Diseases of the Ear,

Nose and Throat

LECTURE NOTES ON

Diseases of
the Ear, Nose
and Throat
P.D. BULL
MB, BCh, FRCS
Consultant Otolaryngologist
Royal Hallamshire Hospital
and Sheffield Childrens Hospital
Sheffield
Honorary Senior Clinical Lecturer
in Otolaryngology
University of Sheffield

Ninth Edition

Blackwell
Science

 2002 by Blackwell Science Ltd

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Ninth edition 2002

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bull, P. D.
Lecture notes on diseases of the ear, nose, and throat. 9th ed. /
P. D. Bull. p.
cm. (Lecture notes on)
Includes index.
ISBN 0-632-06506-0 (pbk.)
1. Otolaryngology.
[DNLM: 1. Otorhinolaryngologic Diseases.WV 140 B935L 2002]
I. Title: Diseases of the ear, nose, and throat. II. Title. III. Lecture notes series
RF46 .B954 2002
617.51 dc21
2001007096
ISBN 0-632-06506-0
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Contents

Preface to the Ninth Edition, vii

Preface to the First Edition, viii
1

The Ear: Some Applied Anatomy, 1

Clinical Examination of the Ear, 5

Testing the Hearing, 7

Deafness, 15

Conditions of the Pinna, 19

Conditions of the External Auditory Meatus, 25

Injury of the Tympanic Membrane, 33

Acute Otitis Media, 35

Chronic Otitis Media, 39

10 Complications of Middle-Ear Infection, 43

11 Otitis Media with Effusion, 51
12 Otosclerosis, 54
13 Earache (Otalgia), 57
14 Tinnitus, 59
15 Vertigo, 61
16 Facial Nerve Paralysis, 66
17 Clinical Examination of the Nose and Nasopharynx, 69
18

Foreign Body in the Nose, 71

19

Injuries of the Nose, 73

20 Epistaxis, 77
21 The Nasal Septum, 81
v

vi

Contents
22 Miscellaneous Nasal Infections, 86
23 Acute and Chronic Sinusitis, 88
24 Tumours of the Nose, Sinuses and Nasopharynx, 95
25 Allergic Rhinitis,Vasomotor Rhinitis and Nasal Polyps, 99
26 Choanal Atresia, 107
27 Adenoids, 109
28 The Tonsils and Oropharynx, 111
29 Tonsillectomy, 116
30 Retropharyngeal Abscess, 119
31 Examination of the Larynx, 121
32 Injuries of the Larynx and Trachea, 124
33 Acute Disorders of the Larynx, 126
34 Chronic Disorders of the Larynx, 129
35 Tumours of the Larynx, 131
36 Vocal Cord Paralysis, 135
37 Airway Obstruction in Infants and Children, 139
38 Conditions of the Hypopharynx, 148
39 Tracheostomy, 155
40 Diseases of the Salivary Glands, 163
Index, 173

Preface to the Ninth Edition

This ninth edition of Lecture Notes on Diseases of the Ear, Nose and Throat
again allows an updating of the text.We have been able to include on this occasion further colour photographs rather than line drawings which I hope
will remain in the memory better and serve as reminders to the readers of
the conditions that can occur within the upper aerodigestive tract. It is
interesting in revising this little book every few years how much there is
to change in fairly subtle ways as the specialty develops and technology improves.The trend in educational circles in the early part of the 21st century
seems to be that students should learn less and less factual knowledge and
there is far more concern with process and in a spirit of concordance with
this (though not entire agreement), I have reduced the text of some of the
chapters considerably and omitted quite a lot of details, particularly where
it relates to surgical procedures. As before, I have avoided the cumbersome
use of he or she, or they as a singular pronoun and I hope that I will be
forgiven again in the interest in avoiding prolixity for using he to mean
either gender without prejudice or favour.
Acknowledgements
I am pleased to acknowledge the invaluable help of the editorial and production departments of Blackwell Publishing who have encouraged the
production of this new edition of Lecture Notes in Diseases of the Ear, Nose
and Throat, and in particular to Fiona Goodgame and Alice Emmott.
I am grateful to my clinical colleagues for advice willingly given and for
help with the illustrations. I am indebted particularly to Mark Yardley,
Tim Woolford, Charles Romanowski and Tim Hodgson.
Without the skill and cooperation of the Department of Medical
Illustration at the Royal Hallamshire Hospital, I would have had few images
to include in this little book.
I am grateful to Alun Bull for the cover images.
P.D. Bull
January 2002

vii

Preface to the First Edition

This book is intended for the undergraduate medical student and the house
officer. It is hoped that, though elementary, it will also prove of use to the
general practitioner.
Many conditions encompassed within the so-called specialist subjects
are commonly seen in general practice, and the practitioner is therefore
obliged to be familiar with them. He is not asked to perform complex aural
operations, or even to be acquainted with their details, but he is expected
to appreciate the significance of headache supervening in otitis media, to
treat epitaxis, and to know the indications for tonsillectomy.
Emphasis has therefore been laid on conditions that are important
either because they are common or because they call for investigation
or early treatment. Conversely, some are rare conditions and specialized
techniques have received but scant attention, whilst others have been
omitted, because the undergraduate should be protected from too much
small print, which will clutter his mind and which belongs more properly to
postgraduate studies.
The study of past examination questions should be an integral part of
the preparation for any examination, and students are strongly advised to
work-up the examination questions at the end of the book.Time spent in
this occupation will certainly not be wasted, for the questions refer, in every
case, to the fundamentals of the specialty.
E.H. Miles Foxen

ix

CHAPTER 1
The Ear: Some
Applied Anatomy

THE PINNA
The external ear or pinna, is composed of cartilage with closely adherent
perichondrium and skin. It is developed from six tubercles of the first
branchial arch. Fistulae and accessory auricles result from failure of fusion
of these tubercles.
THE EXTERNAL AUDITORY MEATUS
The external auditory meatus is about 25 mm in length, has a skeleton
of cartilage in its outer third (where it contains hairs and ceruminous
glands) and has bone in its inner two-thirds. The skin of the inner part is
exceedingly thin, adherent and sensitive. At the medial end of the meatus
there is the antero-inferior recess, in which wax, debris or foreign bodies
may lodge.
THE TYMPANIC MEMBRANE (F i g . 1 . 1 )
The tympanic membrane is composed of three layer skin, fibrous tissue
and mucosa.The normal appearance of the membrane is pearly and opaque,
with a well-defined light reflex due to its concave shape.
THE TYMPANIC CAVITY
Medial to the tympanic membrane, the tympanic cavity is an air-containing
space 15 mm high and 15 mm antero-posteriorly, although only 2 mm deep
in parts. The middle ear contains the ossicular chain of malleus, incus and
stapes (Fig. 1.2) and its medial wall is crowded with structures closely related to one another: the facial nerve, the round and oval windows, the lateral
semicircular canal and basal turn of the cochlea.The major reason for having an air-containing middle ear is to reduce the acoustic impedance that
would be caused if a sound wave in air were to be applied directly to the
cochlear fluids.Without this impedance matching, 99% of the sound energy
would simply be reflected at an air/fluid interface.
THE EUSTACHIAN TUBE
The Eustachian tube connects the middle-ear cleft with the nasopharynx
and is responsible for the aeration of the middle ear. The tube is more
1

Chapter 1: The Ear: Some Applied Anatomy

Pars flaccida

Handle of
malleus
Light reflex

Pars tensa

Fig. 1.1 The normal tympanic membrane (left). The shape of the incus is
visible through the drum at 2oclock. (Courtesy of MPJ Yardley.)

RELATIONS OF EXTERNAL, MIDDLE AND INNER

EAR
Malleus

Incus

Stapes

Semicircular canal
Cochlea
Carotid
artery

Facial nerve

Eustachian tube

Fig. 1.2 Diagram to show the relationship between the external, middle and
inner ears.

The Ear 3

ANATOMY OF MIDDLE EAR AND MASTOID

AIR CELLS
Mastoid antrum

Temporal lobe

Attic
Incus
Malleus
Lateral
sinus
Lateral
semicircular
canal
Mastoid air cells
Stapes
Round-window niche
Facial nerve

Eustachian tube

Fig. 1.3 Diagram to show the anatomy of the middle ear and mastoid air cells.

horizontal in the infant than in the adult and secretions or vomit may enter
the tympanic cavity more easily in the supine position. The tube is normally closed and is opened by the palatal muscles on swallowing.This is impaired by the presence of a palatal cleft.
THE FACIAL NERVE
The facial nerve is embedded in bone in its petrous part but exits at the stylomastoid foramen (Fig. 1.3). In infants, the mastoid process is undeveloped
and the nerve very superficial.

Chapter 1: The Ear: Some Applied Anatomy

THE LEFT TEMPORAL BONE

Supra-meatal
triangle

Zygoma

Tympanic ring
Mastoid process
Styloid process

Fig. 1.4 The left temporal

bone.

Fig. 1.5 A preparation

showing the bony inner
ear of semicircular canals
and cochlea (Preparation by
Mr S Ell.)

THE MASTOID CELLS

The mastoid cells form a honeycomb within the temporal bone, acting as a
reservoir of air to limit pressure changes within the middle ear.The extent
of pneumatization is very variable and is usually reduced in chronic middleear disease.

CHAPTER 2
Clinical Examination
of the Ear

The examination of the ear includes close inspection of the pinna, the external auditory canal and the tympanic membrane. Scars from any previous
surgery may be inconspicuous and easily missed.
The ear is most conveniently examined with an auriscope (Fig. 2.1).
Modern auriscopes have distal illumination via a fibre-optic cone giving a
bright, even light. Because interpretation of the appearance depends to a

Fig. 2.1 Auriscope with halogen bulb

lighting via a fibreoptic cone.

Chapter 2: Clinical Examination of the Ear

large extent on colour, it is essential that the battery should be in good condition to give a white light.
A common error in examination of the tympanic membrane is to use
too small a speculum; the largest that can be inserted easily should be used.
Good auriscopes are expensive but are a worthwhile investment. Important points in the examination of the ear are listed in Box 2.1.

EXAMINATION OF THE EAR

1 Look for any previous scars.
2 Examine the pinna and outer meatus by head-mirror or room lighting.
3 Remove any wax or debris by syringing, or by instruments if you are
practised in this.
4 Pull the pinna gently backwards and upwards (downwards and
backwards in infants) to straighten out the meatus.
5 Insert the auriscope gently into the meatus and see where you are going
by looking through the instrument. If you cannot get a good view, either the
speculum is the wrong size or the angulation is wrong.
6 Inspect the external canal.
7 Inspect all parts of the tympanic membrane by varying the angle of the
speculum.
8 Do not be satisfied until you have seen the membrane completely.
9 The normal appearance of the membrane varies and can only be learnt
by practice. Such practice will lead to the recognition of subtle
abnormalities as well as the more obvious ones.
Box 2.1 Examination of the ear.

CHAPTER 3
Testing the Hearing

There are three stages to testing the hearing and all are important.
Audiograms can be wrong.
1 Clinical assessment of the degree of deafness.
2 Tuning fork tests.
3 Audiometry.
CLINICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE DEGREE
OF DEAFNESS
By talking to the patient, the examiner quickly appreciates how well a
patient can hear and this assessment continues throughout the interview.
A more formal assessment is then made by asking the patient to repeat
words spoken by the examiner at different intensities and distances in each
ear in turn. The result is recorded as, for example, whispered voice (WV)
at 150 cm in a patient with slight deafness, or conversational voice (CV) at
15 cm in a deafer individual.
If profound unilateral deafness is suspected, the good ear should be
masked with a Barany noise box and the deaf ear tested by shouting into it.
The limitations of voice and whisper tests must be borne in mind; they
are approximations but with practice can be a good guide to the level of
hearing and will confirm the audiometric findings.
TUNING FORK TESTS
Before considering tuning fork tests it is necessary to have a basic concept
of classification of deafness. Almost every form of deafness (and there are
many) may be classified under one of these headings:
conductive deafness;
sensorineural deafness;
mixed conductive and sensorineural deafness.
Conductive deafness (Fig. 3.1)
Conductive deafness results from mechanical attenuation of the sound
waves in the outer or middle ear, preventing sound energy from reaching
7

Chapter 3:Testing the Hearing

CONDUCTIVE DEAFNESS

Fig. 3.1 Conductive deafness is caused by an abnormality of the external or

middle ear (shaded).

the cochlear fluids. It may be remediable by surgery and so it is important it

is recognized.The hearing by bone conduction will be normal in pure conductive deafness.
Sensorineural deafness (Fig. 3.2)
Sensorineural deafness results from defective function of the cochlea or of
the auditory nerve, and prevents neural impulses from being transmitted to
the auditory cortex of the brain.
Mixed deafness
Mixed deafness is the term used to describe a combination of conductive
and sensorineural deafness in the same ear.
RINNES TEST
This test compares the relative effectiveness of sound transmission through
the middle ear by air conduction (AC), and bypassing the middle ear by bone
conduction (BC). It is usually performed as follows: a tuning fork of 512 Hz
(cycles per second) is struck and held close to the patients ear; it is then

Testing the Hearing 9

SENSORINEURAL DEAFNESS

Fig. 3.2 Sensorineural deafness is caused by an abnormality of the cochlea or

the auditory nerve (shaded).

placed firmly on the mastoid process and the patient is asked to state
whether it is heard better by BC or AC.
Interpretation of Rinnes test
If AC>BCcalled Rinne positivethe middle and outer ears are functioning
normally.
If BC > AC called Rinne negative there is defective function of the outer
or middle ear.
Rinnes test tells you little or nothing about cochlear function. It is a test of
middle-ear function.
WEBERS TEST
This test is useful in determining the type of deafness a patient may have
and in deciding which ear has the better-functioning cochlea. The base of
a vibrating tuning fork is held on the vertex of the head and the patient
is asked whether the sound is heard centrally or is referred to one or
other ear.
In conductive deafness the sound is heard in the deafer ear.
In sensorineural deafness the sound is heard in the better-hearing ear
(Figs 3.33.5)

10

Chapter 3:Testing the Hearing

SYMMETRICAL HEARING IN BOTH

EARS

AC>BC

AC>BC

Fig. 3.3 Tuning fork tests

showing a positive Rinne
in each ear and the Weber
test referred equally to
each ear, indicating
symmetrical hearing in
both ears with normal
middle-ear function.

AUDIOMETRY
PURE TONE AUDIOMETRY
Pure tone audiometry provides a measurement of hearing levels by AC and
BC and depends on the cooperation of the subject.The test should be carried out in a sound-proofed room. The audiometer is an instrument that
generates pure tone signals ranging from 125 to 12 000 Hz (12 kHz) at variable intensities.The signal is fed to the patient through ear phones (for AC)
or a small vibrator applied to the mastoid process (for BC). Signals of increasing intensity at each frequency are fed to the patient, who indicates
when the test tone can be heard.The threshold of hearing at each frequency is charted in the form of an audiogram (Figs 3.63.8), with hearing loss
expressed in decibels (dB). Decibels are logarithmic units of relative intensity of sound energy.When testing hearing by BC, it is essential to mask the
opposite ear with narrow-band noise to avoid cross-transmission of the
signal to the other ear.

Testing the Hearing 11

SENSORINEURAL DEAFNESS IN RIGHT

EAR

Fig. 3.4 Sensorineural

deafness in the right ear.
The Rinne test is positive
on both sides and the
Weber test is referred to
the left ear.

AC>BC

AC>BC

SPEECH AUDIOMETRY
Speech audiometry is employed to measure the ability of each ear to discriminate the spoken word at different intensities. A recorded word list is
supplied to the patient through the audiometer at increasing loudness
levels, and the score is plotted on a graph. In some disorders, the intelligibility of speech may fall off above a certain intensity level. It usually
implies the presence of loudness recruitment an abnormal growth of loudness perception. Above a critical threshold, sounds are suddenly perceived
as having become excessively loud.This is indicative of cochlear disorder.
IMPEDANCE TYMPANOMETRY
Impedance tympanometry measures not hearing but, indirectly, the compliance of the middle-ear structures. A pure tone signal of known intensity
is fed into the external auditory canal and a microphone in the ear probe
measures reflected sound levels.Thus, the sound admitted to the ear can be
measured. Most sound is absorbed when the compliance is maximal, and, by
altering the pressure in the external canal, a measure can be made of the

12

Chapter 3:Testing the Hearing

CONDUCTIVE DEAFNESS IN RIGHT

EAR

BC>AC

AC>BC

Fig. 3.5 Conductive

deafness in the right ear.
The Rinne test is negative
on the right, positive on
the left and the Weber test
is referred to the right ear.

NORMAL PURE TONE AUDIOGRAM

Right

-20
-10

Hearing loss (dB ISO)

0
10

250

500 1000 2000 4000 8000

20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120

125

Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 3.6 A normal pure

tone audiogram. ooo,
right ear; xxx, left ear.

Testing the Hearing 13

SENSORINEURAL DEAFNESS
AUDIOGRAM
Right
-20

Hearing loss (dB ISO)

-10
0
10

20
30
40
50

X
X

60
70

80
90
100

Fig. 3.7 A pure tone

audiogram showing
sensorineural deafness
maximal at 4 kHz typical
of noise-induced deafness.

110
120

125

250

500 1000 2000 4000 8000

Frequency (Hz)

compliance at different pressures. Impedance testing is widely used as a

screening method for otitis media with effusion (OME) in children. If there
is fluid in the middle ear, the compliance curve is flattened.
ELECTRIC RESPONSE AUDIOMETRY
Electric response audiometry is a collective term for various investigations
whereby action potentials at various points within the long and complex
auditory pathway can be recorded. The action potential (AP) is evoked by
a sound stimulus applied to the ear either through headphones or free
field, and the resulting AP is collected in a computer store. Although each
AP is tiny, it occurs at the same time interval after the stimulus (usually a
click of very short duration) and so a train of stimuli will produce an easily
detectable response, while the averaging ability of the computer will
average out the more random electrical activity, such as the EEG. By making
the computer look at different time windows, responses at various sites
in the auditory pathway can be investigated. As the response travels from
the cochlea to the auditory cortex, the latency increases from about
1-4 to 300 ms.

14

Chapter 3:Testing the Hearing

CONDUCTIVE DEAFNESS
-20

Hearing loss (dB ISO)

-10
0
10

20
30

[
[

40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120

125

250

500 1000 2000 4000 8000

Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 3.8 A pure tone

audiogram showing
conductive deafness. The
bone conduction is normal
but the air conduction
curve is impaired. A case
of otosclerosis. [---[---[,
bone conduction; ooo,
air conduction.

There are three main responses used in clinical audiology.

1 Electrocochleogram (E Coch G), which is recorded from an electrode
inserted through the ear drum onto the promontory and can be recorded
under anaesthetic.
2 Brain-stem responses, recorded from external electrodes (BSER).
3 Slow vertex or cortical responses, again recorded from external
electrodes (SVR or CERA).
Electric response audiometry has the unique advantage of being an objective measure of hearing requiring no cooperation from the subject. It is of
value in assessing hearing thresholds in babies and small children and in
cases of dispute such as litigation for industrial deafness.
Oto-acoustic emissions (OAE)
When the cochlea is subjected to a sound wave it is stimulated to produce
itself an emission of sound generated within the cochlea. This can be detected and recorded and has been used as a screening test of hearing in newborn babies. It is now in routine clinical use in testing those babies who are
particularly at risk of hearing problems, such as premature or hypoxic
neonates, and is likely to play a part in universal screening for hearing loss.

