Uses

The descriptions, uses, advantages, and disadvantages of bituminous pavements and

surfacing presented in TM 5-337 are applicable to I0 construction except as modified in
the following paragraphs. However, when
surfacing for steel treads is necessary, use
an asphalt cement with a penetration grade
of 50-60 or 60-70. depending on the climate
or season.
Special consideration must also be given to
the design and construction of bituminous
pavements that will be subjected to traffic
of tanks and solid, rubber-tired vehicles.
Most often the number of passes of tanks
and solid, rubber-tired vehicles governs the
bituminous-pavement design.

--

Hot-Mix, Bituminous-Concrete Pavements.

Dense-graded, hot-mix, bituminous-concrete
mixtures are well-suited for paving heavyduty traffic roads with volumes of 3,000

FM 51430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

vehicles or more per day. Where conditions

warrant, use these mixtures to pave roads
having traffic volumes of less than 3,000 vehicles per day. Select exact percentages of
bituminous materials on the basis of design
tests described in TM 5-337.
Cold-Laid, Bituminous-Concrete Plant Mix.
Where hot-mix, bituminous-concrete mixtures are not available, use cold-plant, bituminous concrete to pave areas subject to
pneumatic-tired traffic only.
Sheet Asphalt, Stone-Filled Sheet Asphalt.
Sand Asphalt, or Sand-Tar Mixes. Fine-aggregate mixes may be used for binder and
surface courses of roads with traffic volumes of 2,000 or fewer vehicles per day
when sand or other suitable fine aggregates
are the only aggregates available. These
mixes should not be used as surface or
binder courses for roads or industrial-use
pavements designed for solid, rubber-tired
or steel wheels. In all cases, mixtures
made with these aggregates should conform
to the criteria for low-pressure tires ( 100
psi or less), based on laboratory tests.
Penetration Mac-.
Do not use penetration macadam for paving any areas subject
to traffic from tracked vehicles.
Bituminous Road Mix. Use road mix as a
wearing course for To roads or as the first
step in stage construction for more permanent roads. When the existing subgrade
soil is suitable or satisfactory aggregates are
nearby, road mixing saves time in handling
and transporting aggregates as compared
with plant mixing. When properly designed
and constructed, the quality of road mix approaches that of cold-laid plant mix. Road
mix is used for binder and surface courses.
It is generally considered inferior to plantmix pavements manufactured in standard
plants because of the less accurate control.
Flexible-Pavement

Structure

A typical flexible-pavement structure is shown

in Figure 9-53, page 9-70, and illustrates the
terms used to refer to the various layers.

Road Design

9-69

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Materials
Surface

E
g

course

y
1

Tack
coat

Materials used in flexible pavements

must
meet the requirements
as stated in Chapter
5 and in the following
paragraphs:

Select Materials

Base course
Subbase

course
I

I
t

iE

Select

material

Compacted

NOTE: Not all layers and coats are present in every

flexiblepavement structure. intermediate courses may be
placed in one or more Ha. Tack coats may be required on
the surface of each intermediate course.

Figure

g-53.

Flexible-pavement

Select materials and subbases used in bituminous pavements

must meet the same requirements
as for aggregate-surfaced
roads
as indicated in Table 9-14, page 9-63.
Base Course
The base course used in bituminous
pavements must meet the same requirements
as
for aggregate-surfaced
roads as indicated
previously,
except as noted below.

subgrade

Uncompacted
subgrade
(subsoil)

and Subbase

design

A bituminous
pavement may consist of one
or more courses depending
on stage construction features, job conditions,
and the
economical
use of materials.
The pavement
should consist of a surface course, an intermediate (binder) course, and a leveling
course, when needed.
These should be
thick enough to prevent displacement
of
the base course because of shear deformation, to provide long life by resisting the effects of wear and traffic abrasion, to be waterproof, and to minimize differential
settlements.

Design CBR of Base Course. Where subbase material is used for base construction,
the base course CBR must be at least 50
and the material must conform to the Atterberg limit requirement
for a 50-CBR subbase as shown in Table 9-14.
Otherwise.
the design CBR of the base course must
meet the requirements
of Table 9-18.
Base Course Gradation Requirements.
The
gradation
requirements
of the base course
are as indicated in Chapter 5 of this manual.
The base course for a flexible pavement must
meet the same gradation
requirements
of
Table 5-4. page 5-12. since the flexible pavement will transfer most of the shear stress
caused by the load directly to the base course.
Table 9-18. Assigned CBR ratings for basecourse materials - bituminous-surfaced
road

Sources of Supply
If time and conditions
permit, investigate
subgrade conditions:
borrow areas: and all
sources of select materials, subbase, base,
and paving aggregates
before designing
the
pavement.
In determining
subgrade conditions in cut sections of roads, conduct test
borings deeper than the frost penetration
depth.
The minimum boring should never
be less than 4 feet below the final grade.

9-70

Road Design

NOTE: It is recommended
that stabWed-aggregate
base-course material not be used for tire pressures
In excess of 100 psi.

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.> ..,.

FM 5-4309OO-i/AFPAM

>,.

,,
.,,.,.

:.::.:..:..::.:.j

:,:,:::

.;,:.:

,.

;..

.,..

,...:.

,..:

.. . ... .. .

..;::..,>.

,...,.,.,.,.,...,.,

:,.,

,.

:,.

underlying
underlying

Minimum Base-Course
Thickness.
The minimum allowable thickness
of the base
course will be as shown in Table 9-19: except that in no case will the total thickness
of pavement plus base for classes A
through D roads be less than 6 inches.

Compaction

Design

Design Requirements.
Flexible-pavement
sign must provide the following:

de-

Sufficient compactlon
and testing of the
subgrade and each layer during construction to prevent objectionable
settlement under traffic.
Adequate drainage of the base course,
when frost conditions are a factor, to
provide for dralnage of the base course
during spring thaw.

Note that each layered section must be

checked to ensure that an adequate thickness of material is used to protect the
thickness,

on the CBR of the

Requirements

Bituminous-Pavement

Bituminous-Pavement
Thickness Requirement. Thickness design requirements
are
given in Figure 9-54. page 9-72, in terms
of CBR and the design index determined.
Minimum thickness
requirements
are
shown in Table 9-19.

Minimum

Vol 1

Compaction
of the subgrade,
subbase, and
base course must meet the same requirements as for aggregate-surfaced
roads.
In
addition, an asphalt base course and pavement must be compacted
to CE-55 density
The compaction
criteria
of 98-100 percent.
and CBR requirements
for a bituminous
pavement
are summarized
in Table 9-20,
page 9-73.

Bituminous-Pavement
Mix. Bituminous-pavement-mix design consists of selecting the bitumen and aggregate
gradation,
blending aggregates to conform to the selected gradation, determining
the optimum bitumen (asphalt cement) content, and calculating
the
job mix formula.
Bituminous-mix
design is
beyond the scope of this manual and is described in detail in Chapter 4 of TM
5-337.

Table 9-79

layer based
layer.

32-8013,

in inches,

of pavement

and base for conventional

pavements

CBR
Design

III
I

,;

11

3li2

II ,:!,

3:!2

7:

4;2

1 a;2

1
1

In general, 50-CBR base course will only be used for classes E and F roads and streets.
Bituminous
surface treatment
(spray application).
Minimum total thickness
of pavement
plus base for classes A through D roads and streets
6 inches.
%uttiple
bituminous
surface treatment
(spray application).

will be

Road Design

9-71

50
40

30

20

30

20

15

tOQ6

Thickness, inches

Figure 9-54.

9-72

Road Design

Thickness design requirements for flexible pavements

: ,. :,j,:j::::
:,:,.
:,j:::..+:
y,;:>
,>::j,.:...
::::
,:;:,.:
.:.... :;::,:.
j,:;j:.:
,j:::::
>j::::,:.

T&/e 920.

Compaction criteria and CBR

structure

for a flexible-pavement

requirements
CBR
equirements
50, 80. 100
20 - 50
3 - 20

Layer
Pavement
Base course
Subbase
course
Select
material
Design
sub rade
(SC 8)P

Compaction
requlrsments
98 - 100%
98 - 100%
Asphalt:
Soil:
100 - 105%
100 - 105%
Cohesive:
y;chyionless:
0
Cohesive:
~o&sionless:
0

90 - 95%
95 90 - 95%
95 -

;;;or;z;ted
g
NOTES:
1. All lifts (excluding the pavement) In an Army
flexible avement must be at least 4 Inches.
2. A co Reslve soil Is one with a PI above 5.
3. A coheslonless soll Is one wlth a PI of 5 or
less.
4. Percent Compaction Is compared to CE 55
compactlve effort.
l

Adequate thickness above the subgrade

and above each layer together with adequate quality of the select material, subbase, and base courses to prevent detrimental shear deformation under traffic
and, when frost conditions are a factor,
to control or reduce the effects of frost
heave or permafrost degradation.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

7. Determine the total road-structure

ness and cover requirements.

Vol 1

thick-

a. Enter Figure 9-54 for each layer of

soil or aggregate with the following information:
l

Design index.
Design CBR values for subgrade, select,
and subbase materials.

b. Determine the minimum cover thickness. in inches, for each layer of the road
structure through Figure 9-54 and Table
9-19, page 9-71.
8. Determine the required percent
compaction in terms of CE 55 for each
layer from Table 9-20.
9. Draw the section of the bitumlnouspavement road structure. (See below.)

Minimum
required
cover

Layer
thickness

Layer

Compaction
effort

A stable, weather-resistant, wear-resistant, waterproof, nonslippery pavement.

Design Steps.
1. Estimate the number of passes of each type
of vehicle expected to use the road on a daily
basis.
2. Select the proper road class based upon
the traffic intensity from Table 9-8, page 9-59.

4=w

3. Determine the traffic category based

upon the traffic-composition criteria given
previously.

;=Y-A-B

4. Determine the design fndex from Table

9-10. page 9-59. or 9-12. page 9-60.
5. Check soils and construction aggregates
using standard criteria in Tables 5-9. page
5-12: 9-14, page 9-63; and 9-18, page 9-70.
--

Natural
subgrade
CBR =

6. Use Table 9-16 or 9- 17, page 9-66. to

determine compaction depth of the
subgrade.

3=X-A

I=Z-A-B-C

W = Minimum cover over base

Table 9-l 8)
X = rs,inimum cover over subbase
Figure 9-54)
Y = 6 inrmum cover over select
(Figure 9-54)
Z = Minrmum cover over compacted
subgrade (Figure Q-54)

Total thickness above subgrade = A + B + C + D

NOTES:
1. All layer depths, ~xfzfzt for the surface AC,
should be rounded up to the next full Inch for
construction purposes.
2. After all possible desl n sections are
determined, the final sect1on used should be
determined on the basis of an economic
analysis.

Road Design

$73

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Example (Bituminous-Pavement

Vol 1

Design):

Design the most economical bituminous

pavement for a 3-year design life capable of
sustaining the following traffic:
e

5.

Check soils and construction

a. Where can the CBR 30 material be

used? Table 9- 14, page 9-63, indicates this
material can be used only as a select
material (CBR 201 because the PI exceeds 5.

Avw

M998 HMMWV

1,000

M35A2 2 l/2-ton
(dual axle)

truck
500

M113A3 (13 tons)

40

MlAl

20

The soils data areSubgrade:

CL material, PI = 12, W = 14 percent
Natural CBR = 5
Compaction at 90- to 95percent CE 55,
CBR = 7

b. Where can the CBR 35 material be

used? Table 9-14 indicates that this
material can be used as a subbase with a
CBR 30 design because of the percent passing the No. 10 sieve.
6. The required depth of subgrade compaction = 15 inches.
7. Determine the total thickness and cover
requirements.
a. From Figure 9-54, page 9-72, the required cover for each layer is determined
for design index of 9.

Borrow:
CBR 30 at 90- to 95-percent CE 55
W = 8 percent, LL = 20, PI = 8
90 percent passing No. 10 sieve, 12
percent passing No. 200 sieve
CBR 35 at lOO- to 105-percent CE 55
W = 8 percent, LL = 15, PI = 5
40 percent passing No. 10 sieve, 10
percent passing No. 20 sieve
Base:
tion)

GP material at CBR 50 (meets grada-

1. Total average daily traffic = 1,560 (given).

2. Select road class E from Table 9-8, page
9-59. based upon average daily traffic of
1,560.
3. Select traffic category VII based upon
the presence of the MlAl tank.
4. Select design index 9 from Table 9-12,
page 9-60. Notice that the number of
vehicles per day (20) in this table refers to
the MlAl only, since the Ml 13A3 is considered as a Group 3 vehicle because of its
weigh t .

Road

er
Compacted
subgrade, CBR 7
Select, CBR 20
Subbase, CBR 30
Base, CBR = 50

Design

Required
Cover
18
8 l/4
5 314
4

After
Rounaing
18
9
6
4

b. From Table 9-19, page 9-71, the required minimum thickness for the base
course and surface asphalt is determined
for design index of 9.

Laver

Solution :

9-74

aggregate.

Base, CBR 50
Surface AC

Minimum
4
4 l/2

8. From Table 9-20, page 9-73, the required compaction is determined for each
layer.
Layer
Compacted subgrade
PI > 5 (cohesive)
Select, CBR 20
Subbase, CBR 30
Base, CBR 50
Surface AC

90 - 95 percent
90
100
100
98

- 95 percent
- 105 percent
- 105 percent
- 100 percent

j.

9. Draw the section of the bituminouspavement road structure.

,equired
:over

thickness

IC = 4

Layer

ISubbase
I CBR 30
I

zl

D = 6

1 8

Select
CBR 20

CE =
loo- 1054
I

. :

::

FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM

Special

Considerations

for

32-8013,

Open

Vol 1

Storage

Areas. In the design of open storage areas,

consideration will be given to any special
requirements necessary because of the use
of a particular area. In repair yards, for instance, the final-surface texture will be one
that will promote quick drying and will not
contribute to the easy loss of nuts, bolts,
and tiny parts. Mixtures in such areas will
contain approximately 50 percent coarse aggregate. Areas subject to an appreciable
amount of foot traffic will be designed to
avoid the occurrence of free bituminous
material on the surface.

CE =

I 90 - 95%

15

SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Special design considerations include frost
design, stabilized-base design, and geotextile design.
Frost Design

A=W

= 4.5
B=X-A
= 4
C=Y-A-B
= 4
D ; $-

A -B-C

W= Minimum cover over base

= 4pble
9-18, page 9-70)
X = Minimum cover over subbase
(FI ure 9-54, page 9-73)
= 6 (8 cannot be < 4 lift)
Y = Minimum cover over select
(Figure 9-54)
= 9: (f2 cannot be e 4 lift)
2 = Mmlmum cover over COmpaCtec
sub rade (Figure 9-54)
= 18 9D cannot be < 4 lift)

Total thickness above subgrade = A+B+C+D

and Similar Areas.

These areas
are provided only for the purpose of minimizing damage to vehicles using them accidentally or in emergencies; therefore, they
are not considered normal, vehicular traffic
areas. Normally only shoulders for class A
roads will be paved. Others will be surfaced with soils selected for their stability
in wet weather and will be compacted as required. Dust and erosion control will be
provided by means of vegetative cover,
anchored mulch, coarse-graded aggregate,
or liquid palliatives. Shoulders will not
block base-course drainage, particularly
where frost conditions are a factor. Where
paving of shoulders is deemed necessary,
the shoulders will be designed as a class F
road or street.

Shoulders

Normally, frost effects are not considered as

part of the design in TO road construction.
However, in the event that extremely severe
frost conditions exist or that frost design is
directed, an outline of the frost-design procedure is included in Appendix G of this
manual.
Stabilized-Soil

Design

The use of stabilized-soil layers (as

described in Chapter 5 of this manual and
in FM 5-410) within a road structure
provides the opportunity to reduce the overall thickness required to support a given
load. To design a road containing stabilized-soil layers requires the application of
equivalency factors to a layer or layers of a
conventionally designed pavement.
To qualify for application of equivalency factors, the stabilized layer must meet appropriate strength and durability requirements. An equivalency factor represents
the number of inches of a conventional
base or subbase which can be replaced by
1 inch of stabilized material. Equivalency
factors are determined as shown on Table
9-2 1, page 9-76, for bituminous-stabilized
materials and from Figures 9-55 and 9-56,
page 9-76, for materials stabilized with

Road Design

9-75

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

Table 9-21.

32-8013,

Vol 1

known. The equivalency factors from Flgure 9-55 are for subbase materials, and
those from Figure 9-56 are for base
materials.

Thickness criteria
EquivalencyFactors

Material

Base

Subbase

All-bltumlnous
concrete
GW, GP, GM, GC
SW, SP, SM, SC

1.15

2.30
2.00

1.oo
--

1.50

cement, lime, or a combination of fly ash

mixed with cement or lime. The selection
of an equivalency factor from the tabulation
is dependent upon the classification of the
soil to be stabilized. The selection of an
equivalency factor from Figures 9-55 and 956 requires that the unconfmed compressive strength (as determined according to
the American Society of Testing and
Materials Standard (ASTM) D1633) be

M[nlmum Thickness. The minimum thickness requirement for a stabilized base or

subbase is 4.0 fnches. The mfnimum thickness requirements for an asphalt pavement
are the same as shown for convention pavements in Table 9-19, page 9-71.
Appltcatton of EquluaZency Factors. The use
of equivalency factors requires that a road
be designed to support the design-load conditions. If using a stabilized base or subbase course, the thickness of a conventional base or subbase is divided by the
equivalency factor for the applicable stabilized soil. The following are examples for
the application of the equivalency factors:

2.4

2.2

0.7

1.4

0.6

1.0

200

400

600

a00

1000

Unconfined compressive strength, psi

Figure 9-55. Equivalency

factor for subbase
soils stabilized with cement, lime, or cement

and lime mixed with f/y ash

9-76

Road Design

0.5

200

400

600

800

1000

Unconfined compressive strength, psi

Figure 9-56. Equivalency factors for base

soils stabilized with cement, lime, or cement
and lime mixed with fly ash

.,..,:,..
..
::,..
:..,:.:.

,::.:.:::..,:::.:.:~:::.~.,:,~,:,: ;:.;y:

.j ,yj :,; : ; :j,: j: j .: i,.

: :

j ;:

:, ,: j

j ,: :

,: .,,p:

:, ,: ::j, :. : .: j : : :, j : i

::.c,: y::;:j:::j:,: < ;.:j

32-8013;

Vol 1

Assume an aggregate-surfaced
road has
been designed which requires a total thickness of 14 inches above the CBR 6 subgrade.
The minimum thickness of the 80
CBR base is 7 inches and the 15 CBR
subbase is 7 inches.
It is desired to replace the base and subbase with a lime-stabilized gravelly soil having an unconfined
compression
strength of 950 psi.

course is 4 inches/l.0
= 4.0 inches.
The final section would be 2 inches of asphalt
concrete and 9 inches of cement-stabilized,
gravelly soil. The base-course
thickness of
4.0 inches would also have been required
due to the minimum thickness of the stabilized base. The subgrade still has an
equivalent cover of 16 inches within the
newly designed 2 inches of asphalt concrete
and 9 inches of cement-stabilized,
gravelly
soil.

Solution:

Example

From Figure 9-55 the equivalency

factor for
the subbase is 2.20.
From Figure 9-56, the
equivalency
factor for the base is 1.10.
Therefore,
the thickness of the stabilized
subbase is 7.0 inches/2.20
= 3.18 inches,
and the thickness of the stabilized base is
7.0 inches/l. 10 = 6.36 inches.
However,
since the minimum lift thickness is 4
inches, the stabilized subbase must be 4.0
inches instead of 3.18 inches.
In addition,
the stabilized base lift must be rounded up
to the nearest full inch, so 6.36 inches is
rounded up to 7 inches.
Therefore,
the final thickness is 7.0 inches of base + 4.0
inches of subbase = 11.0 inches of lime-stabilized gravel.

Assume a conventional
flexible pavement
has been designed which requires 2 inches
of asphalt-concrete
surface, 4 inches of
crushed stone base, and 6 inches of subbase.
It is desired to construct an all-bituminous pavement.

Example

Example

1:

2:

Assume a conventional
flexible pavement
has been designed which requires a total
thickness of 16 inches above the subgrade.
The minimum thicknesses
of the asphalt
concrete and the base are 2 and 4 inches,
respectively,
and the thickness of the subbase is 10 inches.
It is desired to replace
the base and subbase with a cement-stabilized, gravelly soil having an unconfined
compressive
strength of 890 psi.
Solution:

.-

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

From Figure 9-55. the equivalency

factor for
a subbase having an unconfined
compressive strength of 890 is 2.0; and from Figure
9-56, the equivalency
factor for the base is
1.0. Therefore,
the thickness
of the stabilized subbase is 10 inches/2.0
= 5.0 inches,
and the thickness of the stabilized
base

3:

Solution:
The equivalency
factor from data in Table
9-21. for a base course is 1.15 and for a
subbase is 2.30. The thickness of asphalt
concrete required to replace the base is 4
inches/l.15
= 3.5 inches and the thickness
of asphalt concrete required to replace the
subbase is 6 inches/a.30
= 2.6 inches.
Therefore,
the total thickness of the all-bituminous pavement is 2 + 3.5 + 2.6 or 8.1
inches, which would be reduced to 8.0
inches.
Gcotcxtile8
The term geotextile refers to any permeable
textile used with foundation,
soil, rock,
earth, or any other geotechnical,
engineering-related
material as an integral part of a
human-made
project, structure. or system.
Geotextiles
are commonly referred to as geofabrics, engineering
fabrics. or just fabrics.
They serve four primary functions:
l

Reinforcement.

Separation.

Drainage.

Filtration.

Road Design

9-77

FM 5-43&0O-l/AFpAM

32-8013,

Vol

In many situations,. the use of these fabrics

can replace soil, saving tfme, materials, and
equipment costs. In TO construction, the
primary concern is with separating and reinforcing low load-bearing soils to reduce construction time.
Geotextile design is an emerging technology.
As such, each geotextlle manufacturer uses
its own design procedure, and a general
design procedure using the design criteria

9-78

Road Design

..:

..

-.::.:

..

::..

.,:

:.:..

:,.,

established in previous sections has yet to

be established. Nonetheless, Appendix H of
this manual outlines a typical geotextile
design procedure. Note that Appendix H
describes only one design procedure, and
the particular geotextile used in construction may require alterations to this procedure. Additional details on geotextiles and
their use are in Chapter 11 of FM 5-410.

:::....:

,.:

. . . .:.,.

.:,:::

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

.,

APPENDIXA

.-

32-8013, Vol 1

- METRIC CONVERSIONS
BV

TO OBTAIN

0.7646
202.0
0.45
3.367

cubic meters
gallons
cubic feet per set
gallons per set

decigrams
deciliters
decimeters
degrees (angle)
degrees (angle)
degrees (angle)
dekagrams
dekaliters
dekameters
drams
drams

0.1
0.1
0.1
60
0.01745
3,600
10
10
10
1.772
0 0625

grams
liters
meters
minutes
radians
seconds
grams
liters
meters
grams
ounces

ergs

9.486 x lo

BTU

fathoms
feet
feet
feet
feet of water
feet per min
feet per min
feet per min
feet per set
feet per set
feet per set
feet per set
feet per 100
foot pounds
foot pounds
foot pounds
foot pounds
foot pounds
foot pounds
foot pounds
foot pounds
foot pounds
furlongs

6
0.3048
0.36
0.333
0.4335
0.5080
0.01667
0.01136
1.097
0.5921
18.29
0.6818
1
1.206 x 1 O-3
1.356 x 10
5050 x 10-r
3241 x 1O-4
3766x10.
1.286 x lo.3
3.030 x 10-s
3.241 x lo-
2.260 x 1O-5
40

feet
meters
yards
lb per sq in
cm per sq in
feet per set
miles per hour
km per hour
knots per hour
meters per min
miles per hour
percent grade
BTU
ergs
horsepower hours
kilogram calones
kilowatt hours
BTU per min
horsepower
kg calories per mln
kilowatts
rods

3,785
0.1337
231
3.785 x
4.951 x
2.228 x
0.1183
1
0.06480
0.04167
980.7
15.43
103
103
0.03527
0.03215
2.205 x
3.960 x

cubic cm
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic meters
cubic yards
cubic feet per set
liters
grams (av)
grams
pennyweights (troy)
dynes
grams (troy)
kilograms
milligrams
ounces
ounces (troy)
pounds
BTU

MULTIPLY

BY

TO OBTAIN

MULTIPLY

acre feet
acres
acres
acres
acres
acres
atmospheres
atmospheres
atmospheres
atmospheres

43,560
43,560
4,047
1.562 x 1C3
5,645.38
4,840
76 0
29.92
33.90
14.70

cubic feet
square feet
square meters
square miles
square varas
square yards
cm of mercury
inches of mercury
feet of water
pounds per sq in

cubic
cubic
cubic
cubic

barrels
board feet
BTU
BTU
BTU
BTU per min
BTU per min
BTU per min
bushels

31.5
144sqinxl
In
0.2520
770.2
2.928 x 1 W4
0.02356
0.01757
17.57
1.244

gallons
cubic Inches
kilogram calories
foot pounds
kilowatt hours
horsepower
kilowatts
watts
cubic feet

centares
centigrams
centiliters
centimeters
centimeters
centimeters
centimeters
centimeter grams
centimeter grams
cm of mercury
cm of mercury
cm of mercury
cm of mercury
cm of mercury
cm per second
circular mils
cord feet
cords
cubic cm
cubic cm
cubic cm
cubic cm
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic feet per min
cubic feet per min
cubic feet per min
cubic feet per min
cubic inches
cubic inches
cubic inches
cubic meters
cubic meters
cubic meters
cubic meters
cubic yards

0.01
0.01
0.3937
0.01
393.7
10
1 x 10-s
7.233 x 1 O-5
0.01316
0.4461
136.0
27.85
0.1934
0.6
0.7854
4ftx4ftxlft
8ftx4ftx4ft
6.102 x lo-
1 x10.6
2.642 x 1O-4
10-3
2.832 x 1O-4
1,728
0.02832
0.03704
7.481
28.32
472.0
0.1247
0.4720
62.4
16.39
5.707 x 1 o-4
0.01732
1 xl06
35.31
1.308
2642
27

square meters
grams
liters
inches
meters
mils
millimeters
meter kilograms
pound feet
atmospheres
feet of water
kg of sq meters
pounds per sq ft
pounds per sq in
meters per min
square mils
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic meters
gallons
liters
cubic cm
cubic inches
cubic meters
cubic yards
gallons
liters
cubic cm per set
gallons per set
liters per set
lb of water per min
cubic cm
cubic feet
quarts (liquid)
cubic cm
cubic feet
cubic yards
gallons
cubic feet

yards
yards
yards per min
yards per min

feet

per
per
per
per

gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons per min
gills
grains (troy)
grams (troy)
grajns (troy)
grams
grams
grams
grams
grams
grams
grams
gram calories

min
min
min
min

i c3

10-3
1o-3

1O-3
1O-3

VEIES

Metric Conversions

A-l

FM 5_43&()()_1/AFPAM 321801 3, j/o1 1

.,-::.:.,.~,.j...::..j:J::.~,:::~~j.:,:i~~:.:.:,.~
:.r

METRIC CONVERSIONS
MULTIPLY

BY

TO OBTAIN

(continued)

MULTIPLY

BY

TO OBTAIN
.--r/

gram centimeters
gram centimeters
grams per cm
grams per cu cm

2.344 x 1 o.*
10-s
5.600 x 10s
62.43

kilogram calories
kilogram meters
pounds per inch
pounds per cu ft

hectares
hectares
hectograms
hecloliters
hectometers
hectowatts
horsepower
horsepower
horsepower
horsepower
horsepower
horsepower
horsepower

2.471
1.076 x 10
100
100
100
100
42.44
33,000
550
1.014
10.70
0.7457
745.7

acres
square feet
grams
liters
meters
watts
BTU per min
ft pounds per min
ft pounds per set
horsepower (metric)
kg calories per min
kilowatts
watts

inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches

2.540
103
0.03
0.03342
1.133
70.73
0.002458
0.07355
0.5781
5.204
0.03613

centimeters
mils

of
of
of
of
of
of
of

mercury
mercury
water
water
water
water
water

joules
joules
joules
joules
joules
joules

9.486 x 1 D4
107
0.7376
2.390 x 1 g4
0.1020
2.778 x 1 o.4

kilograms
kilograms
kilograms
kilograms
kilogram calories
kilogram calories
kilogram calories
kilogram calories
kilogram calories per min
kilogram meters
kilogram meters
kilograms par cubic meter
kilograms per cubic meter
kilograms per sq meter
kilograms per sq meter
kilograms per sq meter
kilograms per sq meter
kilograms per sq meter
kilditers
kilometers
kilometers
kilometers
kilometers

980,665
1 x103
2.2046
1.102 x 10s
3.968
3,088
1.588 x lo-3
1.162 x lo3
0.06972
9.302 x 10-s
9.807 x 1 O7
1 x 10-s
0.06243
9.878 x 1 F5
3.281 x 1C3
2.896 x 1 O-3
0.2048
1.422x 1g3
103
105
3,281
103
0.6214

A-2

Metric Conversions

VWES

atmcepheres
feat of water
poundspersqft
atmospheres
inches of mercury
ounces per sq in
pounds par sq ft
pounds per sq In
BTU
ergs
foot pounds
kilogram calories
kilogram meters
wan hours
dynes
grams
pounds
tons (short)
BTU
foot pounds
horsepower hours
kilowatt hours
kilowatts
BTU
ergs
grams par cu cm
pounds per cu ft
atmospheres
feet of water
inches of mercury
pounds per sq ft
pounds per sq in
liters
centimeters
feet
meters
miles

kilometers per hour

kilowatts
kilowatts
kilowatts
kilowatt hours
kilowatt hours
knots
knots

0.5396
56.92
4.425 x 1 O4
1.341
3,415
2.655 x lo6
1.853
1.152

knots per hour

BTU per min
11pounds per min
horsepower
BTU
foot pounds
kilometers per hour
miles per hour

links
links
liters
liters
liters
liters
liters

12
7.92
103
0.2642
1.057
5.885 x 1 V4
4.403 x 10

inches
inches
cubic centimeters
gallons
quarts (liquid)
cubic feet per set
gallons per set

meters
meters
meters
meters
meters
meters
microns
miles
miles
miles
miles per hour
miles per hour
miles per hour
milliers
milligrams
milliliters
millimeters
millimeters
millimeters
mils
mils
minutes (angle)
minutes (angle)
myriagrams
myriameters
myriawatts

100
3.2808
39.37
103
103
1.0936
10-B
5,280
1.6093
1,760
1.467
1.6093
0.8684
103
163
10-s
0.1
0.03937
39.37
0.002540
1gs
2.909 x 1 o-4
80
10
10
10

centimeters
feet
inches
kilometers
millimeters
yards
meters
feet
kilometers
yards
feet per second
kilometers per hour
knots per hour
kilograms
grams
liters
centimeters
inches
mils
centimeters
inches
radians
seconds (angle)
kilograms
kilometers
kilowatts

nautical miles
nautical miles

1.152
2,027

Yards

ounces
ounces
ounces
ouncaa
ounces
ouncea
ounces
ounces
ounces

8
437.5
28.35
0.0625
1.805
480
31.10
20
0.08333

drams
grains
grams
pQunds
cubic inches
grams (troy)
grams
pennyweights (troy)
pounds (troy)

24.75
33.60
28.87
444,823

cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic inches
dynes

(engineers)
(surveyors)

per minute
par minute

(fluid)
(troy)
(troy)
(troy)
(troy)

perches (masonry)
pints (dry)
pints (liquid)
pounds

miles

...................................................
;.:
..
,,, ............
...)
,,::,:,i,;,i,,,,i:,,,,,:::::,iiil~:::.:::::
....................................
...............
............................

.~.:..:.:.:.::.).~):.:.:.:.:.:.~.::.:.::.:.:

:...:.:(
.........