CHAPTER 4
Deafness

Attention has already been drawn to the two major categories of

deafness conductive and sensorineural. The distinction is easily made by
tuning fork tests, which should never be omitted.
CAUSES
There is no strict order in the list featured in Table 4.1, because the frequency with which various causes of deafness occur varies from one community to another and from one age group to another. Nevertheless, some
indication is given by division into more common and less common
groups. Always try to make a diagnosis of the cause of deafness and start by
deciding whether it is conductive or sensorineural.
MANAGEMENT
The management of a number of specific conditions will be dealt with in
subsequent chapters but some general comments are appropriate.
The deaf child
Early diagnosis of deafness in the infant is essential if irretrievable developmental delay is to be avoided.The health visitor should screen all babies at
about 8 months of age and those failing a routine test must be referred to a
specialist audiological centre without delay for more thorough investigation. Some babies are at risk of deafness and are tested as soon after birth
as possible.They include those affected by:
1 prematurity and low birth-weight;
2 perinatal hypoxia;
3 Rhesus disease;
4 family history of hereditary deafness;
5 intrauterine exposure to viruses such as rubella, cytomegalovirus and
HIV.
The testing of babies suspected or at risk of being deaf is very specialized.
The mothers assessment is very important and should always be taken seriously. She is likely to be right if she thinks her childs hearing is not normal.
Testing of at risk babies in the neonatal period is now carried out in many
centres by the recording of otoacoustic emissions (see Chapter 3).
15

16

Chapter 4: Deafness

Conductive
More common
Wax
Acute otitis media

Barotrauma
Otosclerosis
Injury of the tympanic membrane

Less common
Traumatic ossicular dislocation
Congenital atresia of the external
canal
Agenesis of the middle ear
Tumours of the middle ear

Sensorineural

Presbycusis (deafness of old age)

Noise-induced (prolonged exposure to high
noise level, industrial deafness, chronic otitis
media disco music)
Congenital (maternal rubella, cytomegalovirus,
toxoplasmosis, hereditary deafness, anoxia,
jaundice, congenital syphilis)
Drug-induced (aminoglycoside antibiotics,
aspirin, quinine, some diuretics, some beta
blockers)
Menires disease
Late otosclerosis
Infections (CSOM, mumps, herpes zoster,
meningitis, syphilis)

Acoustic neuroma
Head injury
CNS disease (multiple sclerosis, metastases)
Metabolic (diabetes, hypothyroidism,
Pagets disease of bone)
Psychogenic
Unknown aetiology

Table 4.1 Causes of deafness.

Sudden sensorineural deafness

Sudden sensorineural deafness is an otological emergency and should be
treated as seriously as would be sudden blindness. Immediate admission to
hospital should be arranged, as delay may mean permanent deafness.
Sudden deafness may be unilateral or bilateral and most cases are regarded as being viral or vascular in origin. Investigation may fail to show a
cause and treatment is usually with low-molecular-weight dextran, steroids
and inhaled carbon dioxide. Bilateral profound deafness, especially if of sudden onset, is a devastating blow and for this reason various organizations
exist to give advice and support.
Vestibular Schwannoma (Acoustic neuroma)
Vestibular Schwannoma is a benign tumour of the superior vestibular nerve in
the internal auditory meatus or cerebello-pontine (CP) angle. It is usually
unilateral, except in familial neurofibromatosis (NF2), when it may be bilat-

Deafness 17

Fig. 4.1 An MR scan after

gadolinium contrast showing
an acoustic neuroma.

eral. In its early stages, it causes a progressive hearing loss and some imbalance. As it enlarges, it may encroach on the trigeminal nerve in the CP angle,
causing loss of corneal sensation. In its advanced stage, there is raised intracranial pressure and brain stem displacement. Early diagnosis reduces
the morbidity and mortality of operations. Unilateral sensorineural deafness should always be investigated to exclude a neuroma. Audiometry will
confirm the hearing loss. MR scanning will identify even small tumours with
certainty (Fig. 4.1).
Hearing aids
In cochlear forms of sensorineural deafness, loudness recruitment is often
a marked feature. This results in an intolerance of noise above a certain
threshold, and makes the provision of amplification very difficult.
The choice of hearing aids is now large. Most are worn behind the ear
with a mould fitting into the meatus. If the mould does not fit well, oscillatory feedback will occur and the patient will not wear the aid. More sophisticated (and expensive) are the all-in-the-ear aids, where the electronics
are built into a mould made to fit the patients ear. They give good directional hearing and, because they are individually built, the output can be

18

Chapter 4: Deafness
matched to the patients deafness. The current generation of hearing aids
are digital, allowing more refinement in the sound processing and more
control of the aid.
A recent development has been the bone-anchored hearing aid
(BAHA). A titanium screw is threaded into the temporal bone and allowed
to fuse to the bone (osseo-integration). A transcutaneous abutment then
allows the attachment of a special hearing aid that transmits sound directly
by bone conduction to the cochlea.The main application of BAHA is to patients with no ear canal, or chronic ear disease, who are unable to wear a
conventional aid and is much more effective than the old-fashioned bone
conductor aid.

Cochlear implants
Much research has been done, both in the USA and Europe, on the implantation of electrodes into the cochlea to stimulate the auditory nerve. The
apparatus consists of a microphone, an electronic sound processor and a
single or multichannel electrode implanted into the cochlea. Cochlear implantation is only appropriate for the profoundly deaf. Results, particularly
with an intracochlear multichannel device, can be spectacular, with some
patients able to converse easily. Most patients obtain a significant improvement in their ability to communicate and implantation has been extended
for use in children. It is no longer an experimental procedure but a valuable
therapeutic technique.
Lip-reading
Instruction in lip-reading is carried out much better while usable hearing
persists and should always be advised to those at risk of total or profound
deafness.
Electronic aids for the deaf
Amplifying telephones are easily available to the deaf and telephone companies usually provide willing advice. Many modern hearing aids are fitted with
a loop inductance system to make the use of telephones easier.
Various computerized voice analysers that give a rapid visual display are
also available, but these require the services of a skilled operator and are
still in the developmental phase. Automatic voice recognition machines may
take over this role in the foreseeable future.

CHAPTER 5
Conditions of the Pinna

CONGENITAL

Protruding ears
Sometimes unkindly known as bat ears, the terms protruding or prominent should be used. The underlying deformity is the absence of the antehelical fold in the auricular cartilage. Afflicted children are often teased
mercilessly and surgical correction can be carried out after the age of four.
Operation consists of exposing the lateral aspect of the cartilage from
behind the pinna and scoring it to produce a rounded fold (Fig. 5.1).
Accessory auricles
Accessory auricles are small tags, often containing cartilage, on a line
between the angle of the mouth and the tragus (Fig. 5.2). They may be
multiple.
Pre-auricular sinus
Pre-auricular sinus is a small blind pit that occurs commonly anterior to the
root of the helix; it is sometimes bilateral and may be familial. Recurrent infection requires excision (Fig. 5.3).
Microtia
Microtia, or failure of development of the pinna, may be associated with
atresia of the ear canal (Fig. 5.2). Absence or severe malformation of the external ear, as in Treacher Collins syndrome, may be remedied by the fitting
of prosthetic ears attached by bone-anchored titanium screws (see BAHA,
Chapter 4, page 18). A bone-anchored hearing aid can be fitted at the same
time, although it is often fitted at a much earlier age than prosthetic ears in
order to allow speech development.

19

20

Chapter 5: Conditions of the Pinna

Fig. 5.1 A child with

protruding ears.

TRAUMA

Haematoma
Subperichondrial haematoma of the pinna usually occurs as a result
of a shearing blow (Fig. 5.4). The pinna is ballooned and the outline of
the cartilage is lost. Left untreated, severe deformity will result a
cauliflower ear. Treatment consists of evacuation of the clot and the
reapposition of cartilage and perichondrium by pressure dressings or
vacuum drain.
AVULSION
Very rarely, avulsion of the pinna may occur. If the avulsed ear is preserved,
reattachment may be possible.

The Pinna 21

Fig. 5.2 Right ear showing

congenital meatal atresia, an
accessory auricle and
deformity of the pinna.

INFLAMMATION

Acute dermatitis
Acute dermatitis of the pinna may occur as an extension of meatal infection
in otitis externa: it is commonly caused by a sensitivity reaction to topically
applied antibiotics, especially chloramphenicol or neomycin (Fig. 5.5).
TREATMENT
1 The ear canal should be adequately treated (q.v).
2 If there is any suspicion of a sensitivity reaction, topical treatment with
antibiotics should be withdrawn.
3 The ear may be treated with glycerine and ichthammol, or steroid ointment may be applied sparingly.
4 Severe cases may require admission to hospital.

22

Chapter 5: Conditions of the Pinna

Fig. 5.3 Pre-auricular sinus.

(b)

(a)
Fig. 5.4 Auricular haematoma before and after drainage.

The Pinna 23

Fig. 5.5 Severe otitis externa

and perichondritis of the
pinna.

Dictum
If otitis externa gets worse on treatment, it is probably due to drug sensitivity. Stop the treatment.
Perichondritis
Perichondritis may follow injury to the cartilage and may be very destructive. It may follow mastoid surgery or may follow ear piercing, particularly
with the modern trend for multiple perforations that may go through the
cartilage.Treatment must be vigorous, with parenteral antibiotics and incision if necessary. It goes without saying that if it is due to piercing the ear, the
stud should be removed.

24

Chapter 5: Conditions of the Pinna

WEDGE EXCISION

Fig. 5.6 Wedge excision of

carcinoma of the pinna.
The defect is repaired by
direct closure.

Chondrodermatitis chronicis helicis

Chondrodermatitis chronicis helicis occurs in the elderly as a painful ulcerated lesion on the rim of the helix. It resembles a neoplasm and should be
removed for histology.
TUMOURS

Squamous cell and basal cell carcinomas

These tumours occur usually on the upper edge of the pinna, and when
small are easily treated by wedge excision (Fig. 5.6). Large tumours of the
pinna or outer meatus will require more radical treatment, often with skin
flap repair.

CHAPTER 6
Conditions of the External
Auditory Meatus

CONGENITAL
Congenital atresia (Greek: a negative; tretos bored through) may be of
variable severity; there may be a shallow blind pit or no cavity at all. There
may be associated absence of the pinna (microtia) and there may be absence
or abnormality of the middle or inner ear (Fig. 5.2).
In bilateral cases the cochlear function needs to be measured carefully.
If it is good, surgery may be considered. Previously an attempt would have
been made to fashion an external auditory canal but better hearing results
are obtained by the provision of a BAHA (see Chapter 4, page 18). At the
same time any malformation of the pinna can be corrected by a prosthesis
attached to a similar osseo-integrated titanium implant. Until such surgery
is possible (at about age 34) the child with bilateral atresia of the external
auditory canal will need to wear a bone conductor hearing aid held on by
pressure from some sort of headband.
In unilateral cases, it is of prime importance to assess the hearing in the
unaffected ear. If it is good, operation on the affected side is unnecessary.
External ears can be constructed by a plastic procedure or can be replaced
by prostheses anchored to the ear by adhesive or by titanium implants in the
skull bone.
FOREIGN BODY
Small children often put beads, pips, paper and other objects into their own
ears, but they will usually blame someone else! Adults may get a foreign
body stuck in an attempt to clean the ear, e.g. with match sticks, or cotton
buds.
Although the management is straightforward, several points arise.
1 Syringing is usually successful in removing a foreign body.
2 The chief danger lies in clumsy attempts to remove the foreign body
and rupture of the tympanic membrane may result. Do not attempt to
remove a foreign body unless you have already developed some skill with
instruments.
25

26

Chapter 6: Conditions of the External Auditory Meatus

3 If the child (or adult) is uncooperative, do not persevere but resort instead to general anaesthesia. This does not need to be done as an urgent
case but can be added to a routine list.

INSECTS
Live insects, such as moths or flies, in the outer meatus produce dramatic
tinnitus. Peace is restored by the instillation of spirit or olive oil and the
corpse can then be syringed out.
WAX
WAX IN AN EAR IS NORMAL
Wax or cerumen is produced by the ceruminous glands in the outer meatus
and migrates laterally along the meatus. Some people produce large
amounts of wax but many cases of impacted wax are due to the use of cotton wool buds in a misguided attempt to clean the ears.
Impacted wax may cause some deafness or irritation of the meatal skin
and is most easily removed by syringing. Ear syringing is a procedure that
almost any doctor or nurse is expected to carry out with skill and that the
general practitioner should perform with a flawless technique. Attention
must be paid to the points listed in Box 6.1.

EAR SYRINGING PROCEDURE:

1 History. Has the patient had a discharging ear? If any possibility of a dry perforation,
do not syringe.
2 Inspection. If wax seems very hard, always soften over a period of one week by using
warm olive oil drops nightly. In the case of exceedingly stubborn wax, the patient may
be advised to use sodium bicarbonate ear drops (BPC), and there are several quickacting ceruminolytic agents on the market. Occasionally, a patient reacts badly to the
use of the latter and develops otitis externa. They should certainly not be employed in
the case of a patient who is known to suffer from recurrent infections of the meatal
canal.
3 Towels. Protect the patient well with towels and waterproofs. He will not be amused
by having his clothing soaked.
4 Lighting. Use a mirror or lamp.
5 Solution. Sodium bicarbonate, 45 g to 500 mL, or normal saline are ideal. Tapwater is
satisfactory.
6 Solution temperature. This is vital. It should be 38C (100F). Any departure of more
than a few degrees may precipitate the patient onto the floor with vertigo.
7 Tools. Metal syringes and Bacon syringes are capable of applying high pressures and
the nozzle may also do damage. The preferred instrument is an electrically driven water
Continued

External Auditory Meatus 27

pump with a small hand-held nozzle and a foot operated control (Fig. 6.1). It provides an
elegant means of ear syringing.
8 Direction. Direct stream of solution along roof of auditory canal (Fig. 6.2).
9 Inspection. After removal of wax, inspect thoroughly to make sure none remains. This
advice might seem superfluous, but is frequently ignored.
10 Drying. Mop excess solution from meatal canal. Stagnation predisposes to otitis
externa.
Box 6.1 Ear syringing procedure.

OTITIS EXTERNA
Otitis externa is a diffuse inflammation of the skin lining the external auditory meatus. It may be bacterial or fungal (otomycosis), and is characterized
by irritation, desquamation, scanty discharge and tendency to relapse.The
treatment is simple, but success is absolutely dependent upon patience,
care and meticulous attention to detail.
CAUSES
Some people are particularly prone to otitis externa, often because of a
narrow or tortuous external canal. Most people can allow water into their

Fig. 6.1 An electric pulse pump used for ear syringing.

28

Chapter 6: Conditions of the External Auditory Meatus

SYRINGING AN EAR

Fig. 6.2 The stream of solution when syringing an ear should be directed along
the roof of the external auditory canal.

ears with impunity but in others otitis externa is the inevitable result. Swimming baths are a common source of otitis externa. Poking the ear with a finger or towel further traumatizes the skin and introduces new organisms.
Further irritation occurs, leading to further interference with the ear, so
causing more trauma. A vicious circle is set up.
Otitis externa may occur after staying in hotter climates than usual,
where increased sweating and bathing are predisposing factors.
Underlying skin disease, such as eczema or psoriasis, may occur in the
ear canal and produce very refractory otitis externa.
Ear syringing, especially if it causes trauma, may result in otitis externa.
PATHOLOGY
A mixed infection of varying organisms is not infrequent, the most commonly found types being:
Staphylococcus pyogenes;
Pseudomonas pyocyanea;
diphtheroids;

External Auditory Meatus 29

Fig. 6.3 Fungal otitis

externa showing the spores
of Aspergillus niger.
(Courtesy of MPJ Yardley.)

Proteus vulgaris;
Escherichia coli;
Streptococcus faecalis;
Aspergillus niger (Fig. 6.3);
Candida albicans.

SYMPTOMS
1 Irritation.
2 Discharge (scanty).
3 Pain (usually moderate, sometimes severe, increased by jaw
movement).
4 Deafness.
SIGNS
1 Meatal tenderness, especially on movement of the pinna or compression of the tragus.
2 Moist debris, often smelly and keratotic, the removal of which reveals
red desquamated skin and oedema of the meatal walls and often the tympanic membrane.
MANAGEMENT
Scrupulous aural toilet is the key to successful treatment of otitis externa.
No medication will be effective if the ear is full of debris and pus.
Investigation
Investigation of the offending microorganism is essential. A swab should
be sent for culture and it is prudent to mention the possibility of fungal

30

Chapter 6: Conditions of the External Auditory Meatus

infection in your request, especially if the patient has already had topical
antibiotic treatment.

Aural toilet
Aural toilet must be performed and can be done most conveniently by dry
mopping. Fluffed-up cotton wool about the size of a postage stamp is applied to the Jobson Horn probe and, under direct vision, the ear is cleaned
with a gentle rotatory action. Once the cotton wool is soiled it is replaced.
Pay particular attention to the antero-inferior recess, which may be difficult
to clean. Gentle syringing is also permissible to clear the debris.
Dressings
If the otitis externa is severe, a length of 1 cm ribbon gauze, impregnated
with appropriate medication, should be inserted gently into the meatus, and
renewed daily until the meatus has returned to normal. If it does not do so
within 710 days, think again!.
The following medications are of value on the dressing:
1 8% aluminium acetate;
2 10% ichthammol in glycerine;
3 ointment of gramicidin, neomycin, nystatin and triamcinolone
(Tri-Adcortyl);
4 other medication may be used as dictated by the result of culture.
If fungal otitis externa is present, dressings of 3% amphotericin, miconazole
or nystatin may be used.
If the otitis externa is less severe and there is little meatal swelling, it
may respond to a combination of antibiotic and steroid ear drops. The
antibiotics are usually those that are not given systemically. The antibiotics
most commonly used are neomycin, gramicidin and framycetin. Remember
that prolonged use may result in fungal infection or in sensitivity dermatitis.
Prevention of recurrence
Prevention of recurrence is not always possible; the patient should be advised to keep the ears dry, especially when washing the hair or showering. A
large piece of cotton wool coated inVaseline and placed in the concha is advisable, and if the patient is very keen to swim it is worthwhile investing in
custom-made silicone rubber earplugs. The use of a proprietory preparation of spirit and acetic acid prophylactically after swimming is useful in reducing otitis externa. Equally important is the avoidance of scratching and
poking the ears. Itching may be controlled with antihistamines given orally,
especially at bedtime. If meatal stenosis predisposes to recurrent infection,
meatoplasty (surgical enlargement of meatus) may be advisable.

External Auditory Meatus 31

NB. Do not make a diagnosis of otitis externa until you have satisfied yourself that the tympanic membrane is intact. If the ear fails to settle, look again
and again to make sure that you are not dealing with a case of otitis media
with a discharging perforation.
FURUNCULOSIS
Furunculosis of the external canal results from infection of a hair follicle and
so must occur in the lateral part of the meatus. The organism is usually
Staphylococcus; the pain is often out of proportion to the visible lesion.
SYMPTOMS
Pain
Pain is as severe as that of renal colic and the patient may need pethidine.
The pain is made much worse by movement of the pinna or pressure on the
tragus.
Deafness
Deafness is usually slight and due to meatal occlusion by the furuncle.
Signs
There is often no visible lesion but the introduction of an aural speculum
causes intense pain. If the furuncle is larger, it will be seen as a red swelling in
the outer meatus and there may be more than one furuncle present. At a
more advanced stage, the furuncle will be seen to be pointing or may present as a fluctuant abscess.
TREATMENT
The insertion of a wick soaked in 10% ichthammol in glycerine (Glyc & Ic) is
painful at the time but provides rapid relief. Flucloxacillin should be given
parenterally for 24 h, followed by oral medication.
Analgesics are necessary; the patient will often need pethidine and is
not fit for work.
Recurrent cases are not common exclude diabetes and take a nasal
swab in case the patient is a Staphylococcus carrier.
EXOSTOSES
Exostoses or small osteomata of the external auditory meatus are fairly
common and usually bilateral.They are much more common in those who
swim a lot in cold water, although the reason is not known.

32

Chapter 6: Conditions of the External Auditory Meatus

There may be 2 or 3 little tumours arising in each bony meatus.They are
sessile, hard, smooth, covered with very thin skin and when gently probed
are often exquisitely sensitive. Their rate of growth is extremely slow and
they may give rise to no symptoms, but if wax or debris accumulates between the tympanic membrane and the exostoses, its removal may tax the
patience of the most skilled manipulator. In such cases, surgical removal of
the exostoses may be indicated and is carried out with the aid of the operating microscope and drill.

MALIGNANT DISEASE
Malignant disease of the auditory meatus is rare and usually occurs in the
elderly. If confined to the outer meatus, it behaves like skin cancer and can
be treated by wide excision and skin grafting. If it spreads to invade the middle ear, facial nerve and temporomandibular joint, it is a relentless and terrible affliction. Pain becomes intractable and intolerable and there is a
blood-stained discharge from the ear.
Treatment then is by radiotherapy, radical surgery or a combination of
the two.Treatment is not possible in some cases, and the outlook is poor in
the extreme.

CHAPTER 7
Injury of the
Tympanic Membrane

The tympanic membrane, being deeply placed, is well protected from injury.
Damage does occur, however, and may be direct or indirect.
Direct trauma is caused by poking in the ear with sharp implements,
such as hair grips, in an attempt to clean the ear; it is caused by syringing or
unskilled attempts to remove wax or foreign bodies.
Indirect trauma is usually caused by pressure from a slap with an
open hand or from blast injury; it may occur from temporal bone fracture
(Fig. 7.1).
Welding sparks may cause severe damage to the tympanic membrane.

Fig. 7.1 Operative picture showing fracture of the temporal bone (which had
caused facial nerve damage).

33

34

Chapter 7: Injury of the Tympanic Membrane

TEAR IN THE TYMPANIC MEMBRANE

Fig. 7.2 Traumatic

perforation of the
tympanic membrane,
showing a ragged
perforation with blood in
the external auditory
canal.

SYMPTOMS
1 Pain, acute at time of rupture, usually transient.
2 Deafness, not usually severe, conductive in type. Cochlear damage may
occur from excessive movement of the stapes.
3 Tinnitus, may be persistent this is cochlear damage.
4 Vertigo, rarely.
SIGNS
1 Bleeding from the ear.
2 Blood clot in the meatus.
3 A visible tear in the tympanic membrane (Fig. 7.2).
TREATMENT leave it alone
1 Do not clean out the ear.
2 Do not put in drops.
3 Do not syringe.
If the injury has been caused by direct trauma, treat with prophylactic
antibiotics. In other cases, give antibiotics if there is evidence of infection
supervening.
In virtually every case, the tear in the tympanic membrane will close
rapidly. Do not regard the ear as healed until the hearing has returned to
normal.

CHAPTER 8
Acute Otitis Media

Acute otitis media, i.e. acute inflammation of the middle-ear cavity, is a common condition and is frequently bilateral. It occurs most commonly in children and it is important that it is managed with care to prevent subsequent
complications.
It most commonly follows an acute upper respiratory tract infection
and may be viral or bacterial. Unless the ear discharges pus from which an
organism is cultured it is impossible to decide one way or the other.
PATHOLOGY
Acute otitis media is an infection of the mucous membrane of the whole
of the middle-ear cleft Eustachian tube, tympanic cavity, attic, aditus,
mastoid antrum and air cells.
The bacteria responsible for acute otitis media are: Streptococcus pneumoniae 35%, Haemophilus influenzae 25%, Moraxella catarrhalis 15%. Group
A streptococci and Staphylococcus aureus may also be responsible.
The sequence of events in acute otitis media is as follows:
1 organisms invade the mucous membrane causing inflammation,
oedema, exudate and later, pus;
2 oedema closes the Eustachian tube, preventing aeration and drainage;
3 pressure from the pus rises, causing the drum to bulge;
4 necrosis of the tympanic membrane results in perforation;
5 the ear continues to drain until the infection resolves.
CAUSES OF ACUTE OTITIS MEDIA
More common
Common cold
Acute tonsillitis
Influenza
Coryza of measles, scarlet fever,
whooping cough

Less common
Sinusitis
Haemotympanum
Trauma to the tympanic
membrane
Barotrauma (air flight)
Diving
Temporal bone fracture

Box 8.1 Causes of acute otitis media.

35

36

Chapter 8: Acute Otitis Media

SYMPTOMS
Earache
Earache may be slight in a mild case, but more usually it is throbbing and
severe.The child may cry and scream inconsolably until the ear perforates,
the pain is relieved and peace is restored.
Deafness
Deafness is always present in acute otitis media. It is conductive in nature
and may be accompanied by tinnitus. In an adult, the deafness or tinnitus
may be the first complaint.
SIGNS
Pyrexia
The child is flushed and ill.The temperature may be as high as 40C.
Tenderness
There is usually some tenderness to pressure on the mastoid antrum.
The tympanic membrane
The tympanic membrane varies in appearance according to the stage of the
infection.
1 Loss of lustre and break-up of the light reflex.
2 Injection of the small vessels around the periphery and along the handle
of the malleus.
3 Redness and fullness of the drum; the malleus handle becomes more
vertical.
4 Bulging, with loss of landmarks. Purple colour. Outer layer may desquamate, causing blood-stained serous discharge. Early necrosis may be recognized, heralding imminent perforation.
5 Perforation with otorrhoea, which will often be blood-stained. Profuse
and mucoid at first, later becoming thick and yellow.
Mucoid discharge
Mucoid discharge from an ear must mean that there is a perforation of the
tympanic membrane.There are no mucous glands in the external canal.
TREATMENT
The treatment depends on the stage reached by the infection.The following
stages may be considered: early, bulging and discharging.

Acute Otitis Media 37

Early
Antibiotics
Penicillin remains the drug of choice in most cases, and ideally should be
given initially by injection followed by oral medication. In children under 5
years, when Haemophilus influenzae is likely to be present, amoxycillin will
be more effective, and should always be considered if there is not a rapid
response to penicillin. Co-amoxiclav is useful in Moraxella infections. Be
guided by sensitivity reports from the laboratory.
Analgesics
Simple analgesics, such as aspirin or paracetamol, should suffice. Avoid the
use of aspirin in children because of the risk of Reyes syndrome.
Nasal vasoconstrictors
The role of 0.5% ephedrine nasal drops is traditional but its value is uncertain in the presence of acute inflammation of the middle ear.
Ear drops
Ear drops are of no value in acute otitis media with an intact drum. Especially illogical is the use of drops containing local anaesthetics, which can have
no effect on the middle-ear mucosa yet may cause a sensitivity reaction in
the meatal skin.
Bulging
Myringotomy is necessary when bulging of the tympanic membrane persists, despite adequate antibiotic therapy. It should be carried out under
general anaesthesia in theatre and a large incision in the membrane should
be made to allow the ear to drain. Pus should be sent for bacteriological
assessment.
Following myringotomy, the ear will discharge and the outer meatus
should be dry-mopped regularly.
Discharging natures myringotomy
If the ear is already discharging when the patient is first seen, a swab should
be sent for culture of the organism. Antibiotic therapy should be started but
modified if necessary when the result of the sensitivities is known. Regular
aural toilet will be necessary.
FURTHER MANAGEMENT
Do not consider acute otitis media to be cured until the hearing and the appearance of the membrane have returned to normal.

38

Chapter 8: Acute Otitis Media

If resolution does not occur, suspect:
1 the nose, sinuses or nasopharynx? Infection may be present;
2 the choice or dose of antibiotic;
3 low-grade infection in the mastoid cells.

RECURRENT ACUTE OTITIS MEDIA (AOM)

Some children are susceptible to repeated attacks of AOM. There may be
an underlying immunological deficit such as IgA deficiency or hypogammaglobulinaemia that will need to be investigated. Long-term treatment with
half-dose cotrimoxazole may be beneficial. If the attacks persist, grommet
insertion may prevent further attacks but may result in purulent discharge.

CHAPTER 9
Chronic Otitis Media

If an attack of acute otitis media fails to heal, the perforation and discharge
may in some cases persist.This leads to mixed infection and further damage
to the middle-ear structures, with worsening conductive deafness.The predisposing factors in the development of chronic suppurative otitis media
(CSOM) are listed in Box 9.1.
CAUSES OF CHRONIC OTITIS MEDIA:
1 Late treatment of acute otitis media.
2 Inadequate or inappropriate antibiotic therapy.
3 Upper airway sepsis.
4 Lowered resistance, e.g. malnutrition, anaemia, immunological
impairment.
5 Particularly virulent infection, e.g. measles.
There are two major types of CSOM.
1 Mucosal disease with tympanic membrane perforation (tubo-tympanic
disease, relatively safe).
2 Bony:
(a) osteitis;
(b) cholesteatoma dangerous (attico-antral disease).
Box 9.1 Causes of chronic otitis media.

Mucosal infection
In these cases there may be underlying nasal or pharyngeal sepsis that
will require attention if the ear is to heal. The ear will discharge, usually
copiously, and the discharge is mucoid.
Remember mucoid discharge from an ear must mean that there is a
perforation present, even if you cannot identify it.
The perforation is in the pars tensa, and may be large or very small and
difficult to see (Fig. 9.1).
Serious complications are very rare but if left untreated the condition
may result in permanent deafness.
39

40

Chapter 9: Chronic Otitis Media

Long process
of incus

Handle of
Malleus
Fig. 9.1 A large central
perforation of the tympanic
membrane. The handle of
the malleus and the long
process of the incus are
visible. (Courtesy of MPJ
Yardley.)

The ear may become quiescent from time to time, a feature less likely to
happen with bony CSOM, and the perforation may heal. If healing does not
occur, surgical repair may be necessary.
TREATMENT OF MUCOSAL-TYPE CSOM
Ear discharge
When the ear is discharging, a swab should be sent for bacteriological analysis. The mainstay of treatment is thorough and regular aural toilet. Appropriate (as determined by the culture report) antibiotic therapy is instituted
and in most cases the ear will rapidly become dry.The perforation may heal,
especially if it is small. If the ear does not rapidly become dry, admission to
hospital for regular aural toilet is often effective. If infection persists, look
for chronic nasal or pharyngeal infection.
Dry perforation
When there is a dry perforation, surgery may be considered but is not
mandatory.Myringoplasty is the repair of a tympanic membrane perforation;
the tympanic membrane is exposed by an external incision, the rim of the
perforation is stripped of epithelium and a graft is applied, usually on the
medial aspect of the membrane. Various tissues have been used for graft
material but that in most common use is autologous temporalis fascia,
which is readily available at the operation site. Success rates for this procedure are very high; repair of the tympanic membrane may be combined
with ossicular reconstruction, if necessary, in order to restore hearing
the operation is then referred to as a tympanoplasty.

Chronic Otitis Media 41

Fig. 9.2 Crusting of the pars

flaccida suggestive of
underlying cholesteatoma.
(Courtesy of MPJ Yardley.)

Fig. 9.3 Erosion of the

attic bone to reveal
cholesteatoma. (Courtesy
of MPJ Yardley.)

BONY OR ATTICO-ANTRAL TYPE OF CSOM

The bone affected by this type of CSOM comprises the tympanic ring, the
ossicles, the mastoid air cells and the bony walls of the attic, aditus and
antrum.The perforation is postero-superior (Fig. 9.2) or in the pars flaccida
(Schrapnells membrane) (Fig. 9.3) and involves the bony annulus. The
discharge is often scanty but usually persistent, and is often foul smelling.
There are other features of this type of CSOM.
1 Granulations as a result of osteitis bright red and bleed on touch.
2 Aural polyps formed of granulation tissue, which may fill the meatus
and present at its outer end.

42

Chapter 9: Chronic Otitis Media

MODIFIED RADICAL MASTOIDECTOMY

Fig. 9.4 Modified radical

mastoidectomy; note the
shape of the cavity, the
facial nerve ridge and the
bulge caused by the lateral
semicircular canal.

3 Cholesteatoma.This is formed by squamous epithelium within the middle-ear cleft, starting as a retraction pocket in the tympanic membrane. It
results in accumulation of keratotic debris. This will be visible through
the perforation as keratin flakes, which are white and smelly. The
cholesteatoma expands and damages vital structures, such as dura, lateral
sinus, facial nerve and lateral semicircular canal. Cholesteatoma is potentially
lethal if untreated.
TREATMENT OF BONY-TYPE CSOM
1 Regular aural toilet in early cases of annular osteitis may be adequate to
prevent progression, but such a case should be watched closely.
2 Suction toilet under the microscope may evacuate a small pocket of
cholesteatoma, and a dry ear may result.
3 Mastoidectomy is nearly always necessary in established cholesteatoma
and takes several forms, depending on the extent of the disease (Fig. 9.4).

CHAPTER 10
Complications of
Middle-Ear Infection

Acute mastoiditis
Acute mastoiditis is the result of extension of acute otitis media into the
mastoid air cells with suppuration and bone necrosis. Common in the
preantibiotic era, it is now rare in the Western world (Fig. 10.1).
SYMPTOMS
1 Pain persistent and throbbing.
2 Otorrhoea usually creamy and profuse.
3 Increasing deafness.
SIGNS
1 Pyrexia.
2 General state the patient is obviously ill.
3 Tenderness is marked over the mastoid antrum.
4 Swelling in the postauricular region, with obliteration of the sulcus.The
pinna is pushed down and forward (Fig. 10.2).
5 Sagging of the meatal roof or posterior wall.
6 The tympanic membrane is either perforated and the ear discharging,
or it is red and bulging.
If the tympanic membrane is normal, the patient does not have acute
mastoiditis.
INVESTIGATIONS
1 White blood count raised neutrophil count.
2 CT scanning shows opacity and air cell coalescence.
OCCASIONAL FEATURES OF ACUTE MASTOIDITIS
1 Subperiosteal abscess over the mastoid process.
2 Bezolds abscess pus breaks through the mastoid tip and forms an
abscess in the neck.
3 Zygomatic mastoiditis results in swelling over the zygoma.

43

44

Chapter 10: Complications of Middle-Ear Infection

CHRONIC OTITIS MEDIA

2
5

3
1

6
9

Fig. 10.1 Complications of chronic otitis media. 1, Acute mastoiditis; 2,

Meningitis; 3, Extradural abscess; 4, Brain abscess (temporal lobe and
cerebellum); 5, Subdural abscess; 6, Labyrinthitis; 7, Lateral sinus thrombosis;
8, Facial nerve paralysis; 9, Petrositis.

TREATMENT
When the diagnosis of acute mastoiditis has been made, do not delay. The
patient should be admitted to hospital.
1 Antibiotics should be administered intravenously (i.v).The choice of antibiotic, as always, depends on the sensitivity of the organism. If the organism is not known and there is no pus to culture, start amoxycillin and
metronidazole immediately.
2 Cortical mastoidectomy. If there is a subperiosteal abscess or if the response to antibiotics is not rapid and complete, cortical mastoidectomy
must be performed.The mastoid is exposed by a postaural incision and the
cortex is removed by drilling. All mastoid air cells are then opened, removing pus and granulations. The incision is closed with drainage. The object
of this operation is to drain the mastoid antrum and air cells but leave the
middle ear, the ossicles and the external meatus untouched.

Middle-Ear Infection 45

Fig. 10.2 Acute mastoiditis.

Meningitis
CLINICAL FEATURES
1 The patient is unwell.
2 Pyrexia may only be slight.
3 Neck rigidity.
4 Positive Kernigs sign.
5 Photophobia.
6 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) lumbar puncture essential unless there is
raised intracranial pressure (q.v).
(a) Often cloudy.
(b) Pressure raised.
(c) White cells raised.
(d) Protein raised.
(e) Chloride lowered.
(f) Glucose lowered.
(g) Organisms present on culture and Gram stain.

46

Chapter 10: Complications of Middle-Ear Infection

TREATMENT
1 Do not give antibiotic until CSF has been obtained for culture and confirmation of diagnosis.Then start penicillin parenterally and intrathecally.
2 Mastoidectomy is necessary if meningitis results from mastoiditis and
should not be delayed.The type of operation will be dictated by the extent
and nature of the ear disease.
Extradural abscess
An abscess formed by direct extension either above the tegmen or around
the lateral sinus (perisinus abscess).
The features of mastoiditis are present and often accentuated. Severe
pain is common.The condition may only be recognized at operation.
In addition to antibiotics, mastoid surgery is essential to treat the underlying ear disease and drain the abscess.
Brain abscess
Otogenic brain abscess may occur in the cerebellum or in the temporal
lobe of the cerebrum.The two routes by which infection reaches the brain
are by direct spread via bone and meninges or via blood vessels, i.e.
thrombophlebitis.
A brain abscess may develop with great speed or may develop more
gradually over a period of months.The effects are produced by:
1 systemic effects of infection, i.e. malaise, pyrexia which may be absent;
2 raised intracranial pressure, i.e. headache, drowsiness, confusion, impaired consciousness, papilloedema;
3 localizing signs.
TEMPORAL LOBE ABSCESS
Localizing signs (Fig. 10.3):
1 dysphasia more common with left-sided abscesses;
2 contralateral upper quadrantic homonymous hemianopia;
3 paralysis contralateral face and arm, rarely leg;
4 hallucinations of taste and smell.
CEREBELLAR ABSCESS
Localizing signs:
1 neck stiffness;
2 weakness and loss of tone on same side;
3 ataxia falling to same side;
4 intention tremor with past-pointing;

Middle-Ear Infection 47

Fig. 10.3 CT scan with

contrast showing temporal
lobe abscess resulting from
chronic middle ear disease.
(Courtesy of Dr T. Hodgson.)

5 dysdiadokokinesis;
6 nystagmus coarse and slow;
7 vertigo sometimes.
DIAGNOSIS OF INTRACRANIAL SEPSIS:
1 Any patient with chronic ear disease who develops pain or headache
should be suspected of having intracranial extension.
2 Any patient who has otogenic meningitis, labyrinthitis or lateral sinus
thrombosis may also have a brain abscess.
3 Lumbar puncture may be dangerous owing to pressure coning.
4 Neurosurgical advice should be sought at an early stage if intracranial
suppuration is suspected.
5 Confirmation and localization of the abscess will require further
investigation.
Computerized tomography (CT) scanning will demonstrate intracranial abscesses reliably and should always be performed when it is suspected.
Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging shows soft-tissue lesions with more detail than CT but gives no bone detail. If in doubt what to do, discuss the
problem with a radiologist.