:.,:.~.i:::::.....:.:~.:.~.~.:

*.I.....:.:.:r,:j.::::::~:~;~:~~~~.~

:::

FM 5-430-00-l

~~,~~,~,.~.,.~.,.~

METRIC CONVERSlONS
--

BY

TO

pounds

453.6

grams

square

pounds

16

ounces

square

pounds
pound feet

32.17

Vol 1

pound feet

BY

TO

meters

1.196

square

miles

640

acres

MULTIPLY

OBTAIN

yards

square

miles

27.88

square

feet

centimeter

dynes

square

miles

2.590

square

kilometers

13,825

centimeter

grams

square

miles

3,613,040.45

square

varas

pound feet

0.1383

meter kilograms

square

miles

3.098

x lo6

square

yards

pounds

of water

0.01602

cubic feet

square yards

2.066

x 1V4

acres

pounds

of water

27.68

cubic inches

square yards

square

feet

pounds

of water

0.1198

gallons

square

yards

0.8361

square

meters

pounds

per cubic foot

16.02

kg per cubic meter

square

yards

3.228

pounds

Per cubic inch

27.68

grams

square

yards

1.356

poundals
x 10

per cu cm

miles

1.1664

square

varas

steradians

0.1592

hemispheres

steres

1 o3

liters

per foot

1.488

kilograms

pounds

per square

foot

0.01602

feet of water

pounds

per square

foot

4.882

kilograms

pounds

per square

inch

0.06804

atmospheres

temperature

(deg C) + 273

pounds

per square

inch

2.307

feet of water

temperature

(deg C) + 17.8

pounds

per square

inch

2.036

inches of mercury

temperature

(deg F) t 460

pounds

per square

inch

703.1

kg per square

temperature

(deg F)

pounds

per square

inch

144

pounds

per meter

x 1 O6

square

pounds

x 1 O-7

per sq meter

meter

per sq ft

absolute

temp (deg C)

temperature

1.8

absolute
0.555

temperature

tons

(long)

1,016

kilograms

tons

(long)

- 32

(deg F)

temp (deg F)
(deg C)

2,240

pounds

quadrants

(angle)

90

degrees

tons (metric)

103

kilograms

quadrants

(angle)

5,400

minutes

tons (metric)

2,205

pounds

quadrants

(angle)

1.571

radians

tons (short)

907.2

kilograms

67.20

cubic inches

tons (short)

2,000

pounds

57.75

cubic inches

tons (short)

per sq ft

9,765

kg per sq meter

tons (short)

per sq ft

13.89

pounds

degrees

tons

(short)

per sq ft

1.406

tons

(short)

per sq in

2,000

pounds

VFUaS

2.7777

feet

quarts
quarts

(dry)
(liquid)

radians

57.30

radians

3,430

minutes

radians

0.0637

quadrants

x lo6

per sq in

kg per sq meter
per sq in

reams

500

sheets

revolutions

360

degrees

revdutions

quadrants

watts

0.05692

BTU

revdutions

6,283

radians

watts

10

ergs per second

per min

revdutions

per minute

degrees

watts

44.26

revolutions

per minute

0.1047

radians

per set

watts

1.341

rev per
radians
rev per
rev per
degrees
radians
feet

second
per set per set
min per set
set per set
per second
per second

watts

102

kilowatts

watt hours

3.415

BTU

weeks

168

hours

yards

91.44

centimeters

yards

feet

Yards
yards

36

inches

0.9144

meters

revdutions

per minute

0.01667

revolutions

per min per min

1.745

revolutions

per min per min

0.01667

revolutions

per min per min

2.778

revdutions

per second

360

revdutions

per second

6.283

rods
seconds

._-_-

32-8013,

(continued)

MULTIPLY

OBTAIN

/AFPAM

x lo3
x 1O4

16.5
(angle)

4.848

x 10.

per second

centimeters

0.1550

square

inches

square

centimeters

100

square

millimeters

square

feet

2.296

square

feet

square feet

0.09290
3.587 x 1 o.8

square

miles

square feet

0.1296

square

varas

square feet

0.111

square

yards

square

inches

6.452

square

centimeters

square

inches

6,944

x 10.

square

feet

square

kilometers

247.1

square

kilometers

10.76

x 10

acres
square

feet

square

kilometers

1 x106

square

meters

square

kilometers

0.3861

square

miles

square

kilometers

1.196

x lo6

square

yards

square

meters

2.471

x 1O-4

acres

square

meters

10.764

square

meters

3.861

x 1W7

per min

horsepower

radians

square

x 10.

foot pounds
x 10-3

acres
square

meters

square

feel

square

miles

Metric Conversions

A-3

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

METRIC CONVERSIONS

:.,

: ..;. .. :. .:~..:...:,..>;.:.. :,

::.....
:.:.:.::>I..::
... . j

...

(continued)
Weight

Ounces

'9
l

9
Pounds

kg

Ian

Short
ton
4

1.101
2.20
3.31
4.41
5.51
6.61
7.72
8.82
9.92
11.02
22.05
33.07
44.09
55.12
66.14
77.16
88.18

Units of centimeters
Cm

Metric
ton

Metric_

0.10 0.2010.3010.40IO.5010.600.7010.8010.9011.00

Inch 0.04 0.08IO.1210.1610.20!0.240.28iO.31IO.3510.39

Fractionsofan inch

Length
Inches

L Ir

Feet

Feet 1 ml

fliles
/

0.62 1.61 1.09 0.91 3.28 0.30

1.24 3.22 2.19 1.83 6.56 0.61
1.86 4.83, 3.28 2.74 9.84 0.91
2.491 6.441 4.37 3.66,13.12 1.22
3.11I 8.051 5.47 4.57;16.40 1.52
3.73 9.661 6.56 5.49119.68, 1.83
4.35 11.271 7.66 6.40 22.97/ 2.13
4.97 12.671 8.75 7.32 26.25; 2.44
5.59 14.48' 9.84 8.23 29.53' 2.74
3.05
6.21 16.09 10.94 9.14
65.621 6.10
12.43 32.19 21.87 18.29 32.811
18.64 48.28 32.81
24.85 64.37 43.74
31.07 80.47 54.68
37.28 96.56 65.62 l
43.50112.6576.55ii
19.71128.7587.49
/ I
i/ !31.44328.0830.48

A-4

Metric Conversions

0.91
1.81
2.72
3.63
4.54
5.44
6.35
7.26
8.16
9.07
18.14
27.22
36.29
45.36
54.43
63.50
72.57

2.20
4.41
6.61
8.82
11.02
13.23
15.43
17.64
19.84
22.05
44.09
66.14
88.18
110.23
132.28
154.32
176.37
198.42
220.46

0.45
0.91
1.36
1.81
2.67
2.72
3.18
3.63
4.08
4.54
9.07
13.61
18.14
22.68
27.22
31.75
36.29
40.82
45.36

0.04
0.07
0.11
0.14
0.18
0.21
0.25
0.28
0.32
0.35
0.71
1.06
1.41
1.76
2.12
2.47
2.82
3.17
3.53

28.4
56.7
85.0
113.4
141.8
170.1
198.4
226.8
255.2
283.5
567.0
850.5
1,134.o
1,417.5
1,701.o
1,984.5
2,268.0
2,551.5
2,835.0

cu yd

cm

Ituft

cuyd

--_L_1

Volume

IIcm
m

kg

'ounds

Short
ton

>unces

0.037
0.074
0.111
0.148
0.185
0.212
0.259
0.296
0.333
0.370
0.741
1.111
1.481
1.852
2.222
2.592
2.962
3.333
3.703

0.76
35.:
27.0
54.0
1.53
70.f
81.0
108.0
3:82 176::
:z
1::'
135.0
4.59 211.1
162.0
189.0
5.35 247.;
216.0
6.12 282.5
6.88 317.E
243.0
270.0
7.65 353.1
0.5661 540.0 15.29 706.;
0.8501 810.0 22.94 1,059.d
1,080.o 30.58 1,412.E
1,350.o 38.23 1,765.;
1.700 1,620.O 45.87 2,118.:
1.982 1,890.O 53.52 2,472.C
2.265 2,160.O 61.16 2,825.:
2.548 2.430.0 68.81 3.178.:
2.83212,700.01 76.46131531.4

FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM
APPENDIX
__

B - GEOMETRIC

Vol 1

FORMULAS

(4) Segment

(1) Any triangle:

32-8013,

of circle:

A = 1/2bh
or:

Shy

c Sin Q,
=-----a

a = angle
in degrees

(2) Right triangle:

a-m

b-m
-GZ-?

(5) Segment

of circle:

rl_ L Pa
A = -? = 360

(3) Circle:
A-32
A = 0.7854

D2

C=xD

A = area

V = volume

h = height

r = radius

b = length of base

D = diameter

c = hypotenuse

z = 3.1416

C = circumference

L = length

of arc

K = length of chord
(6) Regular polygons.
The area of any regular polygon (all sides equal,
Example problem:
the square of the lengths of one side and the factors.
sides is 6 x 6 x 4.828, or 173.81 square inches, See factors in table.

/I

POLYGON

1 No. of sides

I/

y:;;;
1.720

jI

;
7

2.598
3.634

II

;
10

I;

m
b

FACTORS

i No. of sides

Factor

all angles equal) is equal to the product of

Area of a regular octagon having 6-inch

Factor
4.828
6.182
7.694
9.366
11.196

ii

(9) Cube:
V = b3

!
/j

i,
1II
(10) Rectangular
V = ablb;!

parallelepiped

a
(7)

Rectangle

and parallelogram:

A = ab
(11)

-7

/!.Y

(12)
(8) Trapezoid:
A = 1/2a(bl

Prism or cylinder:

V = a x area of base

Pyramid

or cone:

V = (1/3)a x area of base

+ b2)
(13)

j?

Sphere:
V =

(4&T?

5 $

A=4i?

b2

Geometric formulas

B-1

FM 5-43)()O-

.q?:
;I:.jT:.:
:ii:,i
3.:
~:~+..y:~j::j:::
:::,j;;.
i:::.:,,i,.::::.il:il:l~~~~~~~
.:j::ji~~:?:~.j.i::i:::~::::ii:::.::i:.i:i.i,:i::i(i,.~.i::~.~.i
,:j.:::.:.
,,,:,:::;:~,

32-80 13, j/o1 1

1 /A FPAM

GEOMETRIC FORMULAS

(continued)

a2-C2-b2

SinA-!

t?-Z-a2

CosA-i

c2 - a2 t t?

TanA-:

Right triangle
To find

a
Sin
Sp2

Oblique

I
Given

b
- Sin

d-b2+c?-2bcCosA

c
- Sin C

t?-a2+C2-2acCosB

a+b+c
t?=$+$-2abCosC

triangle
To find

area
qs(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)

180 - (AtB)

a,A,B
a,b,A
a,b,c

B-2

s,n B _ bsin
a
tanA-----

Geometric formulas

a sin C
b-a cos C

a sin B
sin A

a sin C
sin A

a2sin Bsin C
2 sin A

b sin C
sin B
da2tb2-2abcosC

-ab sin C
2

::::.:.

: :: ::.::.: (.:........
.::..........1.,(........
..,.
>:..:.:.::...,~,~.....,.,..,.(
::.:

.....:.. . .
. ....... ...................../.i.
~..C.............~,~.......~....
. ....._........~.......~.................

...
/.,.......,....,,,,,,,,,,..,..,.....~..,

:,,,

.::...i.,..,...,:,:,:~::,~~:
.....I... FM 5_43()_0()_1/AFPAM 321801 3, vol 1

...,......,.................
i...
. . . .:,::::.
. . . . . . .:;. .:.,..
. . . . . .. _,,,,,,,,,,:,:,:,:,.,.;;:.:..::
..... ...... . . ..~~~.I~~~.........i,.,,,~,,,,,~,,,,~,~:~~
. . .. ... .. . . . . . .: .:,. .
.,,/,.,. . . .
,,,,,,,_,,,,,,,,,,,_,,
,,,,,
:::::

,.,,

GEOMETRlC

FORMULAS

(continued)
Degree

Degree
of Angle

II

::,:,;:

,,,.,,,,,,,,,,

Cowcanl

Slno

Cotangent

Tangent

0.000

1.000

1.000

90

0.122

8.206

0.123

8.144

1.008

0.993

83

0.139

7.185

0.141

7.115

1.010

0.990

82

0.156

6.392

0.158

6.314

1.012

0.988

81

10

0.174

5.759

0.176

5.671

1.015

0.985

80

11

0.191

5.241

0.194

5.145

1.019

0.982

79

12

0.208

4.810

0.213

4.705

1.022

0.978

78

13

0.000

of Angle

Cosine

Secant

0.225

4.445

0.231

4.331

4.011

1.026

1.031

0.974

0.970

77

76

14

0.242

4.134

0.249

15

0.259

3.864

0.268

3.732

1.035

0.966

75

16

0.276

3.628

0.287

3.487

1.040

0.961

74

17

0.292

3.420

0.306

3.271

1.046

0.956

73

Degree

Degree
of Angle

Codne

Secant

Cotangent

Tangent

TRIGONOMETRIC

Coeecant

Sine

of Angle

FUNCTIONS

Geometric formulas

B-3

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-801 3, Vol 1

j.:;~:,~~:,.~~.~,i:
.i:..I:::.
.,..
::Ij.:..i.j.:
.:,,
:,i,l:::~.i::,:i:~,,:::~:i.:
.:.I:.,;.::,;,
~lI~~,j!(.::j,j~,l~~.:.:~
.:..
:::.>.::..j::
.~.:.<.:.,j:I::

GEOMETRIC FORMULAS

Degree
of Angle

Cosine

Secant

Cotangent

(continued)

Tangent

TRIGONOMETRIC

Cosecant

Sine

Degree
of Angle

FUNCTIONS

B-4

Geometric formulas

.,.

::.:::.::::

,,.,.
,.,.,..,
/......,
...................,.....
,.. . .,.,.
.,
.,..
.:.,.,

.,.....,../...,l..
,. ., ,,

,.

.:.:....,..:e.
:w>:,., :.:,x:..1, .A>. . .. .
:::.:.:.:+:.:
..y.:

., .,.

..

,..I

,.,(.(....................,......,......,,..,,..
.A...,

,.,,.,,,./,.,.i,.,.,,,.,.,,,.,~,~,~,,~,~~~~;

:.:.:.:.:.:::.:.:.:.:.:.;.:,:.:.~.::::::::::;:;::~:~::::::::~,.:;:,:::;:~

:,:,i:,:,i,,,,,,,.,.,,,,,,,,,.,.,,,.,

,::

;::,

,,:,:,:,,,,,,,,,,,,,;,,

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

,:_i,i::il:31ilil~llii:

APPENDIX

HYDROLOGIC

32-8013,

Vol 1

AND HYDRAULIC TABLES AND CURVES

PRECIPITATION

TABLES

Table C- 1, page C-2, provides local data for

use in designing drainage systems as discussed in Chapter 6.

HYDROLOGIC SUPPLY CURVES FOR

OVERLAND FLOW
Figures C-l through C-7, pages C-7
through C-13, represent the peak runoff
rates from individual storm events of
various durations, all of which have the
same average frequency of occurrence.

These curves are computed from Hortons

equation given fn Chapter 6, using a retardance coefficient in n = 0.04 and hydraulic
gradient S = 1 percent.

HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS
OF
SELECTED DRAINAGE CHANNELS
Tables C-2 through C- 10, pages C- 14
through C-22, present commonly used ditch
sections, with cross-section areas and
hydraulic radius, to facilitate selection of
ditch size and shape.

Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

C-l

Table C-l.

s
Q

s
Q

3
f

z
c,

~_
Jan

cl

for selected stations

Yk3WS

4.

s
Q

monthly, and maximum 24-hour precipitation

throughout the world

Mean monthly, maximum

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

JWl

JUI

Aw

SOP

act

Nov

oec

Annual

Recorded

ALASKA
Barrow
0.15

0.20

0.13

0.12

0.14

026

089

0.73

0.49

0.56

0.20

0.36

4 23

26

maxmum

0 70

023

0.28

020

0.30

0.36

0.84

0.43

1.00

0.41

0.26

0.26

1.00

18 19

snowfall

2.60

2.70

2.00

2.70

1.80

0.40

100

070

0.30

7.90

4.30

3.90

33.00

21-23

13.62

11.16

10.86

8.39

6.60

8.07

11.61

12.22

20.18

19.96

15.86

150.68

30-32

5.87

5.36

5.70

4.44

5.67

425

334

6.06

7.04

7.14

5.33

807

7.10

470

0.60

040

0.20

0.90

7.40

3230

Mean
24.hour
Mean

Kerchrkan
Mean
24 hour maxrmum
Mean

1000

snowfall

1213

807
0

29-30

Teller (65" 16' N. 166"

20

Mean

1.13

0.53

0.34

0.69

0.51

0.62

186

146

1.74

0.71

0.79

0.52

10.94

8-13

24.hour maximum

2.10

058

0.35

0.70

0.60

050

100

110

2.20

0.50

0.72

0.55

2.20

6-10

12.00

710

6.70

6.50

2.40

0.20

2.20

7.50

8.20

52.90

5-9

Mean
Dutch

snowfall
Harbor

Mean

6.32

6.12

4.92

4.19

4.33

2.82

1.89

2.45

5.45

7.39

5.81

6.92

56.61

19-23

24.hour mawmum

3.73

3.75

2.47

3.46

2.74

300

160

208

2.53

3.08

3.22

2.31

3.75

19-23

6.70

0.10

0.50

5.80

10.80

69.70

19 23

Mean

snowfall

15.60

1970

1050

CANADA
Edmonton,

Alberta.

Mean
24.hour

maxrmum

0.76

0.67

0.67

0.80

1.86

3.26

3.57

247

1.40

0.74

0.73

0.75

17.67

0.70

0.80

0.60

0.83

2.80

220

216

268

1.37

1.03

0.80

0.70

2.80

15

5.39

508

4 53

425

3.54

3 54

3.74

3.58

3.78

5.39

6.06

4.92

53.80

52

11.36

1284

0.84

8.79

7.11

783

7 72

9.76

11.42

13.11

12.27

14.05

69.05

57

1.81

2.99

3.62

201

228

154

2.36

2.80

3.35

3.15

362

73

7.99

10.63

16.50

18.62

9.06

7.20

15.47

11.46

124.77

18.15

18.15

2508

2958

18.54

23.95

32.69

19.93

158.10

19

494

520

6.59

5.55

7.80

11.18

11 18

13

72

St Johns, NewfoundIan Id:

Mean
Maximum
24.hour maximum

2.44

3.31

CENTRALAND

SOUTH AMERICA
Puerto Earrros. Guatem Iala
(15' 35' N. 88" 35' VI):
Mean

1146

Maxmum

25.94
6.75

24~hour maxrmum
Fortateza. Etrazil(3"42

8.86

3.82

26.97

12.43

655

5.30

3.70
1465
4.69

3.61

425

s.

38- 3O'w)
Mean
Maximum
24.hour maxmum

3.35

6.93

11.77

13.46

9.61

18.27

25.12

26.61

32.40

26.14

9.61

9 45

7 40

701

575

4.72
1590
350

213

110

0.67

0.51

0.55

1.54

5634

1043

661

2.99

3.58

3.76

0.98

10941

72

2 76

1.57

2.17

1.81

5.20

961

59

2.80

Table C-l.

EUROPE AN0 ICELAND

London, England:
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maximum
Berlin, Germany
Mean
Maumum
24.hour maximum
Prague, Czachoslavakia:
Mean
Maximum
24.hour maximum
Budapest Hungary:
Mean
Maximum
24.hour maximum
Helsinki, Finland.
Mean
Maximum
24-hour mawmum
Trondheim. NorwayMean
Maximum
24.hour mawmum
Corfu. Greece
Mean
Maximum
24.hour maximum
Stockholm, Sweden.
Mean
Maximum
24.hour maxlmum
Reylqawk, Iceland
Mean
Maximum
24hour maxlmum

Mean monthly, maximum monthly, and maximum 24-hour precipitation

throughout the world (in inches) (continued)

act

for selected stations

Y6W-S
Recorded

Nov

oec

Annual

2.61
5.91
1.40

2.28
3.98
1.30

2.29
6.38
1.50

23.99
38.19
2.40

62
68
65

1.69
4.25
1.77

1.77
5.28
0.99

1.69
4.65
1.28

1.89
4.49
0.62

22.86
31.61
2.66

Bo
80
15

2 24
4.80
1.57

1.65
5.35
1.60

1.22
4.17
1.22

1.18
3.70
1.13

0.94
3.27
0.80

19.25
27.52
2.17

70
70
15

2.09
7.05
2.52

1.97
5.04
3.31

2.01
4.88
2.44

2.60
5.16
1.61

2.09
5.79
1.57

1.89
4.29
1.50

25.20
37.05
3.31

35
31
30

1.81
4.61
1.87

2.24
7.56
1.82

2.91
650
1.64

2.52
5.91
2.12

2.60
5.79
2.12

2.48
5.94
1.13

2.01
4.76
1.56

24.37
33.90
2.12

71
87
36

150
4.07
130

1.73
4.54
1.00

2.24
4.64
1.66

2 95
640
2 23

3.27
6.82
1.42

3.39
6.70
2.24

3.11
9.95
1.65

2.56
8.64
2.58

31.10
56.67
2.58

50
44
31

3 70
13.35
2.83

2 45
4.09
1 85

1.05
4.75
1.61

0 28
1 14
102

056
4.29
335

2.82
6.65
3.23

5.02
21.50
5.91

7.05
15.39
5.08

9.54
13.95
3.90

50.48
66.75
5.91

38
26
26

1.08
3.03
0.81

1 07
3.54
1.46

1.44
3.31
1.82

1.63
5.08
1.26

2.37
7.28
2 62

2.59
484
2 69

1 75
5.67
1.66

1.98
6.85
1.29

1.53
3.15
1.59

1.31
3.07
1.14

18.64
28.27
2.69

51
51
38

2.72
7.21
2.23

2.44
5.90
0.87

1.89
2.95
0.78

1.93
3.64
1.16

1.89
4 63
1.07

2.01
6 49
1.18

3.54
5.99
1.07

3.43
7.12
1.30

3.74
6.87
1.73

3.50
7.35
2.17

34.20
50.83
2.23

50
19
19

May

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

1.88
4.88
1.60

1.57
4.13
1.10

1.58
3.94
0.90

1.60
3.98
1.20

1.75
4.09
180

2.03
7.20
2.40

2.24
4.88
2.30

2.23
6.50
1.80

1.95
5.71
1.60

1.69
3.94
0.97

1.38
4.88
0.85

1.57
5.28
0.50

1.54
4 17
1 55

1.89
5.71
1.27

2.36
5.59
1.73

3.07
9.06
2.59

2.32
6 57
2.66

0.87
2.36
0.53

0.83
2.01
0.56

1.10
2.40
0.73

1.54
4.33
1.30

236
6.50
1.28

2.76
6.18
1.98

2.56
5.67
2.17

1.46
3.94
1.34

1.22
3.11
1.38

1.77
4.33
1.26

2.28
3.82
1.69

2.91
5.51
1.69

2.91
8.31
2.20

1.77
4.61
0.73

1.46
3.62
0.83

1.38
4.45
0.96

1.42
3.94
1.46

1.77
4.16
1.48

3.43
11.45
1.68

2.87
8.60
1.91

2.24
8.31
1.96

1.81
6.37
0.99

7 72
17.13
5.47

6.11
11.26
3.23

4.18
9.22
2.17

0.98
3.35
0.53

0.91
3.90
0.84

3.86
6.21
1.30

3.31
9.54
1.36

JUll

Jul

Ag

-P

Table C-l.

ASIA
Sapporo, Hokkaldo
(Japan)
Mean
Maxlmum
24.hour

mawmum

Mean monthly, maximum monthly, and maximum 24hour

throughout the world (continued)

Mar

precipitation

for selected stations

Years
Recorded

NOV

oec

4.60
ii.80
400

4.40
a.30
1.70

400
780
2 90

40 09
53.50
4.90

30
22
44

4.60
6.10
2.40

4.40
5.70
2.60

4.20
7.00
2.00

2.10
2.70
1.10

41.80
55.20
5.80

6
6
6

460

4.60
9.60
4.60

7.70
6.60
7.80

4.80
lo.80
3.90

2.60
6.00
2.70

1.80
390
1.80

53.30
65.60
7.80

7 70
22 30
4 30

750
18.60
BOO

4.60
1200
8.90

8.20
20.00
5.40

5.10
10.90
330

4.20
7.50
1.90

4.M)
9 10
2.20

64.80
92.50
890

341
5.90
500

4 74
1226
4 a0

1046
16.33
6.90

12.09
21.33
7.70

7.02
16.43
9.60

3 33
17.94
a.80

2.50
5.65
3.40

1.39
7.07
3.30

52.15
79.09
9.60

21
21
29

0.75
2.80
1.14

4 21
12.68
260

6 22
22 56
9 61

0.74
18.11
4.29

858
15.67
4.49

4.96
11.61
4.53

2.91

1a1
6 85
2 87

043
1.81
1.30

40.18

7.56
2.80

61.02
9.61

32
32
32

2.93
11.40
3.78

5.44
17.16
6.22

1150
48.84
20.50

1552
34 38
12.63

15 01
30.08
21 02

14.22
3431
11.14

10.11
30.60
7.96

4.55
23.98
11.50

1.70
a 82
5.88

1.15
490
3.58

85.16
119.72
21.02

53
47
53

0.09
0.62
0.50

0.37
1.73
1.37

0.63
1.89
1.22

1.13
2 28
1.30

2 46
6 96
309

7.00
14 46
4 77

5.50
11.39

4.89

1.76
5.26
2.31

0.59
164
1.26

0.39
i a9
1.13

0 15
0.46
026

20.23
28.70
4.89

44
20
22

0.03
0 13
0.06

0 06
0.37
0.17

0.22
0 79
0.31

0 34
1 35
0 67

0 96
3 40
107

2 91
6 47
2.86

1.91
4 33
2.38

0.76
2.09
1.61

0.20
0 66
0 33

0 15
138
0.69

0.10
0 a9
069

7 68
13 69
2.86

15
15
10

Jan

Feb

3.50
I3 20
2.80

2.50
4.60
1.90

2.40
5.50
1.80

2.20
500
420

2 70
4.90
2.80

2 80
7 30
4 70

1.60
260
1.00

0.90
1.60
0.W

2.10
2.60
1.10

3.10
550
1 40

3.00
5.30
i a0

1.90
3.40
1 60

2.20
5.90
2.30

3.60
6.50
2.50

E$zl

a.56

4.50
690
2.00

3.90
7.30
2.60

1.20
3 26
290

Jutl

Jul

Aw

3.30

a20
490

3 70
1120
430

5.00
11 00
4.60

3 40
7 40
2.00

5 10
1580
580

630
9.10
3.50

8.20
14 a0
5 90

600

11.a0

2.50

490
9 a0
3 40

4.60
7.10
2.00

500
a60
250

4.90
9 60
390

1.47
5.11
2.90

1.78
533
3.80

2.76
7.08
4.60

035
2.17
1.22

0.55
2.32
1.06

0.67
2.91
1.26

1.27
a.43
3.92

1.75
7.94
2.18

0.16
0.91
0.64

0 04
0.16
0.09

ckl

Annual

Urakawa. Hokkaldo
(Japan)
Mean
Maxtmum

24.hour mawmum
Kobe, Honshu (Japan
Mean
Maximum
24.hour
Hamada.

mawmum
Honshu

(Jai pan)

Mean
Maximum
24.hour

maxmum

Gensan. Korea
Mean
Mawmum
24.hour mawmum
Yunnan. Chma (25 017 N.
102 54 E)
Mean
Maximum
24.hour maximum
Hongkong, Chma:
Mean
Mtimum
24.hour maximum
Tientsin. China,
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maxtmum
Urga. Mongolia (47 :i5 N.
106 50 E)
Mean
Mawmum
24.hour maximum

Table C-l.

ASIA (mntmued)
Singapore, China
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maxrmum
Oaken. Manchurii:
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maximum
Manchouli:
Mean
Maximum
24-hour mawmum
Aden. Arabia:
Mean
Maximum
24.hour maximum
Cherrepunji. Indra:
Mean
Maximum
24-hour mexrmum
Karachi, Pakistan
Mean
Maximum
24.hour maximum
Trichinopoly, India,
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maximum
AFRICA
Casablanca. Morocm
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maximum
Huambo. Angola.
Mean
Maxmum
24.hour maxImum
Cairo. Egypt
Mean
Maximum
24.hour maxrmum

Mean monthly, maximum monthly, and maximum 24-hour precipitation

throughout the world (continued)

Jefl

Feb

Mar

Apr

988
14.13
6.93

6.62
24.98
4.30

7.40
19.74
4.66

7.64
14.92
2.97

6.65
10.79

0.50
190
1 40

0.30
1.10
1.10

0.70
3.50
1.80

0 10
0.40
0.10

0.10
0.20
0.10

0.30
3.31
2.20

for selected stations

JUI

Aug

SeP

act

Nov

DeC

6.77
13.56
3.91

7 95
10 al
4 17

6.77
1726
5.20

8.07
12.06
6.02

9.92
15.15
4.02

10.55
16.91

4.92

685
14.08
3.46

1.00
2.60
1.90

1.70
4.30
2.20

1.80
3.30
2.70

6.40
16 00
7.50

5.10
15.30
6 40

4.00
1270
4 10

1 10
230
1.50

0.10
0.50
0.30

0.10
0.70
0.40

0.60
2.30
1.30

1.70
4.30
190

2.90
6.10
1.10

2.40
5.60
2.30

1.30
3.30
1.40

0.20
1.58
1.40

0.40
6.57
3.00

0.20
3.67
2.60

0.10
1.40
1.40

0.10
1.34
1.00

0.03
0.62
0.60

0.10
1.97
140

0.45
8.07
1.12

2.72
5.39
1.32

9.38
19.65
2.60

28.19
52.05
10.20

48.28
128.27
16.90

95.92
169.92
36.40

98.51
147.44
21.08

0 48
336
0.39

0.36
2.94
1.15

0.21
3.83
0.21

0.11
4.75
0.70

0.06

0.57
10.59
2.04

0.96
8.02
4.32

0.48
3.06
1.86

040
1 26

1.79
7.68

3.18
10.76

067

3 74

2.03
4.71
1.14

1.98
4.92
1.13

2.37
7 02
0.76

8 71
1740
1 31

8.87
19.87
104

8.42
12.02
1 50

0 24
1.14
1 70

0.16
0.63
0.61

JlJn

Annual

Years
Recorded

4.35

95.07
14.03
6.93

52
21
21

100
2.70
1.80

0.50
0.90
0.60

24.10
44.30
7.50

25
19
25

0.30
150
1.00

0.20
0.60
0.50

0.10
0.40
0.20

9.90
14.40
2.30

20
20
7

0.10
1.36
130

0.10
2.23
2.20

0.10
1.28
0.60

0.10
1.55
1.10

1.80
8.57
3.00

79 84
97.83
22.6 1

37 98
99.41
24.86

21 26
51.73
21.62

3.23
14.02
3.23

0.31
9.61
0.15

424.07
560.27
36.40

20
20
5

3.10
18.63
7.86

1 69
14 15
5.41

0 65
15.35
8.11

0.02
1.56
0.52

0.13
4.66
0.86

0.20
2.56
1.83

7.56
28.00
8.11

83
83
18

7.21

1.48
366
1.87

1.47
3 30
2 12

3 88
961
3 81

4.65
1080
3.26

7.06
27.43
12.56

554
13.68
6.21

2.77
12.98
5.34

33.68
51.11
12.56

61
18
18

1 24
3.96
1 24

0 78
2 62
3.01

0 22
0.89
0.26

0
0.01
011

0 01
0 16
0 04

0.42
2 19
1 80

1 21
4 68
1 27

2.76
7 26
2.54

2.59
7.69
2.58

15 61
21.28
3.01

22
28
10

6 06
10.93
1.20

1.08
6.93
0 28

0
0

0 09
0 36

0 82
2 48
0.49

5 14
1053
3.04

8.94
12.38
243

9.48
14.93
2 63

57.61
87.00

6
6
2

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0 08
0.55
0 57

0.08
0.59
0 38

0.20
1 06
1 15

1 16
2 48
1.70

26
21
26

1.85
0.15

..

32-8013,

Vol 1

..

Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

C-6

::

Table C-l.

Mean monthly, maximum monthly, and maximum 24-hour precipitation for selected stations
thrc ghout the world (in inches) continued)
L

1
Jan

Feb

Mar

Years

act

Apr

*Y

Jun

JUI

17.44
29.09
5.83

17.62
29.61
9.57

19.82
35.43
6.73

13.43
31.56
7.44

14.70
41.61
lg.65

9.36
23.23
7.83

4.61
12.36
4.49

130.23
181.22
19.65

15
15
-._

NOV

NEW ZEALAND.
AUSTRALIA AND
NEW GUINEA
Finschafen. New Guinea
(6 03 S. 147 52 E):
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maximum
Darwin. Australia:
Mean
Maximum
24-hour maximum
Daly Waters. Australia;
Mean
Memum
24hour maximum
Brisbane. Australia:
Mean
Maximum
24hour maxknum
Weltington. New Zealand:
Mean
Maximum
24hour maximum
ARCTIC
(not included previously)
Jan Mayen (70 59 N. 8
20 W):
Mean
Maximum
Coopermine. Canada:
Mean
Maximum
Mean snowfall
U&n. Siberia:
Mean
Maximum
Average thickness of
snow cover at Anadyr
ANTARCTIC
Lii America:
1929 snowfall (unmelted
depth in inches)

3.13
7.56
2.11

4.lr2
10.59
4.17

3.94
8.31
2.64

8.56
17.66
8.82

13.60
29.64
6.68

15.63
27.86
11.65

12.87
22.65
5.12

9.66
21.88
7.17

4.17
23.74
4.25

0.67
10.27
1.18

0.16
1.53
1.34

0.08
2.56
1.69

0.12
3.00
1.06

0.51
2.31
1.97

2.17
6.28
3.56

4.86
14.57
2.76

10.39
22.36
7.87

61.73
87.22
11.65

52
56
28

6.21
23.16
1.74

6.45
13.22
3.25

4.79
14.50
2.60

1.00
4.39
2.76

0.16
0.26
0

0.32
0.46
0.11

0.06
0.56
0.28

0.14
0
0

0.27
0.93
0.79

0.83
1.42
0.30

2.06
10.42
1.34

4.08
15.76
3.60

26.37
43.25
3.60

43
12
3

6.50
27.72
18.30

5.40
40.39
10.60

5.70
34.04
11.20

3.90
15.26
5.50

2.80
13.65
5.60

2.70
14.03
6.00

2.20
a.46
3.50

2.00
14.67
4.90

2.00
5.43
2.50

2.50
9.99
3.70

3.80
12.40
4.50

4.w
13.99
6.60

45.40
68.26
18.30

63
91
63

3.30
10.13
4.50

3.19
8.89
6.30

3.29
9.94
5.70

3.80
12.15
4.90

4.76
11.60
5.70

4.67
9.53
3.00

5.55
12.17
3 10

4.43
9.66
3.70

3.99
11.05
3.80

4.19
12.94
3.50

3.44
9.99
2.70

3.30
12.46
3.56

48.11
67.66
6.30

69
69
63

154
3.41

1 69
4.09

1.10
3.03

0.94
3.07

0.51
1.41

0.59
1.62

0 79
4.05

1.06
4.05

252
4 75

2.20
4.80

1.42
3.66

0.98
4.14

15.34
____

7
16

0.44
0.74
3.50

0.56
2.10
5.60

0.73
1.95
7.30

0.82
3.45
6.80

0.62
0.69
3.90

0.66
2.34
2.96

1.34
1.84
0.10

1.76
3M
0.40

1 19
1.95

1.01
2.23
9.10

0.53
0.90
5.30

10.46
____

4.70

0.80
2.20
6.60

5
7
_._.

0.63
2.28
12.60

0.56
1.85
17.60

0.39
0.67
20.30

0.49
0.96
21.50

0.43
1.08
17.70

0.50
0.94
1.60

1.61
2.11
_...

1.79
2.64

2.09
4.70
0.10

165
6.16
1.70

0.54
0.88
4.60

0.96
2.38
8.50

11.84
-._

8
0
. ..

7.30

12.70

24.20

5.M)

7.60

16.20

8.90

2.40

2.00

2.90

2.30

103.50

1130

58.20

FM 5_430_00_j/AFPAM
23

..::::::j:i::..:;.i; .J..::..,:.,:/.::.;i.,:/:.~\,::::~.~j,.,:
::i,i:::i:G<
,::,
tc-i

.:. ..

32-8013, j/o1 1

8.0

1.S

1.0

0.S

0.0

Duration

of supply

in minutes

1 SUPPLY

Duration

Note:

L - effective

length of overland

tc = critical duration of supply,

storage as negligible.
u = rate of supply,

Figure C-l.

C-8

of supply

or channel
in minutes,

CURVE

NO.

0.6

in minutes

flow, in feet.
assuming

surface

in inches per hour.

Rates of overland flow corresponding to standard supply curves, supply curve number
0.4 and 0.6; n = 0.40, S = 1 percent

Hydrologic

and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

. _

.Z.

.:

:..(. ? ,,,,:: j .:

.,
.
.
.....:,
. .>:;
:,.:..:,
,.:.,,,,:
.y.
. ..... . .>:.
,,>,.:.
..:,,.
,,,..:,..: .,.::.
,.,::.
:..,:: ..,:. ,: :, ,:..... :
.A.

,,

.:::.:.:...::..

,,

.:.

. ,....

.(..:

30

20

IO

,,,,

.:...

:.,..:

.
.,...,.
:;;

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1

80

40

&ration

of supply

in minutes

Duration

of supply

in minutes

TO

lO

Note:

L = effective

length of overland

or channel

tc = critical duration of supply, in minutes,

storage as negligible.
u = rate of supply,

flow, in feet.
assuming

surface

in inches per hour.

Figure G-2. Rates of overland flow corresponding to standard supply curves, supply curve
numbers 0.8 and 1.0; n = 0.40, S = 1 percent

Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

C-9

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

8
h

a
_c

32-801 3, j/o1 1

IO

20

:.::i:.:Tl,j:.:>,
.,,...:~~.....I,~.:
::..::::::..:::.:::.::
.:..
~.I~:.:.:i.~:~~.:l.::::;::i::.:.::,~l:i.:
.:,.
:,:,:
,,,,.
;:,..;

30
Duration

IO

__

40

of supply

-_
30

20

Duration

Note:

L = effective

length of overland

SUPPLY

CURVE

50

60

70

._

40

of supply

or channel

tc = critical duration of supply, in minutes,

storage as negligible.
CT= rate of supply,

70

IO

in minutes

NO.

1.4

in minutes

flow, in feet.
assuming

surface

in inches per hour.

Figure C-3. Rates of overland flow corresponding

to standard supply curves, supply curve
numbers 1.2 and 7.4; n = 0.40, S = 1 percent

C-10

Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

....:i::+?.
-.,..

,... :. ..:

.. . .

. ..
.....
.~:::~:..j.:::. :.,:

,::

:.:..A..

. . ,. .: .

..,...... ,.,. .,........

. . . .

,,,,,,.,.,.,.,.,.,.

,.,.,,..

:.; . . ., ,.,.,,.,. .,...,.,

::::.::::.:.:

j;.:;

..

:..

::~,iii:,:,,:::i,::.~.

IO

:;;j

:.

20

:,

..:!:,.

:j,..;

Duration

length of overland

u = rate of supply,

Figure

C-4.

of supply

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

50

of supply

or channel
in minutes,

00

TO

32-8013,

Vol II

80

in minutes

40

30

tc = critical duration of supply,

storage as negligible.

:,::

40

30

20

L = effective

..

Duration

Note:

,.,,

SO

in minutes

flow, in feet.
assuming

surface

in inches per hour.

Rates of overland flow corresponding to standard supply curves, supply curve

numbers 1.6 and 1.8; n = 0.40, S = 1 percent

Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

C-l 1

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

IO

30

20

Duration
71

of supply
I

Duration

Note

L = effective

50

40

length of overland

u = rate of supply,

Figure

C-12

C-5.

80

70

of supply

or channel

01

in minutes

flow, in feet.
assuming

surface

in inches per hour.

Rates of overland flow corresponding

to standard supply
numbers 2.0 and 2.2; n = 0.40, S = 1 percent

Hydrologic

::.. :..,

in minutes

tc = critical duration of supply, in minutes,

storage as negligible.

..........
:,.;...

Vol 1

and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

curves,

supply

curve

. ::..
: .::..c.:
,..,.,..:,.,.,.,.
.,.,.

:,.::::,:::..:::.::,:::,

:,.: . .

. .:

.I

.,

. ..

: ..
.

,: :. ::,:.::
. .
. .:: .,.:
:

:..

,:II:y:(:
.:

:I::l:;,i:i::::..,:
.,,.:,:
. . .,

.v..:
:,:., :y::i::
2..

;;;

,:

;,:

,: ..(

+:

..I :.:.
:. :..::. :

Duration

:,.,

/AFPAM

FM 5-430-00-l

of supply

32-8013,

Vol 1

in minutes

r1

0
0

IO

20

Duration
Note:

L = effective

30

of supply

length of overland

tc = critical duration of supply,

storage as negligible.
o = rate of supply,

40

50

70

b0

b0

in minutes

or channel
in minutes,

flow, in feet.
assuming

surface

in inches per hour.

Figure C-6. Rates of overland fiow corresponding

to standard supply
numbers 2.4 and 2.6; n = 0.40, S = 1 percent

curves, supply

curve

Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

C-13

FM 5.43&()()_1/AFPAM

:: ..

32-8013, j/o1 1

IO

30

20

Duration

40

of supply

50

.. ..: .,.,,:. : i,./.:ii:i.:i:;.~~:;.~~~.i::..~.~~.

60

70

60

60

70

00

in minutes

II

IO

30

20

Duration

Note:

L = effective

50

40

of supply

in minutes

length of overland

or channel

tc = critical duration of supply, in minutes,

storage as negligible.

a = rate

of supply,

flow, in feet.
assuming

surface

in inches per hour.

Figure C-7. Rates of overland flow corresponding

to standard supply curves, supply curve
numbers 2.8 and 3.0; n = 0.40, S = 1 percent

C-14

Hydrologic

and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

FM 5-4300001l/AFPAM

Table C-2.

Hydraulic

radius

(R) and area (A) of symmetrical

32-8013,

triangular

Vol 1

channels

____wp

R= A/WP

d
(fedt)
82
0.7

f4
R

9::
.

cii- o.ss
0.22

0.25

0.64

0.28

o.g6

0.81
1.00

0.32
0.35

1.21
1.44
1.69

0.39
o.b2

1.4
1.5
1.6

1.96

0.50

X:$

0.53
0.57

i*%
r:p

)::g

0.60
0.64

i:E

0.67

5.42

:::
0.79

6.00
9.38
9.50

9.83
l.ti
1.25

1.24 18.38
1.L.l 24.00

1.4s
1.66

1.0
1.1
t::

2.0
:::
:::

t:;
9.00

l2.25
16.00

O.h6

X
1.06

8::

3
R

o.ga
X:$i 0.72, 0.31

0.54
0.75

0.8
Oh9

rati

Slope

f depth,

0.63
0.90
1.23

0.75
lkoa
1.47

0.2b

::EZ
0.32

1.00
1.4b
l.ss

0.28
0.33

0.29

0.98

1.28
1.62
2.w

0.36
O.bO
0.45

1.60
2.03
2.50

0.37
0.42
0.46

1.92
2.43
3.00

0.38
0.43
0.47

2.56

?$I

0.33
0.37
0.42

::tZ

0.4b
0.49

1.82
2.16
2.54

0.46
0.50
0.54

2.42
2.88
3.38

0.4

0.51
,':Zf! 0.56
0.60
4.23

3.63
4.32
5.07

0.>2

0.54
0.58

4.84
5.76
6.76

0.53
0.58
0.63

I:$

0.58
0.62
0.67

0.63
0.67
0.72

4.90
5.63
6.40

0.65
0.70
0.74

;:i
X:C

7.84
9.00
10.24

0.68
0.73
0.78

0.7P
0.84
0.89

8.67
9.72
10.83

O.Bb
0.85
O-PO

U.%
12.96
14.44

o.83

I:Z
9.03

0.93
1.16
1.3P

0.95
1.19
1.42

l6.00

o.P7

g:g
22.50

g::

Zi

EEI

1.62
1.85

1.66
l&u

kE.

1.70
1.h

.-

Z:E
7.22

ZL.50 1.56
32.00 1.78

::6"2
0.66

%.lS
48.00

0.7

0.8
0.9

1.0
1.1

::g
0.34
0.39
0.44
0.4
0.54
0.59

i::

0.64

1.4

0.69
0.n

i:t

0.78

1.7

0.83

1.8
1.9

0.89

0.93

o.a

8: -

7
A

0.9
0.35

1.75
2.52
3.43

64:Ei

:z
0:49

;:g.
7.00

7.6
8.64
lo.14

0.54
0.59
0.64

I.50
2.l6
2.94
3.81,

&b7
lO.oB

1~83
13.72

R
o.a
0.30
0.35

L)::

1.72
1.96

1.72 85.75
1.97 12.W

::g
0.35

::iZ
4.41
i:g

8:Z
0.35
OAO

0.55
0.59
0.64

9.68
51.52
U.52

0.55
0.60
0.64

Z:$
1S.P

0.69
0.74
0.79

2.:

0.69

17.64

f&8

E-g
.
0.B
O.as
0.94

20.W
43.75
63.00

0.99
1.23

::ii
3.92

0.45
0.50

0.04
P.23
a.63
O.es
25.27 0.*

o.se
I.23
1.47

0.40

0.84
0.e
0.*

9:;
3.0

0.45
0.4

::g

lc

O.bO

0.69
0.74
0.79

1.40

0.87
0.92

l-

l-

0.39

0.45
0.50

::2

0.25

4.90
6.40
8.10
l0.W

0.55

::g

0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65

0.60

0.65

0.70

g:FZ

19.60
0.70
0.75
O.t!O g:Zi

z-2
32:49

0.84
0.M
o.Pb

;:z

0.85
0.90
0.95

0.99
1.h
1.4

4O.W
62.50
PO.00

1.00
1.24
1.49

0.99
1.a

32.00

O-99

1.48

,"::

1-A
1.4

:::
81.00

1.73
1.98

98.00
U8.W

1.7L
1.98

l.lo.zs I.74 122.50

lu.00 1.98 MO.00

:g

1.71r
1.99

Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

C-75

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

Table C-3.

32-8013,

Hydraulic

radius

Vol 1

: .

(R) and area (A) of nonsymmetrical

triangular

channels

R=A/Wp

ti

vmv)rm I"I."

Iepl h,
d

l:l- 3:1

l&l

- 3:l

2:1- 3:l

2&l.- 3:l

4:l - 3:l
A

5:l - 3:l

Feet)
0.5
0.6
0.7

A
R
0.50 0.22
0.72 0.s
0.98 0.31

A
0.56
0.81
1.10

R
0.23
0.27
0.32

A
R
0.63 0.23
::g
0.2%
0.32

A
0.69
0.99
1.35

R
0.23
0.28
0.33

-0.88 0.sY-s 1.00

1.s
0.23 1.44
1.72 0.34 1.96

0.h
0.29
0.34

0.8

1.28

0.35

1.44

0.36

1.6o 0.37

1.76

0.38

2.~4 0.30

2.56

0939

0.9
1.0

1.62
2.00 0.39
0.44

1.82
2.25

0.41
0.45

2.03
2.50 0.42
0.46

2.23
2.75

0.42
0.47

2.84
3.50 o*43
0.48

3*24
4.00

:G
.

1.1
1.2
1.3

2.42 0.48
2.88 0.52
3.38 0.57

2.72
3.24
3.8O

0.30
0.54
0.59

3.03 0.51
;.g
g.2
.
.

3.33
t.2
.

0.52
0.56
0.61

5.04 0.58

1.4
1.5
1.6

3.92 0.61
4.50 0.66
5.12 0.70

4.41
;.o$

0.63
0.68
0.73

4.90 0.65
5.63 0.69
6.40 0.74

5.39
6.19
7.04

0.6661 6.86 0.67

0.86

x*z
:*;
9103 0180

8.12
2.0
2.1
2.2

C-76

..

:.

8.00
8.82
9.68

0.%7_ 9.00
0.92 9.92
0.96 lo.89

0.53
0.58
0.63
7.84

0.68
0.73

10.24

0.n

12.96

0.82
0.87
0.92

0.91 lo.00 0.93 3.l.m

0.95 Il.03 0.97 12.13
LOO
12.10 1.02 13.31

0.94
0.99
1.03

14.00 0.96 16.00

15.44 1.00 17.64
16.94 l.o6 lg.36

1.04 -13.23 1.w

14.55

1.0s
1.13
1.17

z162

0.97

1.02
1.07

2.3
2.4
2.5

lo.58 l.Ok u.9o

2.6

13.52 1.14 15.u

Ll8
a.90 Lzo
18.59
1.22 18;23 1.25 20.05
1.27 19.60 1.30 2l.56

1.22
1.27
1.32

23.66 1.25 27.04

25.52 1.30 27.16
27.44 1.35 31.36

1.26
1.31
1.36

;::

moo
a.82

1.36 2l.03
1.31
1.39 24.75
22.50 1.34
23.13

1.41
1.36

31.50
29.44 1.44
1.39 3J.g
.

'1.2
.

12.50 1.09

1.31 18.92
1.27
20.25

Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

l*l" a.16
l.il
1.15 23.oL, 1.16
2L6-7 1.20 25.00 1.21

.,.

..

,.....

. .

FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Table C-4. Hydraulic radius (R) and area (A) of symmetrical trapezoidal channels
(Z-foot bottom width)

L-1-2d

R=A/WP

R
A
1.25
0.37
1.56 0.42
1.89 0.47

0:6
0.7

7
A

rzi

0.36

1.74 0.42
2.14
0.47

SiOW
2:l
A
I.50

0.35
I.92 0.41
2.20 0.44

-,-a

1.63
2.10
2.63

3:

0.40
0.46

A
I.75
2.2a
2.87

0.35

-c

0.45

4.IA
R
2.00
0.13
2.64
0.30
cl.43
3.36

0.34
0.39

2.24 0.53
2.61 0.51
3.00 0.62

2.56
3.01
3.50

0.52

2.88

0.57 3.42 0.57

0.62

4.00

0.62

3.03
4.50

0.51
0.56
0.61

3.52
4.23
5.00

0.50
0.55
0.60

4.16
5.04
6.00

0.G
0.54
0.59

3.41 0.67
0.71
0.76
1::

4.02
4s
5.14

0.67 4.63
0.72 5.28
0.77 5.98

0.67
0.72
0.77

5.23
6.00
6.83

0.66
0.71
0.76

i*;
7:67

0.65
0.70
0.75

7.05
8.16
9.36

0.64
0.69
0.74

I .4
I.5

0.80
0.84
0.88

5.74

I.6

4.76
5.25
5.76

6.72
7.50
8.32

0.81
0.86
0.91

7.70
8.63
9.60

0.81
0.86
0.90

8.68
9.75
10.88

0.80
0.85
0.90

10.64
12.00
13.44

0.79
0.84
0.88

I.7
1.8
I.9

6.29
6.84
7.41

0.92
0.96
1.00

7.74
8.46
9.22

0.95

9.18 0.96
0.08 1.00
1.04 1.02 I.05

10.63
II.70
12.83

0.9s
1.00
1.05

12.07
13.32
14.63

14.96
16.56
18.24

0.93
0.98
1.03

8.00 1.04
11.25 1.24
15.00 1.43

0.00
4.38
9.50

1.09 2.00
1.30
I.52

1.10

14.00
to.63
r8.30

I.10
1.33
I.57

16.00
i3.75
33.00

20.00
30.00
42.00

1.08
1.33
I.57

0.81
0.86
;.03ff
0.91
.

0.52

I .oo

3.20

7:

Tr

2.25

017

:*i;
.

0.8
0.9
1.0

4.80

0.41

5:32

5.44 0.46 6.08 0.46

0:41

4:83

9:

8:

3%
0.35 k

i
1.

10

3%
0.35 -k
0.40

5:81

j.36
9.09

ti

Tl

6:30

*
0:39

0.45
0.50
0.55

8.00
9.90
12.00

0.44
0.49
0.54

14.31
16.80
19.50

0.59
0.64
0.69

0.51
0.56

7.47
9.00

0.51
0.56

6.72
8.28
10.00

0.45
0.50
o.ss

0.68

0.61
0.66
0.71

11.89
13.92
16.12

0.60
0.65
0.70

13.10

II.05 0.72

9.47 0.62
11.04 0.67
12.74 0.72

!5'%
.

0.60
0.65
0.70

1.4
I.5
I.6

12.60 0.77
14.25 0.82
16.00 0.87

14.50
6.52
16.50 $87: 8.75
18.56 0:86 '1.I2

0.76
0.81
0.86

18.48
21.00
23.68

0.75
0.80
0.85

20.44
23.25
26.24

0.75
0.80
0.85

22.40
25.50
28.80

0.74
0.79
0.84

1:;:
I .9

17.85 0.92 20.74

19.80 0.97 23.04
21.85 1.02 25.46

0.91 '3.63 0.91

0.96 1G.28 0.96
1.01 '9.07 I .ot

26.52
29.52
32.68

0.90
0.95
1.00

29.41
32.76
36.29

0.90
0.95
1.00

:x
39:w

0.89
0.94
0.99

2.0
2.5
3.0

24.00
36.25
51.00

1.07 28.00 1.06 i2.60 I .OL 36.00

I.32 lit.50 1.31 J.75 I.30 55.00
l.SG rjo.00 I. 5:J $.OO I.55 72.20

1.05
1.30
I.55

40.00
61.25
67.00

1.05
1.30
1.54

44.00
67.50
36.00

1.04
1.29
1.54

0.47
5.85 0.52
7.00 0.51
8.25 0.62
9.60 0.67

6.6C
8.00

t::

11.00

Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

c-17

FM 5-4300OO-l/AFPAM

Table C-5.

32-8013,

Hydraulic

., ., .;

Vol 1

radius

(R) and area (A) of symmetrical

@-foot bottom width)

,:..

.,.....,
.;:yi
,,),
:
j .::::i: ; .,:.,y:,.:
:,....
..,..,
...,,.,
..2::.
. ::. :,.

trapezoidal

channels

R=A/WP

0.9

4.41

1.0

5.00

0.67
0.73

4.82
5.50

0.66
0.72

5.22
6.00

0.65
0.71

5.63
6.50

0.64
0.69

6.03
7.00

0.62
0.68

6.84
8.00

0.60
0.65

1.1
1.2
1.3

5.61
6.24
6.89

0.79
0.84
0.90

6.22
6.96
7.74

0.78
0.84
0.89

6.82
7.68
8.58

0.76
0.82
0.87

7.43
8.40
9.43

0.75
0.80
0.86

8.03
9.12
IO.27

0.73
0.79
0.84

9.24
10.56
11.96

0.71
0.76
0.81

1.4
1.5
1.6

7.56 0.95
8.25 1.00
8.96 I.05

8.54 0.94 9.52

9.38 I.00 10.50
10.24 I.05 11.52

0.93
0.98
I.03

IO.50
11.63
12.80

0.91
0.96
1.01

1148
12.75
14.08

0.89
0.94

I .oo

13.44
15.00
16.64

0.86
0.92
0.97

14.03
15.30
16.63

1.07
1.12
1.17

15.47
16.92
18.43

1.05
1.10
1.15

18.36
20.16
22.04

1.02
1.02
I.12

1.22 20.00
1.47 28.75
1.71 39.00

1.20
kg

24.00
&XX
.

1.17
I.42
1.67

1.7
1.8
1.9

9.69
lo.44
11.21

1.10
1.15
1.20

11.14
12.06
13.02

I.10 12.58
1.15 13.68
I.20 14.82

I.08
1.14
1.19

2.0
2.5
3.0

12.00 1.24 14.00

16.25 1.47 19.38
21.00 1.68 25.50

1.25 16.00
I.48 22.50
1.72 30.00

1.24 18.00
1.48 25.63
1.72 34.50

C-18

05
0:6

A
R
4.20
3.25 0.42
0.36

A
4:5:
3 5

0.7

5.25

0.47

5.74

0.8
0.9
1.0

6.40
7.65
9.00

7:

8:)

9:)
A
R
5.64
4.25
0.32
0.38,
7.21
0.43

IO:1
A
R
4.50
6.00
0.32
0.37.
7.70
0.43

X:$ 5

h:92
75 00:39
34

A
5%
4

0.46

6.23

0.45

6.72

0.44

0.53
0.58
0.64

7.04 0.51 7.68 0.50

8.46 0.56 9.27 0.55
10.00 0.62 11.00 0.61

8.32
10.08
12.00

0.49
0.55
0.60

8.96
lo.89
13.60

0.49
0.54
0.59

9.60
11.70
14.00

0.43
0.53
0.58

I.1
1.2
1.3

10.45 a.69
12.00 0.74
13.65 0.79

11.66 0.67 12.87 0.66

13.44 0.72 14.88 0.71
15.34 0.77 17.03 0.76

14.08
16.32
18.72

a.65
0.70
0.75

15..29 0.64
17.76 0.69
20.41
0.74

16.50
19.20
22.10

0.63
0.68
0.73

1.4
1.5
1.6

15.40 0.84
17.25 0.89
19.20 0.94

17.36 0.83 lg.32 0.81

19.50 0.88 21.75 0.86
21.76 0.93 24.32 0.91

21.28
24.00
26.88

0.80
0.85
0.90

23.24
26.25
29.44

0.79
0.84
0.89

25.20
28.50
32.00

0.76
0.63
0.89

1.7
1.8
1.9

21.25
23.40
25.65

1.00 24.14
I.05 26.64
1.10 29~26

0.98 27.03 0.96 29.92

1.03 29.82 1.01 33.12
1.08 32.87 1.06 36.48

0.95 32.81
1.00 36.36
1.05 40.09

0.94
0.99
1.04

:;*sx
43170

0.94
0.99
1.04

2.0
2.5
3.0

28.00
41.25
57.00

I.15 32.00
I.40 47.50
1.65 66.00

l.ih 36.00
l.3c 53.75
I.64 75.00

1.10 44.00
1.35 66.25
1.62 93.00

1.09 h8.00
I.34 72.50
1.62 102.00

1.09
I.34
I.LI

Hydrologic

R
0.38
0.33

I.12 40.00
1.37 GD.00
I.63 3k.m

and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

::y.::::,.:.:
: ::.:..>:z
,.

,.. . .

>.I?.:

... ...

: .. . . ,.,.:. ii::,::,) y j:

.,

,.j:.

.,:::.::: ::.q;

Table C-6.

,&i,.

:g ; ,: ,, .:I: ,>,j .::,j ,: ,;,,:,;::i

Hydraulic

:, : .:

I,:

radius

,:.,

> .,:

,j.:,;

,: ; ..

;,

.:.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

(R) and area (A) of symmetrical

(&foot bottom width)

32-8013,

trapezoidal

Vol 1

channels

----WD

0.8
0.9

5.44

0.66

5.76

6408
7.02

0.63
0.70

0.76

0.62
o*68

0.75

9.00

0.83

9.63

0.80

0.98
0.92

10.34
9.36 0.91
0.97 11.18
10.08 0.89
0.95

12.03
IO.80

10.36

I.04

II.34

I.03 12.32

1.00

!:'6

12.16
11.25

1.16
1.10

13.44
12.38

1.14 13.50
1.08
14.72

1.7
1.8
I.9

13.09
14.04

I .22

14.54
15.66
16.82

1.0

0.73
0.79

1.1

7.81

0.86

1::

9.49
8.64

1.4

2.0
2.5
3.0

1.27

6.62
7.50

15.01

1.32

16.00

1.37

18.00

21.25

1.61

24.38

27.00

1.86

A
4.25

0.38
0.45
0.51

0.8
0.9
1.0

8.00
9.45
11.00

0.56
0.62
0.68

1.1

12.65

:::
1.4

0.6
0.7

I.5

1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9

4.50
5.76
7.14

0.61

7.36

0.67

8.64

0.58
0.64

10.00

10.23

0.79

11.44

0.76

0.93
0.87

12.87
11.52

0.91
0.85

12.96
14.56

0.87
0.82

13.30

0.98

14.28

0.96

16.24

0.93

1.12
1.06

16.00
14.63

1.09
1.04

15.75
17.28

I.07
1.01

19.84
18.00

0.98
I.03

1.20 15.98
1.25 17.28
I.30 18.62

I.17
1.23
1.28

17.43
18.90
20.43

I.15
1.20
I.25

18.87
20.52
22.23

I.13
1.18
1.24

21.76
23.76
25.84

1.09

1.36 20.00
I.61 27.50
1.87 36.00

1.34
1.60
I.85

22.00
30.63
40.50

I.31
I.58
1.83

24.00
33.75
45.00

I.29
1.55
1.80

28.00
40.00
54.00

1.24
I.50
1.76

9.02

:
OR37
0.43
0.49

4.75
6.12
7.63

I
R

0.36
0.42
0.48

.
A
?E

9:l
R

Xl 6

0.70

1.14
1.19

IO:1
R

8:12

0.47

t.25
6.84
8.61

8.64 0.55 9.28 0.54

10.26 0.61 II.07 0.59
12.00 6.66 13.00 0.65

9.92
Il.88
22.12

0.53
0.58
0.63

lo.56
12.69
IS.00

0.49
0.57
0.62

II.20
;;:;;

0.51
0.55
0.61

0.73

13.86 0.72 15.07

0.70

16.28

0.69

17.49

0.67

18.70

0.67

14.40
16.25

0.85
0.79

15.84
17.94 0.77
0.82 17.28
19.63

0.80
0.75

21.32
18.72

0.79
0.74

23.01
20.16

0.78
0.75

24.70
21.60

0.72
0.77

18.20
20.25
22.40

a.90
0.95
1.00

20.16
22.50
24.96

0.87 22.12
0.92 24.75
0.98 27.52

0.85
0.91
0.96

24.08
27.00
39.08

0.84
0.90
0.95

26.04
29.2s
32.64

0.83
0.88
0.93

28.00
31.50
35.20

0.82
0.87
0.92

24.45
27.00
29.45

1.06
1.11
1.16

27.54
30.24
33.0G

1.03 30.43
1.08 33.48
1.14 36.67

l-01
1.06
1.12

33.32
36.72
40.28

1.00

36.21
I.08 39.96
1.10 43.89

0.97
i.o$

39.10
43.20
47.50

0.97

3G.00

I.19 ko.00
I .45 58.75
1.70 81.00

I.17

Wt.00
65.00
SO.00

I . IS ~lC.00
I.110 71.75

1.13
1.39
1.66

52.00

I.12

77.50
108.00

I.33
1.65

2.0

32.00

1.21

2.5

46.25

I.47
1.72

!.O

6.72
7.83

0.73

0.85

31.50

8.00

:
R

5.90
6.65

0.5

0.78

8.42

5:l
:

0.65
0.72

6.40
s*::
.

6.21
7.00

63.00

52.50
72.00

1.);

I.71

I.65

~1.00

0.35
0.41
0.46

5.50
7.20
9.10

OR34
0.40
0.45

I.02

I.07

Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

c-19

.. ::.

FM 5_43()-()()1j/AFPAM 32-8013, j/o1 1

Table C-7.

Hydraulic

radius

.:. i ..,,..:. ,.:.::.:::..:..:.:.,::, :,::,:::i:::.:~:::::~:.:.:i;~:~:.i~:~i:~::~:

{R) and area (A) of symmetrical

(&foot bottom width)

trapezoidal

channels

---__wp
-

l-dgq

e----+l

R=A/WP

l-

c ra
!I

(feedt)

&
is3

0.5

0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0

4.38

0.61

56'2
.

0.69
0.76
0.83

7.36
8.42
9.50

i!E

O-53 5.52
0.60 6.58

is
0:sz

OS9

0.68

t?zj5:88
0:sr
0.58

56;
.