48

Chapter 10: Complications of Middle-Ear Infection

TREATMENT
It is the brain abscess that will kill the patient, and it is this that must take surgical priority.The abscess should be drained through a burr hole, or excised
via a craniotomy and then, if the patients condition permits, mastoidectomy should be performed under the same anaesthetic. After pus has been
obtained for culture, aggressive therapy with antibiotics is essential, to be
amended as necessary when the sensitivity is known.
PROGNOSIS
The prognosis of brain abscess has improved with the use of antibiotics and
modern diagnostic methods but still carries a high mortality; the outlook is
better for cerebral abscesses than cerebellar, in which the mortality rate
may be 70%. Left untreated, death from brain abscess occurs from pressure
coning, rupture into a ventricle or spreading encephalitis.
Subdural abscess
Subdural abscess more commonly occurs in the frontal region from
sinusitis, but may result from ear disease. Focal epilepsy may develop from
cortical damage.The prognosis is poor.
Labyrinthitis
Infection may reach the labyrinth by erosion of a fistula by cholesteatoma. It
may rarely arise in acute otitis media.
CLINICAL FEATURES
1 Vertigo may be mild in serous labyrinthitis or overwhelming in purulent
labyrinthitis.
2 Nausea and vomiting.
3 Nystagmus towards the opposite side.
4 There may be a positive fistula test pressure on the tragus causes
vertigo or eye deviation by inducing movement of the perilymph.
5 There will be profound sensorineural deafness in purulent labyrinthitis.
TREATMENT
1 Antibiotics.
2 Mastoidectomy for chronic ear disease.
3 Occasionally, labyrinthine drainage.

Middle-Ear Infection 49

Lateral sinus thrombosis

A perisinus abscess from mastoiditis causes thrombosis of the lateral sinus
and ascending cortical thrombo-phlebitis. Septic emboli are given off and
metastatic abscesses may occur. The prognosis is poor but improved by
early diagnosis and treatment.
CLINICAL FEATURES
1 Swinging pyrexia up to 40 C.
2 Rigors.
3 Polymorph leucocytosis.
4 Positive TobeyAyer test sometimes. Compression of contralateral
internal jugular vein rise in CSF pressure. Compression of ipsilateral
internal jugular vein no rise.
5 Meningeal signs sometimes.
6 Positive blood cultures, especially if taken during a rigor.
7 Papilloedema sometimes.
8 Metastatic abscesses prognosis poor.
9 Cortical signs facial weakness, hemiparesis.
TREATMENT
1 Antibiotics.
2 Mastoidectomy with wide exposure of the lateral sinus and even
removal of infected thrombus.
Facial paralysis
Facial paralysis can result from both acute and chronic otitis media.
1 Acute otitis media especially in children and especially if the facial
nerve canal in the middle ear is dehiscent. It is, however, uncommon.
2 Chronic otitis media cholesteatoma may erode the bone around the
horizontal and vertical parts of the facial nerve, and infection and granulations cause facial paralysis.
In the early stages, the patient will complain of dribbling from the corner of
the mouth. Clinical examination confirms the diagnosis it may be difficult
to detect if the weakness is minimal.
TREATMENT
If due to acute otitis media, a full recovery with antibiotic therapy is to be
expected.
If due to CSOM, mastoidectomy is mandatory, with clearance of disease from around the facial nerve.

50

Chapter 10: Complications of Middle-Ear Infection

Remember a facial palsy occurring in the presence of chronic ear disease is
not Bells palsy and active treatment is needed if the palsy is not to become
permanent. Do not give steroids.

Petrositis
Very rarely, infection may spread to the petrous apex and involve the VIth
cranial nerve.
CLINICAL
1
2
3

FEATURES (GRADENIGOS SYNDROME):

Diplopia from lateral rectus palsy.
Trigeminal pain.
Evidence of middle-ear infection.

TREATMENT
1 Antibiotics.
2 Mastoidectomy with drainage of the apical cells.

CHAPTER 11
Otitis Media with Effusion

Otitis media with effusion (OME), or glue ear, is a present-day epidemic affecting up to one-third of all children at some time in their lives.The condition is due to the accumulation of fluid, either serous or viscous, within the
middle-ear cleft, resulting in conductive deafness. It is commonest in small
children and those of primary school age and may cause significant deafness.
It is essential that general practitioners are able to recognize the condition.
It may be responsible for developmental and educational impairment, and if
untreated may result in permanent middle-ear changes. It occurs in adults,
usually as a serous effusion and may rarely be a sign of nasopharyngeal
malignancy.
SYMPTOMS
1 Deafness may be the only symptom.
2 Discomfort in the ear rarely severe.
3 Occasionally, tinnitus or unsteadiness.
CAUSES OF OME
1 Nasopharyngeal obstruction, e.g. large adenoids or tumour resulting in
Eustachian tube dysfunction. The condition may be associated with
recurrent attacks of acute otitis media.
2 Acute otitis media, untreated, will often give rise to a spontaneous
perforation and drainage of the middle ear. Such a result will be prevented
by treatment with an antibiotic and, if treatment is inadequate, middle-ear
effusion may occur.
3 Allergic rhinitis, often missed in children, will predispose to middle-ear
effusions.
4 Parental smoking has been shown to predispose to OME in children.
5 OME is commoner in winter months.
6 Otitic barotrauma most commonly caused by descent in an aircraft,
especially if the subject has a cold. Failure of middle-ear ventilation results
in middle-ear effusion, sometimes blood-stained. Also occurs in scuba
divers.
7 In many cases of secretory otitis media, no cause is apparent.
Box 11.1 Causes of otitis media with effusion.

51

52

Chapter 11: Otitis Media with Effusion

Fig. 11.1 Otitis media with

effusion. Note the yellow
discoloration of the
tympanic membrane.
(Courtesy of MPJ Yardley.)

SIGNS
1 Fluid in the middle ear a variable appearance that may be difficult to
recognize.
2 Dull appearance with radial vessels visible on the tympanic membrane
and handle of the malleus.
3 Retraction of the tympanic membrane.
4 Yellow/orange tinge to tympanic membrane (Fig. 11.1) or
5 Dark blue or grey colour of tympanic membrane.
6 Hair lines or bubbles rarely seen.
7 Tuning fork tests show conductive deafness, i.e. bone conduction > air
conduction
8 Flat impedance curve.
TREATMENT
In children
1 Many cases will resolve spontaneously, and the child should usually be
observed for 3 months before embarking on surgery.
2 The use of antihistamines and mucolytics is of no proven benefit.
Antibiotic therapy may help in the short term. Surgery is indicated if hearing
loss persists for 3 months or if there is recurring pain.
3 Surgical treatment.
Adenoidectomy
It has been shown that adenoidectomy is beneficial in the long-term resolution of OME. The maximum benefit occurs between the ages of 4 and 8
years.

Otitis Media with Effusion 53

Fig. 11.2 Right tympanic

membrane with grommet
in place. (Courtesy of MPJ
Yardley.)

Myringotomy and grommet insertion (Fig. 11.2)

Myringotomy and grommet insertion is now the most commonly performed operation in the UK and USA. Under general anaesthetic, the tympanic membrane is incised antero-inferiorly. The glue is aspirated and a
grommet inserted into the incision.The function of the grommet is to ventilate the middle ear and not to drain the fluid; most surgeons now allow
swimming after grommet insertion, but not diving or swimming under
water. The grommet will extrude after a variable period, the average time
being 6 months. Repeated insertion is sometimes necessary if the effusion
recurs.
In adults
Examination of the nasopharynx to exclude tumour is essential, especially if
the effusion is unilateral. Under the same anaesthetic, a grommet may be
inserted.
Secretory otitis media in adults not due to tumour usually follows a
cold. Resolution is usually spontaneous, but may take up to 6 weeks.

CHAPTER 12
Otosclerosis

Otosclerosis, usually an hereditary disorder, causes abnormal bone to be

formed around the stapes footplate, preventing its normal movement.
Conductive deafness then results. More rarely, the bone of the cochlea is
affected and results in sensorineural deafness.

CLINICAL FEATURES OF OTOSCLEROSIS

1 Usual onset in second and third decades.
2 Two-thirds give a family history.
3 Two-thirds are female. The gene is not sex-linked but pregnancy may
make the deafness worse. Not many men get pregnant, so more females
present for treatment!
4 Deafness may be unilateral or bilateral.
5 Paracusis is often present the patient is able to hear better in noisy
surroundings.
6 Tinnitus is often present it may not be relieved by operation.
7 The tympanic membranes are normal.
8 Tuning fork tests show the deafness to be conductive.
9 Cochlear impairment may be present.
10 Audiometry. Air conduction impaired. Bone conduction initially
normal but deteriorates as the disease progresses.
Box 12.1 Clinical features of otosclerosis.

TREATMENT
Stapedectomy
First performed in 1956, stapedectomy is an elegant solution to the problem.The middle ear is exposed (Fig. 12.1), the stapes superstructure is removed and the footplate perforated. A prosthesis of stainless steel orTeflon
in place of the stapes is attached to the long process of the incus with its distal end in the oval window (Fig. 12.2). The patient is usually discharged the
following day and should refrain from strenuous activity for at least a month.
Stapedectomy may result in total loss of hearing in the operated ear, and
patients should be made aware of such risk before operation.
54

Otosclerosis 55

STAPEDECTOMY: MIDDLE EAR EXPOSED

Long
process
of incus

Facial nerve

Round window
Chorda tympani

Stapes footplate

Fig. 12.1 The surgical approach to stapedectomy, showing the tympanomeatal flap elevated.

STAPEDECTOMY:
INSERTING PROSTHETIC PISTON

Fig. 12.2 Stapedectomy.

The superstructure of the
stapes has been removed,
the footplate opened and
covered with a vein before
inserting a prosthetic
piston.

56

Chapter 12: Otosclerosis

Hearing aids and lip-reading

Modern hearing aids are of great benefit to patients with conductive deafness and have the advantage of causing no risk to the patients hearing. A
hearing aid should always be offered to a patient as an alternative to surgery.
If the disease is progressing rapidly and profound deafness seems likely,
instruction in lip-reading should never be neglected at a stage when the
patient still has usable hearing.

CHAPTER 13
Earache (Otalgia)

Earache may be due to ear disease, or may be referred from disease

elsewhere. It is referred earache that so often causes difficulty in
diagnosis.
Aural causes
Earache may be caused by any disease of the external ear or middle-ear cleft
and the diagnosis is obvious on examination of the ear.The most common
causes are acute otitis media, acute otitis externa, furunculosis and, very rarely,
acute mastoiditis. Malignant disease of the ear will cause intractable earache.
If the ear is not convincingly abnormal, look for a source of referred otalgia;
you will nearly always find it.
Referred earache
Pain may be referred to the ear via the following nerves:
1 the auriculo-temporal branch of the trigeminal nerve from, for
example, carious teeth, impacted molar teeth, the temporomandibular
joint or the tongue;
2 tympanic branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve from, for
example, tonsillectomy, tonsillitis/quinsy, carcinoma of base of tongue
or tonsil or glosso-pharyngeal neuralgia;
3 sensory branch of the facial nerve from, for example, herpes
zoster;
4 auricular branch of the vagus nerve from, for example, carcinoma
of larynx, carcinoma of piriform fossa or postcricoid carcinoma;
5 great auricular nerve (C23) and lesser occipital nerve (C2)
from, for example, cervical spondylosis.
Some causes of referred otalgia merit special mention on account of their
frequency or diagnostic importance.
POST-TONSILLECTOMY EARACHE
Post-tonsillectomy earache is usual, but do not forget to examine the ear.
Otitis media may be present.
57

58

Chapter 13: Earache (Otalgia)

TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT DYSFUNCTION

Temporomandibular joint dysfunction or pain dysfunction syndrome is
common and often not diagnosed. There may be severe earache, trismus
and a feeling of fullness in the ear. It is sometimes associated with faulty dental occlusion but is often simply due to grinding or clenching the teeth.
There is tenderness and clicking of the temporomandibular joint and tenderness of the medial pterygoid muscle intraorally. Advice: a bite-raising
splint, soft diet and correction of malocclusion are usually curative.
MALIGNANT DISEASE
Malignant disease of the posterior tongue, vallecula, tonsil, larynx or pharynx often produces earache, which may be an early symptom.The combination of earache with dysphagia, especially if there is an enlarged cervical
node, means cancer until proved otherwise.
NB. The problem of referred earache is often misdiagnosed through
lack of thought. If the earache has no obvious aural cause, look for a source
of referred pain.

CHAPTER 14
Tinnitus

Tinnitus, the complaint of noises in the ears, is common and difficult to

relieve. The tinnitus may be constant or intermittent and usually varies in
its intensity and character. It is more apparent in quiet surroundings and
is aggravated by fatigue, anxiety and depression. It is not a disease but a
symptom.
MANAGEMENT
The management of tinnitus is a severe test of a doctors art because
so often little can be done to eliminate it. However, several points will be
helpful as a guide.
1 Take the patients fears and complaints seriously and obtain a thorough
history.
2 Examination of the patient should also be thorough. A quick look at the
tympanic membranes is only a gesture.
3 If an abnormality of the ear, such as impacted wax or serous otitis
media, is found, treatment will often cure the tinnitus.
4 Tinnitus due to chronic degeneration, such as presbycusis, ototoxicity
or noise-induced deafness, is usually permanent in some degree and it is
dishonest to suggest that one day it will disappear.The patient will become
increasingly disappointed. It is far better that the patient understands the
nature of the condition and, with time, the tinnitus will obtrude less as he or
she adjusts to it and avoids circumstances that aggravate it.
5 Many patients fear that tinnitus indicates serious disease of the ear or
a brain tumour. Reassurance will be more credible if examination of the
patient has been adequate.
6 Drug treatment, such as sedatives and antidepressants, may help the
patient but will not eliminate tinnitus. Anticonvulsant drugs and vasodilators occasionally may be of benefit but their effectiveness cannot be
predicted.
7 Patients with depression are particularly susceptible to the effects of
tinnitus and it should be treated thoroughly and expertly.
8 If the patient with tinnitus is also deaf, a hearing aid is very helpful in
masking the tinnitus as well as in relieving the deafness, and many patients
are very grateful for this simple advice.
59

60

Chapter 14: Tinnitus

9 Tinnitus maskers, by producing white noise, will also make tinnitus less
obtrusive.The masking device looks like a postaural hearing aid and its output characteristics can be adjusted to obtain the most effective masking.
10 If the patient is kept awake by tinnitus, a radio with a time switch may
help.
11 Relaxation techniques have been found to be helpful by many patients.
12 Acupuncture and herbal remedies are of unproved value in tinnitus.

LOCAL AND GENERAL CAUSES OF TINNITUS

Local causes
Tinnitus may be a symptom of any abnormal condition of the ear and may be associated
with any form of deafness. Certain conditions deserve special mention:
1 presbycusis often causes tinnitus;
2 Menires disease tinnitus is usually worse with the acute attacks;
3 noise-induced deafness tinnitus may be worse immediately after exposure to
noise;
4 otosclerosis?; tinnitus may be relieved by stapedectomy but should not be the major
indication for surgery;
5 glomus jugulare tumour tinnitus is pulsating and may be audible through a
stethoscope;
6 aneurysm, vascular malfomation and some vascular intracranial tumours can also
cause tinnitus, which may even be heard by an examiner.
General causes
Tinnitus is often a feature of general ill-health as, for example, in:
1 fever of any cause;
2 cardiovascular disease hypertension, atheroma, cardiac failure;
3 blood disease anaemia, raised viscosity;
4 neurological disease multiple sclerosis, neuropathy;
5 drug treatment aspirin, quinine, ototoxic drugs;
6 alcohol abuse.
Box 14.1 Local and general causes of tinnitus.

CHAPTER 15
Vertigo

Vertigo is a subjective sensation of movement, usually rotatory but sometimes linear. It is often accompanied by pallor, sweating and vomiting. The
objective sign of vertigo is nystagmus.
Bodily balance is maintained by the input to the brain from the inner ear,
the eyes and the proprioceptive organs, especially of the neck; dysfunction
of any of these systems may lead to imbalance.
The diagnosis of the cause of vertigo or imbalance depends mostly on
history, much on examination and little on investigation. The particular
questions to be asked relate to three areas.
1 Timing: episodic, persistent.
2 Aural symptoms: deafness, fluctuating or progressive; tinnitus; earache;
discharge.
3 Neurological symptoms: loss of consciousness; weakness; numbness;
dysarthria; diplopia; fitting.
Table 15.1 gives a guide to diagnosis following history-taking and will
direct any specific examination and investigation.
Menires disease
Menires disease is a condition of unknown aetiology in which there is
distension of the membranous labyrinth by accumulation of endolymph. It
can occur at any age, but its onset is most common between 40 and 60
years. It usually starts in one ear only, but in about 25% of cases the second
ear becomes affected.The clinical features are as follows.
1 Vertigo is intermittent but may be profound, and usually causes vomiting.The vertigo rarely lasts for more than a few hours, and is of a rotational
nature.
2 A feeling of fullness in the ear may precede an attack by hours or even
days.
3 Deafness is sensorineural and is more severe before and during an
attack. It is associated with distortion and loudness intolerance (recruitment). Despite fluctuations, the deafness is usually steadily progressive and
may become severe.
4 Tinnitus is constant but more severe before an attack. It may precede all
61

62

Chapter 15: Vertigo

GUIDE TO DIAGNOSIS OF VERTIGO

Episodic with aural symptoms
Menires disease
Migraine
Episodic without aural symptoms
Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo
Migraine
Transient ischaemic attacks
Epilepsy
Cardiac arrhythmia
Postural hypotension
Cervical spondylosis
Constant with aural symptoms
Chronic otitis media with labyrinthine fistula
Ototoxicity
Acoustic neuroma
Constant without aural symptoms
Multiple sclerosis
Posterior fossa tumour
Cardiovascular disease
Degenerative disorder of the vestibular labyrinth
Hyperventilation
Alcoholism
Solitary acute attack with aural symptoms
Head injury
Labyrinthine fistula
Viral infection, e.g. mumps, herpes zoster
Vascular occlusion
Round-window membrane rupture
Solitary acute attack without aural symptoms
Vasovagal faint
Vestibular neuronitis
Trauma
Table 15.1 Guide to diagnosis of vertigo.

other symptoms by many months, and its cause only becomes apparent
later.
TREATMENT
General and medical measures
In an acute attack, when vomiting is likely to occur, oral medication is of
limited value, but cinnarizine, 1530 mg 6-hourly, or prochlorperazine,

Vertigo 63
510 mg 6-hourly, are useful preparations. Alternatively, prochlorperazine
can be given as a suppository or sublabially, or chlorpromazine (25 mg) may
be given as an intramuscular injection.
Between attacks, various methods of treatment are useful.
1 Fluid and salt restriction.
2 Avoidance of smoking and excessive alcohol or coffee.
3 Regular therapy with betahistine hydrochloride, 816 mg t.d.s.
4 If the attacks are frequent, regular medication with labyrinthine sedatives, such as cinnarizine, 1530 mg t.d.s., or prochlorperazine, 510 mg
t.d.s., are of value. Regular low-dose diuretic therapy may also be of benefit.
Surgical treatment
1 Labyrinthectomy is effective in relieving vertigo, but should only be
performed in the unilateral case and when the hearing is already severely
impaired.
2 Drainage of the endolymphatic sac by the transmastoid route.
3 Division of the vestibular nerve either by the middle fossa or by the
retrolabyrinthine route; this operation preserves the hearing but is a more
hazardous procedure.
4 Intra-tympanic gentamycin is helpful in reducing vestibular activity but
with a 10% risk of worsening the hearing loss.
Menires disease is fortunately uncommon, but may be incapacitating.
The patient requires constant reassurance and sympathetic support.
Vestibular neuronitis
Although occasionally epidemic, vestibular neuronitis is probably of viral
origin and causes vestibular failure.The vertigo is usually of explosive onset,
but there is neither tinnitus nor deafness. Steady resolution takes place over
a period of 612 weeks but the acute phase usually clears in 2 weeks.
Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo
Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo is due to a degenerative condition of
the utricular neuroepithelium and may occur spontaneously or following
head injury. It is also seen in CSOM. Attacks of vertigo are precipitated by
turning the head so that the affected ear is undermost; the vertigo occurs
following a latent period of several seconds and is of brief duration. Nystagmus will be observed but repeated testing results in abolition of the vertigo.
Steady resolution is to be expected over a period of weeks or months. It
may be recurrent. It can often be relieved completely by the Epley manoeuvre of particle repositioning by sequential movement of the head to
move the otolith particles away from the macula.