-%0. 3

7.07

0.50
0.57

L
A

4. i-

-i&i0148

5.00
6.24
7.56

0.55

0.66
E
0.73
lo:00 0.80
x-i:
.

8.00
9.22
10.50

0.65
0.72
0.78

8.32
9.63
Il.00

0.64
0.70
0.77

8.96
10.44
12.00

0.61
0.68
0.74

I.1
I.2
I.3

10.01
11.04

0.90
0.97
12.09 1.04

Ilo.62 0.89 il.22 0.87

III.76 O.% 12.48 0.93
I12.94 1.02 13.78 1.00

11.83
13.20
14.63

0.85
0.91
0.98

12.43
13.92
15.97

0.83
0.89
0.95

13.64
15.36
17.16

0.80
0.86
0.92

1.4
;:i

13.16
14.25
15.36

1.16
1.23

114.14 1.08 IS.l2

I
1.14 16.50
1IE.
I.21 17.92

1.06
I.12
1.18

16.10
17.63
19.20

1.04
1.10
1.16

17.08
18.75

I .01 19.04
1.07 21.00
I.13 23.04

0.97
I.03

1.7
1.8
1.9

16.49
17.64
18.81

1.29
1.35
1.41

117.44 1.27 19.38 I .24

I19.26 1.33 to.88 1.30
i~0.63 1.40 12.42 1.36

20.83
22.50
24.23

1.22
1.27
1.33

22.27
29.12

1.14

26.03

1.19 25.16
1.24 27.36
1.30 29.64

2.0
2.5
3.0

20.00 1.46 iL2.00 1A5 14.00 1.42

1.69
26.25 1.76 i19.38 1.72 p-50
33.00 2.00 J17.50 1.99 t2.00 1.96

26.00
35.63
46.50

1.39
1.66
1.93

28.00
38.75
51.00

1.36 32.00
1.63 45.00
1.89 60.00

I .3I
1.57
1.83

X:6 5.25
6.00
0.7

1.I0

8.05

hii
&
D.47
6:96
8.54
D.53

k
0:52

5.75
7.32
9.03

20.48

1.20
1.25

10: i-

b5
I.3
I.44
I.50

I .og

_$
0.3
0.43

7.68
9.52

&r-0:42

0.48

10:50

0.48

0.8
0.9
1.0

9.60 0.59
11.25 3.65
13.00 0.71

10.24 0.58 10.88 I.56 Il.20

12.06 0.64 12.87 1.63 13.68
14.00 0.70 15.00 0.68 16.00

0.54
0.60
0.65

12.80
15.30
18.00

0.53
0.59
0.64

;::
1.3

14.85 0.77
16.80 0.83
18.4
0.88

16.06 0.75 17.27

18.24 0.81 19.68
20.54 0.86 22.23

0.71
0.76
0.81

20.90
24.00

0.69
0.74
0.79

1.4
l .5
1.6

21.00
23.25
25.60

o:g2

22.96
25.50
28.16

0.91 24.92
0.97 27.75
I.03 30.72

0.90 26.88
0.95 30.00
1.00 33.28

0.88

0.86
0.92
0.97

30.80

I .oo
I .05

1.7
1.8
1.9

28.25
30.60
33.25

I.11
I.16
1.22

30.94
33.84
36.86

1.08 33.85
I .I3 37.08
1.18 40.47

1.06 36.72
1.11 40.32
I.16
44.00

1.04 39.61
I.08 ;;+;
1.14
.

I.02 42.50
I.07 46.80
I.12 51.30

I.01
1.06
1.11

2.0
2.5
3.0

38.00
57.25
69.00

I .28
1.54
1.80

1.24 44.00
1.50 63.75
1.77 a7.00

1.21
1 .48

48.00
70.00
1.74 !%.GO

1.19 '52.00
1.45 76.25
I.70 105.00

I.18 56.00
1.43 82.50
1.70 14.00

1.16
1.42
I.69

0.73
0.79
0.84

18.48
21.12
23.92

0.93

0.98

28.84
32.25
35.84

27.30

0.84
0.90
0.96

$% .

GPO

Hydrologic

and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

._

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

Table C-8. Hydraulic radius (R) and area (A) of symmetrical

(7O-foot bottom width)

32.8013,

Vol 11

trapezoidal channels

R= A/WP

)wth,

l-

d
(feet)

rcIti

Slope
1:)
1

2:l

:l

3:l

b :l

_
R

6.54
7.74

R
0.46
0.54
0.62

1.0

0.n
8.8
9.81
.
11.00 x-E

8.96
10.P
JJ.50

0.70
0.77
0.85

9.28 0.68
10.62 0.76
12.00 0.83

11.03
12.50

0.67
0.74
0.81

1.1
1.2
1.3

12.P
0.93
13.h
1.00
14.69 1.w

E-Z
15:54

0.92
0.99
1.06

13.b2 0.90
14.88 0.97
16.38 1.04

14.03
15.60
17.23

0.88
0.95
1.01

1.4
1.5
1.6

15.96 1.14
17.25 1.2l
18.56 1.B

ii:$
19.h

1.13
1.19
1.26

17.92 1.10
19.50 1.17
21.12 1.23

z-g
22:40

:*si
.
1.20

19.88 1.0s
1.12
g:Zi
1.18

1.01
1.07
1.13

;:i
1.9

1.34
1.41
1.47

1.32
1.39
1.45

22.78 1.29
26.48 1.36
26.22 1.42

2::
z&o3

1.26
1.33
1.39

25.67 1.2b
1.30
.
s-78:
1.35

1.19
lb25
1.30

1.53
1.83

1.51
1.81
2.09

26.W
37.50

CZ:g
52.50

l.bb
1.73
2.01

32.00
43.75
57.00

1.36
1.63
1.90

0;s
0.6

0.7
0.8

0.9

-gr

0.16
3::
.

2.0
:::

g::
39-W

0.9
0.63

2.u

c.

0.7
0.8
0.9

-kg KFr
0.48
9:: 0.55
0.62

-+
;:g

o.wc

o.Ls 5.63

-E

0.61
. 0.53
4-z

U.00

0.52
0.60

i:g
9.60

1.48
1.77
2.05

7:1

1.0

12.48
14.67
17.00 0:70

0.57
0.63
0.69

1.1
1.2
1.3

17.05
:*z
19.a
P.45
0:92

z.g
Et:
23:14 0:90

g42

0.76
0.82
2b:83 0.87

a.68
0.75
23.52 0.80
26.52 0.86

27.72 0.93
30.75
33.92

a.68

i:f

S:Z
a.80

0.98
1.04
1.10

z:$
.

1.7

G.45

1.15

34.34

1.9

$:g"

1':z

E:Z

1.12
1.17
1.23

5:;
3.0

5:;
.

1.32
1.58
1.85

$:i
.

1.28
1.55
1.81

1.8

O-95
1.01
1.06

O-2:
13.12
15.48
18.00

2,
93.00

12.24
14.W

0.G
O.-P
0.n

15.84
17.76
19.76

0.03
0.89
0.95

l( .

i90

R
0.37
0.44
0.49

14.40
17.10
a.00

0.55
0.61
0.66

sz*E
29:90

0.72
0.77
0.83

A
z

13.76 0.56
16.29 0.62
19.00 0.68
2l.B
*.%
g3.u

0.73
0.79
0-a

0.91
O.Y7
1.02

31.64 o.&
35.25 0.95
39.a
1.00

1.07
1.13
1.18

43.01
b7.16
51.19

1.25 52.w
1.23
1.52 75.00 1.49
1.n 102.00 1.75

m.56

R
0.39
0.45
0.51

R
o.b
0.47
0.54

0.12
::p,

I i

Il.84
0.60
13.86 0.66
16.W
0.72

1.4

$:g

0.86
0.93
0.99

-I-

13.05 0.68
15.w
0.74

Il.20

lb.63

6.00
ii*;
.

1.05
1.u
1.16

Z:E

0.88
0.93.
0.99

;:z
55:10

1.04
1.09
1.14

33.60

g:;
Lll.00 1.7.3 120.00

Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

::z
1.71
a

C-27

FM &43&()()-f/AFPAM

Table C-9.

Hydraulic

radius

Vol 1

.:

: . .:.:.

(R) and area (A) of nonsymmetrical

bottom width)

::; :.j.,~,.::.,.:j:
: .~:::.:i.ii:~::.::
:.. :;: ;..

trapezoidal

channels

Sorae ratio

lT
I ..I
1.2

32-8013,

3:l 1

1*,1-311 )

2 : I - 3: I I

2t II- 311

41: -3: l

+ .oo
4.62
5.28

lo.75
56$ lo.&
7:50 0.85
8.32 0.89
9.18 0.94
10.08 0.99

6.40 0.76
7.21 0.80
8.06 0.85

6.83 0.76
7.70' 0.81
8.63 0.85

7.25 I 0.75
8.19
0.81
9.19
0.85

(2-foot

5:l-3:)
A
R
6.00
8
x3
5::
ok8

8.52
9.66
IO.88

0.73
0.79
0.84

9.36
10.64
12.00

0.74
0.79
0.84

13.44

0.88
0.93
0.98

8.96 0.91 9.60 0.91 10.24

9.90 0.95 IO.63 O.%
II.35
lo.89 1.00 11.90 1.01 12.51

0.90
O.g5
I.00

12.16
13.52
14.94

0.90
0.94
o.g8

1.03 11.92 1.04 12.83 IA5

13.73
I.07 13.00 1.09 14.00 I.10 15.00
14.08 1.17 15.29 1.19 16.50 1.19 17.71

1.05
1.10
I.19

16.44
18.00

1.03 18.24
la9
20.00
1.19 23.76

1.03
1.08
1.18

1.28 27.84
I.38
1.48 :'s*::
.

I.27
1.37
I.48

1.57 42.00
I.81 56.01
2.04 72.00

1.57
I.81
2.04

I.9
2.0
2.2

11.02
12.00

2.4
2.6
2.8

16.32
18.72

1.26 17.76 A.28 19.20 1.28 20.64

I.35 20.41 1.37 22.10 I.37 23.79
1.43 23.24 1.46 25.20 1.48 27.16

24.00
33:;
31.50
40.00
4.0

1.52 26.25 1.54 28.50 I.57 30.75

1.76 34.57 1.78 37.63 I.80 40.70
1.97 44.00 2.00 48.00 2.02 52.00

21.28

C-22 Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables

and Curves

21.34

'I.29 24.96
1.38 28.86
1.48 33.04
1.57
I.81

37.50
49.88

2.0)

64.00

Z*$
.

.... ::.. ..

:.

Table C-10.

,.

... ,, ..

: ...

Hydraulic

.,

radius

FM 50430-OO-l/AFPAM

(R) and area (A) of nonsymmetrical

bottom width)

trapezoidal

32-8013,

channels

Vol 1

(4-foot

R = A/WP

$-

t -+7E-0.70 -b 553 mR
-P
.O
/0.75
0.75
1.1
ic2
. 3.75
I. :l
.- - 3:1

T I):1-

3:1

77%7.50
0.74
0.79

8.64
9.84

Tk
0.72
0.78

rk

9.74

AT

0.70

I'
0.56

0.76

9.43
0.59
1.63

3.85
D.92
0.96

9.85
IO.99
12.19

0.85
0.90
0.95

II.12
12.46
13.88

0.81
0.88
0.93

I1.96
13.44
I5.00

0.81
0.87
0.92

2.80
4.03
5.50

I.01
I.07
1.13

13.44
14.75
16.11

1.00
1.06
1.11

15.36
16.92
18.54

0.98
I.04
1.08

I6.64
I8.36
2 0.16

0.96
1.01
I .07

1.17
1.22
1.32

6.63
8.00
0.90

I.17
1.22
1.32

17.53
19.00
22.11

1.12
1.21
I.31

20.24
22.00
25.74

I.13
1.18
I.29

2.04
: 4.00
28.16

I.12
1.17
1.28

22.56
25.61
28.84

1.42
I.51
1.61

4.00

I.41
1.51
1.62

25.44
28.99
32.76

1.41
1.51
I.61

;z
38k-4

1.38
1.49
l-59

32.64
7.44
:82.36

1.37
I.47
I.57

32.25
41.57
52.00

1.71
I.94
2.17

,4;50 1.71
4.63
I.95
6.00 2.18

I.71
1.95
2.18

43.50
56.88
72.00

1.68
I.93
2.16

4a.00
'3.07
:to.00

1.66
1.92
2.15

0.80

8.58
9.52
10.50

0.86
0.91
0.97

9.00
10.01
II .06

0.86
0.91
0.97

1.6
I.7
I .8

II.52
12.58
13.38

1.02
1.06
I.10

12.16

1.9
2.0

2.2

14.82
16.00
18.48

I.17
1.21
1.31

15.72
17.00
19.69

2.4
2;6
2.8

21.12
23.92
26.88

1.41
1.51
I.60

::;
4.0

30.00
38.50
48.00

1.69
1.93
2.15

1.3
I .4
1.5

5 :I- *I
L

3.81

0.80

1.2

1
4:l. ,:l

h7.73
8.76

7.12
8.04

6:82
7.68

f ti
+-2 :I- :1

z!*:;
.

;z.

Hydrologic and Hydraulic Tables and Curves

C-23

.......
..........
..:;
:.:.:::.i::.:.:r..::.I::::::::z
,::i::.i<:;::i:;:<
:,),,,,_,
~:,,
........
...::
..:,
......
FM 5-43&()0-l /AF PAM 32-80 13, Vol 1
>p:.;.(.?
:.:,
~.~:.::::.:::::.:.:..:..~:.
..:.:.:.:.
...
..:...........
...
...,,:
.......
.........
..:.v..(
........................................
.::.:.:
....
...................
....................
.:

:.x>:.:.>:.:
.... :.

...

:.:.:.: ...

......

.:.:P.:::::::>.:.:::

:.......:

.: .:.+,;

.:.;, ::,:,;:,:,:,

::

. :.....................
,,,,.,,(,,.:,:

:.:...:.:.:.:.:..:.:::.:.;:::.:.:::;~.:~;~:~:~;
:

..........

.:

APPENDIX D

CONE INDEX REQUIREMENTS

Fine-Grained Soils
Tracked Vehicles

Vehicle Description

Vehicle
Weight
(kips)

VCl

VCISO

us vehj&s
Carrier, cargo, amphibious,
tracked, M 116
Landing vehicle, tracked,
command, MS(LVTP5A 1(CMD))
Landing vehicle, tracked,
personnel, M5 (LVTP5Al)

Bulldozer, earthmoving tank,

tank-mtd, M9 (tank, combat,
105-mm gun, M60, and M60Al)
Tractor, armored, combat
earthmover (ACE), M9

10.9

18

97.5

20

49

19

45

116.0

23

53

35.6

18

41

87.8

NOTES:

1. Items listed include selected self-propelled vehicles as of January 1993. Certain

items in final development or undergoing field testing have been included where the
type of classification is pending.
2. The VCIs have been calculated from the formulas, curves, and tables in NRMM. The
vehicle weight was based on normal design loads or combat weights, equipment, crosscountry tire pressures, and crews as the conditions would be under full operational
deployment in typical off-road movements. Trucks which could operate at lower tire
pressures would generate slightly lower VCI values with increased tire deflection.
3. Amphibious vehicles and engineer tractors have grousers greater than 1 l/2 inches:
all other tracked vehicles have grousers less than 1 l/2 inches.
4.

One kip equals 1,000 pounds (US customary).

Cone Index Requirements

D-1

Tracked Vehicles (continued)

Vehicle
Weight
Vehicle Description

Armored reconnaissance
airborne assault vehicle
(General Sheridan), M55 1
Howitzer, heavy, selfpropelled, full-tracked,
8-m, M55 (T108)
Howitzer, heavy, selfpropelled, 8-m, Ml 10
(T236E 1I
Howitzer, medium, selfpropelled, 155-mm, M 109
(T196E 1)
Howitzer, light, self-propelled,
full-tracked, 105-mm, M37
Howitzer, light, self-propelled,
full-tracked, 105-mm,
M52
M52A 1
Howitzer, light, self-propelled,
105-mm, M 108
LAV-25, 8x8, light, armored
vehicle
Mortar, infantry, selfpropelled, full- tracked,
107-mm (4.2-in), M84
Tank, combat, full-tracked,
90-mm gun,
M48
M48C
M48Al
M48A2
M 48A2C
M48A3 (M48AlE2)
M48A5
Tank, combat, full-tracked,
105-mm gun,
M60
M60A 1
M60A3

D-2

Cone Index Requirements

(kips)

VCI 1

VCI50

35.8

15

35

98.0

20

47

58.5

20

47

53.2

25

57

46.0

N/A

58

53.0
53.0
46.9

N/A

46
46
54

N/A
N/A

27.7

32

72

47.1

N/A

46

104.0
105.0
105.0
104.0
106.0

20
20
21
21
21
21
22

47
47
49
49
49
49
50

110.0
116.0
110.0

21
22
20

48
51
46

99.0
99.0

j(::.:j;..,:.,:.(j:.,:,

.:

.,,

..:

,.:.

..

::

,, .

::y

,..::..,..

:..,,.: ,,

.I:

+..

:..,,)I: ,,.... ::.

j .,I

FM 5430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Tracked Vehicles (continued)

Vehicle Description

Tank, combat, full-tracked,

120-mm gun,
Ml
MlAl
M lA2
Vehicle, combat engineer,
full-tracked, 165-mm gun,
M729 (basic M60Al tank)

Launcher, M48 tank chassis,

transporting
Launcher, M48 tank chassis,
transporting, with bridge,
armored vehicle launched,
scissoring type, class 60,
60-ft
Launcher, M60Al chassis,
transporting
Launcher, M60A 1 chassis,
transporting with bridge,
armored vehicle launched,
scissoring type, class 60.
60-ft

Carrier, cargo, tracked,

6-on, M548
Carrier, command post, light,
tracked,
M577
M577Al
Carrier, personnel, fulltracked, armored,
Ml 13
M113Al
M113A2
Ml 13A3

Vehicle
Weight
(kips)

VCIl

VCISO

115.0
125.0
140.0
115.0

23
25
28
N/A

54
58
64
54

96.0

N/A

49

128.0

N/A

65

86.3

15

36

115.9

22

51

28.0

N/A

37

17
17

40
40

23.9

24.4

22.6
23.4
23.4
23.6

N/A

N/A
N/A
N/A

48
49
49
49

Cone index Requirements

D-3

Vehicle
Weight
Vehicle Description

(kips)

VCIl

VCI50

iers (w
Infantry fighting vehicle,
M2Al
M2A2
Multiple Launch Rocket System

50.2
66.0
54.2

15
16
15

35
37
35

112.0

21

50

54.0

21

49

3.1

19

44

7.5

20

47

9.6

19

44

9.3

31

70

17.2

27

61

19.2

26

59

32.5

30

68

43.4

43

97

49.5
49.5
60.4

37
37
36

84
84
79

35.8

25

57

Recovery vehicles
Recovery vehicle, fulltracked, medium, M88
Recovery vehicle, fulltracked, light, armored,
M578

Wheeled
Truck, utility, l/4-ton,
4x4. Ml51
Truck, utility, 1 l/4-ton,
4x4 M998 (HMMWV)
Truck, cargo, 1 l/4-ton,
6x6, M561
Truck, cargo, 1 3/4-ton,
4x4, M 1028 commercial utility
cargo vehicle (CUCV)
Truck, cargo, 2 l/2-ton,
6x6, M34
Truck, cargo, 2 l/2-ton,
6x6, M35Al
Truck, cargo, 5-ton, 6x6
M923
Truck, cargo, 8-ton, 4x4
M520
Truck, cargo, IO-ton, 6x6
Ml25
M125Al
Truck, cargo, lo-ton, 8x8
M977
Truck, cargo, 5-ton. 6x6
M 1084

D-4

Cone Index Requirements

,.

._.,

:::

,..:x...

.).....:?:::,:~

..

x..::.:.
,:.:. ..:.
.,,,

: ,>( j .;,;,i:;.:i::~,

...:.:.i::.:::::::::
:,: ,~,,,,,,,,,,,,;,

.,.,.:.:-:~...:~.:....:,:....:.:
..,: :. .: ..,.: :...: : .,
.,.

::i:i,li:,..:i:i.~:.I.~i

j,j,::9j~:..::j:,:~:::.:::::~,:,:::

,./:, ::; :A>:: : ::::.j:

. ...,........,
,.
. .

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol II

Wheeled Vehicles (continued)

Vehicle Description

Truck, cargo, 2 l/2-ton,

4x4, Ml078
Truck, dump, 2 1 /a-ton.
6x6, M47
Truck, dump, 5-ton, 6x6,
M51
M51A2
M929
Truck, tractor, 5-ton, 6x6
M52 (w/o payload)
M52Al (w/o payload1
Truck, tractor, lo-ton. 6x6
Ml23 (w/o payload)
M123C (w/o payload)
M123D (w/o payload)
Truck, van, expansible,
2 l/2-ton,
6x6, M292
Truck, van, shop, 2 1/2ton, 6x6, M109Al
Truck, van, shop, 2 1/2ton, 6x6, M220
Truck, wrecker, crane,
2 l/a-ton,
6x6, Ml08
Truck, tractor, wrecker,
medium, 5-ton, 6x6, M246

Vehicle
Weight
(kips)

VCIl

VCI5o

21.8

25

57

19.2

28

64

32.7
32.7
32.7

32
32
30

72
72
68

17.8
17.8

21
21

48
48

30.2
30.2
25.1

21
22
22
N/A

48
50
50
76

21.0

N/A

65

20.4

N/A

62

19.8

N/A

63

44.8

32

73

34.4

N/A

76

34

77

28.9

(w/payload)

Truck, wrecker, medium,

5-ton, 6x6, M543
Palletized Loading System,
10 x 10

86.6

Cone Index Requirements

D-5

;,:j:;j::

.:I:. I,.: :+;

: 1.. :...:

.: ; ;, ,::

...>J .:, ,........:..:,

:.::.:.o:

.:

::;

::.

>:;j:

:,y

. .

/,.

::

,..

,,:,

.:y

.:.:

,,,

L:

FM

504301000l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

APPENDIX E

SOIL-TRAFFICABILITY
Trafficability measurements are made with
the soil-trafficability test set. This set consists of one canvas carrying case, one cone
penetrometer with 3/8-inch steel and 5 /8inch alumlnum shafts and a 0.5~squareinch cone, one soil sampler, remolding
equipment (which includes a 3/8-inch steel
shaft and a 0.2~square-inch cone, a 5/8inch steel shaft with foot and handle, a 2
l/2-pound hammer, and a cylinder and
base with pin), and a bag of hand tools
(which includes one combination spanner
wrench and l/4-inch screwdriver; two openend wrenches, l/2 by 9 / 16; one 6-inch
Stillson wrench; one 3/ 16-inch Allen
wrench; and one 2-inch screwdriver with a
l/8-inch bit). The items are shown in their

II -

Figure E-l.

TEST SET

proper places in the carrying case in Figure

E- 1. SC-6635-98-CL-E02-HR
gives component lfstings and stock numbers.

CONE PENETROMETER
The cone penetrometer is shown in Figure
E-2, page E-2. It consists of a 30-degree
cone with a l/2-inch-square base area, a
steel shaft 19 inches long and 3 /8 inch in
diameter, a proving ring, a micrometer dial,
and a handle.
Use of the Cone Penetrometer
Inspect and adjust the cone penetrometer
prior to USC. Using an operators assistant

Soil-trafficability

test set

Soil Trafficability Test Set

E-l

FM 5-43&()0-1/AFPAM

32-801 3, j/o1 1

_.:;;.
.:::,:...j.j.j::j,:I~:.:::l.,.
,...:::,:
.::..;: :.::.:,:..:..,~.j.:::j:~.:.~
,:,,:,.,..
.ii.:i::.~:~..i::....,;~,~.~~i:.::i:

Operation.
lows:

Operate

the penetrometer

as fol-

1. Place one hand over the other on the

handle, palms down, and approximately
at
right angles as shown in Figure E-3. This
minimizes eccentric loading of the proving
ring and helps keep the shaft vertical.
2. Apply force until
ward movement occurs.

slow,

steady

down-

3. Take a dial reading just as the base of

the cone becomes flush with the ground surface. To do this, watch the cone descend
until an instant before the cone base is expected to be flush with the ground surface,
then immediately
shift the vision to the dial
face. Continue the slow, steady, downward
movement and take successive
dial readings

Figure

E-2.

Cone penetrometer

which measurements
recorded and usually
likelihood
of errors.

can be made and

diminishes
the

Inspection.
Inspect the penetrometer
before
using it to make sure that all nuts, bolts,
and joints are tight and that the dial-gage
stem contacts the proving-ring
bearfng
block.
Zeroing.
Allow the penetrometer
to hang
vertically
from its handle, and rotate the
dial fact until 0 is under the needle.
When
the instrument
is kept vertical between the
fingertips and allowed to rest on its cone,
the dial will register about 2 to 4 poundsthe total weight of the instrument-or
4 to
8 on the dial.

E-2

Soil Trafficability

Test Set

Figure

E-3.

Using a cone penetrometer

upright position

in the

:.,, :

at appropriate
6-inch intervals to a depth of
18 inches.
If it is necessary to stop the
downward progression of the cone
penetrometer
for any reason, progress may
be resumed with no adverse effects on the
cone penetrometer
readings.
Progression
should be stopped between depths so that
the next reading is taken only after
downward progression has resumed.
For example, when only one person is on the trafficability reconnaissance,
it may be convenient to make two cone penetrometer
readings, stop the penetration
to record the
readings, resume the penetration
to obtain
two additional readings, then stop to record.
Precautions.
Observe the following precautions when operating a penetrometer:
l

Keep the instrument

vertical.

Do not attempt to take readings higher

than the capacity of the dial (3001. This
may overstress the proving ring.
If dial capacity is exceeded at less than
18 inches of penetration, make another
penetration nearby. The cone may be
striking an isolated rock fragment or
other object.
Withdraw the instrument by the shaft,
never by the ring or the handle. Pulling
the handle may stretch the proving ring.
Read the CI only at the proper depth. If
readings are made as little as l/4 inch
from the proper depth and recorded as
being at the proper depth, an average of
such readings will not accurately reflect
the average strength.
Carelessness
in
making proper depth determinations
is
probably the greatest source of error in
using the penetrometer.

Training Penetrometer

.-

Operators

Train operators in areas that have uniform

soil conditions.
The instructor should take
approximately
50 sets of readings equally
spaced over the area. The average CI for 6inch layers should be computed and used
as standards or references.
The trainee
should be instructed in all proper techni-

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

ques of operation.
He should practice
penetration,
observed by a qualified instructor, until he becomes familiar with the techniques of operation.
The trainee should
then make 50 sets of readings, using an assistant to record them. The average Cls obtained by a trainee should be compared to
the standard.
If the trainees readings
deviate widely, the causes for the deviations
should be sought and corrected.
In a uniform area, a 5-percent deviation is
wide. The most probable cause of error is
carelessness
in determining
the proper
depth. The rato of progression recommended is such that four readings (surface,
6, 12, and 18 inches) can be measured in
15 seconds during a continuous
penetration
in soft soil. Slower or faster penetration
rates will reflect lower or higher values,
respectively,
but the discrepancies
will not
be large. The CI is also insignificantly
affected by the variation in the rate of
penetration
for the same operator or between experienced operators.
However. if
deviations persist, check the possibility of
cone-penetrometer
mechanical
imperfections.
Inspect the dial face to ensure that
its position has not shifted around the
dials shaft and that the needle is not sticking or has not slipped on its shaft.
Any of
these conditions could cause an improper
zero setting.
Secondly, inspect the proving
ring. A damaged or overstressed
ring might
require recalibration.
Finally, check to ensure the instrument
was properly zeroed.
The micrometer dial stem may not have
been in good contact with the proving-ring
bearing block when the instrument
was
zeroed.
Care and Adjustment

of the Penetrometer

Keep the penetrometer

free from dirt and
rust and keep all parts tight. Frequently
check the instrument
and rezero, if necessary. Ensure no grit is caught between the
stem of the dial and the lower mounting
block.
DIaf Care. The micrometer dial is a sensitive instrument
that should be protected
against water and rough use. Never immerse it in water, and wipe it dry as soon

Soil Trafficability

Test Set

E-3

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

as possible after use in rainy weather.

When the dial is transported
by truck,
it in paper or cloth.

wrap

If either or both
bearing blocks become loosened and moved,
adjust them so that they lie on the same
diameter of the ring. Retighten them and
recalibrate
the proving ring. Do not
Instead,
calibrate while on reconnaissance.
note all readings made in the field after
bearing blocks have been removed and correct them according to the calibration
made
later.

Bearing-BZock

Adjustment.

Considerable
use of the
same cone may result in a rounding of its
point, but it will not affect the accuracy of
the instrument.
However, if the base of the
cone has had excessive wear or is deformed
by hard use, replace the cone.

Cone

Replacement.

Recalibration.
The calibration
will remain true for the life of the instrument unless the bearing blocks are moved
or the ring is overstressed
(deformed by a
hard knock or subjected to extreme changes in temperature
or other unusual
strains).
If the ring needs recalibration,
complete the followmg steps:

5. Zero the dial by rotating

0 is under the needle.

its face so that

6. Add the load in lo-pound increments

up to 150 pounds.
Mark or note the
needles position on the dial after the addition of each load increment.
Any of the following loading methods may be used:
Add deadweights to the top of the ring
assembly. If a plate is used to hold the
weights, its weight should be considered in the first lo-pound load.
Use any of the load machines commonly
used in laboratory work to apply the
load.
Place the ring assembly on a set of platform scales. Apply the load increments
with a jack and measure them with the
platform scales.

Proving-Ring

1.

Remove the handle

and shaft.

2. Place the lower mounting block of the

ring assembly on a smooth, horizontal surface.
3. Check the bearing-block
alignment and
tightness.
Both blocks should be on the
same diameter of the ring. Use a drafting
triangle or a carpenters
square for this
operation.
The bolts should be snug.
4. Ensure that the stem of the dial bears
firmly on the lower bearing block.
Ensure
that the dial arm has sufficient travel available for the full range of motion (approximately l/ lo-inch deflection) of the
proving ring. The dial can be moved up or
down by adjusting the two nuts on the
threaded stud that holds the gage in position. Both nuts should be tight when in
final position.

E-4

Soil Trafficability Test Set

7. Remove the load in IO-pound increments, noting the position of the needle
after the removal of each increment.
8. Make the load run at least twice, using
the average of the needle position for each
increment as the final point.
9. Expect some variation
tion; it will not be significant.

in needle posi-

10. Establish
lo-pound intervals on the
dial face and mark them 20, 30, 40, so on,
to 300.
Each interval should be subdivided
separately because the arcs for various lopound intervals are not necessarily
the
same.
NOTE: If
calibrated
damaged,
turned in

the instrument cannot be

or the proving ring is severely
the instrument will need to be
for repair.

SOIL SAMPLER
A piston-type soil sampler,
ure E-4, is used to extract
remolding tests.

as shown in Figsoil samples for

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

Figure

E-4.

Soil sampler

and sampling

32-8013,

VOI I

cylinder

Operation
The soil sampler
way:

is used in the following

1. Loosen the knurled handle of the soil

sampler so the piston rod will move freely.
Hold the sampler firmly in both hands and
force it into the soil vertically (Figure E-51.
Do not twist the sampler while pushing it
into the soil. Sometimes two people are
needed to force the sampler into firm soils.
2. After locking
the knurled handle,
ly and withdraw.

the piston rod by turning

twist the sampler slight-

3. Deposit the sample

remolding cylinder.
Figure E-6, page E-6,
for using the sampler

directly

into the

shows the technique

in a prone position.

Figure

E-5.