64

Chapter 15: Vertigo

Vertebrobasilar insufficiency
Vertebrobasilar insufficiency may cause momentary attacks of vertigo precipitated by neck extension, e.g. hanging washing on a line.The diagnosis is
more certain if other evidence of brain stem ischaemia, such as dysarthria
or diplopia, is also present. Severe ischaemia may cause drop attacks without loss of consciousness.
Ototoxic drugs
Ototoxic drugs, such as gentamycin and other aminoglycoside antibiotics,
can cause disabling ataxia by destruction of labyrinthine function. Such ataxia may be permanent and the risk is reduced by careful monitoring of serum
levels of the drug, especially in patients with renal impairment.There is not
usually any rotational vertigo.
Trauma to the labyrinth
Trauma to the labyrinth causing vertigo may complicate head injury, with or
without temporal bone fracture.
Post-operative vertigo
Post-operative vertigo may occur after ear surgery, especially stapedectomy, and will usually settle in a few days.
Suppurative labyrinthitis
Suppurative labyrinthitis causes severe vertigo (see complications of
middle-ear disease). It also results in a total loss of hearing.
Syphilitic labyrinthitis
Syphilitic labyrinthitis from acquired or congenital syphilis is very rare
but may cause vertigo and/or progressive deafness. Do not forget the
spirochaete.
Acoustic neuroma
Acoustic neuroma (vestibular schwannoma) is a slow-growing benign
tumour of the vestibular nerve that causes hearing loss and slow loss
of vestibular function. Imbalance rather than vertigo results.

Vertigo 65

Geniculate herpes zoster

Geniculate herpes zoster (Ramsay Hunt syndrome) usually causes vertigo,
along with facial palsy and severe pain in the ear.
Perilymph fistula
As a result of spontaneous rupture of the round-window membrane or
trauma to the stapes footplate, perilymph fistula causes marked vertigo
with tinnitus and deafness. There is usually a history of straining, lifting
or subaqua diving in the spontaneous cases, and treatment is by bed-rest
initially, followed by surgical repair if symptoms persist.

CHAPTER 16
Facial Nerve Paralysis

Paralysis of the facial nerve is a subject of fascination to the otologist and

a cause of distress to the patient. Owing to its frequency and diversity of
aetiology, it is a matter of very considerable importance to workers in all
spheres of medical life.
The causes are numerous and are considered in Table 16.1.
DIAGNOSIS
The patient presents with a varying degree of weakness of the facial muscles
and sometimes difficulty in clearing food from the bucco gingival sulcus as a
result of buccinator paralysis.
Facial asymmetry is accentuated by attempting to close the eyes tightly,
to show the teeth or to whistle (Fig. 16.1).
It is important to remember that in supranuclear lesions the movements of the upper part of the face are likely to be unaffected as the forehead
muscles have bilateral cortical representation. Moreover, involuntary movements (e.g. smiling) may be retained even in the lower face. A most careful
history and aural and neurological examination are essential, including attention to such matters as impaired taste (lesion is above origin of chorda tympani), hyperacusis with loss of the stapedius reflex (lesion is above nerve to
stapedius) or reduction of lacrimation (lesion is above geniculate ganglion).
Electrodiagnosis is used in the assessment of the degree of involvement of the nerve and includes nerve conduction tests and electromyography. A detailed description of the various tests is beyond the scope
of this volume, but their application is of value as a guide to prognosis and
management.
Bells palsy (idiopathic facial paralysis)
Bells palsy is a lower motor neurone facial palsy of unknown cause, but possibly viral. It is part of the group of idiopathic cranial mono-neuropathies.
Bells palsy may be complete or incomplete; the more severe the palsy,
the worse the prognosis for recovery. In practice, full recovery may be
expected in 85% of cases.The remainder may develop complications, such
as ectropion or synkinesis.
66

Facial Nerve Paralysis 67

CAUSES OF FACIAL NERVE PARALYSIS

Supranuclear and nuclear
Cerebral vascular lesions
Poliomyelitis
Cerebral tumours
Infranuclear
Bells palsy
Trauma (birth injury, fractured temporal bone, surgical)
Tumours (acoustic neurofibroma, parotid tumours, malignant disease of
the middle ear)
Suppuration (acute or chronic otitis media)
Ramsay Hunt syndrome
Multiple sclerosis
GuillainBarr syndrome
Sarcoidosis
Table 16.1 Causes of facial nerve paralysis.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 16.1 Post-traumatic right facial palsy. Shown at rest (left) and on
attempted eye closure.

68

Chapter 16: Facial Nerve Paralysis

TREATMENT
Treatment of Bells palsy should not be delayed.
1 Prednisolone given orally is the treatment of choice, but only if started
in the first 24 h. In an adult, start with 80 mg daily and reduce the dose
steadily to zero over a period of 2 weeks.
2 Surgical decompression of the facial nerve is a matter of controversy:
some authorities decompress at an early stage: most do not advise
decompression.
3 Tarsorrhaphy may be needed to protect the cornea of the unblinking
eye.
4 In the rare event of recovery not taking place, cross-facial grafting or
hypoglossalfacial anastomosis may be carried out to restore symmetry to
the face.
5 Inward collapse of the cheek can be disguised with a built-up denture to
restore the contour.
Do not make a diagnosis of Bells palsy until you have excluded
other causes. If recovery does not take place in 6 months, reconsider the diagnosis.
Ramsay Hunt syndrome
This is due to herpes zoster infection of the geniculate ganglion, affecting
more rarely the IX and X nerves and, very occasionally, the V, VI or XII.The
patient is usually elderly, and severe pain precedes the facial palsy and
the herpetic eruption in the ear (sometimes on the tongue and palate).The
patient usually has vertigo, and the hearing is impaired. Recovery of
facial nerve function is much less likely than in Bells palsy.
Prompt treatment with acyclovir given orally may improve the prognosis and reduce post-herpetic neuralgia.
Facial palsy in acute or chronic otitis media
This requires immediate expert advice, as urgent surgical treatment is
usually necessary.
Traumatic facial palsy
This may result from fracture of the temporal bone or from ear surgery. If
the onset is delayed, recovery is to be expected but if there is immediate
palsy, urgent surgical exploration and decompression or grafting will be
required. Otological advice should be sought without delay (Fig. 7.1).

CHAPTER 17
Clinical Examination of the
Nose and Nasopharynx

Most students are unaware of the interior dimensions of the nose, which
extends horizontally backwards for 6576 mm to the posterior choanae.
The inside of the nose may be obscured by mucosal oedema, septal deviations or polyps and only with practice is adequate visualization possible.
The first requirement is adequate lighting. Ideally this is obtained
with a head-mirror, but a bright torch or auriscope provide reasonable
alternatives.
Anterior rhinoscopy
Anterior rhinoscopy is carried out with Thudichums speculum (Fig. 17.1),
which is introduced gently into the nose.The nasal mucosa is very sensitive!
In children, a speculum is often not necessary as an adequate view can be
obtained by lifting the nasal tip with the thumb.
On looking into the nose the anterior septum and inferior turbinates
are easily seen (Fig. 17.2). It is a common error to mistake the turbinates
for a nasal polyp. If you examine enough noses, you will not make that
mistake.

THUDICHUM'S SPECULUM

Fig. 17.1 Thudichums

speculum.

69

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Chapter 17: Clinical Examination of the Nose and Nasopharynx

Fig. 17.2 The appearance

of the normal nose showing
the inferior turbinate
attached to the lateral
nasal wall. (Courtesy of TJ
Woolford.)

Nasal endoscope
Rigid or fibre-optic endoscopes have made examination of the nasopharynx much easier. The instrument is introduced through the nose and the
postnasal space can be inspected at leisure. It has the advantage of allowing
photography and simultaneous viewing by an observer. It also allows minute
inspection of the nasal cavity.
Assessment of the nasal airway
Assessment of the nasal airway can be made easily by holding a cool polished
surface, such as a metal tongue depressor, below the nostrils. The area of
condensation from each side of the nose can be compared.

CHAPTER 18
Foreign Body in the Nose

Children between the ages of 1 and 4 years sometimes insert foreign bodies
into one or both nostrils (Fig. 18.1).The objects of their choice may be hard,
such as buttons, beads or ball bearings, or soft, such as paper, cotton wool,
rubber or other vegetable materials; the latter, being as a rule more irritating, tend to give rise to symptoms more quickly.
The child, however intelligent, is unlikely to indicate that a foreign body
is present in his nose; he may, in fact, deny the possibility in order to avoid
rebuke. A sibling may give the game away.
CLINICAL
1
2
3
4

FEATURES
A fretful child.
Unilateral evil-smelling nasal discharge, sometimes blood-stained.
Excoriation around the nostril.
Occasionally, X-ray evidence.

DANGERS
1 Injury from clumsy attempts at removal by unskilled persons.
2 Local spread of infection sinusitis or meningitis.
3 Inhalation of foreign body leading to lung collapse and infection.
MANAGEMENT
Casualty officers in particular should be alive to the possibility of nasal foreign bodies in small children.The childs mother may say that she suspects a
foreign body, or the presence of a foreign body may be obvious. On the
other hand, there is often an element of uncertainty, and full reassurance
cannot be given until every step has been taken to reveal the true state of
affairs. When in doubt,call in expert advice.
In the case of a cooperative child it may be possible, with head-mirror
(or lamp) and Thudichums speculum, to see and, with small nasal forceps or
blunt hooks, to remove the foreign body without general anaesthetic. Local
analgesia and decongestion are helpful and may be applied in the form of
a small cotton-wool swab wrung out in lidocaine/phenylephrine solution.
Extreme care is necessary.
A refractory child should, from the onset, be regarded as a case neces71

72

Chapter 18: Foreign Body in the Nose

Fig. 18.1 A child with a foreign body in the right nostril.

sitating general anaesthesia. This must be administered by an experienced

anaesthetist, and it is usual to employ an endotracheal tube. The surgeon
may then remove the foreign body and need have no fear that it will enter
the trachea.
Rarely, an adult complaining of nasal obstruction is found to have a large
concretion blocking one side of the nose.This is a rhinolith, and consists of
many layers of calcium and magnesium salts that have formed around a small
central nucleus.The latter often contains a foreign body.

CHAPTER 19
Injuries of the Nose

The nose may be injured in various forms of sport, in personal assaults and
in traffic accidents.
Injury to the nose may result in one or a combination of several of the
following:
1 epistaxis (see Chapter 20);
2 fractures of the nasal bones;
3 fracture or dislocation of the septum;
4 septal haematoma.
FRACTURE OF THE NASAL BONES (F I G. 19.1)
The fracture is often simple but comminuted. It may be compound, with an
open wound in the skin over the nasal bones.
CLINICAL FEATURES
1 Swelling and discoloration of the skin and subcutaneous tissues covering the nasal bones and the vicinity.
2 Tenderness.
3 Mobility of the nose.
4 Deformity. This may or may not be present and is of importance in
deciding upon treatment.
TREATMENT
Fractured noses usually bleed and the epistaxis should be controlled first.
Lacerations should be cleaned meticulously to avoid tattooing with dirt and
sutured carefully with very fine suture material if necessary. X-rays are of
doubtful value in nasal fractures and are difficult to interpret. If a previously
straight nose is now bent, it must be broken. If it is not bent after an injury,
no treatment is necessary.The key to whether treatment is necessary is the
presence of deformity, which is more readily appreciated by standing behind
the patient and looking down on the nose. If no deformity is present, no manipulation or splinting is required. If deformity is present, decide whether it
is bony or cartilaginous. If the nasal bones are displaced, reduction will be
necessary.
73

74

Chapter 19: Injuries of the Nose

Fig. 19.1 Patient with nasal

fracture showing gross
displacement of the nasal
bones to the left and bruising
below the right eye.

When to reduce the fracture

Nasal fractures can be reduced immediately after the injury with little additional discomfort by simple manipulation, but the appropriate medical attendant is rarely present. More often, the patient presents himself to the
casualty officer some time later, by which time oedema may obscure the
extent of any deformity and preclude manipulation. The oedema will
settle over 57 days and the patient should be referred to the ENT surgeon
within a week of injury. He can then choose the most convenient time to
carry out reduction. After 2 weeks, the bone may be so fixed as to render
manipulation impossible, and deformity may be permanent. The optimum
timing is usually 710 days after the injury.
Reduction of fractured nasal bones
The nose should be painted with cocaine paste or sprayed thoroughly
with a mixture of lidocaine and phenylephrine to reduce bleeding.
Reduction is carried out under general anaesthetic with an endotracheal
tube and pharyngeal pack. Anything less than this may be dangerous,

Injuries of the Nose 75

because blood can be inhaled. Simple lateral angulation of the nasal bones
can often be reduced, with an audible click, by digital pressure on the nose.
Depressed nasal fractures will require elevation with Walshams forceps.
If the nasal bones are excessively mobile, splinting with plaster of Paris is
necessary.
Nasal fractures are now often reduced in outpatients under local anaesthetic.The nose is cocainized and the external nasal nerve at its exit below
the nasal bone is blocked with lignocaine. Nasal bone manipulation can then
be carried out with minimal discomfort.
Late treatment of nasal fractures
If a patient with a fractured nose presents months or years after injury,
manipulation is clearly not possible, and formal rhinoplasty is necessary.
This involves elevation of the skin from the nasal skeleton, mobilization
of the nasal bones by lateral saw cuts and realignment. It is a difficult procedure and makes adequate early treatment of nasal fractures all the more
important.
Septal dislocation with fracture
Nasal injury may result in deviation of the nasal septum, causing airway obstruction. If no external deformity exists, treatment is by septoplasty or
submucous resection (SMR) after a period of weeks or months. Sometimes
the septal displacement is accompanied by external nasal deformity that is
maintained by the misplaced septum. In such a case, reduction of the nasal
bones may be achieved only if the septum is corrected surgically at the same
time. Such surgery must be done before the nasal bones have set.
Septal haematoma
Sometimes, soon after a punch on the nose, the victim complains of very
severe or complete nasal obstruction. This may be caused by a septal
haematoma the result of haemorrhage between the two sheets of mucoperichondrium covering the septum. It is often (but not always) associated
with a fracture of the septum.
The appearance is quite distinctive. Both nasal passages are obliterated
by a boggy, pink or dull red swelling replacing the septum.
TREATMENT
Treatment may be expectant in the case of a very small haematoma, but a
large one requires incision along the base of the septum, evacuation of the
clot, the insertion of a drain, and nasal packing to approximate the septal

76

Chapter 19: Injuries of the Nose

coverings of muco-perichondrium. Antibiotic cover should be given in an
attempt to avert the development of a septal abscess.The patient should be
warned that deformity of the nose may ultimately occur (the outcome of
necrosis of the cartilage).

CHAPTER 20
Epistaxis

Epistaxis (nasal bleeding) is a common condition. It may be very severe and

life-threatening but in most cases is trivial and easily controlled.
ANATOMY
Bleeding usually arises from the nasal septum, which is supplied by the
following vessels:

internal carotid artery

Posterior ethmoidal artery

Greater palatine
Sphenopalatine artery
Superior labial artery

external carotid artery

Anterior ethmoidal artery

These vessels form a rich plexus on the anterior part of the septum
Littles area. Bleeding is less common from the lateral nasal wall, but is more
difficult to control.
AETIOLOGY
In many cases of epistaxis, no cause is found. However, there are many causes (Table 20.1), two of which are of major importance to the practitioner.
Spontaneous epistaxis
Spontaneous epistaxis is common in children and young adults; it arises
from Littles area, it may be precipitated by infection or minor trauma, it is
easy to stop, and it tends to recur.
Hypertensive epistaxis
Hypertensive epistaxis affects an older age group. It arises far back or high
up in the nose, it is often difficult to stop, and it may recur.
TREATMENT
Treating active epistaxis is a very messy business cover up your own
clothes first.
77

78

Chapter 20: Epistaxis

CAUSES OF EPISTAXIS
Local causes

General causes

Spontaneous
Trauma
Post-operative
Tumours
Hereditary telangectasia
(Fig. 20.1)
Hay fever

Cardiovascular conditions
Hypertension
Raised venous pressure (mitral stenosis)
Coagulation or vessel defects
Haemophilia
Leukaemia
Anticoagulant therapy
Thrombocytopaenia
Fevers (rare)
Typhoid fever
Influenza

Table 20.1 Causes of epistaxis.

Fig. 20.1 The lesions of

hereditary telangectasia.

Bleeding from Littles area

1 Direct digital pressure on the lower nose compresses the vessel on the
septum and will arrest the bleeding. Pressure at the root of the nose over
the nasal bones is useless.
2 Paint the nasal septum with cocaine paste or apply a plug of cotton wool
soaked in lidocaine and phenylephrine and leave for 510 min.
3 Cauterize the bleeding point.This can be done with silver nitrate crystals fused to a wire, or with a proprietary silver nitrate stick.
4 Electric cautery or diathermy can be performed under local anaesthetic in cooperative adults and under general anaesthetic in children. It is
more effective than chemicals when there is active bleeding.

Epistaxis 79

ANTERIOR NASAL PACKING

Fig. 20.2 Anterior nasal

packing.

Bleeding from an unidentified site

1 Apply direct digital pressure to the nose for 10 minutes. The patient
should sit leaning forward to allow the blood to trickle, and should breathe
through the mouth. Swallowing, which may dislodge a clot, is forbidden.
2 Examine the nose with good lighting and spray with lidocaine and
phenylephrine solution if available. If a bleeding site is visible, cauterize it
with silver nitrate or bipolar diathermy.
3 Nasal packing. If simple measures fail to control the bleeding, the nose
will need to be packed using 1-inch ribbon gauze (Fig. 20.2).The pack can be
impregnated with BIPP (bismuth and iodoform paste). The pack is introduced along the floor of the nose and built up in loops towards the roof,
applying even pressure to the nasal mucosa.
Alternatively, an inflatable pack such as a Brighton balloon can be
introduced. It is easier to put in but may not be as effective.
A further and easier option is to use self-expanding packs such as
Merocel which enlarge in the presence of moisture.
4 Post-nasal packing may be necessary if the bleeding is from far back
this is best left to the experts as it is not easy.
Elderly patients with epistaxis severe enough to need packing should
normally be admitted to hospital. With bed rest and sedation, most cases
will settle. The blood pressure should be monitored and the haemoglobin
level checked. Coexistent hypertension may need to be controlled.
SURGICAL TREATMENT
Surgical treatment is rarely necessary.

80

Chapter 20: Epistaxis

1 Submucous resection (SMR) if the bleeding is from behind a septal spur
or if deviation prevents packing.
2 Ligation of the ethmoidal arteries via the medial orbit.
3 Ligation of the external carotid artery (an easy procedure) or of
the sphenopalatine artery by nasal endoscopic surgery (a more difficult
procedure).
4 Angiography and vessel embolization may be necessary in rare cases of
persistent bleeding.
NB. Epistaxis may be severe and may kill the patient. Circulatory
resuscitation may be necessary before trying to arrest the bleeding. Do not
delay in setting up an intravenous infusion if the patient has circulatory
collapse, and at the same time send blood for cross-matching.

CHAPTER 21
The Nasal Septum

SEPTAL DEVIATION
The nasal septum is rarely midline but marked degrees of deviation will
cause nasal airway obstruction. In most cases it can be corrected by surgery,
with excellent results.
AETIOLOGY
Most cases of deviated nasal septum (DNS) result from trauma, either
recent or long forgotten, perhaps during birth. Buckling in children may
become more pronounced as the septum grows.
SYMPTOMS
1 Nasal obstruction may be unilateral or bilateral.
2 Recurrent sinus infection due to impairment of sinus ventilation by the
displaced septum. Alternatively, the middle turbinate on the concave side of
the septum may hypertrophy and interfere with sinus ventilation.
3 Recurrent serous otitis media. It has been shown that DNS may impair
the ability to equalize middle-ear pressure, especially in divers.
SIGNS
Two main deformities occur and may coexist. First, the caudal end of the
septum may be dislocated laterally from the columella, narrowing one nostril, while the septal cartilage lies obliquely in the nose causing narrowing of
the opposite side (Fig. 21.1). Second, the septum may be convex to one side,
often associated with inferior dislocation of the cartilage from the maxillary
crest to cause a visible spur.
The changes present in the nasal septum are easily seen on examination
of the nose with a nasal speculum. It is helpful to try to recognize the
anatomical deformation that has occurred (Fig. 21.2).
TREATMENT
If symptoms are minimal and only a minor degree of deviation is present, no
treatment is necessary other than treatment of coexisting conditions, such
as nasal allergy.
81

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Chapter 21: The Nasal Septum

DEVIATION OF NASAL SEPTUM

Fig. 21.1 S-shaped deviation

of the nasal septum with
hypertrophy of the right
middle turbinate.

Fig. 21.2 The dorsal line of

the nasal septum has been
marked and is displaced to
the left, causing external
nasal deformity in addition
to nasal obstruction.

The Nasal Septum 83

SUBMUCOUS RESECTION OF THE SEPTUM

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 21.3 Submucous resection of the septum. (a) Incision through the mucoperichondrium. (b) Elevation of muco-perichondrial flaps on either side of the
septal skeleton. (c) The displaced cartilage and bone has been resected,
allowing the septum to resume a midline position.

Where more severe symptoms are present, correction of the septal

deformity is justified (though never essential).
Submucous resection (SMR)
SMR (Fig. 21.3) is the operation of choice for mid-septal deformity when the
caudal septum is in a normal position. It is to be avoided in children, because
interference with nasal growth will occur, leading, in turn, to collapse of the
nasal dorsum.
Under local or general anaesthetic, an incision is made 1 cm back from
the front edge of the cartilage through the muco-perichondrium, which is
elevated from the cartilage. The incision is then deepened through the
cartilage and the muco-perichondrium on the other side is elevated.
Deflected cartilage and bone are removed with punch forceps and the
two mucosal flaps are allowed to fall back into the midline.
The nose is packed gently for 24 h to maintain apposition of the flaps and
the patient may go home after 2 days.
Septoplasty
Septoplasty is the operation of choice (i) in children, (ii) when combined
with rhinoplasty, and (iii) when there is dislocation of the caudal end of the

84

Chapter 21: The Nasal Septum

septal cartilage. The essential features of septoplasty are a minimum of
cartilage removal and careful repositioning of the septal skeleton in the
midline after straightening or removing spurs and convexities.
It may be performed in conjunction with mid- or posterior-septal
resection. It avoids the drooping tip and supra-tip depression seen
sometimes after SMR and causes less interference with facial growth in
children.

Complications of septal surgery

1 Post-operative haemorrhage, which may be severe.
2 Septal haematoma, which may require drainage.
3 Septal perforation see below.
4 External deformity owing to excessive removal of septal cartilage,
allowing the nasal dorsum to collapse from lack of support. It can be very
difficult to correct.
5 Anosmia fortunately rare, but untreatable when it occurs.
SEPTAL PERFORATION
AETIOLOGY
Perforation of the nasal septum is most common in its anterior cartilaginous part and may result from the following conditions:
1 postoperative (particularly SMR);
2 nose-picking (ulceration occurs first, perforation later);
3 trauma;
4 Wegeners granuloma;
5 inhalation of fumes of chrome salts;
6 cocaine addiction;
7 rodent ulcer (basal cell carcinoma);
8 lupus;
9 syphilis (the gumma affects the entire septum and nasal bones, with
resulting deformity).
SYMPTOMS
Symptoms consist of epistaxis and crusting, which may cause considerable
obstruction. Occasionally, whistling on inspiration or expiration is present.
Frequently, the subject is symptom-free.
SIGNS
A perforation is readily seen and often has unhealthy edges covered with
large crusts.

The Nasal Septum 85

INVESTIGATION
In any case where the cause is not clear, the following should be carried out:
1 full blood count and ESR to exclude Wegeners granuloma;
2 urinalysis, especially for haematuria;
3 chest X-ray;
4 serology for syphilis;
5 if doubt remains, a biopsy from the edge of the perforation is taken.
TREATMENT
Septal perforations are almost impossible to repair. If whistling is a problem,
enlargement of the perforation relieves the patients embarrassment.
Nasal douching with saline or bicarbonate solution reduces crusting
around the edge of the defect, and antiseptic cream will control infection.
If crusting and bleeding remain a problem, the perforation can be closed
using a silastic double-flanged button.

CHAPTER 22
Miscellaneous
Nasal Infections

Acute coryza
The common cold is the result of viral infection but secondary bacterial
infection may supervene. Its course is self-limiting and no treatment is
required other than an antipyretic, such as aspirin. The prolonged use of
vasoconstrictor nose drops should be discouraged, owing to their harmful
effect on nasal mucosa (rhinitis medicamentosa).
Nasal vestibulitis
Both children and adults may be carriers of pyogenic staphylococci,
which can produce infection of the skin of the nasal vestibule. The site
becomes sore and fissured and crusting will occur. Treatment, which needs
to be prolonged, consists of topical antibiotic/antiseptic ointment and
systemic flucloxacillin. Always take a swab for culture and sensitivity.
Furunculosis
Abscess in a hair follicle is rare but must be treated seriously as it can lead to
cavernous sinus thrombosis. The tip of the nose becomes red, tense and
painful. Systemic antibiotics should be given without delay, preferably by injection. Drainage may be necessary but should be deferred until the patient
has had adequate antibiotic treatment for 24 h. In recurrent cases, diabetes
must be excluded.
Chronic purulent rhinitis
Chronic purulent nasal discharge may occur, especially in children.The discharge is thick, mucoid and incessant and often resistant to treatment. In
such cases, a nasal swab may show the presence of Haemophilus influenzae,
which should be treated with a prolonged course of antibiotics (amoxycillin, cotrimoxazole).
It is necessary to exclude immunological deficiency, cystic fibrosis and
86

Miscellaneous Nasal Infections 87

ciliary abnormality in such cases of chronic rhinitis, as well as more obvious
causes, such as enlarged adenoids, foreign body or allergic rhinitis.
Atrophic rhinitis (ozaena)
Fortunately now uncommon in Western society, this disease is still seen occasionally. The nasal mucosa undergoes squamous metaplasia followed by
atrophy, and the nose becomes filled with evil-smelling crusts, the stench of
which is detectable even at a considerable distance. Such a patient will be
ostracized and children will be abused by their peers.
The aetiology of atrophic rhinitis is unknown. Various forms of treatment have been tried. In the early stages, meticulous attention to sinusitis
and nasal hygiene may be helpful. In the more established case, the use
of 50% glucose in glycerine as nasal drops seems to reduce the smell and
crusting.
Various surgical measures have been devised, the most reliable of which
is closure of the nostrils, using a circumferential flap of vestibular skin. After
a prolonged period of closure, recovery of the nasal mucosa may occur and
the nose can be reopened (Youngs operation).

CHAPTER 23
Acute and
Chronic Sinusitis

MAXILLARY SINUSITIS

Anatomy and physiology

The maxillary antrum is pyramidal and has a capacity in the adult of approximately 15 mL. Above it lies the orbit. Behind it is the pterygo-palatine
fossa containing the maxillary artery. Inferiorly hard palate forms the floor
and lies close to the roots of the second premolar and the first two molar
teeth. Medially the antrum is separated from the nose by the lateral nasal
wall made up of the middle and inferior turbinate bones, each with a
corresponding recess or meatus below it (Fig. 23.1).
The ethmoidal sinuses form a honey-comb of air cells between the
lamina papyracea of the orbit and the upper part of the nose. An upward
extension forms the fronto-nasal duct draining the frontal sinus.
The openings of the sinuses under the middle turbinate form the ostiomeatal complex and it is now recognized that abnormality of this area leads
to failure of sinus drainage and thence to sinusitis.
Abnormalities may be structural, as with a large aerated cell blocking
the ostial openings, or may be functional such as oedema, allergy or polyp
formation.The key to treatment of sinusitis lies in recognition of the abnormality and its correction by surgery or medication.
ACUTE INFECTION
AETIOLOGY
Most cases of acute sinusitis are secondary to:
1 common cold;
2 influenza;
3 measles, whooping cough, etc.
In about 10% of cases the infection is dental in origin, as in:
1 apical abscess;
2 dental extraction.
88

Sinusitis 89

RELATIONSHIPS OF MAXILLARY ANTRUM

Cribriform plate
Ethmoid sinus

Nasal
septum

Middle
turbinate

Infra-orbital
nerve

Superior
dental nerve

Inferior turbinate

Maxillary antrum

Fig. 23.1 The anatomical relationships of the maxillary antrum.

Occasionally, infection follows the entry of infected material, as in:

1 diving water is forced through the ostium, into the sinus;
2 fractures;
3 gunshot wounds.
SYMPTOMS
1 The patient usually has an upper respiratory tract infection, or gives a
history of dental infection or recent extraction.
2 Pain over the maxillary antrum, often referred to the supra-orbital

90

Chapter 23: Acute and Chronic Sinusitis

Fig. 23.2 Coronal CT scan

showing left-sided
ethmoidal and
maxillary sinusitis.

region.The pain is usually throbbing and is aggravated by bending, coughing

or walking.
3 Nasal obstruction may be unilateral if unilateral sinusitis is present.
PATHOLOGY
The causative organisms are usually streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus
influenzae or Staphylococcus pyogenes. In dental infections, anaerobes may be
present.
The mucous membrane of the sinuses becomes inflamed and oedematous and pus forms. If the ostia are obstructed by oedema, the antrum
becomes filled with pus under pressure empyema of the antrum.
SIGNS
1
2
3
4
5

Pyrexia is usually present.

Tenderness over the antrum and on percussion of the upper teeth.
Mucopus in the nose or in the nasopharynx.
There may be dental caries or an oro-antral fistula.
X-ray shows opacity or a fluid level in the antrum (Fig. 23.2).

Three important rules

1 Swelling of the cheek is very rare in maxillary sinusitis.
2 Swelling of the cheek is most commonly of dental origin.
3 Swelling of the cheek as a result of antral disease usually indicates carcinoma of the maxillary antrum.

Sinusitis 91
TREATMENT
1 The patient should be off work and should rest.
2 An appropriate antibiotic should be started after taking a nasal
swab. Amoxycillin (to take account of Haemophilus) is a good first-time
treatment.
3 Vasoconstrictor nose drops, such as 1% ephedrine or 0.05% oxymetazoline, will aid drainage of the sinus.
4 Analgesics.
In most cases, resolution of acute maxillary sinusitis will occur, but on occasion antral wash-out will be necessary to drain pus.
Chronic sinusitis
Most cases of acute sinusitis resolve but some progress to chronicity. This
is particularly likely to happen if there is an abnormality of the anatomy,
allergy, polyps or immune deficit.
SYMPTOMS
1 Patients with chronic maxillary sinusitis usually have very few symptoms.
2 There is usually nasal obstruction and anosmia.
3 There is usually nasal or postnasal discharge of mucopus.
4 Cacosmia may occur in infections of dental origin.
SIGNS
1 Mucopus in the middle meatus under the middle turbinate.
2 Nasal mucosa congested.
3 Imaging shows fluid level or opacity, or mucosal thickening within the
sinus.
TREATMENT
Medical
A further course of treatment with antibiotics, vasoconstrictor nose drops
and steam inhalations is worthwhile, as it may produce resolution.
Functional endoscopic surgery
Developments in endoscopic instruments allow inspection of the sinus
ostia and interior of the antrum. Ostial enlargement and removal of polyps
and cysts can be performed. The ostio-meatal complex under the middle
turbinate is opened up and allows more physiological drainage of the
antrum than inferior meatal antrostomy.

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Chapter 23: Acute and Chronic Sinusitis

ACUTE FRONTAL SINUSITIS

This may occur as an isolated condition but more usually forms part of more
widespread sinus infection.
TREATMENT
1 Bed rest.
2 Antibiotics amoxycillin plus metronidazole will cover the most likely
organisms.
3 Nasal decongestants 0.5% ephedrine or 0.05% oxymetazoline.
4 Analgesics.
5 In severe cases where, despite intensive therapy, there is increasing
oedema and redness of the eyelid, the frontal sinus must be drained. An incision is made below the medial one-third of the eyebrow and a trephine
opening made into the sinus. A drainage tube is inserted, through which the
sinus can be irrigated.

CLINICAL FEATURES OF FRONTAL SINUSITIS

The symptoms and signs are similar to those of acute maxillary sinusitis,
with the following additional features:
1 the pain is mainly supra-orbital;
2 the pain may be periodic (present in the morning; very severe at
midday; subsides during the afternoon);
3 acute tenderness is elicited by upward pressure under the floor of the
sinus or by percussion of its anterior wall;
4 oedema of the upper eyelid may be present;
5 X-rays show opacity or fluid level in frontal sinus, and usually opacity of
ethmoids and maxillary sinus.
Box 23.1 Clinical features of frontal sinusitis.

COMPLICATIONS (F i g . 2 3 . 3 )
1 Orbital complication (cellulitis or abscess) are characterized by
diplopia, marked oedema of the eyelids, chemosis of the conjunctiva and
sometimes proptosis. Resolution usually follows intensive antibiotic therapy and local drainage but surgical drainage is required urgently if there is
any change in vision. Loss of colour discrimination is an early sign of impending visual loss.
2 Meningitis, extradural and subdural abscesses may occur and should be
treated as neurosurgical emergencies.

Sinusitis 93

COMPLICATIONS OF FRONTAL SINUSITIS

Osteomyelitis

Extradural abscess

Meningitis

Subdural abscess

Frontal lobe abscess

Fig. 23.3 Complications of frontal sinusitis.

3 Cerebral abscess (frontal lobe) deserves special mention in view of the

insidious nature of its development. Any patient who has a history of recent
frontal sinus infection and complains of headaches, is apathetic or exhibits
any abnormality of behaviour should be suspected of harbouring a frontal
lobe abscess.
4 Osteomyelitis of the frontal bone is characterized by persistent
headache and oedema of the scalp in the vicinity of the frontal sinus. X-ray
signs are late, and by the time they become apparent osteomyelitis is well
established. Sequestration may occur, and intensive antibiotic therapy
combined with removal of diseased bone is necessary.
5 Cavernous sinus thrombosis is very rare. Proptosis, chemosis and
ophthalmoplegia characterize this dangerous complication.
Recurrent and chronic infection
Recurring acute or persisting chronic infection may become established.
Treatment is by antibiotics and topical steroids. If surgery is necessary,
it is now usual to establish drainage by endoscopic surgery of the ostio-

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Chapter 23: Acute and Chronic Sinusitis

meatal area under the middle turbinate. Only rarely is external frontoethmoidectomy necessary.

ETHMOIDAL SINUSITIS
Acute infection of the ethmoidal complex usually follows a coryzal cold.
The area becomes swollen and inflamed.There may be gross oedema of the
eyelids and rupture into the orbit may occur. Pressure on the optic nerve
endangers the sight in the affected eye (see above under frontal sinusitis).
TREATMENT
In the early stages antibiotics should prove curative but if abscess formation
is suspected, it may be confirmed by CT or MR scan. Either external
drainage by external ethmoidectomy, or intranasal drainage by endoscopic
surgery is performed to drain pus and relieve pressure on the orbit.

CHAPTER 24
Tumours of the Nose,
Sinuses and Nasopharynx

CARCINOMA OF THE MAXILLARY ANTRUM

CLINICAL FEATURES
Early
Carcinoma of the maxillary antrum is seldom diagnosed until it has spread
to surrounding structures. In its earliest stages it will give rise to no symptoms, but blood-stained nasal discharge and increasing unilateral nasal
obstruction should raise suspicion.
Late
1 Swelling of the cheek.
2 Swelling or ulceration of the bucco-alveolar sulcus or palate.
3 Epiphora, owing to involvement of the nasal lacrimal duct.
4 Proptosis and diplopia, owing to involvement of the floor of the orbit.
5 Pain commonly in the distribution of the second division of the fifth
nerve, but may be referred via other branches to the ear, head or mandible.
Spread
Local extension beyond the bony confines of the antrum is not long delayed
and may involve the following: cheek, buccal sulcus, palate, nasal cavity and
naso-lacrimal duct, infra-orbital nerve, orbit and pterygopalatine fossa.
Lymphatic spread is to the submandibular and deep cervical nodes and
occurs late.
Distant metastases are rare.
INVESTIGATIONS
1 CT scanning is invaluable to assess the extent of invasion and bone
erosion (Fig. 24.1).
2 MR scanning will show the extent of soft tissue mass.
3 Biopsy often the tumour will have spread into the nasal cavity, whence
a biopsy is easily obtained. If the tumour is still within the confines of the
antrum, a specimen is obtained via the antronasal wall.
95

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Chapter 24: Tumours of the Nose, Sinuses and Nasopharynx

Fig. 24.1 CT scan showing large carcinoma of the right maxillary antrum with
extension into the right nasal cavity.

TREATMENT
A combination of surgery and radiotherapy offers the best chance of
cure. First, maxillectomy (with exenteration of the orbit if involved) is
carried out. This results in fenestration of the hard palate, for which a
modified upper denture with an obturator is provided. The fenestration
allows drainage and access for inspection of the antral cavity. Following
maxillectomy, a radical course of radiotherapy is given.
This aggressive combination of treatments is justified by the poor
prognosis of the disease if not treated adequately from the outset.
PROGNOSIS
Even with radical treatment, carcinoma of the antrum has a poor prognosis,
with only about 30% of patients surviving to 5 years.