Operating the sampler

upright position

in the

Care
It is essential to keep the inside of the sampling tube, the piston ring, and the leather
washer clean.
After 5 to 25 samplings,
depending upon the type of soil, complete
the following cleaning procedures:
1. Immerse the tube first in water and
then in fuel oil. Work the piston up and
down five or six times in each liquid.
2. Wipe off the excess fuel oil, and squirt
light machine oil into the tube.
3. If the sampler becomes stiff and hard tc
work, remove the tube, disassemble
and
thoroughly clean the piston, and oil the
leather washer.
Tube walls and cutting
edges are soft and should be handled with

Soil Trafficability Test Set

E-5

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

Figure

E-6.

32-8013,

Using the sampler

position

care.
The cutting
pening from time

Vol 1

in a prone

edges will require

to time.

shar-

Figure

E-7.

Remolding

test equipment

A steel cylinder approximately

2 inches
in diameter
and 8 inches long, mounted
on an aluminum
base.

Adjustment
Adjust the piston-rod
length to keep the
face of the piston flush with the cutting
edge of the tube when the piston-rod
handle (disk) is fully depressed.
To do this,
loosen the setscrew
on the handle,
screw
the handle up or down to the correct
position, and retighten
the setscrew.
Remolding test
The equipment
for the remolding
test,
shown in detail in Figure E-7 and in use in
Figures E-8 through
E-l 1, pages E-7
through
E-9, consists
of the following:

E-6

Soil Trafficability

Test Set

A 2 l/2-pound
steel drop hammer sliding on an 18-inch steel shaft with a
handle.
A cone pcnetrometer.
A cone penetrometer
may be equipped
with
an aluminum
shaft (5/8-inch
in diameter)
or a steel shaft (3/8-inch
in diameter)
with
a 0.5-square-inch
cone (for fine-grained
soils) or a more slender steel shaft with a
0.2~square-inch
cone (for remoldable
sands).
The penetrometer
is used to
measure
soil strength
in the cylinder
before
and after rcmoiding.
The sampler
(Figure

:.I:. 1 : :;

. :

,, :, :

.,:

: : 1,::: : ..,: : .:

,.,:,:,,:::::.:::,:~:. :::: ::

.. _. ...
y::;.:,:::;:, .. ,-x:::.:.:

.. :.:.:.::.:,:,..,.... .,.,. .. ..... ,........ ,. .:.: :

,.+.:

: ,:,.. >>p::*,

::+:j

: :.+::.,:

. . ..,. ,.

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

push it to the bottom of the cylinder

the foot of the drop-hammer
shaft.

Vol II

with

2. Measure the strength with the

penetrometer
(steel shaft) by taking CI readings as the base of the cone enters the surface of the soil sample and at each successive inch, to a depth of 4 inches, as shown
in Figure E-10, page E-9.
3. Apply 100 blows with the drop hammer
falling 12 inches as shown in Figure E- 11,
page E-9.
4. Measure the remolded strength from
the surface to the 4-inch depth at l-inch increments, as was done before remolding as
shown in Figure E- 10.
NOTE: Some samples are so hard they
cannot be penetrated the full 4 inches.
In such cases, the full dial capacity (300)
is recorded for each inch below the last
reading obtained.
To find the remolding index, take the sum
of the five CI readings after remolding and
divide by the sum of the five readings
before remolding.
Test Procedure for Remoldable
Figure E-8. Operating the remolding test
equipment to obtain a soil sample
E-4, page E-5) is used to obtain the soil
sample from lhe critical layer and place it
in the remolding cylinder.
Test Procedure for Fine-Grained
The following remolding
for fine-grained
soils:

Soils

test is performed

1. Take a sample from the critical layer

with the sampler as shown in Figure E-8,
eject it directly into the remolding cylinder
as shown in Figure E-9, page E-8, and

Sands

The test procedure for remoldable sands is

generally the same as that for fine-gralned
soils. However, the CI measurements
are
made with the slender shaft and 0.2-squareinch cone, and the sample is remolded by
placing a rubber stopper in the top of the
remolding tube and dropping it (along with
the cylinder and base) 25 times from a
height of 6 inches onto a firm surface, such
as a piece of timber.
Some remoldable
sands with a large amount of fines (more
than 12 but less than 50 percent) react
very much like fine-grained
soil. When testing a remoldable sand with a large amount
of fines, run both the fine grains and remoldable sands tests, and use the lower remolding index. Continue to use the more critical test throughout the area.

Soil Trafficability

Test Set

E-7

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

Figure

E-8

Soil Trafficability

32-8013,

E-9.

Operating

Test Set

Vol 1

test equipment

to load the cylinder

:.:i:.>:.
...

.ij.;;

j,:>::j

,&:;

:,;:.::

:.:.:

......

...

........................
..............~~~.~~~.~

............
.:.:. .:.:.:...:
.........

~~.(I?::.):i.);.:.:.:
........................

.;.:.:.:.:.;.;(

.:.:,:

.................
..
.,..:.:

.:.:.
..

.....
...........

:.:.:(:...~.:.~(.~.

(,;

.:

.:.:

...

FM $43&()()_1 /AF PAM 32130 13, Vo1 1

..............................
::.:
:::::.::::.::.::::::i:::.::::,
.....

.......
.

. .

......................................................

Figure E-10. Measuring cone index in a remolding cylinder

Figure E-11. Applying hammer blows with remolding equipment

Soil Trafficability Test Set

E-9

j:

APPENDIX

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

CURVE TABLES

FUNCTIONS

OF A 1 -DEGREE CURVE

The long chords (C), middle ordinates (MI,

externals (El, and tangent distances (T) in
Table F- 1, pages F-2 through F-30, are for
a l-degree curve, based on the arc definition (5,729.578-foot
radius).
To find the
corresponding
functions of any other curve,
divide the tabular values by the degree of
curvature.

CORRECTIONS FOR TANGENTS

DISTANCES

AND

Complete the following steps to determine

the degree of curvature for all curves other
than the l-degree curve:
1. Determine the value corresponding
to
the given intersection
angle from Table F- 1.
2. Divide this value by the given degree of
curvature.
3. Add the correction derived from Table
F-2, pages F-30 and F-31.

Curve Tables

F-7

Table F-l. Functions of a l-degree curve

II

I
I
I

II
II
II
2

II
II
II
II
II

I
I
3

0.000

0.0000

T,.Tangent
Distance

E,.External
Distance

0.0000

0.0000

10

16.666

0.0060

0.0060

8.3333

20

33.333

0.0242

0.0242

16.6667

30

49.999

0.0545

0.0545

25.0001

40

66.666

0.0969

0:0969

33.3337

50

83.332

0.1515

0.1515

41.6674

99.998

0.2181

0.2181

50.0012

10

116.664 1

0.2969 1

YGii1

20

133.330

0.3878

0.3878

30

149.995 I

0.4908 I

0.4908

75.0042

40

166.660

0.6060

0.6060

83.3392

50

183.325

0.7332

0.7333

91.6744

199.989

0.8726

0.8727

100.0101

10

216.653

1.0241

1.0243

108.3462

20

233.317

1.1877

1.1879

116.6827

30

249.980

1.3634

1.3638

125.0198

66.6696

266.642 1

1.5513
---~-r

1.5517

133.3574

50

283.304

1.7513

1.7518 I

141.6955

299.965 1

1.9633

1.9640 I

150.0342

I
I

10

316.626 I

2.1875

2.1884

158.3736

20

333.286

2.4238 I

2.4249 I

166.7136

30

349.945 I

2.6723 1

2.6735 1

175.0544

40

366.604

2.9328

2.9343

183.3959

50

383.261

3.2055

3.2073

191.7381

399.918

3.4903

3.4924

200.0812

10

416.574

3.7871

3.7896

208.4251

20

433.230

4.0961

4.0991

216.7700

30

449.884

4.4172

4.4207

225.1157

40

466.537

4.7505

4.7544

233.4624

50

483.190

5.0958

5.1003

241.8100

II

F-2

M,. Mlddle
Ordinate

40

II

C,. Long
Chord

Minutes

Degrees

Curve Tables

_.~...~.j:.,.:.:.:(.:.:.:

.,.::..

.:::.:::>:...:

. . . . ..

>

.>:.;.

.:::
<.,.:,,.

. . ..
...3.....
f::).::;:::.::

..
. . ..I
,:;
.:.ic:::::,,::f,::,::::(:.~

.,..

.A..

:,:.:.:.:...

::,:

.A:::..:.::.:
.:.::.,)(:

.,:c:;::::

.~..~~.~.,.,.,.~......~~~.,~...

.,.,:,:,:,:,)

,,..,,..,

.,,

,,,

,,,.,

,,,...

::.:.:...:.:.::.:,:.:.

,.

.,

,. .,

.Y...
.,:,...

Table F-l.

.,...

;.

:y.:.:.

.
.

.
.

:::::,

:,:,.::

:,.,

y,.::

.:,
.

Functions

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

of a l-degree

32-8013,

Vol 11

curve (continued)

Curve Tables

F-3

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Table F-l.

F-4

Curve Tables

Vol 1

.. .,,,,,..
../../.:,.
... ..,:
.:p..
.,; .;y:
.... ::,..,.,.
,,,,,.,:.;;:,
,,,,,:.r::... i.;.,,:,..:
.:::::.:,

Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

Table F-l. Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

Degrees
15

Minutes
I

16

I-I

E,.External

Ordinate

Distance

T,. Tangent
Distance

49.0173 I

49.4403

754.3132

10

1,512.242

50.1110

50.5532

762.7926

20

1,528.761

51.2168

51.6787

771.2753

30

1,545.277

52.3345

52.8169

779.7613

40

1,561.790

53.4643

53.9679

788.2507

50

1,578.300

54.6060

55.1315

796.7434

1,594.806

55.7598

56.3078

805.2396

10

1.611.309

56.9256

57.4968

813.7393 II

1,627.808 r

58.1034 I

58.6986 I

822.2425 II

1,644.304 r-

59.2931

59.9132 I

830.7492 II

1,660.796

60.4949

61.1404

839.2595 II

50

1,677.285

61.7087

62.3805

847.7735

1,693.771

62.9344

63.6334

856.2911

10

1,710.252

64.1722

64.8990

864.8124

20

1,726.731

65.4219

66.1775

873.3375

66.6836

67.4688 I

881.8663 II

30

1,743.205

--I

40

1,759.676 I

67.9573 I

68.7730 I

890.3990 II

50

1,776.143 I

69.2429

70.0900

898.9355

1,792.606 I

71.4199

907.4760 II

1,809.066

72.7626 1

916.0203 11

74.1183

924.5686

10

M,. Middle

Chord
1.495719

I- 20 --I
30 --7
I~~~~~
I 40
17

C,. Long

20
30

I
I

1,825.522
lJ41.974

73.1717
74.5053

75.4869

II
II

933.1210 II

Curve Tables

F-5

Table F-l.

Degrees

Mlnutes

20

II
II

21

II

II
II

23

II
II
II

I
24

II
II
II
F-6

I
I
Curve Tables

Functions

of a l-degree

C,. Long
Chord

curve (continued)

E,. External
Distance

M,. Middle
Ordinate

1,989x%61

87.0451

88.3879

88.4981

89.8865

10

2,006.272

20

2,022.680

T,. Tangent
Distance
1 ,010.2791

1,018.8738

91.3982 1

1,027.4729

30

2,039.082

91.4400

92.9230

1,036.0764

40

2,055.481

92.9288

94.4609

1,044.6845

50

2,071.875

94.4296

96.0120

1,053.2972

2,088.265

95.9423

97.5762

1,061.9145

10

2,104.650

97.4669

99.1536

1,070.5364

20

2,121.031

99.0034

100.7441

1,079.1630

100.5518

102.3479

l(O87.7943

102.1121

103.9649

1,096.4304

30

2,137.408

40

2,153.779

2,284.588

115.0229 I

117.3793 I

1,165.6958

2,300.917

116.6903

119.1162

1,174.3766

120.8665

1,183.0626

30

I
I
I

2,317.242

118.3695

2J33.562 1

120.0605

122.6302

1,191.7539

40

2J49.877

121.7635

124.4074

1,200.4504

50

2J66.187

123.4783

126.1980

1,209.1522

2,382.492

125.2050

128.0021

1,217.8593

10

2,398.792

126.9435

129.8198

1,226.5719

20

2,415.087

128.6939

131.6509

1,235.2898

30

2,431.377

130.4561

133.4957

1,244.0133

2,447.661 1

132.2302

135.3539

1,252.7422

2,463.941 1

134.0161 1

137.2258 1

1,261.4767

40
50

I
I

,.,,. ..,..(::..
. ....:,.::...:.,y.
::..:..>...
.,.,...,,..
.,I ..,.

.:.:...:.:.,:

:..:.:K:::...:

:.:.

,:::::

:j:

:,,::,:,:,:

.,.,.,.,

:.,

::

.,::.,.,:

,,,:

:,,

..

:.

.,

::c.:~::::::.~:..:.:.~:::,\l(,l:;l,::.v

Table F-l.

Functions

::..

,:...

1 :yj::

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

of a l-degree

32-8013,

Vol 1

curve (continued)

Curve Tables

F-7

FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM

,_:::~~_.~,.:i:i,ii~.::i:,:
,:,,
::::lii::i:>.ic:,:
,::,
:,:;.~;I::-.::l:i:i::I,:l.:il:l:i:,ili:lillili:
32-801 3, l/o1 1 i~::.1::.::1~:~:::,::,.:::~:~::;~.~~:~~:~~,.::li:i.i.i:.~.~:i:..;~:~,~~.:

Table F-1. Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

F-8

Curve Tables

.,.,::..:
.,.:.:.:
: ,.
:: :.
:,.,
:,..
: .. :.: : :.. :. j::,,

:.j,j,:.:,

:.,,

;:

,...

~~r~:~~,,::~~:,.~~::::.~.:~,:.,:~,-::~,_~,_

Table F-l.

Functions

FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM

of a l-degree

C,. Long
Chord

3208Oi3,

Vol 1

curve (continued)

T,. Tangent
Distance

E,. External
Distance

M,. Middle
Ordinate

3,445.834

265.1823

278.0514

l&06.5290

10

3,461.726

267.6940

280.8140

1,815.6949

20

3,477.610

270.2172

283.5919

1,824.8694

30

3,493.487

272.7519

286.3851

1,834.0523

40

3q9.357

275.2982

289.1936

lJ43.2438

50

3,525.219

277.8561

292.0175

1852.4439

3,541.073

280.4255

294.8568

lJW.6527

10

3,556.921

283.0064

297.7115

1,870.8702

20

3m572.760

285.5988

300.5817

lJBO.0964

288.2027

303.4674

1,889.X314

I
I
37

30

3J88.592

40

3,604.417 I

290.8182

306.3686

50

3,620.234

293.4451

309.2855

1,907.8281

3,636.043

296.0836

312.2179

1,917.0899

IO

3,651.845

298.7335

315.1659

1,926.3607

20

3,667.638

301.3950

318.1297

1,935.6406

30

3,683.424

304.0679

321.1091

1,944.9296

40

3m9.203

306.7523

324.1043

1,954.2278

50

3,714.973

309.4482

327.1153

1,963.5352

3,730.736

312.1555

330.1421

1,972.8519

3,746.490

314.8743

333.1848

1,982.1779

3,762.237

317.6046

336.2434

1,991.5133

0
10

II

,.

35

38

II

Mlnutee

II
II

II
II
II
II
II
II

Degrees

36

II

,;:.

39

20 ~~
I
I
I-- 30 ~~~ I
I 40
I
50
I
1
I-~- 0 ~~~~
1
10
I
I

T-

1,898.5753

3,777.976r~

320.3463 I

339.3179 I

2,000.8582

3,793.707

323.0994

342.4083

2,010.2125

3,809.430

325.8640

345.5148

2,019.5764

3,825.144

r---

328.6400

348.6373

2,028.9499

3JMO.851 1

331.4274

351.7759 1

2,038.3331

20

3,856.550

334.2263

354.9306

2,047.7260

30

3,872.240

337.0366

358.1015

40

3,887.922

339.8582

361.2886

50

3,903.596

342.6913

364.4919

2,057.1287
2,066.5411

2,075.9635

Curve Tables

F-9

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Table F-l.

F-10

Curve Tables

; : y:,:,..,: ::,:.. , ,,::,.:.

Vol 1

Functions

of a l-degree

curve (continued)

:...

..,:

::,::.I..:

.,:..

Table F-l.

II

lr

--

Degrees

Minutes

45

.:

FM s-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1:

Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

C,. Long

M,. Middle

E,. External

T,. Tangent

Chord

Ordlnate

Distance

Distance

472.0725

436.1381

q385.229

2,373.2689

10

4,400.622

439.3327

475.8175

2,383.0379

20

4,416.006

442.5385

479.5802

2,392.al a7

30

4,431.381

445.7556

483.3605

2,402.6114

40

4,446.746

448.9837

487. i 587

2,412.4161

50

4,462.102

452.2231

490.9746

2,422.2328

546.2965

2,560.9641

II

IO

4,676.079

I-

498.7430

4,797.487

526.3008

579.5351

2,641.3716

4,812.617

529.7951

583.7749

2,651.4828

4.827.738

533.3005

588.0338

2,661.6076

Curve Tables

F-l 1

FM 5-430=00=i/AFPAM

32-8013,

Table F-l.

Vol 1

... :.:L

..

:: . ..

:jlj,

Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

--

F-72

Curve Tables

_:j;.

,,,:. .:.::.

FM 514309001l/AFPAM

.. .

Table F-l.

32-8013,

Vol 1

Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

Curve Tables

F-13

FM 5_43(&00_1/AFPAM

32-801 3, j/o1 1

Table F-l.

Functions

of a l-degree

. :,,:.:.~::i:;:il.::..j
:::.i.i~i::.~:.~:..~,~:.
:...I~~:~jj:j:J,ij:iij.~

curve (continued)

F-14

Curve Tables

:.:.:.:.
p::::.:..::.:::..:.
::.:.:
:,

L,

.A..

. ..i

i..

..

.:,

..,. :.:
,.

..::,:
.. .

./.,,
.

..:;,
.I

.: ,:_,:
.

...

:,.. .
..:

,...( .,.,..
,:, ,,..:..,.:.:... . .,,.
. . ,..,.::

:i

..,. ..,

.&::,

::.:

:....:..:.:::.:.,,:;.

,:

x::,:.

.,.

Table F-l.

: ::..

FM 5430-001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Curve Tables

F-15

Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Table F-l.

F-16

Curve Tables

Vol 1

Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

Table F-l.

Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

.-

Curve Tables

F-l 7

FM 5-43&0&1/AFPAM

321301 3, Vol

Table F-l.

F-18

Curve Tables

:..~:~...

.:

Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

.:.

..; .:

,.., :(.,:.::.;: ..Cj

;j

::jj,.

:.

..,

....

Table F-l.

Minutes

Degrees

87

II
II

II

I
I
88

II
II

II

lr-

32-8013,

Vol 1

Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

C,. Long

M,. Middle

E,. External

T,OTangent

Chord

Ordinate

Distance

Distance

2,115.2795

5,358.5189

20

7,839.470

1,550.6142

2,125.9733

5,374.1625

30

7,851.618

1,556.3197

2,136.7129

5J89.8487

40

7,863.749

1,562.0339

2,147.4987

5,405.5780

50

7,875.864

lJ67.7570

2,158.3308

5,421.3505

7J87.962

1,573.4889

2,169.2094

5,437.1665

10

7,900.043

1,579.2296

2,180.1349

5,453.0261

20

7,912.108

1,584.9791

2,191.1074

5,468.9298

30

7.924.155

1.590.7373

2,202.1272

5,484.8777

II
II

40

7,936.186 1

1.596.5043 1

2,213.1945 I

5,500.8700 11

50

7,948.201 I

1.602.2800 1

2,224X)96 1

5,516.9071 11

7,960.198

1,608.0645

2,235.4727

5,532.9891

7.972.179 I
I

1,613.8576 (
I

2,246.6841 1

5,549.1164 11

7.984.142

1,619.6595 1

2,257.9440 1

5,565.2892 11

7,996.089 I

1,625.4701

2,269.2527

5,581.5077 II

8,008.019 I

lJB1.2894 I

2,280.6104 I

5,597.7723 I/

1,637.1173

2,292.0174

5,614.0832

1,642.9539

2,303.4740

5,630.4406

1,648.7991

2,314.9804

5,646.8448

10
20

40

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

1,544.9176

30

89

..

7,827.306

r ~~~
--I---r~~

.:

10

. .

I--

II

1~

50

8,019.932

8,031.828
I

10

8,043.707

20

8,055.569

1,654.6530

2,328X369

5Ji63.2961

30

8,067.414

1,660.5154

2J38.1437

5,679.7949

40

8.079.242

1.666.3865

2.349.8011

5,696.3412

50

8,091.053

1,672.2662

2J61.5094

5,712.9355

Curve Tables

F- 19

Table F-l.

Degrees

Minutes

90

II
II

91

II
II
II
II
II
II
II

I
I

92

I
I

94

Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

C,. Long

M,. Middle

Chord

Ordinate

E,.External

T,.Tangem
Dletance

Distance

8,102.846

1,678.1545

2,373.2689

8,114.623 I

1,684.0513 I

2q5.0797

8,126.382

1,689.9567 I

2,396.9423 1

5,763.0086

30

8,138.125

1,695.8707

2,408.8568

5,779.7974

40

8,149.849

1,701.7931

2,420.8236

5,796.6355

50

8,161.557

1,707.7241

2J32.8430

5,813.5232

8,173.248

1,713.6636

2,444.9151

5,830.4609

20

5,729.5780
I

5,746X89

10

8,184.921 I

1,719.6116 I

2,457.0404 I

5JM7.4487

20

8,196.577

1,725.5681 I

2,469.2190 I

5J64.4871

30

8,208.215

8,243.026

1,749.4786 I

2,518.4734 1

5,933.1517

8254.595 (

1,755.4773 1

2,530.9235 1

5,950.4471

30

8J46.516

1,803.7686

2,632.5355

6J90.7207

40

8,357.927

lJM9.8425

2,645.4932

6,108.4985

50

8,369.320

1,815X47

2,658.5089

6,126X16

8380.696

1,822.0152

2,671.5829

6,144X01

10

8.392.053

1.828.1139

2.684.7156

6.162.1646

20

8,403.393

lq4.2209

2,697.9072

6,180.1653

30

8,414.716

1,840.3361

2,711.1581

6,198.2225

40

8,426.020

1,846.4596

2,724.4687

6,216.3367

50

8,437.307

1,852.5913

2,737.8393

6,234.5081

0
10

I
I
I
I

I I,7315331 I 2,481.4514 I 5JB1.5763

8,219.836 I
2,493.7377
5,898.7166
1,737.5065 1
8,231.440 I
1,743.4883
I 2,506.0783 I .5,915.9083

.i

F-20

Curve Tables

.:.:
..:..,
: :.: : :
.,..
.;.... ,,

,,

., ::.

,: : : :
.,

:.~:,::::::.::::.:.::.::,:.;~.
,..............,.....,.,.

:: :y:;:
.,

. . . . :.::::::.::,j:::~::::.::.:.,:.,i,.
,.,.,.
.,..,
..,...,....

,; ; ,::.:. : .: : ,j,..:

Table F-l.

II
II
II
II
II
II

Degrees

Minutes

95

I
96

I
I

97

II
II

I
I

II
98

99

II

:.

Functions

32-8013,

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

. :,

of a l-degree

C,. Long
Chord

curve (continued)

M,. Middle
Ordlnate

E,. External
Distance

T,. Tangent
Distance

8,448.576

1,858.7312

2,751.2702

6,252.7371

1,864.8792

2,764.7617

6,271.0241

1,871.0355

2,778.3143

6,289.3694

10

8,459.826

20

8,471.059

30

8,482.274

1,877.1999

2,791.9283

6,307.7734

40

8,493.472

lJ83.3724

2,805.6040

6,326.2364

50

8,504.651

1,889.5531

2,819.3417

8,515.812

1,895.7419

8,526.955

10

Vol 1

6J44.7588

2Jx33.1419

6,363.3410

1,901.9389

2JM7.0049 1

6,381.9833

20

8,538.080

1,908.1439

2J60.9311

6,400.6861

30

8J49.187

1,914.3570

2,874.9208

6,419.4497

40

8,560.276

1,920.5782

2Jt88.9743

6pl38.2747

50

8,571.347

1,926.8074

2,903.0922

6,457.1612

8,582.400

1,933.0447

2,917.2747

68476.1098

2,931.5223
~~~
~~~~~~ I

6,495.1208

10

8,593.435 I

1,939.2900 I-

20

8,604.451 I

1,945.5433 1

2,945X352 I

6,514.1945

8,615.449

1,951.8047

2,960.2140

6,433.3315

40

8,626.429

1,958.0740

2,974.6589

6,552.5320

50

8$X37.391

1,964.3513

2,989.1704

6,571.7966

8,648X4

1,970.6366

3,003.7489

6,591.1255

10

8,659.259

1,976.9298

3,018.3948

6,610.5192

20

8,670.166

1,983.2309

3,033.1084

6,629.9780

30

8,681.055

1,989.5400

3,047.8902

6,649.5025

40

8,691.925

1,995.8570

3,062.7406

6,669.0931

50

8,702.777

2,002.1819

3,077.6600

6,688.7500

8,713.610

2,008.5147

3,092.6488

6n708.4739

10

8,724.425

2,014.8554

3,107.7074

6,728.2650

20

8,735.221

2,021.2039

3,122.8363

6,748.1238

30

8,745.999

2,027.5602

3,138.0359

6,768.0508

40

8,756.759

2,033.9244

3,153.3066

6,788.0464

50

8,767.500

2,040.2964

3,168.6488

6,808-l 110

Curve Tables

F-27

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Table F-l.

F-22

Curve Tables

... ,.

Vol 1

Functions

of a l-degree

curve (continued)

,. .

,c.,..,.:

. . .. . . . . . . .

. . . ::.:

.,:;.:.

.:..

.,. .,,

.,

Table F-l.

:!

...

FM 5430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol II

Curve Tables

F-23

Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

__

FM 5-4300OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,
Table F-l.

F-24

Curve Tables

Vol 1

FUnCtlOn8

:
of a l-degree curve (continued)

Table F-i.

32-8013,

Vol 1

Curve Tables

F-25

Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

FM 5-4300000l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Table F-l. Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

II

-26

10,014.312

50

Curve Tables

6,057.7079

2J44.5379

10,301.0701

20

10,133.440

3,054.4312

6,541.9221

10,851.8040

30

10,141.211

3,061.8032

6,575.8329

10,890.1365

40

10,148.960

3,069.1810

6,609.9578

10,928.6815

50

10,156.688

3,076.5643

6,644.2987

10,967.4410

,:_:$:
:...::..:.-:.
.~..:
y.,.,
,,.,.
: ~,::::::.,,:.::,:

..
. .i....
ii::l:iiiBi:i,i::::::,:~:,.~::i,:~.~.:.;
pj j j. ;.I,;:::,.::,:.::+::

..A.,.

::...::.:>

.:.

.,

. .:.:,.

: :,:,, :,:

: ,....

......

:: :,.. ,; :;:

.i : .: ,: .,

.,:

y,

,.

.j

32-8013,

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

Vol 1

Table F-l. Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

T,.Tangent
Distance

E,.External
Distance

125

10,164.395

3,083.9533

6,678.8577

11,006.4169

10

10.172.080

3.091.3478

6.713.6366

11,045.6112

10.179.744

3.098.7479

6.748.6375

30

10,187.386

3,106.1536

6,783.8625

11,124.6631

40

10,195.006

3,113.5649

6,819.3134

11,164.5247

50

10,202.605

3,120.9817

6,854.9926

11,204.6130

10,210.182

3,128.4040

6,890.9019

11,244.9299

10

10,217.738

3,135.8318

6,927.0436

11,285.4777

20

10.225.272

3.143.2651

6.963.4199

11.326.2585

30

10,232.785

3,150.7038

7,000.0328

11,367.2744

40

10,240.275

3,158.1480

7,036.8847

11,408.5277

50

10,247.744

3,165.5977

7,073.9777

11,450.0207

10.255.192

3.173.0528

7.111.3141

118491.7556

10.262.618 I

3.180.5133 I

7.148.8963 I

11,533.7347

20

10,270.022

3,187.9791

7,186.7264

11,575.9603

30

10,277.404

3,195.4504

7224.8070

11,618.4348

40

10,284.765

3,202.9270

7,263.1404

11,661.1606

50

10,292.104

3,210.4090

7,301.7289

11,704.1401

126

127

II

.-

M,. Middle
Ordinate

Mlnutes

II

II
II
II
II

C,. Long
Chord

Degrees

128

I
I
I

20

10

11.085.0259

10,299.421 1

3,217.8963 1

7340.5750 I

11,747.3757

10

10,306.716

3225.3889 1

7,379.6813

11,790.8700

20

10,313.989 1

3,232.8868 1

7,419.0502

11,834.6254

30

10,321.241 1

3,240.3900 I

7,458.6842

11,878.6446

50

10,378.467 1

3,300.6037 1

7,785.6181 1

12,240.6071

Curve

Tables

F-27

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Table F-l. Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