Tumours 97

CARCINOMA OF THE ETHMOID SINUSES

The clinical features are similar to those of maxillary carcinoma, but invasion of the orbit and facial skin below the inner canthus is early. Treatment
is by radical surgery and radiotherapy.
MALIGNANT DISEASE OF THE NASOPHARYNX
Rare in Europe but relatively common in southern China, malignant disease
of the nasopharynx often causes difficulty in diagnosis because of the
absence of local symptoms.
PATHOLOGY
Virtually all malignant tumours of the nasopharynx are squamous cell carcinoma, but rarely lymphoma or adenoid cystic carcinoma may occur. Cancer
of the nasopharynx spreads locally to invade the skull base and Eustachian
tube and metastasizes early to the upper deep cervical lymph nodes.
The EpsteinBarr virus may play a role in the aetiology of nasopharyngeal
malignancy.
CLINICAL FEATURES
Local. Nasal obstruction, blood-stained nasal discharge usually a late
development.
Otological. Unilateral serous otitis media will result from Eustachian tube
obstruction.
Neurological. Invasion of the skull base causes paralysis of various cranial
nerves, especially nerves V, VI, IX, X and XII.
Cervical. Spread to the upper deep cervical nodes occurs early and may be
bilateral. Such a node is typically wedged between the mastoid process
and angle of the jaw.
It is inexcusable, and dangerous, to biopsy such nodes until the nasopharynx has been examined and biopsied.The combination of unilateral
deafness, enlarged cervical nodes and cranial nerve palsies proclaims the
diagnosis of nasopharyngeal cancer loud and clear.
TREATMENT
Treatment of nasopharyngeal cancer is by radiotherapy following confirmatory biopsy. Once the primary site has been controlled, radical neck dissection is carried out if there were involved nodes at diagnosis or if any
subsequently develop.The prognosis is poor, but the earlier the diagnosis is
made, the better the outlook.

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Chapter 24: Tumours of the Nose, Sinuses and Nasopharynx

OTHER TUMOURS OF THE NASAL REGION

Osteomata
Osteomata occur in the frontal and ethmoidal sinuses. They are slowgrowing and cause few symptoms but may eventually call for surgical
removal.
Nasopharyngeal angiofibroma
Nasopharyngeal angiofibroma is a rare tumour of adolescent boys. It
presents as epistaxis and nasal obstruction and is usually easily visible by
posterior rhinoscopy. Being highly vascular, the tumour is locally destructive and extends into the surrounding structures. Diagnosis is confirmed
by angiography and treatment is by surgical removal.
Malignant granuloma
Though not truly neoplastic, malignant granuloma is a sinister condition
characterized by progressive ulceration of the nose and neighbouring
structures.There are two main varieties: the Stewart type, in which the lesion is limited to the skull and is characterized by a pleomorphic histiocytic
infiltration and which is a form of lymphoma; and the Wegener type, in
which the kidneys, lungs and other tissues may show periarteritis, the
local nasal lesion containing multinucleated giant cells. It is probable that
Wegeners granuloma is an auto-immune disease. Radiotherapy, steroids
and cytotoxic agents are used in its treatment and occasionally are
successful.
Malignant melanoma
Malignant melanoma is fortunately rare in the nose and sinuses.Treatment
is by radical surgery but the prognosis is extremely poor.

CHAPTER 25
Allergic Rhinitis,Vasomotor
Rhinitis and Nasal Polyps

Hypersensitivity of the nasal and sinus mucosa may be allergic or nonallergic in aetiology. Allergic rhinitis is mediated by reaginic antibody (IgE). Nonallergic vasomotor rhinitis does not involve the type I allergic response. It
may be subdivided into the eosinophilic type, in which there are abundant
eosinophils in the nasal secretion, and the non-eosinophilic type, which is
probably secondary to autonomic dysfunction.
ALLERGIC RHINITIS
Following exposure to a particular allergen, the susceptible individual produces reaginic antibody (IgE), which becomes bound to the surface of a
mast cell (Fig. 25.1). Such cells abound in nasal mucosa and when fixed to IgE
molecules are said to be sensitized. Further exposure to the specific allergen causes its binding to the IgE of the sensitized mast cell, degranulation of
the cell and release of histamine, slow-reacting substance and vasoactive
peptides (Fig. 25.2). These substances cause vasodilation, increased capillary permeability and smooth-muscle contraction the features of allergic
airways disease.
The atopic syndrome
The atopic syndrome is a hereditary disorder of variable penetrance.
Subjects are particularly susceptible to the development of IgE-mediated
allergic reactions manifested by:
1 infantile eczema;
2 allergic asthma;
3 nasal and conjunctival allergy.
Allergens
The allergens responsible for nasal allergy are inhaled and may be:
1 seasonal, e.g. mould spores in autumn, tree and grass pollen in spring;
2 perennial, e.g. animal dander (especially cats), house dust mite (Fig. 25.3).
SYMPTOMS
1 Watery rhinorrhoea.
99

MAST CELL AFTER EXPOSURE

TO ALLERGEN

Fig. 25.1 A mast cell

showing intracellular
granules and antibodies
attached to the cell wall.

MAST CELL AFTER FURTHER

EXPOSURE TO ALLERGEN

Fig. 25.2 Further exposure

to antigen has resulted in
rupture of the cell wall and
release of the mast cell
granules.

Rhinitis and Polyps 101

Fig. 25.3 Scanning electron microscopy of house dust mites and a human
squame. (Crown copyright reproduced by kind permission of Dr DA Griffiths,
Head of Storage Pests Department, Slough Laboratory, London Road, Slough.)

2 Sneezing attacks often violent and prolonged.

3 Nasal obstruction.
4 Conjunctival irritation and lacrimation.
In taking a history, it is important to relate the onset of the symptoms to
exposure to the suspected allergen.
SIGNS
1 The nasal mucosa is oedematous and usually pale or violet in colour.
2 There is excessive clear mucus within the nose, and this usually contains
an increased number of eosinophils.
3 Children may develop a transverse nasal skin crease from rubbing the
nose the allergic salute.
INVESTIGATIONS
1 The importance of a history of symptoms related to allergen exposure
cannot be overemphasized.
2 Skin testing interpreted in relation to the history is valuable. The
skin of the forearm is pricked with a needle through a dilute solution of

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Chapter 25: Allergic Rhinitis,Vasomotor Rhinitis and Nasal Polyps

the relevant allergen; a positive response is a central weal with surrounding
erythema.
3 RAST (radio-allergo sorbent test) measures allergen-specific IgE and
has the advantage of being performed on a blood sample. It is especially
useful in children for whom skin tests are unsuitable.
4 A high total IgE level is a useful indication of the presence of atopy.

TREATMENT
1 Avoidance of contact with the allergen may be possible, especially in the
case of domestic pets.
2 Antihistamines are useful in acute episodes but tolerance develops.
The latest generation of antihistamines (H1 receptor antagonists) do not
produce drowsiness.
3 Vasoconstrictor nasal drops provide temporary relief but are not advisable, as prolonged use leads to chronic rhinitis medicamentosa.
4 Sodium cromoglycate (Rynacrom) applied to the nose 46 times daily
as prophylaxis is particularly suitable for children.
5 Topically applied steroid preparations (beclomethasone, flunisolide)
are probably the most effective treatment of nasal allergy. Systemic effects
of steroid therapy are absent but such treatment is not advisable in young
children.
6 Desensitization by administration of increasing dosages of allergen is no
longer widely practised, as it is of little benefit in most cases and carries the
risk of anaphylaxis.
7 If gross hypertrophy of the nasal mucosa has occurred, surgical reduction by diathermy or laser may be beneficial.
NON-ALLERGIC VASOMOTOR RHINITIS

Eosinophilic vasomotor rhinitis

Eosinophilic vasomotor rhinitis is associated with the formation of nasal
polyps, aspirin sensitivity and asthma.The symptoms are similar to allergic
rhinitis with watery rhinorrhoea and sneezing, but the type I allergic response is not involved.There may, however, be increased nasal sensitivity to
irritants such as perfume and tobacco smoke. Although a blood count may
not always show a raised eosinophil count, such cells will be present in nasal
secretions.
TREATMENT
Treatment is by topical nasal steroid (e.g. beclomethasone) or systemic

Rhinitis and Polyps 103

MULTIPLE ETHMOIDAL POLYPS

Fig. 25.4 Multiple

ethmoidal polyps.

antihistamine and the response is usually good. Topical ipratropium may

control the rhinorrhea.
Nasal polyps
Nasal polyps occur in nonallergic eosinophilic rhinitis rather than in allergic
rhinitis. They cause nasal obstruction, sometimes with a ball-valve effect,
nasal discharge, and are usually bilateral.They have a tendency to recur.
Diagnosis is made by examination of the nose. Polyps are yellowish-grey
or pink, smooth and moist (Fig. 25.4).They are pedunculated and move on
probing. It is a common error to see the inferior turbinate and mistake it for
a polyp do not be caught out.
Nasal polyps do not occur in children except in the presence of cystic
fibrosis. An apparent polyp in a baby is probably a nasal glioma or a nasal
encephalocoele.
Histologically, nasal polyps consist of a loose oedematous stroma
infiltrated by inflammatory lymphocytes and eosinophils and covered by
respiratory epithlium.

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Chapter 25: Allergic Rhinitis,Vasomotor Rhinitis and Nasal Polyps

Fig. 25.5 A nasal polyp which

has prolapsed out
of the nose.

TREATMENT
1 Nasal polyps may shrink with topical steroid therapy but will not usually disappear.
2 Nasal polypectomy is performed under local or general anaesthetic,
the polyps being removed with grasping forceps or by a powered
microdebrider.
3 Endoscopic ethmoidectomy may be required for recalcitrant cases
4 Short courses of steroids are useful in severe cases.
Antrochoanal polyps
An antrochoanal polyp is usually solitary, arising within the maxillary
antrum, extruding through the ostium and presenting as a smooth swelling
in the nasopharynx (Fig. 25.5). Such a polyp may extend below the soft
palate and be several centimetres in length. Treatment consists of avulsion
from within the nose and delivering the polyp, usually per-orally.
Non-eosinophilic vasomotor rhinitis
Non-eosinophilic vasomotor rhinitis (Fig. 25.6) is less common than
its eosinophilic counterpart and is thought to be due to autonomic disturbance of vasomotor tone, with excessive parasympathetic activity.

Rhinitis and Polyps 105

Fig. 25.6 View of nasal

turbinate mucosa showing
the many blood vessels
within the substance. (Slide
courtesy of Dr Roger Start.)

AETIOLOGY
In most cases no specific cause is found but certain conditions may be
relevant.
1 Drug treatment: certain antihypertensive drugs, particularly ganglion
blockers; contraceptive pills; vasodilator drugs.
2 Hormonal disturbance: pregnancy; menopause; hypothyroidism.
3 Congestive cardiac failure.
4 Anxiety state.
5 Occupational irritants, e.g. ammonia, sulphur dioxide.
6 Smoking.
SYMPTOMS
1 Watery rhinorrhoea.
2 Nasal obstruction varies from side to side and is worse on lying down,
especially in the undermost nostril.
3 Sneezing attacks.

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Chapter 25: Allergic Rhinitis,Vasomotor Rhinitis and Nasal Polyps

Symptoms are often precipitated by change of temperature, bright sunlight,
irritants (e.g. tobacco smoke) or alcohol ingestion.

SIGNS
1 There may be none. Usually the nasal mucosa is dusky and congested,
the engorgement of the inferior turbinates leading to the nasal obstruction.
2 There may be excessive secretions in the nose.
3 The symptoms are often more severe than examination of the nose
would suggest.
TREATMENT
1 Often no treatment is required because the symptoms are minor and
no significant abnormality is found on examination.
2 Exercise, by increasing sympathetic tone, often provides relief.
3 Sympathomimetic drugs, e.g. 15 mg pseudoephedrine t.d.s., are often
helpful but tolerance occurs rapidly (tachyphylaxis).
4 The watery rhinorrhoea may respond to topical nasal ipratropium
spray, but this has no effect on nasal blockage.
5 If hypertrophy of the nasal mucosa has occurred, surgical reduction by
diathermy, cryosurgery or amputation is of value.
6 Vasoconstrictor nose drops, such as oxymetazoline, should be
condemned. Such strictures apply also to the use of cromoglycate/
vasoconstrictor combinations. Although providing temporary relief, rebound hyperaemia occurs, causing the need for further dosage a downhill
spiral to rhinitis medicamentosa will result. Such a habit is hard to break, and
the abuse of nasal vasoconstrictor drops is unfortunately widespread and
often initiated by medical advisers.There seems to be little justification for
the continued availability of this form of therapy.

CHAPTER 26
Choanal Atresia

Congenital atresia of the posterior nares is caused by persistence of the

bucco-nasal membrane and fortunately is rare. It is often accompanied by
other congenital anomalies.
Unilateral atresia
The condition may pass unrecognized until the age of 510 years when it becomes apparent that one nostril is occluded and accumulates thick mucus.
Testing with a probe and examination by posterior rhinoscopy will confirm
the diagnosis (Fig. 26.1).
TREATMENT
Correction of unilateral choanal atresia is perfomed per-nasally, usually
with a drill, while observing the choana from the post nasal aspect with a
120 telescope.

Fig. 26.1 Endoscopic view

of unilateral congenital
posterior choanal atresia.
The atretic plate can be
clearly seen, and on the
patent side the posterior
ends of the inferior and
middle turbinates are
visible.

107

108

Chapter 26: Choanal Atresia

Bilateral atresia
This is a life-threatening condition in the newborn infant who is unable
to breathe voluntarily through the mouth. It is the only form of airway
obstruction that is relieved by crying. It is often associated with other
congenital anomalies. Asphyxia will result without immediate first-aid
treatment with an oral airway. Such an airway should be fixed in place
with sticking plaster, and diagnosis is confirmed by the inability to pass a
catheter through the nose into the pharynx. CT scanning shows the atresia
clearly.
TREATMENT
Treatment is by surgery, again performed by the transnasal route under
endoscopic control.

CHAPTER 27
Adenoids

The adenoid mass of lymphoid tissue is situated on the posterior wall of the
nasopharynx and occupies much of that cavity in young children. At the age
of about 6 or 7 years atrophy commences and, as a rule, by the age of about
15 years little or no adenoid tissue remains. In some children of 14 years
of age, the adenoids, as a result of repeated upper respiratory infections,
undergo hypertrophy with the following ill-effects.
Nasal obstruction
Nasal obstruction becomes established and results in:
1 mouth breathing the mouth is dry and constantly open;
2 recurrent pharyngeal infections;
3 recurrent chest infections;
4 snoring and disturbed sleep in severe cases, episodic sleep apnoea
may occur.
Eustachian tube
Eustachian tube obstruction predisposes to:
1 recurrent acute otitis media;
2 secretory otitis media with deafness;
3 chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM).
DIAGNOSIS
The nasal obstruction and mouth breathing are apparent, and the history
will confirm the features mentioned above. Diagnosis of enlarged adenoids
as the cause of the symptoms is confirmed by mirror examination (Fig. 27.1)
or by lateral soft tissue X-ray (Fig. 27.2).
TREATMENT
Adenoidectomy is curative if the case has been selected properly. In children with enlarged adenoids and recurrent aural disease, early adenoidectomy is of supreme importance.
Adenoidectomy is carried out under general anaesthesia with endotracheal intubation. An adenoid curette is swept down the posterior pharyngeal wall, taking care to remove all remnants of lymphoid tissue. Brisk
109

110

Chapter 27: Adenoids

Fig. 27.1 Mirror view of the

nasopharynx showing
adenoid tissue and the
posterior end of the nasal
septum. (Viewed under
general anaesthetic.)

Fig. 27.2 A lateral soft tissue

X-ray showing adenoid
enlargement.

bleeding usually stops rapidly and the patient remains in the recovery area
until fully awake with no persistent bleeding.
COMPLICATIONS
1 Haemorrhage this usually occurs in the first 24 h. Do not delay in
setting up a drip, getting blood cross-matched and returning the child to
theatre. Delay may be fatal. A postnasal pack is inserted under general
anaesthetic after first making sure that there are no tags of adenoid tissue
left.
2 Otitis media.
3 Regrowth of residual adenoid tissue.
4 Rhinolalia aperta. Removal of large adenoids in a child with a short soft
palate may result in palatal incompetence, with nasal escape during speech.
Resolution usually occurs, but if it does not, speech therapy is advisable.
Rarely, pharyngoplasty is necessary.

CHAPTER 28
The Tonsils
and Oropharynx

Acute tonsillitis
Acute tonsillitis can occur at any age but is most frequent in children under
9 years. Spread is by droplet infection. In infants under 3 years of age
with acute tonsillitis, 15% of cases were found to be streptococcal; the
remainder were probably viral. In older children, up to 50% of cases are
due to streptococcus pyogenes. It is commonest in winter and spring.
SYMPTOMS
1 Sore throat and dysphagia. Young children may not complain of sore
throat but will refuse to eat.
2 Earache as a result of referred otalgia.
3 Headache and malaise.
SIGNS
1 Pyrexia is always present and may be high. It may lead to febrile convulsions in susceptible infants.
2 The tonsils are enlarged and hyperaemic and may exude pus from the
crypts in follicular tonsillitis.
3 The pharyngeal mucosa is inflamed.
4 Foetor is present.
5 The cervical lymph nodes are enlarged and tender.
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
Infectious mononucleosis
Infectious mononucleosis (glandular fever) usually presents as severe
membranous tonsillitis. The node enlargement is marked and malaise is
more severe than expected from tonsillitis (Fig. 28.1). Diagnosis is confirmed by lymphocytosis and within a week the monospot test becomes
positive.
Scarlet fever
Scarlet fever, now rare, is a streptococcal tonsillitis with added features
111

112

Chapter 28: The Tonsils and Oropharynx

Fig. 28.1 The appearance of

the tonsils in glandular fever.

caused by a specific toxin. It is characterized by a punctate erythematous

rash, circumoral pallor and a strawberry and cream tongue.
Diphtheria
Diphtheria still occurs on rare occasions in the UK and should be considered in recent travellers to India or the former USSR. It is of insidious onset
and characterized by a grey membrane (difficult to remove) on the tonsils,
fauces and uvula. Pyrexia is usually low and diagnosis is confirmed by
examination and culture of a swab.
Agranulocytosis
Agranulocytosis is manifested by ulceration and membrane formation on
the tonsils and oral mucosa.The neutropenia is diagnostic.
HIV
Patients with impaired immunity from HIV infection are particularly at risk
of pharyngitis and ulcerative tonsillitis.
TREATMENT OF ACUTE TONSILLITIS
1 Rest the patient will usually prefer to be in bed.
2 Soluble aspirin or paracetamol held in the mouth and then swallowed
eases the discomfort. Remember that aspirin should not be given to children under the age of 12 years because of the risk of Reyes syndrome.
3 Encourage the patient to drink or she/he will easily become dehydrated.
4 Antibiotics in severe cases. Penicillin by injection followed by oral treatment remains the treatment of choice. It is recommended that treatment
be continued for 10 days to reduce the risk of reactivation.