II
II
II

C,. Long
Chord

E,.External
Distance

T,.Tangent
Distance

Minutes

130

lo,385522

3,308.1537

7,827.7585

12,287.1196

10

10,392.554

3,315.7088

7,870.1913

12,333.9232

20

10,399.565

3,323.2690

7,912.9196

12,381.0208

30

10,406.554

3,330.8343

7,955.9462

12,428.4154

40

10,413.520

3,338.4047

7,999.2743

12,476.llOO

8,042.9067
~~~~-1

12,524.1076

131

50

10,420.465

3J45.9802 1

10,427.388

3,353.5607-~I---s,

10

10,434.288

3,361.1462

8,131.0975

12,621.0245

20

10,441.167

3,368.7367

8,175.6620

12,669.9501

30

10,448.023

3,376X322

8,220.5437

12,719.1915

40

10,454.857

3,383.9328

8,265.7457

12,768.7518

50

10,461.669

3,391.5382

8,311.2715

12,818.6345

10,468.459

3,399.1486

8,357.1242

12,868.8428

10

10,475.227

3,406.7640

8,403.3075

12,919.3803

20

10,481.973

3,414.3842

8,449.8246

12,970.2504

10,488.697

3,422.0094

8,496.6792 I

13,021.4565

10,495.398

3,429.6394

8,543.8747

13,073.0023

10,502.077 1

3n437.2743

8,591.4148

13,124.8913

10,508.734

3,444.9141

8,639.3032 I

13,177.1272

10,515.369

3,452.5586

8,687.5434

13,229.7138

10,521.981

3,460.2080

8,736.1394

13,282.6548

10,528.571

3,467.8622 1

8,785.0950

13,335.9539

40

10,535.139

3,475.5212

8,834.4139

13,389.6152

50

10,541.685

3,483.1850

8,884.1001

13,443X425

10,548.208

3,490.8535

8,934.1577

13,498.0398

10

10,554.709

3,498.5267

8,984.5905

13,552.8112

20

10,561.188

3,506.2047

9,035.4029

13,607.9608

30

10,567.644

3,513.8873

9,086.5988

13,663.4926

40

10,574.078

3,521.5747

9,138.1826

13,719.4111

50

10,580.490

3,529.2667

9,190.1585

13,775.7204

II
132

II

30

I
I
I
I
I
I

II
134

F-28

M,. Middle
Ordinate

Degrees

Curve Tables

30

.:j:

..:.,jj:::;j,,;jj,j

.;:., :,.~:j:.:j,::::.,j,:.:.>...:l

Table F-l.

..,:...j

Functions

. . . .

FM 5-4301OO-l/AFPAM

of a l-degree

32-8013,

Vol 1

curve (continued)

Curve Tables

F-29

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Table F-l.

Vol 1

Functions of a l-degree curve (continued)

Table F-2. Corrections for Tangents and Externals

F-30

Curve Tables

: .:

. ... .. ..:

,:::i?,.j.

..-:.:.
. .

,;,,::

,,:

..,...,,

:.;,:,.;:..
:,
. .

..::.

Table F-2.

. .:,, .

.,.,.
.,,: j.:::>,:.:?.
..,..:,:::;

Corrections

:.,. :.:

,. i ,/.,

.:

.,

:.

y:

for Tangents

,I.

::

32-8013,

Vol 1

Curve Tables

F-31

FM 5-430~00~l/AFPAM

and Externals

(continued)

... . .,........:
):.:.:...:..

,.

.,

..,

FM 5-430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

APPENDIX G

FROST DESIGN FOR ROADS

FROST-AREA CONSIDERATIONS
In areas where frost effects have an impact
on the design of roads, additional considerations concerning thicknesses and required
layers in the road structure must be addressed. The specific areas where frost has
an impact on the design are discussed in
the following paragraphs: however, a more
detailed discussion of frost effects is presented in Special Report 83-27. For frostdesign purposes, soils have been divided
into seven groups as shown in Table G- 1.
Only the NFS group is suitable for a base
course. NFS, Sl, S2. Fl, or F2 soils may
be used for a subbase course, and any of
the six groups may be encountered as subTable G-i.

Type of Soil

Frost
Group
NFS

Frost-design

(a) Gravels (e > 0.25)

Crushed stEne
Crushed rock
b Sands (e 5 0.30)
IIc Sands (e > 0.30)

grade soils. Soils are listed in approximate

order of decreasing bearing capability during periods of thaw.

REQUIRED THICKNESS
Where frost-susceptible subgrades are encountered, the section thickness required
will be determined according to the reducedsubgrade-strength method. The reducedsubgrade-strength method requires the use
of frost-area soil-support indexes listed in
Table G-2, page G-2, and strength curves
shown in Figure G- 1, page G-2. The

soil classifhtlon
% By Weight
< 0.02 mm
o-3
;:;
o-3
3- 10

Typical Soil Types

Under the USCS
GW, GP
EZ

2:

SW,SP
SP

(a) Gravels (e c 0.25)

Crushed stone
Crushed rock
(b) Gravelly soils

o-3

GW, GP

;:;
3-6

%
2:
GW: GP, GW-GM,
GP-GM, GW-GC,
GP-GC

s2

Sandy soils (e 5 0.30)

3-6

SW, SP, SW-SM,

SP-SM, SW-SC,
SP-SC

Fl

Gravelly

F2

;
II

r3~~tly

F3

a
b
iic

Gravelly soils
Sands, except very fine silty sands
Clays (PI > 12).

F4

(a
b
c
iId

Silts
Very fine sands
Clays (PI c 12)
Varved clays and other fine-grained,
banded sediments

Sl

NOTE:

soils
soils

6- 10

GW-GM, GP-GM,
GW-GC, GP-GC

10-20
6-15

GM, GC, GM-GC

SM, SC, SW-SM,
SP-SM, SW-SC,
SP-SC, SM-SC

> 20
> 15

> 15

GM, GC, GM-GC

SM, SC, SM-SC
CL, CH, ML-CL
ML, MH, ML-CL
zy MX_,C;M-SC
CLor CH la ered
with ML, M x , SM,
SC, SM-SC, or
ML-CL

e = void ratio.

Frost Design for Roads

G-l

Table

G-2.

Frost-area soil-support
subgrade
soils

Frost Qroup of
Subgrade Soils

indexes

Frost-Area SoilSupport Index

Fl and Si

9.0

F2 and S2

6.5

F3 and F4

3.5

of

curve, and then moving vertically downward

to determine the design thickness in inches.

REQUIRED LAYERS IN A ROAD SECTION

required thickness is determined by comparing the natural subgrade CBR to the frostarea soil-support index associated to the
relevant first group. If the natural subgrade CBR is less than the frost-area soilsupport index, then the CBR value governs
the design, and the thickness is determined
from Figure G-2. If the natural subgrade
CBR is greater than the soil-support index,
then Figure G-l is used. The required
thickness is determined by entering Figure
G-l at the correct design index, moving horizontally to intersect the relevant frost-group

When frost is a consideration, the road section should consist of a series of layers that
will ensure the stability of the system, particularly during thaw periods. The layered
system in the aggregate fill may consist of a
wearing surface of fine-crushed stone, a
coarse-graded base course, and a wellgraded subbase of sand or gravelly sand as
shown in the following example:

1
I

A subbase of wellgraded sand, frost

group soils Sl and S2, or geotextfle.

1
8

15

10

A wearing surface of fine-graded

20

30

40

50

Design thickness in inches

Figure

G-2

G-1.

Frost-design

Design for Roads

reduced-subgradbstrength

curves

.I.
.::y:::

..L

. ..

:.:::::::::::.~::::..::.:

,..,.:

. ...:.,.::.:.,):::,,~~,~

:: :::::::. .j),..

:I.

.,.

.,

,.,.,

,,..:.:..

: ..,.:
: y.:.:

::.,.::,.,:..
... . ..

.:

.
:.

. ..i

.:.,.:.j:::..:.::...:.::..:.::

.. .. ..

,:::

.. .

.::I

.. .

::..c::::,:

..

.::.:::::

.\

,.. . ,.,., ,. ,, ,.,

.I

y::.:

.,... :. .:.>:.:.>:..

y...+:.::

To ensure the stability of the wearing surface, the width of the base course and subbase should exceed the final desired surface
width by a minimum of 1 foot on each side.

WEARING SURFACE
The wearing surface contains fines to provide stability in the aggregate surface. The
presence of fines helps the layers compaction characteristics and helps to provide a
relatively smooth riding surface. Its thickness will vary between 4 and 6 inches.

BASE COURSE
The coarse-graded base course is important
in providing drainage of the granular fill. It
is also important that this material be NFS
so that it retains its strength during spring
thaw.

SUBBASE
The well-graded sand subbase is used for

. .

,. ., ,.,

p:::p:y.:::~:$y

additional bearing capacity over the frostsusceptible subgrade and as a filter layer between the coarse-graded base course and
the subgrade. This process prevents the migration of the subgrade into the voids in
the coarser material during periods of reduced subgrade strength. The material
must therefore meet standard filter criteria.
The sand subbase must be either NFS. Sl,
or S2. The filter layer may or may not be
necessary depending upon the type of subgrade material. If the subgrade consists
principally of gravel or sand, the filter layer
may not be necessary and may be replaced
by additional base course material, if the
gradation of the base course is such that it
meets filter criteria. However, for finergrained soils, the filter layer will be necessary. If a geotextile is used, the sand subbase or filter layer may be omitted because
the fabric will be placed directly on the subgrade and will act as a filter. If select materials are used, they must be either NFS, Sl.
S2. Fl, or F2 from Table G-l, page G-l.

,.

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

COMPACTION
The subgrade should be compacted to provide uniformity of conditions and a firm
working platform for placement and compaction of the subbase. However, compaction
of the subgrade will not change its frostarea soil-support index because frost action
will cause the subgrade to revert to a
weaker state.

THICKNESS OF BASE COURSE AND

FILTER LAYER
The relative thicknesses of the base course
and filter layer are variable and should be
based on the required cover (minimum of 4
inches) and economic considerations.

FROST-AREA DESIGN STEPS

Steps 1 through 5 are the same as for regular aggregate-surfaced roads. (Refer to
Chapter 9, page 9-66.)
6. Determine the applicable frost group for
the subgrade type from Table G- 1, page G- 1.
7. Determine the frost-area soil-support index from Table G-2, page G-4, based on the
applicable frost group.
8. Determine the required road-structure
thickness. First, compare the natural subgrade CBR to the frost-area soil-support index.
a. If the natural subgrade CBR is less
than the frost-area soil-support index, then
the CBR value governs the design, and the
thickness is determined from Figure G-2,
page G-4, as in nonfrost design.
b. If the natural subgrade CBR is
greater than the frost-area soil-support index, then Figure G-l, page G-2, is used.
The required thickness is determined by entering Figure G-l at the design index, moving horizontally to intersect the frost-group
curve, and then moving vertically downward
to determine the thickness in inches.
9. Determine the required compaction densities for each layer from Table 9-12, page 963.

Frost Design for Roads

G-3

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

.:

:::j:...

..:

e
\
f5

t
\

44
t- t-

\
-

L
\

76910

15

20

30

40

50

Thickness, inches
Figure G-2.
10. Draw the section
structure.

Design curves for aggregate-surfaced

of the aggregate

road

NOTES:
1. All layer depths should be rounded up
to the next full inch for construction purposes.

G-4

Frost Design for Roads

roads

2. The material should meet gradation requirements.

3. After all possible design sections are
determined, the final section used should
be determined on the basis of economic
analysis.

,,.,,.,(.

........,............

. . ..

. . .../

p:.:

.............(..,....~.:,:,,,,
.
......i.......:.:.::::'..~:~:.
FM 5-430-()&l/AFPAM
), .,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,...,.,.,.,.,.,.,~,~,~~~~~~
_,
,,.,.,.,
t.,
.,.,...,...,.(.,i(_\,,,,,,,,,,,,~,,,,
::..,:,:,:,I,,:.;..;...

.. ::......~~:.:.........,...,......~
,..,.,.,.,
~:~~~~~~~I:::#:~:~:::::~::::~:::,~:::
:.:.:.:,: :,:,:,:,:,:.:..:,:.:.~,:::::,::
:::: ::: :::::: ::: :::::::

inches

,..

.v.,.

,,........

,,,

. ..

,.

. . .

Coarse-graded,crushed-rock
base course
CBR =

32401 3, Vol 1

Percent compaction =

Percent compaction =

6 inches-.

~~pactsd subgrade
I
i$ral

Percent compaction =

subgrade
=-

Example

(Frost-Area

Design):

An aggregate-surfaced
road in a frost area
is to be used for one year. The road will be
subject toAverage Daily Traffic

Vehicles
M998

1,800

HMMWV

M929 5ton
(2 average

600

dump
trucks)

Available material CBR:

Natural subgrade = 4 (Clay PI = 14)
Compacted subgrade =8
Fine-graded, crushed rock = 80
Coarse-graded, crushed rock = 80
Clean sand subbase = 15
Solution :
1.

Number of daily passes

= 2,400

(given).

2. Select road class D from Table 9-8, page

9-59, based on average daily traffic of 2,400.
3. Select traffic category IV from page 959, based upon the presence of the 25-percent truck traffic.
4. Select design
page 9-60.
5.

index of 4 from Table 9-9,

Natural subgrade CBR = 4.

Compacted subgrade CBR = 8

6. From Table G- 1, page G-l, the subgrade

frost group is F3 based on it being a clay
(CL) material.
7. Select frost-area support-index
of 3.5
from Table G-l, based on frost group F3.
8. Determine
thickness.

the acquired

road-structure

a. First, look at the required road thickness if it was not designed for frost. In
this case, the compact subgrade CBR = 8 is
used in Figure G-2, page G-3. This results
in a required total thickness of 6.25 inches,
rounding up to 7 inches as shown below.

;;;hegagcrushed
=
;ln;he;

rock

compacted

I
subgrade

=
Natural subgrade
CBR=4

b. Now, design the road for frost. In this

case, the natural subgrade CBR = 4, and
the frost-area soil-support
index = 3.5.
Since the natural subgrade CBR is greater
than the frost-area soil-support
index, Figure G-l is used. A design index of 4 is
entered into Figure C-l resulting in a

Frost Design for Roads

G-5

FM 50430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

design thickness of 24.5 inches, rounding

up to 25 inches. Notice the rather large difference in design thicknesses between frost
design and nonfrost
design.
9. Compaction
densities
for each layer are
determined
from Table 9-12. page 9-63.
Wearing course:
at least 100 percent.
Base course: at least 100 percent.
Subbase course: 100 to 105 percent.
Subgrade:
90 to 95 percent
for cohesion
soil (P125).
10. Draw the section
gregate road structure.

of the frost-area,

ag-

..::.j:.

..,::.:.: ,.,,:.::j

,.,

,:

; : ::;,,:,j

.;::,.:.

,: :;:,::,:;:::
.,.,. ..,

:j :,:,:: :..:,:

12 inches coarse-graded,
crushed rock
CBR = 80

Percent compaction
= at least 100%

9 inches clean sand

subbase filter
CBR = 15

Percent compaction
= loo-105%

6 inches compacted
subgrade
CBR = 8

Percent compaction
= go-95%

NOTES:
1. The function of the subbase as a filter
layer is not always required, depending
upon the subgrade material. In this case,
the subgrade is a CL: therefore, it is required.
2. For economy, the thicknesses of the
base and subbase courses can be adjusted, so long as the minimum thickness
above the CBR=16 subbase is maintained
at 4 inches, as determined from Figure G2, page G-3.

When using a geotextile

as a filter layer, the
design above could be used by deducting
6
inches of the clean sand subbase
and
replacing
it with a geotextile.
The total
thickness
above the geotextile
must be a
minimum
of 25 inches.
Two alternate
designs using geotextile
are shown in the
example
at the bottom of the page.

Natural subgrade
CBR = 4

4 inches wearing surface

fine-graded, crushed rock
CBR = 80

., .

6 inches compacted
srbgrade
CBR = 8

6 inches wearing surface

fine-graded, crushed rock
CBR = 80

Percent
compaction =
at least 100%

OR
,.

Percent
compaction
= go-95%

Natural subgrade
CBR = 4

G-6

... .y:::

3. An overall minimal thickness layer of

4 inches should be maintained.

4 inches wearing surface

fine-graded, crushed rock
CBR = 80

21 inches coarse-graded,
crushed rock
CBR = 80
Geotextlle

; ,,,,:.

Frost Design for Roads

19 inches coarse-graded,
crushed rock
CBR = 80
Geotextlle
6 inches compacted
subgrade
CBR = 8
Natural subgrade
CBR = 4

Percent
compaction =
at least 100%

Percent
compaction
= go-95%

APPENDIX H

GEOTEXTILE DESIGN
DESIGN GUIDELINES
The widespread acceptance of geotextfles for
use in engineering designs has led to a
proliferation of geotextile manufacturers
and a multitude of geofabrics, each with different engineering characteristics from
which to choose. The design guidelines and
methodology that follow help you select the
right geofabric to meet your construction requirements.

CBR

Shear
stren th, psi

iE1

0-

10 -

UNPAVED-AGGREGATE

DESIGN

Site Reconnaissance
As with any construction project, a site
reconnaissance provides insight on construction requirements and potential problems.
Determine
Strength

Subgrade Soil Type and

Identify the subgrade soil and determine its

strength as outlined in Chapter 9, FM 5410. If possible, determine the soils shear
strength, C, in psi. If you are unable to
determine C, use the nomograph in Figure
H- 1 to convert CBR value or CI to C.
Determine Permissible
grade Soil

30 _

40 -

50 -

Load on the Sub-

The amount of loading that can be applied

without causing the subgrade soil to fail is
referred to as the permkslble stress, S.
l

20 -

660 7_

Permissible subgrade stress without a

geotextile:
S = (2.8)C

Permissible subgrade stress with a

geotextile:
S = (5.O)C

Figure H-1. Determining the soilss shear

strength by converting CBR value or cone
index

Geotextlle Design

H-l

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Determine Wheel Loads, Contact Pressure, and Contact Area

Estimate
wheel loads, contact
pressure,
and
contact-area
dimensions
from Table
H-2. For geotextile
design, single and dual
wheels are represented
as single-wheel
loads (L) equal to one-half
the axle load.
The wheel load exerted
by a single wheel is
applied at a surface
contact
pressure
(PI
equal to the tire inflation
pressure.
Dualwheel loads apply a P equal to 75 percent
of the tire inflation
pressure.
Tandem
axles
exert 20 percent
more than their actual
weight to the subgrade
soil due to overlapping stress from the adjacent
axle fn the
tandem
set.
Table H-l.
Vehicle Type (Choose
Category Nearest Ibe
Actual Design Veltlcles)

the area being loaded

B2

(B2):

where B2 = length
con tat t area

of one side of the square

Determine Aggregate-Base

Thickness

Assuming
that wheel loads will be applied
over a square area, we can use the Boussinesq theory of load distribution
to determine the aggregate-section
thickness
required to support
the design load.
Boussinesq theory coefficients
are found in Table
H-2. -

Vehicle input parameters

s - Slngk

Wheels
s - slngk

Axle
Loads

Whet
LQads i

T - Tandem

D-Dual

Ob)

L Ob)

AXkS

Estimate

Contacl
Pressure3

I\ypk&
ml-e
lnnatlon

Wheel
Contact
AIW
B2 (ln2)

P (PSf)

Pressure

One Side
of square
Contacl
Ana

(psi)

B (In)

Highway Legal Vehlcks

Haul

Inrcks4 - F Axle
(stone, concrete)

RAxle

18,000

110

Q.ooc)

18,ooO

10.800

18,CKIO
18,ooO

9,ooO
10.808

110

11.4

75
I20

8.7
11.0

S
T

S
D

~-Ion

s
S

S
D

48,CQO
89,200

24,000
44,600

90
90

QO
68

267
656

16.3
25.6

S
S

S
S

24,ooO
10,oGu

12,000
5JJfJfl

50
50

50
50

240
100

15.5
10.0

S
S

S
S

37,r.xxl
14,cQo

18,500

60
60

60
60

308
117

17.6
10.8

S
S

65,000

32,600

25,ooO

lZ=J

60
60

60
60

542
2G8

23.3
14.4

S
S

S
S

136,OfXl
55,GOo

68@fJ
27,500

85
85

85
8.5

800
324

28.3
18.0

S
S

S
S

290,000
120,008

145,000
60,COO

70
60

70
60

2071
1000

45.5
31.6

(CAT 631D) - R Axle

S
s

S
S

88,608
75,480

44,300
37,700

80
75

80
75

554
503

23.5
22.4

Scraper - F Axle
(CAT 651B) - R Axle

S
S

S
S

120,000
110,800

::z

8.5
80

8.5
80

706
692

26.6
26.3

83
120
Qfl

130

120
120

9.0

82

Tractor trailer - F Axle

(18 wheeler) - R Axle

110

Off Highway VehlcksS

IN!&

F AZ&

(CAT 769C) - R Axle

- F Axle

Wheel loader

(CAT 910) - R Axle

Wheel loader - F Axle
(CAT 930) - R Axle

- F Axle

Wheel loader

(CAT 966C) - R Axle

Wheel loader - F Axle
(CAT 9888)

- R Axle

Wheel loader - F Axle

JCAT

992)

- R Axle

Scraper - F Axle

7,tJfQ

NOTES
1. Wheel load is one-half the axle load and increased by 20% if the wheel is on a tandem axle.
2 Maximum tire inflation pressure is given for each class of vehicle. Using tires with lower inflation pressures would lower the contacl
pressurea and allow for less thickness of the aggregate structural seclion.
3. Same as tire inflation pressure except that a factor of 0.75 times the inflation pressure must be used for all dual wheels.
4. TN&
used on- and off-highway generally use lower inflation pressure tires requiring only 75 to 90 Psi.
5. Manufacturets specifications should be consulted for off-highway vehicles. Wide ranges of different inflation pressure lires are available for
these vehicles.

H-2

Geotextile Design

... .

Table H-2.

Boussinesg

. .. ..

..
,A.,

.,.,,,.

..;.

.,.. ..,. . . .,,..,.

.. .

..

theory coefficients

ThenM=

E:E
0.30
E%
0.45
0.50
0.55

KG:
0.084
0.096

KG
0:146

$:E
0.247
EZ
0.250
0.250

?%
10.00
I

~geotextile

(4P

Then solve for aggregate-base thickness

H and H geotextile.
B (inches )
(2P4

With a geotextile:
B
HgeokMk=

--

32-8013,

Vol 1

Thickness for

8%
19%
27%

If you anticipate more than 10.000 passes,

you need to increase the design thickness
by 30 percent and monitor the performance
of the road.

Using the calculated values of X and

Xgeotextile.find the corresponding value
of M and Mgeotetiile from Table H-2.

Without a geotextile: H=

Adjust Aggregate-Section
Aggregate Quality

2,000 passes
5.000 passes
10.000 passes

First, solve for X.

With a geotextile: GoteAk=

FM 5=430=00=i/AFPAM

The design method assumes that the pavement will be subjected to 1.000 passes of
the mardmum design axle load. If the traffic is greater than 1,000 passes, increase H
by the following percentages:

Without a geotextile:

.:

... ..

Adjust Aggregate-Base Thickness for Strvice Lift

1%
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.25
2.50
2.75
3.00
4.00

Table H-3, page H-4, contains typical compacted strength properties of common structural materials. These values are approximations: use more specific data if it is available. Extract the appropriate thickness
equivalent factor from Table H-3, then divide H by that factor to determine the adjusted aggregate-section thickness.

0.107
0.118

0.237
0.240

. ..

The design method is based on the assumption that good-quality aggregate (minimum
CBR value of 80) is used. If lower-quality
aggregate is used, the aggregate-section
thickness must be adjusted.

0.10
0.~5

0.048

(2)Mgeotextlle

The difference between H and H geotextile

is the aggregate savings due to the geotextile.

A second method of determining minimum

required cover above a subgrade for wheeled
vehicles with and without a geotextile requires fewer input parameters. Again, use
Figure H-l to correct CBR or CI values to a
C value. Determine the permissible stress
on the subgrade soil (S) by multiplying C by
2.8 without a geotextile and by 5.0 with a
geotextile. Select the heaviest vehicle using
the road and the design vehicle for each
wheel-load configuration: single. dual, or
tandem. Enter the appropriate graph (see
Figures H-2, H-3, or H-4, pages H-5
through H-7) at S (with and without a
geotextile). Round design-vehicle wheel
loads to the next higher 5,000-pound increment. Determine the intersection between
the appropriate wheel-load curve and S
(with and without a geotextile). then read
the minimum required thickness on the left
axis. Use the greatest thickness values as

Geotextile Design

H-3

FM 5-43&()()-l/AFPAM

Table H-3.

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jij::<,:,.
i.~:lj.l.~j.y:j;I:i.::i::i..i.!li~
;A.,
;:;:I::.::.r:j
j.;:;
j:j;j~:,,i:.ii:,~:,lili,I:i
i.:::,,i:..:,i.i.,i:.~,;:

32-801 3, Vol 1

Typical compacted

strength

properties

CBR

Material

Range

Asphalt,cOncrete
plan1
mix,high
stability

>lOO

of common

structure/

materials

Thickness Equivalency
Factor
3.00

Crushed
hardrock

80-100

1.00

Crushed
medium-hardrock

60-80

0.85

Well-graded gravel

40-70

0.80

Shell

40-60

0.75

Sand-gravel mixtures

20-50

0.50

Soft rock

20-40

0.45

Clean sand

10-30

0.40

Lime-treated base1

>lOO

1.Oo-2.00

Cement-treated baselp2
650 psi or more
400 psi to 650 psi
400 psi or less

>lOO
>I00
>lOO

1.60
1.40
1.05

NOW The wlucs listed above are general guidelines. More cud lbiclmeu quivrlency fac~orran be determined by coopting ~hcCBR of
Ihc wailable rggrcgak IO the deign CBR of 80. Fa example. an aggrcga~cwith a CBR of 55 would have an approximate !hickncrr qtivrlacy factor of W80 I 0.69.

the design thickness

with and without a

geotextile.
Compare the cost of the material saved with the cost of the geotextile to
determine if the use of the geotextile
is
cost effective.

Up to this point in the geotextile-design

process, you have been concerned with general design properties for designing unpaved aggregate roads. Now you must decide which geotextile fabric best meets your
project requirements.

TYPES OF GEOTEXTILES
There are two major types of geotextiles:
woven and nonwoven. Woven fabrics have
filaments woven into a regular, usually rectangular, pattern with fairly even opening
spacing and size. Nonwoven fabrics have
filaments connected in a method other than
weaving, typically needle punching or head
bonding at intersection points of the fila-

H-4

Geofextile Design

ments. The pattern and opening spacing

and size are irregular in nonwoven fabrics.
Woven fabrics are generally stronger than
nonwoven fabrics of the same fabric weight.
Woven geotextiles typically reach peak tensile strength at between 5 and 25 percent
strain. Nonwoven fabrics have a high elongation of 50 percent or more at maximum
strength.
Table H-4, page H-8, provides informatlon
on important criteria and principal properties useful when selecting or specifying a
geotextile for a specific application. The
type of equipment used to construct a road
or airfield pavement structure on top of the
geotextile must be considered. Equipment
ground pressure (in psi) is an important factor in determining the geotextile fabric
thickness: a thicker fabric is necessary to
stand up to high equipment ground pressure (see Table H-5, page H-9).

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32-8013,

::j.::::.

.:

Vol 1

Single-Wheel Load
One-Layer System
Tire Pressure = 80 psi

Single-Wheel

45

Figure

H-2.

Thickness

design

curve

20

10

Permissible

30

50

70

Stress (S)

for slngbwheel

Once the required degree of geotextile survivability is determined, minimum specification

requirements can be established based on
ASTM standards (see Table H-6, page
H10). When you have determined the set of

Weight

load on gravel-surfced

pavements

testing standards. the geotextile will be required to withstand to meet use and construction requirements, you are ready to
either specify a geotextile for ordering or
evaluate on-hand stocks.

ROADWAY CONSTRUCTION
There is no singular way to construct roadways with geofabrics. However, there are
several applications and general guidelines
that can be used.

SITE PREPARATION
-

deeper than 3 or 4 inches (see Figure H-5,

page H-l 1). Compact the subgrade if the
soil CBR is greater than 1. The compaction
aids in locating unsuitable materials that
may damage the fabric. Remove unsuitable
materials where practical.

Clear, grub, and excavate the site to design

grade: fill in ruts and surface irregularities

GeotexMe Design

H-5

FM 5~3()-0&1/AFPAM

..

32-8013, Vol 1

>.:

:: .... .

:.

: ?.:.::..;i::..::<

Dual-Wheel Load
One-Layer System
Tire Pressure = 80 psi

Dual-Wheel

ollllfi
1

iliiirlll
3

45
Permlsslble

Figure H-3.

rlm B1aar

10

20

30

50

70

Stress (S)

Thickness design curve for dual-wheel load on gravel-surfaced

When constructing
over extremely soft soils
(such as peat bogs), surface materials (such
as the root mat) may be advantageous
and
should be disturbed as little as possible.
Use sand or sawdust to cover roots, stumps,
or stalks. This cushions the fabric and
reduces the potential for fabric puncture.
Nonwoven geotextfles are preferred when the
soil surface is uneven.

LAYING OF FABRIC
The fabric should be rolled out by hand,
ahead of backfilling, directly on the soil sub-

H-6

Weight

Geotexti/e
Design

pavements

grade. The fabric is commonly, but not always, laid in the direction of the roadway.
Where the subgrade cross section has large
areas and leveling is not practical, the
fabric may be cut and laid transverse to the
roadway.
Large wrinkles should be avoided.
In the case of wide roads, multiple widths of
fabric are laid and overlapped.
Lap length
normally depends on subgrade strength.
Table H-7, page H-12, provides general
guidelines for lap lengths.

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FM 51430=00=1/AFPAM

1 1

32-8013,

VOi 1

If

Tandem-Wheel Load
One-Layer System
Tire Pressure = 80 psi

Tandem-Wheel

Permissible
Figure

H-4.

Thickness

design

Gear Weight

Stress (S)

curve for tandem-wheel

LAYING OF BASE
If angular rock is to form the base, it is
common to first place a protective layer of 6
to 8 inches of finer material.
Base material
is then end-dumped
directly onto the previously spread load, pushed out over the
fabric, and spread from the center using a
bulldozer.
Vehicles must not be driven
directly on the fabric because they might

load on gravel-surfaced

pavements

puncture it. Small, tracked bulldozers/

(with a maximum ground pressure of 2 psi)
are commonly used for spreading.
The
blade is also kept high to avoid driving rock
down into the fabric. After spreading, compaction and grading can be carried out with
standard compaction equipment.
If the
roadway has side drains, they are construtted
after the pavement.

Geotextlle Design

U-7

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

Table H-4. Geotextlle evaluation

Criteria and Parameter

Application

Property
F

Design Requirements

Mechanical strength
Wide-width strength
Wide-width modulus
Wide width
creep
Friction angle

Tensile strength
Tensile modulus
Seam strength
Tension creep
Soil-fabric friction

X
X
X
X

Hydraulic
Flow capacity

i Permeability,

Piping resistance
Clogging resistance

Transmissivity
I Apparenl opening size (AOS)
Pommetry
Gradient ralio

Constructability

Requirements

Tensile strength
Seam strength
Bursting resistance
Puncture resistance
Tear resistance

H-8

Filtration
Drainage
Sepalion
Reinforcement

Geotextile Desigrl

Grab strength
I Grab strength
! Mullen burst
i Red puncture
1 Trapesoidal tear
I

F
D
S
R

Table H-5. Required degree of geotextiie survivability as a function of cover material and construction equipment

>24-inch
Initial Lift

6 to 12-inch
Initial Lift Thickness
LOWMediumGroundGroundPressure
Pressure
Equipment
Equipment
24 psi, <8 psi
<4 psi

12- to 18-inch
initial Lift Thickness
MedtumHighGroundGroundPressure
Pressure
Equipment
Equipment
14 psi, <8 psi
~8 psi

18 to 24inch
Initial Lift
Thickness
Hiah-GroundP&sure
Equipment
28 psi

Fine sand to &-inch-diameter

gravel, round to subangular

LUtf

Moderate

LOW

Moderate

LcrW

LOW

Coarse aggregate with diameter

up to one-hatf proposed Iii
thickness, may be angular

Moderate

High

Moderate

High

Moderate

LOW

Some to most aggregate with

diameter greater than one-half
proposed iii thickness, angular
and sharp-edge few fines

High

Very High

High

Very High

High

Moderate

Cover Material

NOTES
1. For special construction techniques such as prerutting, increase geotextile survtvability requirement one level.
2. Placement of an excessive initial cover-material thickness may cause bearing failure of soft subgrades.

ThiChesS

Hiah-GroundP&sure
Equipment
~8 psi

32-8013,

FM 51430-001l/AFPAM

Vol

Table H-6. Minimum properties required for geotextile survivability

Required Degree
of Geotextile
Survivability

Grab Strength
Ib

Puncture Strength
lb

Burst Strength 3
Psi

Very high

270

110

430

High

180

75

290

Moderate

130

40

210

90

30

145

ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM

Note:

H- 10

D 4632
D 4833
D 3786
D 4533, either principal

Ttap Tear 4
lb

direction

All valuea represent minimum average roll values (for example, any roll in a IOI should meet or exceed the minimum values in this
table). These values are normally 20 percent lower than manufacturer-reponed typical values.

Geotextile

Design

...,...

.,

,.:

,.,,

1, Prepare the ground by removing

stumps, boulders, and so forth; fill
in low spots.

. Dump aggregate onto previously

placed aggregate. 00 not drive
directly on the geotextile.
Maintain at
least 6 to 12 inches cover between
the truck tires and the geotextile.

FM 51430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

2. Unroll the geotextile directly over

the ground to be stabilized. If more
than one roll width is required, overlap
the rolls. Inspect the geotextile.

4. Spread the aggregate over the

geotextile to the design thickness.

5. Compact the aggregate using

dozer tracks or a vibratory roller.

Figure H-5. Construction sequence using geotextiles

Vol 1

FM 5430100.l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Table H-7. Recommended

H- 12

Geotextile Design

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Vol 1

minimum

overlap requirements

CBR

Minlmum Overlap

>2

1 - 1.5 feet

l-2

2 - 3 feet

0.5 - 1

3 feet or sewn

< 0.5

Sewn

All roll ends

3 feet or sewn

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32-8013,

Vol 1

GLOSSARY
AABNCP

advanced airborne control platform

MSHO

American Association

of State Highway Officials

AASHTO

American Association

of State Highway and Transportation

ABS

acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene

AC

asphalt cement

ACE

armored combat earthmover

a4

adjusted

ADR

air base damage repair

AFCS

Army Facilities Component System

AFM

Air Force manual

AFP

Air Force pamphlet

AFR

Air Force regulation

Officials

(plastic)

aggregate
average haul distance
airfield marking and lighting
ammo

ammunition

APC

armored personnel carrier

approx

approximately

Apt

April
Army regulation

ASCE

American Society of Civil Engineers

ASTM

American Society of Testing and Materials

Atterberg

Limits

Soil plasticity test used to measure soil cohesiveness:

cohesionless.

ATTN

attention

Aug

August

that is. cohesive or

Glossary- I

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

av

32-8013,

Vol

.::::_-~::::.:.F:.

:::.::.,:,.,

.,

:::

:.:::

..

absolute volume

average daily traffic (ADT) The anticipated average number of vehicles per day that will
use a completed facility.
banked cubic yardage (BCY)

Soil measured in its natural state.

average running speed

The speed expected to be maintained by most vehicles.
to the total traveled distance divided by total time consumed.

It is equal

Base course consists of well-graded, granular materials that have a

base course or base
liquid limit less than 25 percent and a plastic limit less than 5 percent.
The base course is the most important element in a road structure. It
functions as the primary load-bearing component of the road, ultimately
providing the pavement (or surface) strength. Therefore, it is made of higher
quality material than subbase material.
bearing capacity

The ability of a soil to support a vehicle without undue sinkage of the

vehicle.

benching

Terracing on a slope.

berm

A raised lip, usually of earth, placed at the top edge of a channel to prevent
flow into the channel at places not protected against erosion.

The most common type of asphalt surface placed in the theater of

bitumen or bituminous
operations.
Bn

battalion

borrow pit

An excavated area where material has been dug for use as fill at another
location.

BTU

British thermal unit

BVM

Bays Village of Maryland

Celsius

cut

CAD

computer-aided

CAMMS

Condensed Army Mobility Modeling System

design

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) A measure of the shearing resistance of a soil under
carefully controlled conditions of density and moisture.
CDR

commander

CE 85

Laboratory compactive effort (CE) accomplished by the impact of 55 hammer

blows per layer.

Glossary - 2

.,., .i:,: >;:: : >j>>::;,:>:.:..;:;

.,j :.::::
::j:;:j:j:x: : j::j:j:j:j:. >.::.+j:::.j::>,, ; ; :.:: j :: ,: .,
.;

.-

j :

F::.

CES

civil engineering

CEV

combat engineer vehicle

cf

cubic feet

cfs

cubic feet per second

CH

clays, high compressibility

CI

cone index

centerline

CL

clays, low compressibility

cm

centimeter

cm/set

centimeters

CMD

command

CMP

corrugated metal pipe

co

company

coarse-grained

j :

FM 5430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

squadron

(LL>50)

(LL<50)

per second

soil A free-draining soil of which more than 50 percent by weight of the

grains will be retained on a No. 200 sieve. For trafficability purposes, these
are dry beach and desert soils usually containing less than 7 percent of
material passing the No. 200 sieve. Gravels are not considered to pose a
trafficability problem.

compacted cubic yards (CCY)

compaction

.:.;

A measurement

of compacted soil.

Process of mechanically densifying a soil, normally by the application of a

moving (or dynamic) load.

compactive effort (CE)

Method used to compact the soil.

cone index (CI)

An index of the shearing resistance of soil. The CI is obtained with a

cone penetrometer. The number represents resistance to penetration into the
soil of the 30-degree cone with a l/2-square-inch base area (actual load in
pounds on cone base area in square inches), using a dial calibrated to
produce an index of 300 when 150 lb of pressure are exerted on the handle.
The CI reading is normally taken at the O-inch (base of the cone) and at
every 3-inch interval down to 18 inches or until the dial reaches the
maximum of 300. A number of tests will be taken and each specified
interval reading will be averaged. That average becomes the CI for the inch
level.

CONIJS

continental

CPT

captain

United States

Glossary - 3

FM 5-43O-()&l/AFPAM

critical layer

32-8013,

Vol

::

:.

..

::..::..:.

The soil layer that determines

the rating cone index (for fine-grained
soil) or
Its depth varies
cone index (for coarse-grained
soil) of the area considered.
with the soil profile and the weight and type of vehicle.
Generally,
the
critical layer for fine-grained
soils is 6 to 12 inches below the surface when
For coarse-grained
soils, the critical layer is
subjected
to passes of a vehicle.
usually from the surface to a 6-inch depth for all vehicular passes.
The difference
in elevation between the centerline
and the surface edge.
The
crown expedites surface-water
runoff on the road. The amount of crown
Surfaces such as concrete or bituminous
depends on the surface used.
materials require little crown because of their impermeability,
but permeable
surfaces such as earth or gravel require a large crown.

crown

The outside

css

cationic

top of the culvert.

slow setting

cubic

centimeter

cu ft

cubic

foot

cucv

commercial

culvert

An enclosed waterway
used to pass water
an embankment
or fill.

cut or cutting

That portion of through construction

produced by the removal of the natural
formation
of earth or rock, whether sloped or level. The terms sidehill cut
and through-hill cut describe the resulting cross sections commonly
encountered.

cu

cm

cut

8lope

utility

cubic yard

DA

Department

DBH

diameter

DD

Department

Dee

December

deg

degree

dept

department

through

a structure

line (bottom

consisting

of ditch).

of

Sometimes

of the Army

at breast

design hourly volume (DHV)

height

of Defense

The number

to accommodate

Glossery - 4

vehicle

The slope from the top of a cut to the ditch

it is called the back slope.

CY

design speed

cargo

of vehicles that a road may typically be expected

in an hour. The DHV is 15 percent of the ADT.

The speed for which

as horizontal
curves

a facility is designed. Pertinent geometric features,

and grades, may be based on design speed.

such

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FM 5-430-001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

design storm

The storm of greatest intensity for a given period. For example, a 2-year
design storm is a storm expected to be equalled once in 2 years.

detention

The storage of water in depressions in the earths surface.

dia

diameter

dip

A paved ford used for crossing dry, wide, shallow arroyos or washes in semiarid regions subject to flash floods.

ditch slope

The slope of the ditch extending from the outside edge of the shoulder to the
bottom of the ditch. This slope should be relatively flat to avoid damage to
vehicles driven into the ditch and to permit easy recovery.
A ditch used to transport water away from roadways or an-fields.

diversion ditch
DMZ

demilitarized

drop

A structure that absorbs the impact energy of water as it falls vertically to a

lower level waterway.

DT

ditch time

east

elev

elevation

EM

engineer manual

EM

enlisted member

En@

engineer

EOD

explosive ordnance disposal

erosion

The transportation

EW

east-west

fill

Fahrenheit

Feb

February

fill or filling

Material used to fill a receptacle, cavity, passage, or low place.

material to fill a cavity or low place.

fill slope

The incline extending from the outside edge of the shoulder to the toe (bottom)
of a fill.

fine-grained

soil

zone

of weathered materials by wind or water.

Using

A silt or clay soil of which more than 50 percent by weight of the grains
will pass a No. 200 sieve (smaller than 0.074 millimeter in diameter).

Glossary - 5

FM 5-43O-O&l/AFpAM

32-8013,

FM

field manual

ford

A shallow
personnel

fpm
fPS

feet per minute

feet per second

frost

Vol

j:::j.j,

place in a waterway
and vehicles.

:.:j:.:::

where

:: :

.:.;.:

the bottom

.:: ; .: :...:..\,\:: ,...::: : .:.. _;:::::.<,;.

permits

the passage

of

Processes which affect the ability of soil to support a structure when

accumulated
water in the form of ice lenses in the soil is subjected to natural
freezing conditions.

action

frost-susceptible

soil
Soil in which significant
ice segregation
will occur when
necessary moisture and freezing conditions
are present.

ft

feet

FT

Fort

ft/ft

feet per foot

ft/in

feet per inch

fP/ yd3

square

gravel

gabion

Large, steel wire-mesh

baskets filled with stones, usually rectangular
in
shape and variable in size. They are designed to solve the problem of erosion.

gal

gallon

M/lb

gallons

per pound

gallons

per square

Bat/

yd=

GC
geometric

clayey
design

feet per square

yard

yard

gravel

(geometry
or geometric
features)
Refers to all visible
road such as lane width, shoulder width, and alignment.

GLE

grade-line

GM

silty gravel

cpn

gram

GP

poorly

grade

To level off to a smooth

ground icing

An icing whose

Glossary - 6

the

features

of the

elevation

graded

gravel

source

horizontal
of water

or sloping

surface.

is from groundwater

flow above

permafrost.

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groundwater
._

..,.,

,.,..

:.....

,.

,.,

,.

.,

.\..

.::

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table

FM 5-430-00-l

/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

The upper limit of the saturated zone of free water.

gunite

A mixture of cement, sand, and water sprayed from a high pressure nozzle
onto a surface to protect it.

GW

well-graded

gravel

high mobility, multipurpose wheeled vehicle

HP

high point
high water

hydraulic gradient
hydrologic cycle

The slope in feet per foot of a drainage structure.

The continuous process in which water is transported

the atmosphere to the land and back to the sea.

from the oceans to

iCing

An irregular sheet or field of ice.

in

inch

infiltration

The absorption of rainwater by the ground on which it falls.

in/hr

inches per hour

in 8itu

Soil in its natural (undisturbed)

interception

The holding of rainfall in the leaf canopy of trees and plants.

Jan

January

Jill

July

Jun

June

kg

kilogram

kip

ktlopound ( 1,000 pounds)

km

kilometer

kph

kilometers per hour

laminar flow

The type of flow that occurs when viscosity forces predominate

particles of the fluid move in smooth, parallel paths.

lat

latitude

lb

pound

LIP

length in place

state.

and the

Glossary - 7

FM

5-430-()()-1/AFpAM

32-8013,

Vol

liq

liquid

LL

liquid

LOC

lines of communication

LP

low point

silt

meter

Mar

March

mass diagram

Earthwork

max

maximum

.::::.:j:j:

~::~ij>:.: : .:.: .;.;.:,::..

,.:.. ,,-:~.:

..:.

limit

volume

maximum towing force (Tl)

can exert.

plotted

on graph

paper,

showing

cut and fill operations.

The maximum continuous

towing force in pounds a vehicle
It is expressed
as a ratio or percentage
of vehicle weight.

Maryland
silt, high compressibility

mi

mile

min

minimum

min

minute
silt, low compressibility

mm

millimeter

MO

maximum

MO

Missouri

(LL>50)

(LL<50)

offset

mobility index (MI)

A number
characteristics.

that results

MOPP

mission-oriented

protective

mph

miles

MS

medium

Slipperiness

north

WA

not applicable

Glossary - 8

:::: ..:;:,:

from a consideration

of certain

vehicle

posture

per hour
setting
symbol

meaning

not slippery

under

any conditions.

FM 51430-OO-l/AFPAM

.-

NATO

North

Atlantic

Treaty

NBC

nuclear,

NC0

noncommissioned

NE

northeast

NFS

nonfrost

No.

number

Nov

November

NP

number

biological,

chemical

of pipes

NRS

naval

radio

NS

north-south

NSN

national

P,

offset

Ott

October

OL

order

Slipperiness

PC

point

perm

permanent

permafrost

Constantly

PFS

possibly

PI

plasticity

PI

point

POL

petroleum,

ponang

The accumulation

POP

population

Pr

probability
prime

Organization

susceptible

Reference

BEEF

Vol 1

officer

NATO

Prime

32-8013,

Mobility

Model

station

stock

number

length
symbol

meaning

slippery

when

wet.

of curvature

frozen

ground.

frost susceptible
index

of intersection
oils,

and lubricants
of water

base engineer

at the upstream

emergency

end of a culvert.

forces

Glossary - 9

FM 5-4 30-00 _1/A F PA M 32-50 1 3 , Vo 1 1

Psi

pounds per square inch

PT

point of tangency

WC

polyvinyl chloride

WC

point of vertical curvature

:: :.:I:...:
;,;:::::j/c:
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::::.:i::N:::::i:,:i:l.:::::,,:,i:
<K: I.cI.:::;,..
:i.I,::::I:l
+j::.<::
;::,::~,.~:l:i:,:,.~~~,~~:~,~,~::::~.~,~:~

point of vertical intersection

point of vertical tangency
Quadripartite

QSTAG
rating

cone

Standardization

Agreement

(RCI) The measured cone index multiplied by the remolding index (RCI =
CI x RI). The RCI expresses the soil-strength rating of a soil area subjected
to sustained traffic.

index

RC

rapid curing

RED HORSE

rapid engineering deployable heavy operational repair squadrons, engineering

remoldable sand A poorly drained, coarse-gralned soil, usually containing 7 percent or

more material passing a No. 200 sieve. Poor internal drainage increases the
water content greatly influencing the trafficability characteristics and
permitting the remolding test to be performed. When wet, these soils react
to traffic in a manner similar to fine-grained soils and are more sensitive to
remolding.
remolding

The changing or working of a soil by traffic or a remolding test. The beneficial, neutral, or detrimental effects of remolding may change soil strength.

remolding index (RI) The ratio of remolded soil strength to original strength. Soil conditions that permit the remolding test to be performed with ease will usually
result in a loss of strength.
Reqd

required

required

towing

force (T2)
The force in pounds required to tow an operable, powered
vehicle on level terrain.

RI

remolding index

fiPmP

Rocks or rubble placed in the bottom and on the sides of a ditch to prevent
soil erosions.

river

icing

roadbed

Glossary - 10

An icing formed along rivers or streams and adjacent areas having a source
of water above or below the riverbed.
The entire width of surface on which a vehicle may stand or move.
roadbed consists of both the traveled way and the shoulders.

The

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., . . ,.

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:,:_:,:,,,:,:,:,:,:,

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

road classification system An organized list of four road types based on the number of
vehicles each is designed to accommodate in a 24-hour period. Road
characteristics are based on average daily traffic.
roadway

The entire width within the limits of earthwork construction and is measured
between the outside edges of cut or fill slopes. Roadway width does not
include interceptor ditches if they fall outside the slopes. The roadway width
varies from section to section depending on the height of cut or fill, depth of
ditches, and slope ratios.
railroad

RRR

rapid runway repair

RS

rapid setting

RT

road tar

RTCB

road tar cutback

RTO

radiotelephone

Slipperiness symbol meaning slippery at all times.

sand

82

Intelligence Officer (US Army)

83

Operations and Training Officer (US Army)

sand #id

A honeycomb shaped geotextile measuring 20 feet by 8 feet by 8 inches deep

when fully expanded. It is used to develop a beachhead for logistics-over-theshore operations. It is also useful in expedient revetment construction.

SC

supply catalog

SC

slow curing

SCIP

scarify and compact in place

SEATO

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization

6CC

second

Bspt

September

SFC

sergeant first class

shoulder

That part of the top surface of an approach embankment, causeway, or cut

immediately adjoining the roadway that accommodates stopped vehicles in
emergencies and laterally supports base and surface courses.

operator

Glossary - 11

FM 5_43()_()()_1/AFPAM

shoulder slopes

sight

32-801 3, Vol 1

::.:+i:.
jj:. :.:.:.,..,...:,,.yj:F>:,:.j..f:.
::.j:/:.::..
. :.:.:.::.:..

:.:.:

. ..;:.:.:
+: ::

These may be the same as the traveled way, but usually they are greater
because shoulders are more pervious than the surface course.

distance restriction factor The percent of the total length of the road on which the
sight distance is less than 1,500 feet.

slipperiness

The low traction capacity of a thin soil surface owing to its lubrication by
water or mud without the occurrence of significant vehicle sinkage.

slope

The inclined surface of an excavated cut or an embankment.

slope ratio

The relative steepness of the slope expressed as a ratio of horizontal distance

to vertical distance. Thus, a 2:l slope ratio signifies that for every 2 feet
horizontally there is a rise or fall of 1 foot. The value of the slope ratio used
in construction depends on the properties of the soil and the vertical height
of the slope. Ditch slopes may also be governed by the amount of water to be
drained and the possibility of erosion.

SM

silty sands and poorly graded sand-silt mixture

SOP

standing operating procedure

SP

poorly graded sand

spring icing

An icing whose source of water is from subpermanent

sq

square

sq ft

square feet

sq in

square inch

Sr

senior

88

slow setting

880

staff sergeant

sta

station

STANAG

Standardization

stickiness

The ability of a soil to adhere to the vehicle undercarriage or running gear.

stilling basin

A structure used to protect the culvert outlet against erosion.

levels.

Agreement

subbase or subgrade Describes the in situ soil on which a road, airfield, or heliport is
built. The subgrade includes soil to the depth that may affect the structural
design of the project or the depth at which climate affects the soil.
subsurface

Glossary

water

- 12

Water beneath the surface of the land.

.........i............

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.,.,.,
,,(,
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,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.

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.

:.

:.:.::::::::::
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FM 5-430-000l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

superelevation

The transverse downward slope from the outside to the inside of the
traveled way on a curve. It is usually expressed in inches of drop per
horizontal foot or foot-drop per horizontal foot.

surface course

The surface course provides a smooth, hard surface on which the traffic
moves. It may be constructed from asphalt or tar products, concrete, gravel,
or compacted earth with certain types of binders. The surface course should
be all-weather and should provide for the rapid runoff of water. The use of
treated surfaces is limited to roads that have a long design life. A divisional
road with a life expectancy of 6 months or less will receive only an earth or
gravel surface.

susv

small-unit support vehicle

SW

southwest

SW

well-graded

Tl

maximum towing force

T2

required towing force

TBM

temporary bench mark

TC

training circular

temp

temperature

sand

time of concentration (TOC) The time it takes for an entire drainage basin to begin
contributing runoff to a drainage structure.
technical manual
TN

air transport

TO

theater of operations

TOE

table(s) of organization

transition point

traction capacity

The ability of soil to resist the vehicle tread thrust required for steering
and propulsion.

and equipment

traffic lane

The traffic lane consists of the road surface over which a single lane of traffic
will pass.

transpiration

The process by which water that has traveled from the ground through the
plants system is returned to the air through the leaf system.

traveled way

The road surface upon which all vehicles move or travel. For a single-lane
road, the traveled way is the same as one traffic lane. For a multilane road,
the traveled way is the sum of the traffic lanes. If a surface course is
provided, it normally extends only across the traveled way.

Glossary - 13

FM 5_43()-()()-1/AFPAM 321801 3, Vol 1

turbulent

The type of flow that occurs when viscosity forces are relatively weak and
the individual water particles move in random patterns within the aggregate
forward-flow pattern.

flow

US

United States

USAES

US Army Engineer School

USC8

Unified Soil Classification

uxo

unexploded ordnance

vc

vitrified clay

vehicle

cone

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.::I;:. .:.,.:,L..
,,:.:.,<:.,
:,;..,
i,:.i:;::t,i;:Y:,:
,.::,
::,.i:::.l:l::i::~,:

System

(VCI) The index assigned to a given vehicle that indicates the minimum
soil strength in terms of ratfng cone index (or cone index for coarse-grained
soil) required for one pass (VCI1) or other passes (VCL) of the vehicle.
Usually one and fifty passes are used as extremes.

index

VMC

visual meteorological

conditions

Vol

volume

Wl

weight of a towing vehicle

w2

weight of a towed vehicle

W/

with

w/o

without
waste factor

wp

wetted perimeter

W.R.C.

wire rope cable

wt

weight
weight type

yd

Yard

Yr

ye=

<

less than

less than or equal to

>

greater than

greater than or equal to

AG

change of grade

Glossary - 14

::...::::

::[~_.i.;:::::,.:

::j::.::.:,::.~jjj:.::.::

.,

.. . .. .,

..:.,:,.:j::,..,,,,:.,,

: .:
.(,:,,:.
... :.:,,:.,:;.
j:.:,::

,,:,,.,

.,:, ::,:

. . .. . .

:.jj.:::j,lj::j:,:..:::

:.:

FM 5-4309OO-l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

REFERENCES
SOURCES USED
These are the sources quoted or paraphrased

in this publication.

QSTAG 306. Fotij%xtionfor

Parked Aircra&
14 June 1978.
AirjeZd Damage Repail: 11 January 1989.
STANAG 2929.
STANAG 3346 AML (Edition 4). Marking and Lighting ofAirj?eZd Obstructions.
17 October 1988.
STANAG 3601 TN (Edition 3). Criteria for Selection and Marking of Landing Zones for Fixed
Wing Transport Aircraft. 2 July 1985.
STANAG 3619 AML [Edition 2, Amendment 2). Helipad Marking. 7 October 1980.
STANAG 3652 AML (Amendment 3). Helipad Lighting, Visual Meteorological Conditions.
1 March 1979.
STANAG 3685 AML. Airfield Portable Marking. 26 April 1988.

Jo i nt and Multiservice

Publication@

Troop Construction and Engineering Support of the Air Force

AR 41530/AFR 93-10.
Overseas. 15 May 1979.
FM 5-430-00-2/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 2. Planning and Design of Roads, Airjields, and Heliports in the Theater of Operations: Volume 2, Airjeld and Heliport Design. To be published
within six months.
FM 5-530. Materials Testing. (NAVFAC MO-330: AFM 89-3.) 17 August 1987.
TM 5-624. Maintenance and Repair of Surface Areas. (NAVF-AC MO-102: AFR 85-8.)
31 March 1977.
TM 5-822-2. General Provisions and Geometric Design for Roads, Streets, Walks. and
Open Storage Areas. (NAVFAC DM-5.5; AFM 88-7, Chap 5.) 14 July 1987.
TM 5-822-5. Pavement Design for Roads, Streets, Walks, and Open Storage Areas.
(AFM 88-7. Chap 1.) 12 June 1992.
TM 5-825-2. Flexible Pauement Designs for Air-elds.
(NAVFAC DM-21.3; AFM 88-6.)
1 August 1978.
TM 5-852-7. Surface Drainage Design for Air-elds and Heliports in Arctic and Subarctic
Regions (AFM 88-19. Chap 7.) 15 April 1981.

Air Force Publications

AFR 93-2.

FM
FM
FM
FM
FM
FM

Contingency Response Planning.

19 January 1990.

5-34. Engineer Field Data. 14 September 1987.

5-36. Route Reconnaissance and Classi$cation. 10 May 1985.
5-233. Construction Surveying. 4 January 1985.
5-250. Explosives and Demolitions. 15 June 1992.
5-410. MiUtary Soils Engineering. 23 December 1992.
5-434. Earthmoving Operations. 30 September 1992.

References- I

FM 5-446. Mflftary Nonstandard

Ffxed Brfdgfng.
3 June 1991.
MIL-STD-621. Test Methods for Pavement Subgrade, Subbase, and Base Course Material.
22 December 1964.
SC-6635-98-CL-E02-HR.
Hand Receipt Catalog Coverfng Content of Test Set, Sofl.
19 April 1982.
Special Report 83-27. Revfsed Procedures for Pavement Design Under Seasonal Frost
Conditions, US Army Corps of Engineers. Office of the Chief of Engineers, Washington,
DC 203 14. September 1983.
TM 5-232. Elements of Surveyfng.
1 June 1971.
TM 5-302-Series. Army FacfZftfes Components
System: Desfgn.
28 September 1973.
TM 5-332. Pfts and Quarrfes.
15 December 1967.
TM 5-337. Paving and Surfacfng Operatfons.
21 February 1966.
TC 5-340. Afr Base Damage Repafr (Pavement Repafr).
27 December 1988.

ASTM D1557. Soil and Soil Aggregate Mfxture Using 10 Pounds 4.54KJ Rammer and 18-Inch
457 mm Drop, Moisture Density Relation of 27 Apr 78. 1989.
ASTM D1633. Compressfon
Strength of Molded SofZs Cementfng
Cylfnders.
1990.
ASTM D3786. Test Method for Hydra&c
Bursting Strength of Knitted Goods and Nonwoven
Fabrics: Diaphragm Bursting Strength Tester Method. 1987.
199 1.
ASTM D4533. Test Method for Trapezoid Tearing Strength of Geotextfles.
ASTM D4632. Test Method for Breaking Load and Elongation of Geotextfles (Grab Method).
1991.
ASTM D4833. Test Method for Index Puncture Resfstance of Geotextfles, Geomembranes,
and Related Products. 1988.

DOCUMENTS

NEEDED

These documents must be available to the intended users of this publication.

DA
DA
DA
DD

Form
Form
Form
Form

1248. Road Reconnafssance

Report.
July 1960.
17 11-R. Engfneer Reconnafssance
Report (LRA).
May 1985.
2028. Recommended
Changes to PubZfcatfons and Blank Forms.
264 1. Traflkablllty Test Data. August 1993

References

-2

February 1974.

(, (, (, ,(,,, ,,,(,
(,.~
:.:.:, .............._.........................,.,t.,,.
..~..~.~..~....~.~.~.~.~.:.:...
FM 5-430-00-l /AFPAM 32-801 3, Vol 1

.(

. . . . . . . ./..
.....i...............
..(... . . . . . . . .. . . ,...... . . . . .C.. . . . .A..
..,.. . ..,.,.,.,.,
I;:l:::::::~:::::::::::::::::
:.;.: ::::,,,,.,., .;, _....\.,,.,.,(.,j,..,,,.(....(,(.(..,,,(,,,,,,,_,,
.~.(A...,.
.,.,.
......,,,....,,...,
:..:.i:,

. . ..i...................
.. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . ..L ..I. i... ..:.:.:.:::::::::::::::~:~:~:~~~:~~~:~:~~~~~~~~:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
.,. .,.
.,.,~,.,.,.,.,.,.,...,.,..
in :,i,,..,,,
.;;,::
:::::,

INDEX
A
AASHTO. See American Association
(AASHTO) method T96.

of State Highway and Transportation

Officials

abnormal strength profile, 7-8

ADR.

See airfield and heliport mafntenance, air base damage repair (ADR).

ADT.

See average daily traffic (ADT).

aerial photo, 7-28

aggregate, 9-55
bituminous construction, 9-47
desirable characteristics, 9-47
identification, 9-47
rolling, 9-56
spreading, 9-56
traffic control, 9-57. See also road maintenance,

with traffic and baton method.

AI-ID. See average haul distance (AHD).

airfield and heliport maintenance, 8- 17
air base damage repair (ADR), 8-17
Air Force responsibilities, 8- 17
Army responsibilities, 8- 17
ice control, 8-20. See also ice control.
maintenance during flying operations, 8-2 1
mud control, 8-18
rehabilitation of captured airfields, 8-2 1
snow removal, 8-20
turf surfaces, 8-18
alignment, 2-3, 9-6
alluvial terraces, 2-2
American Association
9-48
Army track.

of State Highway and Transportation

Officials (AASHTO) method T96,

See roads, Army track.

asphalt distributor, 9-57

asphalt pavement, minimum thickness, 9-7 1
asphalts and tars, 9-45
average daily traffic (ADT), 9-4
average haul distance

(AHD), 3-23

B
balance

lines, 3-22

baton method,

8-l 1. See also road maintenance,

with traffic.

base course, 5- 10
compaction, 5 - 11
gradation, 5 - 11
liquid limit, 5-l 1

Index - 7

FM 5_430-()&1/AFPAM

32401

3, vol 1

:~:i~,~~::~j,~~::~:~iil:l::.~i.:.,;.~::i~:i,-:
;:;:.:,:;:;.;::
;: ,,,;-:,;:
!,:,;::
?:,:,:;
;,,F::i
:,,, :: .>..:: z,;::::..:Ii,:i::,i

materials, 5- 11, 5- 12
natural materials, 5- 13
other materials, 5- 14
plasticity index, 5- 11
processed materials, 5- 13
requirements, 5- 11
base flow, 6-9
berm, 6-51
bituminous
base, 5- 15
materials, 9-4 1
pavements, 9-69
cold-laid, bituminous-concrete plant mix, 9-69
design, 9-71
design steps, 9-73
hot-mix, bituminous-concrete, 9-69
penetration macadam, 9-69
road mix, 9-69
sand asphalt mix, 9-69
sand-tar mix, 9-69
sheet asphalt mix, 9-69
stone-filled sheet asphalt mix, 9-69
types and uses, 9-69
bituminous surfaces.
blind drain.

See maintenance,

bituminous surfaces.

See subsurface drainage, techniques, blind drains.

box-culvert flow, 6-77

bridge approaches,

2-3

bridges, 6- 113. See also road maintenance, fords and bridges.

Bureau of Reclamation,
burning pits.

6- 125

See forest clearing considerations,

waste areas, burning pits.

C
C variable.
CAD.

See rational method of estimating runoff, formula variables, C variable.

See end-area-determination

method, computer -aided design (CAD).

calcium chloride, 8-7. See also ice control, calcium chloride and maintenance,
surfaces, use of calcium chloride.
CAMMS.

See Condensed Army Mobility Modeling System.

camouflage. See forest clearing considerations,

camouflage.

camouflage and tactical considerations,

causeways, 6- 112
CBR, 5-l.

See also design CBR, values and roads, CBR requirements.

cement grades, 9-45

channel flow.

See ditches, types of flow, channel.

channels
construction and maintenance,
special, 6-5 1

hdex

-2

gravel

6-53

.yj::
:

j...:.

Z.,(,

: :::.,.

, :

: ::

..,.
.

:. .,:
:,

,. :: :, :.:: ,: ,>:::::y:::,:
.:.+:.

.:.:

,.:.:

:.,.:

x.

:: :.

.,.. ,...;
.....

.).

:.,,:

..:

,, ..

: .....

.v. . . . .. . .
,...:

,..

y:.:.:

..A
,. ., . . . . .A..
~..:.:.:.:.:.~.:.:...::.~..,:....:
. . .. . . .
.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.

..i.,

..i.

.,.,.,.,..,.,...

. i./.....,
:.:.: ,).

. ..
:.:...:.:.:
.,,,.,.
.,.

. .....
.... ..
.)

.:

. . . . .,.j:...,........,..~
., ./..
.,.,.,.
:.:...;,:,;

.,.,:

.,.,.
,,.::;:

. . . . . . . . . ,.,,,
::,:>::,
,.:

:.:.:,:.

FM 59430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

gutters, 6-5 1
median, 6-5 1
characteristics

of grasses, 8- 19

check dams, 8-3

chespaling.

See roads, chespaling.

chord-length

calculations,

CI.

9- 14

See cone index (CI).

clearing equipment.

See clearing, stripping, and grubbing; clearing with equipment.

clearing, stripping, and grubbing, 4-l

clearing with equipment, 4-6
extreme slopes, 4- 12
grader, 4- 15
large trees, 4-9
medium trees, 4-8
ripper, 4- 15
Rome plow, 4- 10
small trees, 4-8
tractor -mounted winches, 4- 13
tree dozer, 4-10
truck-mounted winches, 4- 14
winches, 4- 13
windrowing, 4- 11
clearing with explosives, 4- 15
boulders, 4- 15
trees and stumps, 4- 15
felling equipment, 4- 14
limitations of engineer equipment, 4-7, 4-8
performance techniques, 4-6
proper application of engineer equipment, 4-6
removing buried explosives, 4- 17
unexploded ordnance (UXO), 4- 17
removing structures, 4- 17
removing surface rocks, 4- 15
stripping, 4- 17
unsuitable soil, 4- 17
climate classifications of forests, 4- 1
dry forests, 4-2
monsoon forests, 4-2
rain forests, 4-2
temperate forests, 4- 1
CMP.

See culverts, corrugated metal pipe (CMP).

coarse-grained
operations,

soils, 7-37.
7-26

See also strength profile, coarse-grained

soils.

cold climates, hydraulic criteria, 6- 102

compaction, 5-4
clays that lose strength, 5-6
select materials, 5-9
silts, 5-6
subbase materials, 5-9
swelling soils, 5-7

Index - 3

FM 5-430-OO- 1/AF PAM 32-80 1 3, Vol 1

.:clil::i,:~i.:l~~~~~~~~~:::::::i.ii.~:::~,::
I,.i.iilli:li:.ii:i:il:i.:::...:~:.,:i:~i
i:i:.i.i:i..:::iiy
,,:-.;::::,;;: ....:,: .;;

Condensed Army Mobility Modeling System (CAMMS), 7-1

cone index (CI), 7-2
range, 7-5
requirements, equipment, D- 1
cone penetrometer,

7-4

construction
airfield, l-2
Air Force responsibilities, l-2
Army responsibilities, l-2
drainage, 6- 1
methods, 9-49
operations, 5- 15
blending and mixing, 5- 16
compacting, 5- 16
fine grading, 5- 15
finishing, 5- 17
hauling, placing, and spreading, 5-16
watering base materials, 5- 16
road, l-2
construction stakes, 3-3
alignment, 3-3
centerline, 3-3
culvert, 3-6
finish-grade, 3-5
hub, 3-3
offset, 3-5
reference, 3-6
slope, 3-4
construction surveys, 3- 1
bench marks, 3-6
earthwork estimation, 3-6
final location, 3-2
horizontal control, 3-2
vertical control, 3-2
layout, 3-2
preliminary, 3-2
reconnaissance, 3-2
coral.

See maintenance,

corduroy.

coral surfaces.

See roads, corduroy-surfaced.

corrugations,

8-6

cutbacks, 9-45
covered-aggregate

surface treatment.

critical layer, 7-3

depth variations,

7-3

critical slope, 6-77

crowned section, 9-25
culverts, 6-59
alignment, 6-60

index - 4

See surface treatments, covered aggregate.

:..

:::.......................................................................................
...................................
....
.: ::::::::.:.:
:::,:,:::::
:.:.:..:+ ,.,:,,,,,,,,,,,,,:,;
...............................................
~:.~~...........::~::::::::::.~::,:::,:;::1:1:1;:1:
............................FM 543&0()-l
/AFPAM
:.:.:.:
.....................
:::.......................
........
:: .........
::.~.~.~~~~~.~..~.~.~.~...:.:.:..:.:.:.:.:.:.:
...
:......................
.:.::...~............~~
-:-..:.
......: ......................... :
.................................................................................................................................

.
.................................................

..~.~.~.~.~...........~

...............

assembling nestable CMP, 6-59

backfill, 6-70
bedding (foundations), 6-68
concrete box, 6-60
concrete pipe, 6-59
corrugated metal pipe (CMP), 6-59
cover, 6-63
depth of fill, 6-63
design, 6-73
with submerged inlets, 6-77
with unsubmerged inlets, 6-78
erosion control, 6-72
headwalls, wing walls, and aprons, 6-71
hydraulics, 6-73
maximum permissible cover for CMP, 6-68
maximum permissible cover for corrugated aluminum-alloy
slope, 6-62
types and designs, 6-59
construction, 6-60
design, 6-73
expedient, 6-60
permanent, 6-59
curves
l-degree method, 9-8, F- 1
compound, 9-7
horizontal, 9-7
design, 9- 10
point of curvature (PC), 9-7
point of intersection (PI), 9-7
point of tangent (PT), 9-7
reverse, 9-6
simple, 9-6
spiral, 9-7
vertical, 9- 19
allowable rate of change of grade (r), 9-20
change of grade (AG), 9-20
design, 9-20
elements, 9- 19
frequency of placing survey stakes, 9-20
length determination, 9-20
length factor (k), 9-20
sight distance (S), 9-20
types, 9-19
using metric units, 9-25
curve tables, F- 1
cut operation, 3-20

D
DBH.
._

See tree diameters at breast height (DBH)

design
index, 9-59

pipe, 6-69

32-801 3, j/o1 1

pneumatic-tired vehicles, 9-59

life, 9-60
special considerations, 9-75
frost, 9-75
stabilized soil, 9-75
design CBR
base course, aggregate surfaces, 9-63
base course, flexible pavement, 9-70
values
selection, 5- 10
subsoil, 5 -7
subgrade, 5-7
design considerations, 5- 1
pavement structures, 5- 1
design hourly volume (DHV), 9-4
detention.
DHV.

See drainage, hydrology, detention.

See design hourly volume (DHV).

dips, 6- 111
dissipators,

6- 125

ditches
design considerations, 6-45
location, 6-45
proposed lining, 6-45
quantity of runoff (91, 6-45
slope (S), 6-45
design techniques, 6-46
steps, 6-46
diversion, 6-38
interceptor, 6-38
longitudinal slope or grade (S), 6-43
nonsymmetrical, 6-39
side, 6-38
side-slope
back, 6-39
ditch, 6-39
front, 6-39
nonsymmetrical, 6-39
ratio, 6-39
symmetrical, 6-39
trapezoidal, 6-39
triangular, 6-39
types of flow, 6-40
continuous, 6-40
laminar, 6-40
open channel, 6-40
steady, 6-40
turbulent, 6-40
uniform, 6-40
V-type, 6-39
velocity of flow (V), 6-42
ditching, 6-3

Index - 6

FM 5_43&()()_1 /AF PAM 324)

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.:
.:...........................
... : :
..............
.....~...~......~.
_......................................
:::::::::::::::~::::~:~i::::~::.:::.~::::.:.:.:.~:.:
.........................
_,,,,.,
..........
.....
,, ...........
...
:y::::::;:....:.~::.:::::~~:~:::~:~:::::::~::::::::~:~;::~:~::
............ .,./_/
: ....
.....................
:.:.:.:.:.>:.:.:.:.:.:
.........................................................
...............

....:.:.:.:.:.;:
.::.:.::.:.:.:.~:.:.
.................

interception,
drags, 8-4

:.:.:,:,: .;
...............

.....

;::,::::--y

.y:.:.;:

:.::,z,I._

....... ...............
..

<............

... .. ..
,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,_,:

.. .. .. ..

...........

:,,,,,,,

:: ............................

1 3, vol

6-3

drainage. See also construction, drainage.

base, 6-92
design in arctic and subarctic regions, 6-102
hydrology, 6-4
detention, 6-4
infiltration, 6-4
intercepting, 6-92
interception, 6-4
precipitation, 6-4
runoff, 6-4, 6-8
storms, 6-4
subgrade, 6-92
transpiration, 6-4
weather data, 6-6
drainage-system design, 6- 11
available resources, 6- 11
design data requirements, 6- 11
meteorological data, 6- 11
procedures, 6- 11
delineating watersheds, 6- 13
designing for maximum runoff, 6-19
determining area contributing runoff, 6- 12
determining size, 6- 17
establishing drainage-structure locations, 6- 12
estimating quantity of runoff, 6-19
soil characteristics, 6- 11
topographical information, 6- 11
drop inlets and gratings, 6-89
construction, 6-89
maintenance, 6-9 1
dry season, 7-27
dust control, 8-5
dustproofIng,

9-5 1

E
earthwork, 2-3
operations, 2-3
earthwork volume sheet, 3-18
edge raveling, 8-8
emulsions, 9-47
end-area-determination
methods, 3-7
computer-aided design (CAD), 3-13
double-meridian triangle, 3- 10
planimeter, 3 - 12
stripper, 3-9
trapezoidal, 3-7

Index - 7

engtneering fabrics, Q-77.

engineering

study, l-3

entrances.

See entrances, exits, and segments.

entrances, exits, and segments, Q-60.

environmental
EOD.

conditions,

4- 1

See explosive ordnance disposal (EOD).

equivalency factors, application,

Q-75

erosion control, 6-54. 6-l 14. See also culverts, erosion control.
culvert outlets, 6- 124
culvert transitions, 6- 124
plain outlets, 6- 124
stilling basins, 6- 125
estimating runoff.
exits.

See rational method of estimating runoff.

See entrances, exits, and segments.

explosive ordnance disposal (EOD), 4- 17

external distance, Q-Q

F
fabrics, Q-77
field identification,

Q-4 1

fill operation, 3-20

fine-grained

soils, 7-36.

See also strength profile, fine-grained soils.

flexible-pavement structure, 9-69

bituminous-pavement mix, 9-7 1
bituminous-pavement thickness requirement,
compaction requirements, Q-7 1
materials, Q-70
minimum base-course thickness, Q-7 1
select materials and subbase, Q-70
supply sources, Q-70
typical flexible-pavement section, 5- 1
flight-way obstructions,
glide angle, 2-4
flow.

Q-7 1

2-4

See ditches, types of flow.

fords, 6- 107. See also road maintenance,

approaches, 6- 110
bottom material, 6- 108
channel condition, 6- 110
construction, 6- 110
cross section, 6- 110
flood flow, 6- 110
hlgh-water determination, 6- 109
maintenance, 6- 111
n.arking, 6- 111
reconnaissance, 6- 108
requirements, 6- 108

Index - 8

fords and bridges.

..j

.....I....L.....
..........t..
,~i::.:.:.:~.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.~:.:.~:~.~.~:.:.~.:~:~:~:::~~:~:~~~~:~:~:~~~~~~~~~~~
32-80 , 3, vo, ,
,,,,(,,,,,,,,,_, FM 5_430_00_1 /AFPAM
::::::::.:.:.:.:::.:
....i.........~..........
..........:.:..:.:.:.:~~.:.:.:.:.:.,:.:~.:.:.~.:.:.:.:.:.:~.:,.~.:.:~.:,:,:,:,:,:,:,~:.:.~:.:.~,:.:.:.:
.,.,.(.,
,,,,,,::,,,,,,,,,.,.,,.,.I,..,.,,.,
.,.,,.............
,_,

:::~,liiijii::~:~~:~:~:~.~,~,~~~~~~~~~~~
:::.=-J

,....

...,...,..,..,,..

......

. . ..l....

(..._,,,,,,,.,,

,..:,:

stream velocity, 6- 110

forest clearing considerations, 4-4
airfield approach zones, 4-6
camouflage, 4-4
disposal, 4-5
permafrost, 4-4
safety, 4-4
temporary drainage, 4-4
timber salvage, 4-4
waste areas, 4-5
burning, 4-5
burning pits, 4-5
clearing and piling stumps, 4-6
dumps, 4-5
fire control, 4-5
log piles, 4-6
off-site areas, 4-5
revetments, 4-5
forest types, 4- 1. See also climate classifications
French drain.

of forests.

See subsurface drainage, techniques, French drains.

frost
boils, 8- 16
heaves, 8- 16
special considerations,

5- 15

frost action potential, 5-10

frost design for roads, G-l
frost susceptibility

of subgrade, 5-8

future expansion, 2-5

G
gabions, 6- 119
installation, 6-120
uses, 6- 122
geofabrics,

9-77

geologic and permafrost conditions, 4-2

hardpan or rock, 4-2
inundated, marshy, and boggy areas, 4-2
permafrost, 4-2
geology, 2-2
rock outcroppings, 2-2
sedimentary rocks, 2-2
geometric design process, 9- 1
geometric formulas, B- 1
geotextiles,
glide angle.
L_

9-77
See flight-way obstructions,

grade determination,

glide angle.

9- 19

Index- 9

FM 5-430100- 1/A F PA M 32-80 1 3, j/o 1 1

,:;:
i:i.qii::::iiliiiii:i::i::iii
,!J::~:~~~:~:~:~:~~:.~~
;,~~.i::I::i.:~,,;:~~
:;:::.
j::,
:::::,;:>?;
::iy;F:,x
.:I;::;.: :,... : ;,:::I ::,,:.:,:;,h.::.:ji:;

grade line, 5-4

grader.

See clearing, stripping, and grubbing; clearing with equipment.

gradation requirements,
grasses.

9-29

See characteristics

of grasses.

grating, 6-89
ground cover, 2-4
gunite lining, 6- 115

H
horizontal-curve
hydrophobic,

elements.

See curves, horizontal.

Q-48

hydraulic criteria for cold climates.

See cold climates, hydraulic criteria.

hydraulic gradient, 6-74

hydraulic radius (R), 6-45
calculating, 6-46
hydraulics of culverts.

See culverts, hydraulics.

hydraulic tables and curves, C-l

hydrograph construction,

6- 10

hydrologic tables and curves, C-l

hydrology.

See drainage, hydrology.

I
I variable.

See rational method of estimating runoff, formula variables, I variable.

ice control. See also airfield and heliport maintenance, ice control and road maintenance,
winter, surface ice control.
abrasives, 8- 15
calcium chloride, 8- 15
mechanical removal, 8- 15
salts, 8- 15
ice road.

See roads, snow and ice.

icing, 6- 105
ground, 6- 106, 6- 107
measures against, 6- 107
river, 6-106, 6-107
spring, 6- 107
types, 6- 105
inflltration.

See drainage, hydrology, infiltration.

intensity-duration
interception.

Index - 10

curves.

See standard rainfall intensity-duration

curves.

See drainage, hydrology, interception and drainage, interception.

i:.::.i:,:.:i:::l:i,:::~,~: ;:.j, :::j:: iii::; .;,j :;-,:

.

. . ..

,.

.,...

:: :, : :y:
.:

..
. .. .. ..:;,.>>.
::.,.I
..:.:...
:::

:j

,,

.. . .
..
.
~:::...:,,i...::

. . . . .. . . ,. .:.:.: . . . :,,..,,..

:,,., .:.: :. :..::

,..,,.. ,..,,,
..
:.y.>,:.

:::.:x.:
.j.:..::.:..,:.:::j:::.::::.:,:~.::.:::i::,i:;:
FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM
,.,...,.

.. .. .,.: .,.. :..., .,,. >:,.::,.,:

..,::,,,:...

.A. .

. . ..A

32-801 3, Vol 1

L
lag time, 6-9
laminar flow.

See ditches, types of flow, laminar.

land clearing, 4- 1
landing mats.

See roads, landing mats.

layout techniques,

9- 15

length of curve (L), 9-9

level terrain
all-wheel drive vehicles, 7- 12, 7-25
self-propelled vehicles, 7- 12
tracked vehicles, 7-12, 7-24
vehicles towing Inoperable, powered vehicles, 7- 17, 7- 18
vehicles towing other vehicles, 7- 14
load distribution,
LOC.

5-2

See preconstruction

phase, location factors, lines of communication

M
macadam, 5 - 14
applying screenings, 5-17
compacting, 5 - 17
preparing subgrade, 5 - 17
special procedures for base, 5- 17
spreading, 5- 17
mamtenance
bituminous surfaces, 8-7
inspection, 8-7
patches, 8-7
maintenance of shoulders, 8-7
temporary repairs, 8-7
coral surfaces, 8-8
crater repair, 8-8
drainage, 8-2
culverts, 8-3
ditches, 8-3
shoulders, 8-3
surface, 8-3
gravel surfaces, 8-5
repair of potholes, 8-6
treatment of corrugations, 8-6
use of calcium chloride, 8-7
inspections, 8-2
drainage, 8-2
surface, 8-2
materials, 8-2
nonpaved surfaces, 8-3
oiled surfaces, 8-5
processed material surfaces, 8-7
rigid pavements, 8-8

(LOC).

stabilized soil surfaces, 8-8

potholes, 8-8
ravels, 8-8
maintenance and repair of surfaces, 8- 1, 9-58
activities, 8- 1
bituminous inspection, 9-58
guidelines, 8- 1
operations, 8-2
patches, 9-58
shoulders, 9-58
temporary repairs, 9-58
Mannings velocity of flow, 6-42
maps
geologic, 7-29
soils, 7-29
topographic, 7-29
marginal material, 2-4
mass diagram, 3-19
construction, 3-20
limitations, 3-28
properties, 3-20, 3-21
maximum haul distance, 3-22
metric conversions,
MI.

A- 1

See mobility index (MI).

middle ordinate, 9-9

mobility index (MI), 7-19
calculating, 7-20
limitations, 7-23
mud control.

See airfield and heliport maintenance, mud control.

multiple surface treatment.

See surface treatment, multiple.

N
NATO Reference Mobility Model (NRMM), 7-1, 7-26
NRMM.

See NATO Reference Mobility Model (NRMM).

node, 3-20

0
obstacle crossings, 2-3
obstacles, 7- 10, 7- 11
off-road speed map, 7-31
Office of the Chief of Engineers, 2-7
one-pass performance,

7- 12

open channels. See aIs0 ditches, types of flow, open channel.

design equations, 6-42

Index - 12

< ..................................
..........
.......r....~...~
:.:.:...:.,:.~~:ja:::::~:~~~:
FM 5_430_00_1
..........................
...............................................................

.......... Z i::: .......................................

...:.:.:.:.:.~:.:i.:.:.:.:..,.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.~.:.:~:.;:::.:.::.;::~~::::::::::,:;::.: :: :. ........... ,::,
.......
.........................................
:.: ......
::::::::..;.:
..y..:....:.:.:.:
,:.:,>
:x.:.:x
..::.:.:.e:.::.:.: :...: ......
..........................

..............................

.........

::>:: :.:,:.,,,,

,::

....
..
,I:;::; .............................
. ..:.:.::
::.. :::.:
,:,,,,, :,

/AF PAM 32-30, 3, vo, 11

continuity, 6-42
Mannings velocity of flow, 6-42
roughness coefficient (n), 6-42
design factors, 6-38
cross section, 6-38
location, 6-38
open storage area, special considerations,
organic-soil

9-75

areas, 7- 10

P
paving, 6- 115
peak flow, 6-10
performance

categories, 7- 19

permafrost, special considerations, 5-15. See also forest clearing considerations,

permafrost and geologic and permafrost conditions.
plank-tread road.

See roads, plank-tread.

planning considerations,
plastic grid.

1- 1

See sand grid, plastic grids.

ponding, 6-84
advantages, 6-89
analysis, 6-87
areas, 6-84
potential landing zone, 7-32
precipitation.

See drainage, hydrology, precipitation.

preconstruction phase, 2- 1
location factors, 2- 1
existing facilities, 2- 1
lines of communication (LOCI, 2- 1
location and design, 2- 1
minimum rehabilitation, 2- 1
soil characteristics, 2-2
soil investigation prior to construction,
preswelling,

2-2

5 -7

prime coat, 9-49

base preparation,
materials, 9-49

9-49

R
radius of curvature, 9-9
rating cone index (RCI), 7-2, 7-9
rational method of estimating runoff, 6-22
application, 6-28
assumptions, 6-22
estimating flow time for multiple cover, 6-28
estimating flow time for single cover, 6-26

formula, 6-22
formula variables, 6-22
C variable, 6-22
determining TOC. 6-24
I variable, 6-24
time of concentration, 6-24
RCI.

See rating cone index (RCI).

reconnaissance, 2-5
air, 2-8
airfield, 2- 14, 2- 15
air, 2-15
ground, 2- 17
airfield-siting template, 2- 15, 2- 16
briefing, 2-6
engineer, 2- 14
existing roads, 2- 11
glide-angle requirements, 2- 15
ground, 2-8
ground reconnaissance report, 2- 19
undeveloped airfield site, 2- 19
captured enemy airfield, 2-2 1
location, 2- 11
map and air studies, 2-9
new airfields, 2-15
party, 2-5
personnel suitable, 2-9
planning, 2-6
preliminary study, 2-7
preparation, 4-2
reporting, 2-8
route and road, 2- 11
selecting runway location, 2- 15
steps, 2-6
referencing point, 3-6
remolding index (RI), 7-l
repair of runways, 8- 19
required areas, 2-4
revetments.
RI.

See forest clearing considerations,

waste areas, revetments.

See remolding index (RI).

ripper.

See clearing, stripping, and grubbing: clearing with equipment; ripper.

riprap
design, 6- 118
placement, 6- 116
protection, 6- 116
size selection, 6- 116
ro.ad design, 9- 1
geometric process, 9- 1
grade and alignment, 9-6
road maintenance, 8-9
fords and bridges, 8- 16. See also fords and bridges.

index-

14

,::?..;,.(

.:.~~.-,,,.:_:i~:.:,

:.::...:,.
.:.

.::,:..

..,.:

,-.-:

,.

i:
..
: .: :y::

:: ..:.::::.: Y.:::::;. .\I..

::?: ..:.::::y.:.:.:: y:::

.>L...

::,::::..:

.,..
... .... .,..
....:.
.,,,.. ,,,,,,.,,,,,,

S::.: .:::::,:::::::.:.:..:..........
:. . . . .,:
.. ,. .,.....,.....,~..

.:y:

..::;:-...
..,..,... .,.,/

~(.,.,,,.,.,.,.,
.,,;;;..:...

:,.. r.:.:,:.:.:::::::~::;i:::i:l:ii:::::_:i:::
..,.,.,: ,,,.,,;,
:.:j+:: :.:.;,~

FM 514301001l/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

patrols, 8- 10
repair crews, 8-10
winter, 8- 12
snow-removal equipment, 8- 13, 8- 14
surface ice control, 8-15
with traffic, 8-11. See also baton method.
road tars, 9-47
roads
aggregate-surfaced, 9-62
base course, 9-63
CBR requirements, 9-63
compaction criteria, 9-63
compaction requirements, 9-64
design curves, 9-65
design steps, 9-66
materials, 9-62
select and subbase materials, 9-63
Army track, 9-32
chespaling, 9-3 1
classes, 9-59
corduroy-surfaced, 9-30
heavy, 9-30
standard, 9-30
types, 9-30
with stringers, 9-30
expedient-surfaced, 9-30
landing mats, 9-32
plank-tread, 9-32
snow and ice, 9-35
unsurfaced, 9-61
wire-mesh, 9-35
Rome plow.
roughness,

See clearing, stripping, and grubbing; clearing with equipment; Rome plow.
6-77

rubble, 5- 15
runoff.

See drainage, hydrology, runoff.

S
safe-slope ratios, 2-2
salts.

See ice control, salts

sand grid, 9-36

installation, 9-37
plastic grids, 9-36
scour, types of, 6-73
sediment contro1, 6-54
segments.

See entrances, exits, and segments.

select materials, 5-8, 5-9

shoulders and similar areas, 9-75
shrinkage, 3- 17

index - 75

~li:.::.:~~I;,I:,i:i.:~~:I~:~
.. :v,.::,:::.:...

FM 5-43()-0()-j/AFPAM

32-801 3, Vol 1

single surface treatment.

See surface treatments, single.

site selection and reconnaissance,

drainage, 2-2
location factors, 2- 1
slipperiness,

.: ... :..,...

: .:

2- 1

7-2, 7- 10

slope, 7- 10
slope negotiations, 7- 11, 7- 12
all-wheel-drive vehicles, 7- 11
self-propelled vehicles, 7- 11
tracked vehicles, 7- 11
vehicles towing inoperable, powered vehicles, 7- 18
vehicles towing other vehicles, 7-15
vehicles towing trailers, 7- 14
snow and ice road.

See roads, snow and ice.

snow removal. See airfield and heliport maintenance,

winter, snow-removal equipment.
soil characteristics.
soil classification,
soil conditions,

See drainage-system

snow removal and road maintenance,

design, soil characteristics.

5- 1, 7-29

mapping manually, 7-30

soil strength, 7-2

soil topography,

7-29

soil trafficability
test set, 7-3, E-l
classification, 7-36, 7-37
species of trees and root systems, 4-3
sprayed asphalt with covered-aggregate.

See surface treatments, sprayed aggregate with.

sprayed asphalt with single and multiple surface treatments.

sprayed aggregate with.
sprayed treatments,

9-4 1

St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory, 6-125

stabilized
chemically, 5 -7
mechanically, 5 -7
station adjustments,

9- 13

stationing equations,

9- 13

stakes.

See construction

stakes.

standard rainfall intensity-duration

standards of trafficability,

curves, 6-9

2- 11

stickiness, 7-2, 7- 10
stilling basins.
storms.

See erosion control, stilling basins.

See drainage, hydrology, storms.

strength profile, 7- 8
coarse-grained soils, 7-9
fine-grained soils, 7-8
remoldable sands, 7-8

See surface treatments,

.. .,

........j~...............
......w..+..:.:.:.:.+:.:~:~>
FM 5_43&()0_1 /AFPAM

~ ... ... ..::.:: :,:,~::.:.:::::: :,:,:,,, ;,:,,,,,,,,

:-.::.~.~_:,~_;:.,.::.:.:~...:::.~.:
..,... ,..,...
.,,,,
(,.,;:;.:,::,::::,:, ((,

: ::,::::j ::::::::~:::::::.r:::.::::.~:::::.~:~~~:.:~:~:.:::::::~::::::~~~~:~~:~~~:~~~~~~~~~~~~:~~~~~~::~~~:,:.:,,
:
... .......:.:..:.:f.:,:.:.:.:....:.:.:.:.:.:
,:.:.::.::y7.

.. . .

.,:,.

>:...:

..

.,..

:,,y...:::>

,.,.

> ,..,.,

,..

..,.

..,,

,,::.:

..~...~..,..,,,.

,,,::::::..

.A/.

..,

stripping, 9- 48
stripping test, 9-48
structural design, 9-27
earth, 9-28
gravel, 9-29
processed materials, 9-30
sand clay, 9-29
stabilized soil, 9-28
treated surface, 9-28
subbase compaction
normal cases, 5-6
special cases, 5-6
subbase course, 5-8
subbase materials, 5-9
subgrades, 5 4
subgrade stabilization,
submerged inlets.

5-7

See culverts, design, with submerged inlets.

subsurface drafnage, 6-92

filter design steps, 6-100
filter material, 6-98
selection, 6- 100
pipe-laying criteria, 6-96
system installation, 6- 101
techniques, 6-92
blind drains, 6-94
combination drainage systems, 6-95
deep ditches, 6-92
French drains, 6-94
natural drainage channels, 6-93
subsurface pipe, 6-94
successive areas, 6-33
estimating runoff, 6-34
sunlit slopes, 2-4
superelevation,

9-25

surface treatments, 9-41

covered aggregate, 9-54
multiple, 9-54
requirements, 9-53
single, 9-52
sprayed asphalt with, 9-51
surveys.

See construction

surveys.

swell test, 9-48

swelling, 5-7.

--

See also compaction, swelling soils.

tack coat, S-50

tactical considerations,

2-5

32-801 3, vol 11

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFPAM

camouflage, 2-5.
defense, 2-5
defilade, 2-5

: .,,..:
.::.:.Y.,...
:. ;.y-,
: . :..:.::..Y;:,:;;I.
.,: ?;:;:;:;:
.......I.......::~.~~,:,~,~~~,.~,..~~~:::j,i:_,.:.l,.,lj
: .,:..,+:.,r.
,..:Y;..

32-801 3, j/o1 1

See also forest clearing considerations,

camouflage.

tangents, 9-6
distance, 9-9
terracing, 6- 115
thickness requirements.
See flexible-pavement structure, bituminous-pavement thickness
requirements; unsurfaced soil thickness requirements: and flexible-pavement structure,
minimum base-course thickness.
timber cruising, 4-4
lime of concentration (TOC). 6-10.
variables, time of concentration.

See also rational method of estimating runoff,

TOC. See time of concentration (TOC) and rational method of estimating runoff,
variables, time of concentration.
topography, 2-2.
topography.
map, 7-29

See also drainage-system

design, topographical

information

trafficability
basic factors, 7-2
characteristics of fine-grained soils and remoldable sand In wet weather, 7-35
classifications of dry-to-moist, coarse-grained soils, 7-38
estimating, 7-27
evaluation factors, 7- 10
instruments and tests, 7-3
mapping manually, 7-30
measurements, 7-3, 7-5
photomap, 7-28
procedures in fine-grained soils and remoldable sands, 7- 11
standards, 2- 11
test data form, 7-7
with weather, 7-2
transpiration.

See drainage, hydrology, transpiration.

tree diameters at breast height (DBH), 4-4

tuff, 5-15
turbulent flow.

See ditches, types of flow, turbulent.

turfing, 6- 115

U
Unified Soil Classification
unsubmerged inlets.
unsurfaced roads.
unsurfaced-soil

Index - 78

System (USCS), 5-4.

See culverts, design, with unsubmerged inlets.

See roads, unsurfaced.

thickness requirements,

9-62

formula

and soils

traffic categories, 9-59

tracked vehicles and forklifts, 9-60

transition point, 3-20

formula

.....>>:,:.:
:.:.:.:...:
:.;,.:.,,:,:::::,
,.,.,.,.,,.i,_.,.,(,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
......::.::::::::~--...~...
.. . .,_....:
.,.,,,.,,........(..,.,,,.,.,(,,
,:,.:,:..
,, ,. ,.,.,.

...A.
....... .. . . . . . . ... .
.A.,

..1.

:.:~:.:.:,:.~.:.:.:.:.:.~.:.:.:.;.~.:.~:.~:.:.:.~.:~:.:,::...

USCS.

.. . . . .

. .. . . . . . . . .. .. .,:+

:,(:::::::

.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,,

.:

;.;.:I..,:

i:,:.:.:.:

:,:::::::::,

.;,..:.

:,.:

.,.:

:,>:.:.:

.+..

. . ..

..,:

).

,.:

: ::.

See Unified Soil Classification

USCS soil-type description,

,,.

.:.~:,:::::s::::r,::.::::~:.:.,.:.:::::.::

:,:,

: ,,

,.,

: ,.

.:

::,:,,.: :,+:,: :,:,:..,::::..:

: :.::

.>:

,.,

7.

::.,: ~~: :,,:::j

FM 5=430=00=1/AFPAM

32-8013,

Vol 1

System (USCS).

7-35

utilities, 2-4
UXO. See clearing, stripping, and grubbing; removing buried explosives;
ordnance (UXO).

unexploded

V
VCI.

See vehicle cone index (VCI).

VCI determination
vegetation,

for new or unlisted vehicles, 7- 19

7- 10

vehicle classes, 7- 19
vehicle cone index (VCI), 7-2
calculating, 7-20, 7-26
Iimitations, 7-23
velocity relationships,
vertical alignment,

6-45

9- 18

volume
compacted, 3- 17
in-place, 3- 17
loose, 3-17
of flow, 6-10
volume-determination
methods, 3- 13
average end area, 3- 13
average depth of cut or fill, 3-13
grid, 3- 15
prismoidal formula, 3- 13
V-type ditch.

See ditches, V-type.

W
washboarding,
watersheds.

8-4
See drainage-system

weather conditions,

design, procedures, delineating watersheds.

7-27

wet season, 7-29

wet-weather

trafficability

characteristics,

7-35

wier notch, 8-3

windrowing.

See clearing, stripping, and grubbing: clearing with equipment, windrowing.

wire-mesh road.

See roads, wire-mesh.

witnessing point, 3-6

work, 3-23
world isohyetal map, 6-7

index - 19

TRAFFICABILITY TEST DATA

1. TEST LOCATION/DATE/TIME

2. TYPE OF VEHICLE/WEIGHT

3. CONE INDEX (Cl) VALUES

a. TEST

NUMBERS

NORMAL

ABNORMAL
.

c. Cl1 =

1:

d. cl50

j j 3;. : :::: ::.

.:

=
f. CRITICAL LAYER FOR SO VEHICLES

e. CRITICAL LAYER FOR 1 VEHICLE

4. REMOLDING

INDEX (RI) VALUES

BEFORE

AFTER

LAYER

LAYER

LAYER

a. LAYER
b. DEPTH

.,:
::: ,.::,:
_.::_:.
:
..:;
:,y.
3,
:.. .::,::.

AFTER

BEFORE

AFTER

BEFORE

BEFORE

AFTER

0"
1
2
3
4

c. AVERAGE
d. RI = After
Before
f. RI FOR SO VEHICLES

e. RI FOR 1 VE ICLE

h. SOIL CONDITION (Describe)

g. RATING CONE INDEX (RCJ)

j.

RCI, = Cl1 x RI4 =

RClso = Cl5ox RI50 =

i. WEATHER

CONDITIONS

(Describe)

VEHICLE CONE INDEX (VCI)

/CGCI

VCI50 =
WILL 1 VEHICLE PASS? (Check one)
WILL 50 VEHICLES PASS? (Check one)
5. TESTED

BY

DD Form 2641, AUG 93

/FG&RSRCI

,VCl

1 YES 1
1YES 1

VCI

k. TYPE OF SOIL
(Check one)
1. SOIL STRENGTH
(Check one)

1 NO

1 NO
6. COMPUTED

BY

FG
PROFILE

NORMAL

7. CHECKED BY

CC
ABNORMAL

FM 5-430-OO-l/AFJPAM

32-8013,
VOL I
26 AUGUST 94

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

GORDON R. SULLIVAN
General, United States Army
Chief of Staff

Official:

Administrative Assistant to the

Secretary of the Army
08955

By Order of the Secretary

Air Force:

MERRILL A. McPEAK
General United States Air Force
Chief of Staff

Official:

JAMES E. MCCARTHY,
The Civil Engineers

Maj General,

USAF

DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, USAR, and ARNG: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form
12-l 1 E, requirements for FM 5-430-00-1,
Vol I, Planning and Design of Roads,
Airfields, and Heliports in the Theater of Operations - Road Design (Qty rqr. block
no. 0759).

Q U.S. GOVERNMENT

PRINTING

OFFICE:1 994-528-02712W39