Tonsils and Oropharynx 113

There is no place for antiseptic or antibiotic lozenges, which may predispose to monilial infection and are in any case ineffective.
COMPLICATIONS
1 Acute otitis media (the most common complication).
2 Peritonsillar abscess (quinsy).
3 Pulmonary infections (pneumonia, etc.).
4 Acute nephritis IgA nephropathy.
5 Acute rheumatism.
Peritonsillar abscess (quinsy)
CLINICAL FEATURES
A quinsy is a collection of pus forming outside the capsule of the tonsil in
close relationship to its upper pole.The abscess occurs as a complication of
acute tonsillitis, but is more common in adults than in children.
The patient, already suffering from acute tonsillitis, becomes more ill,
has a peak of temperature and develops severe dysphagia with referred
otalgia. On examination, a most striking and constant feature is trismus; the
buccal mucosa is dirty and foetor is present.
The anatomy of the buccopharyngeal isthmus is distorted by the quinsy,
which pushes the adjacent tonsil downwards and medially.The uvula may be
so oedematous as to resemble a white grape.
TREATMENT
Systemic penicillin must be given without delay, and in very early cases with
peritonsillitis only, abscess formation may be aborted. If much trismus is
present and the presence of pus strongly suspected, incision is indicated, for
without this, spontaneous rupture may be long-delayed.
If the diagnosis is correct, the patient will spit out pus and some blood,
and the relief from former misery is immediate and dramatic.
In children, the drainage of a quinsy should be performed under general
anaesthesia; great skill and care are called for to avoid premature rupture of
the quinsy before the airway is safeguarded.
Following quinsy, it is conventional to carry out tonsillectomy 6 weeks
later. If there has been no previous history of tonsillitis this may not be
necessary.
Recurrent acute tonsillitis
Most people will at some time experience acute tonsillitis, but some indi-

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Chapter 28: The Tonsils and Oropharynx

viduals are subject to recurrent attacks, especially in childhood. Between
attacks the patient is usually symptom-free and the tonsils appear healthy. If
such attacks are frequent and severe, tonsillectomy is advisable. It is important before arriving at such a decision to be sure that the attacks are truly
acute tonsillitis, with the features listed earlier. If there is doubt, it is helpful
to ask the patient (or the parents) to document the attacks over a period of
several months. If there are contraindications to operation, e.g. a bleeding
disorder, long-term prophylaxis with oral penicillin may reduce the frequency and severity of attacks.

Tonsillar enlargement
As a general rule, the size of the tonsils is immaterial. Many parents are concerned about the size of their offsprings tonsils but can be reassured that no
treatment is necessary unless the child is subject to recurring attacks of
acute tonsillitis.
There is, however, a small number of children in whom the tonsils and
adenoids are enlarged to a degree that makes eating difficult and endangers
the airway. Such children are dyspnoeic even at rest, mouth breathe, snore
and are prone to episodes of sleep apnoea. Right heart failure may ensue.
A timely operation to remove the tonsils and adenoids from such a child
will result in a dramatic improvement in health.
Acute pharyngitis
Acute pharyngitis is exceedingly common, and probably starts as a virus
infection. It is often associated with acute nasal infections.
The symptoms consist of dysphagia and malaise and, on examination,
the mucosa is found to be hyperaemic.
As a general rule the treatment of acute pharyngitis should consist of
regular analgesics, such as aspirin 46-hourly. Unhappily, this complaint is
frequently treated by course after course of oral antibiotics, often aided and
abetted by antibiotic or antiseptic lozenges. As a result, the flora of the
mouth and pharynx may be disturbed completely and moniliasis ensues,
with the net result that after 6 weeks of treatment little or no progress has
been achieved.
Chronic pharyngitis
Chronic pharyngitis produces a persistent though mild soreness of the
throat, usually with a complaint of dryness. Examination shows the pharynx
to be reddened and there may be enlargement of the lymphoid nodules on

Tonsils and Oropharynx 115

the posterior pharyngeal wall granular pharyngitis.There may also be present lateral bands of lymphoid tissue alongside the posterior faucial pillars.
Predisposing factors that should be looked for are:
1 smoking or excessive indulgence in spirit drinking;
2 mouth breathing as a result of nasal obstruction;
3 chronic sinusitis;
4 chronic periodontal disease;
5 exposure to harmful fumes, usually industrial;
6 use of antiseptic throat lozenges.
TREATMENT
If any of the causes listed are present, appropriate action will be beneficial. If
the lymphoid aggregates on the posterior wall are prominent, treatment by
diathermy or cryosurgery may help.
Malignant disease of the tonsil and pharynx
Carcinoma
Carcinoma will present as painful ulceration with induration of the tonsil,
fauces or pharyngeal wall. It is often accompanied by referred otalgia and
slight bleeding. Lymphatic spread to the upper deep cervical nodes is early.
Diagnosis is confirmed by biopsy of the tonsil.
Lymphoma
Lymphoma of the tonsil tends not to ulcerate, but produces painless
hypertrophy of the affected tonsil. Tonsillectomy as an excision biopsy is
indicated without delay in such a case.
TREATMENT
Treatment of carcinoma is by radical excision usually followed by external
irradiation, and of lymphoma by chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy. The
prognosis of carcinoma is poor but for lymphoma will depend on its cellular
nature, some types having a very good prognosis.

CHAPTER 29
Tonsillectomy

There has been controversy over the removal of tonsils for many decades,
with strong opposition and equally strong protagonism. An extreme view
defies reason and common sense and to deny tonsillectomy to a child
may be to inflict much ill-health and loss of schooling. Equally, the decision
to operate must be based on sound evidence that the benefit expected
will justify the risk. It is not a trivial operation, and carries a small but real
mortality rate.
Indications for operation
1 Recurrent attacks of acute tonsillitis three or four attacks over a
period of a year, or five attacks in 2 years. Always remember that young
children are likely to improve spontaneously but such improvement is less
likely in adolescents and young adults.
2 Tonsillar and adenoidal hypertrophy causing airway obstruction.
3 Recurrent tonsillitis associated with complications, especially acute or
chronic otitis media.
4 Carriers of haemolytic streptococci or diphtheria (a rare indication).
5 Following quinsy.
6 For biopsy in suspected malignancy this is the only absolute indication
for tonsillectomy.
THE OPERATION
1 In the presence of current or recent infection, operation should be
postponed.
2 Any suspicion of bleeding disorder must be investigated fully by the
haematologist.
3 Any anaemia must be corrected before operation is carried out.
4 The risk of postoperative haemorrhage must be explained to the patient or his parents. It is a brave (or foolhardy) surgeon who embarks on
tonsillectomy if blood transfusion is likely to be refused.The time to find out
is before the operation.
The operation is carried out under general anaesthetic with endotracheal
intubation.The tonsils are removed by careful dissection and haemostasis is
116

Tonsillectomy 117
obtained by ligating the bleeding vessels. If the adenoids are to be removed
at the same operation they are usually dealt with first.
POST-OPERATIVE CARE
The patient will be kept in the recovery area adjacent to the operating
theatre until fully conscious. It is vital to ascertain that all bleeding has
stopped before being returned to the ward.
Once back on the ward, pulse and blood pressure are checked frequently. The pulse should be taken every half hour for the first four hours
and then hourly until discharge. The patient is observed meticulously for
any sign of bleeding or airway obstruction.
The care of post-tonsillectomy patients calls for a high degree of
vigilance and must never be delegated to inexperienced nurses.
Several hours after operation, most patients are able to take oral fluids
but should avoid blackcurrant cordial, which if vomited may look like blood.
After operation, the temperature should be recorded 4-hourly and any
rise noted. Pyrexia may be due to local infection, to chest or urinary infections or to otitis media.
Although earache is common after tonsillectomy and is usually referred
from the tonsil, do not omit examination of the ears.
The appearance of the tonsillar fossa often gives rise to alarm. Within
12 h it is covered with a yellowish exudate, which persists for 1014 days.
It is quite normal and does not indicate infection. It is not pus.
Following tonsillectomy, as normal a diet as possible is to be encouraged. Analgesics, such as soluble paracetamol prior to eating, are helpful.
Eating normal food usually produces a reduction in pain afterwards (though
not at the time!).
COMPLICATIONS OF TONSILLECTOMY
Reactionary haemorrhage
The major risk from tonsillectomy is that of haemorrhage. Indications of
reactionary haemorrhage are:
1 a rising pulse rate, though the blood pressure may remain constant
initially;
2 a wet, gurgling sound in the throat on respiration, which clears on
swallowing;
3 sudden vomiting of altered or fresh blood, which is often accompanied
by circulatory collapse;
4 obvious bleeding from the mouth.
Post-operative bleeding must be stopped urgently and delay may be fatal.
Blood must be cross-matched and a drip set up. In a cooperative patient the

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Chapter 29: Tonsillectomy

bleeding may be arrested by the careful removal of clot, followed by pressure from a rolled-up gauze held in forceps. Usually, however, a return to
theatre without delay is called for especially in children, when the bleeding
point can be identified and ligated.The anaesthetic for such a procedure is
hazardous and should not be delegated to a junior anaesthetist.

Secondary haemorrhage
Secondary haemorrhage occurs between the fifth and tenth postoperative
days and is due to fibrinolysis aggravated by infection. Such bleeding is rarely
profuse but the patient should be readmitted to hospital for observation.
Usually the only treatment required is mild sedation and antibiotics, but an
intravenous line should always be set up and the blood saved for grouping. It
is only rarely necessary to return the patient to the operating theatre to
control the bleeding.
Otitis media
Otitis media may occur following tonsillectomy earache is not referred
pain until you are sure the ears are normal.
Infection
Infection may occur in the tonsillar fossae and is marked by pyrexia, foetor
and an increase in pain. Secondary haemorrhage is a potential danger and
antibiotics should be given.
Pulmonary complications
Pulmonary complications such as pneumonia or lung abscess, are rare and
may be caused by inhalation of blood or fragments of tissue.

CHAPTER 30
Retropharyngeal Abscess

The condition occurs, as a rule, in infants or young children. Upper respiratory infection causes adenitis in the retropharyngeal lymph nodes, which
suppurate. The abscess is limited to one side of the midline by the median
raphe of buccopharyngeal fascia, which is firmly attached to the prevertebral fascia (Fig. 30.1).
CLINICAL FEATURES
The infant or child is obviously ill and has a high temperature. Dysphagia is
evinced by dribbling, and there may be stridor.The head is often held to one
side. Inspection and palpation of the posterior pharyngeal wall reveals a
smooth bulge, usually on one side of the midline (Fig. 30.2).

RETROPHARYNGEAL ABSCESS
Larynx
Abscess
Pharynx

Sternomastoid

Cervical spine

Internal jugular vein

Common carotid artery

Fig. 30.1 Retropharyngeal abscess. Note the proximity to the larynx and to the
great vessels in the parapharyngeal space.

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Chapter 30: Retropharyngeal Abscess

Fig. 30.2 Retropharyngeal abscess in an adult secondary to a foreign body.

TREATMENT
Antibiotics should be given in full doses.
Incision of the abscess should be carried out without delay. General
anaesthesia is advisable but requires great skill and gentleness rupture
of the abscess may prove fatal as a result of aspiration of pus. The abscess
is incised through the pharyngeal wall and pus sent for bacteriological
examination.

CHAPTER 31
Examination of the Larynx

The visualization of the larynx is obviously of paramount importance in

dealing with laryngeal disease, and several methods are available.
INDIRECT LARYNGOSCOPY
This is the most convenient method of examination but it requires instruction and practice.

INDIRECT LARYNGOSCOPY

Fig. 31.1 The technique of indirect laryngoscopy.

121

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Chapter 31: Examination of the Larynx

APPEARANCE OF THE LARYNX

Epiglottis

Vocal cord

Ventricular
fold

Aryepiglottic
fold

Arytenoid
cartilage
Trachea

Fig. 31.2 The appearance of the larynx on indirect laryngoscopy.

The patient protrudes his tongue, which is held gently between the examiners middle finger and thumb (Fig. 31.1).The forefinger is used to hold
the upper lip out of the way and a warmed laryngeal mirror is introduced
gently but firmly against the soft palate in the midline. By tilting the laryngeal
mirror, the various structures shown in Fig. 31.2 can be inspected. Mobility
of the cords is assessed by asking the patient to say EE, causing adduction,
or to take a deep breath, which causes abduction. The beginner will often
see only the epiglottis, with a fleeting glimpse of the cords, but continued
practice will allow visualization of the larynx and hypopharynx in most
subjects.
In recording your findings, bear in mind that the image you see is
reversed. It is advisable to label your diagram L and R in case confusion with
direct examination occurs.

Larynx Examination 123

Fig. 31.3 The appearance

of the larynx as seen by
direct laryngoscopy.

FIBRE-OPTIC LARYNGOSCOPY
In some cases the patient will not tolerate indirect laryngoscopy, or the
view of the vocal cords is obstructed by an overhanging epiglottis. In these
cases, fibre-optic laryngoscopy makes examination possible without recourse to general anaesthesia.The flexible fibre-optic instrument is passed
through the anaesthetized nose into the pharynx. It is then manoeuvred
past the epiglottis until the interior of the larynx is seen. Although the image
is smaller than that obtained by mirror examination, it allows inspection
of the cords during phonation and also enables a photographic record to
be made. The patient can even view his own larynx through a teaching
attachment.
DIRECT LARYNGOSCOPY
Under general anaesthesia, a laryngoscope supported by some form of suspension apparatus is introduced into the larynx.With the aid of an operating microscope, a superb binocular-magnified view of the larynx is obtained
and endoscopic surgery can be carried out with precision. This technique
also allows the use of a carbon dioxide laser for the treatment of such
lesions as papillomata and leukoplakia. Closed-circuit television, video or
still photography are simple to attach to the microscope for making a
record of the findings (Fig. 31.3).

CHAPTER 32
Injuries of the Larynx
and Trachea

The larynx and trachea may be injured by:

1 penetrating wounds, e.g. gunshot or cut throat injuries (Fig. 32.1);
2 blunt trauma, especially from road traffic accidents;
3 inhaled flames or hot vapours;
4 swallowed corrosive poisons;
5 endotracheal tubes and inflatable cuffs.
MANAGEMENT
The diagnosis of laryngeal trauma is often missed amid other serious injuries, but should always be suspected when injury to the neck has occurred. Cricotracheal separation may not cause immediately obvious signs
but may lead to asphyxia. Fractures of the larynx will produce hoarseness
and stridor, and tracheostomy may be needed urgently. In cases of cut
throat, it may be possible to intubate the larynx through the wound, prior
to formal tracheostomy and laryngeal repair. The two priorities of treatment are:
1 to protect the airway by intubation or tracheostomy;
2 to restore laryngeal function by careful repair of the injury.
Laryngeal stenosis may result, despite repair of the larynx, and a permanent
tracheostomy is sometimes necessary.

Fig. 32.1 A self-inflicted cut

throat, giving a good view of
the anatomy.

124

Larynx and Trachea Injuries 125

Various manoeuvres for the correction of laryngeal stenosis have been
devised, most depending on widening the lumen with some form of skeletal
graft, such as rib cartilage or the hyoid bone.
INTUBATION
A particular problem is that posed by long-term endotracheal intubation of
patients on intensive care units. The avoidance of red rubber tubes and
awareness of the need to control cuff pressures have led to a reduction in
the incidence of stenosis, and with modern tube design, tracheostomy can
usually be postponed for 23 weeks. Once a problem mainly limited to adult
intensive-care units, there has been an increased incidence of subglottic
stenosis among very premature babies as a result of improved survival
rates, owing to the excellent care of neonatologists. Prolonged endotracheal ventilation for broncho-pulmonary dysplasia and respiratory distress
syndrome has inevitably resulted in cases of laryngeal stenosis in tiny infants,
the care of whom is highly specialized and beyond the scope of this book.

CHAPTER 33
Acute Disorders of
the Larynx

Acute laryngitis adults

Acute laryngitis is more common in winter months and is usually caused
by acute coryza (common cold) or influenza. It is predisposed to by vocal
over-use, smoking or drinking of spirits. If factors from both groups coexist
the heavy smoker with a cold, shouting abuse at the referee on a winters
afternoon acute laryngitis is (fortunately for everybody else) sure to
follow.
CLINICAL FEATURES
Clinical features include aphonia (the voice reduced to a whisper) or
dysphonia (a painful croak) and pain around the larynx, especially on
coughing.
Examination by indirect laryngoscopy shows the larynx to be red and
dry, with stringy mucus between the cords.
TREATMENT
1 Total voice rest.
2 Inhalations with steam.
3 No smoking.
4 Antibiotics are rarely necessary.
Acute laryngitis children
As a result of acute upper respiratory infection, laryngitis may develop.This
may lead to airway obstruction.
CLINICAL FEATURES
1 Unwell.
2 Harsh cough.
3 Hoarse voice or aphonia.
This early stage will often respond to paracetamol and a steamy environment. If oedema develops within the limited space of the subglottis, stridor
126

Larynx Acute Disorders 127

may supervene.This combination of acute laryngitis and stridor is known as
croup. If there is significant or worsening airway obstruction, the child
should be admitted to hospital, preferably where paediatric intensive care
facilities are available.
Acute epiglottitis
More common in North America than the UK, acute epiglottitis is a localized infection of the supraglottic larynx usually by Haemophilus influenzae. It
causes severe swelling of the epiglottis, which obstructs the laryngeal inlet.
In children it constitutes the most urgent emergency the child may
progress from being perfectly well to being dead within the space of a few
hours on account of airway obstruction. Fortunately, it has now become
very rare in the UK because of the widespread use of HIB vaccine.
CLINICAL FEATURES
The child will become unwell, with increasing dysphagia and a quack-like
cough. Stridor will develop rapidly and the child will prefer to sit up, leaning
forward to ease his airway.
If the diagnosis is suspected and even though symptoms may be mild, the
child should be admitted at once to hospital. At one time tracheostomy was
the treatment of choice but most cases are now managed by endotracheal
intubation and therapy with chloramphenicol, which will result in rapid
resolution.
In adults the pain is severe and is worsened on swallowing. It is slower
to develop and to resolve than in children. Respiratory obstruction is less
likely to occur, but may do so with a fatal result.
Laryngotracheobronchitis
This condition occurs in infants and toddlers and is a generalized respiratory infection, probably viral in origin. In addition to laryngeal oedema,
there is the production of thick tenacious secretions, which block the
trachea and small airways. It is of slower onset than acute epiglottitis and
there is a harsh, croupy cough. Mild cases will settle on treatment with
humidified air, but more severe cases will require airway support and
possible ventilation.

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Chapter 33: Acute Disorders of the Larynx

Laryngeal diphtheria
Laryngeal diphtheria is rarely seen now in the UK.The child is ill and usually
presents the clinical picture of faucial diphtheria. Stridor suggests the
spread of membrane to the larynx and trachea.
TREATMENT
1 Antitoxin.
2 General medical treatment for diphtheria.
3 Tracheostomy (q.v) may be indicated.

CHAPTER 34
Chronic Disorders
of the Larynx

Chronic laryngitis
More common in males than females, chronic laryngitis is aggravated by:
1 habitual shouting;
2 faulty voice production coupled with excessive vocal use. Seen in
teachers, actors, singers;
3 smoking;
4 spirit drinking;
5 chronic upper airway infection, such as sinusitis.
The voice is hoarse and fatigues easily.There may be discomfort and a tendency to clear the throat constantly. Examination shows the cords to be
thickened and pink and the surrounding mucosa is often red and dry.
TREATMENT
Treatment is often ineffective. The voice should be rested as far as
possible, any upper airway sepsis dealt with and steam inhalations given
to humidify the larynx.Voice therapy may be helpful in cases of faulty voice
production and referral to a singing teacher is of value to professional or
amateur singers.
Hyperkeratosis of the larynx
Hyperkeratosis of the larynx may supervene upon chronic laryngitis. The
cords become covered in white plaques of keratinized epithelium, which
may become florid. Histology shows dysplasia, which may progress to
malignancy, and the plaques should be removed for histology.
Vocal cord nodules
Vocal cord nodules (singers nodes) occur most commonly in children
and result from excessive vocal use. The appearance is of a small, smooth
nodule on the free edge of each cord, composed of fibrous tissue covered
with epithelium. Removal by microlaryngoscopy followed by voice rest may
be necessary but most cases respond to speech therapy.
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Chapter 34: Chronic Disorders of the Larynx

Tuberculosis of the larynx

Tuberculosis of the larynx is now very rare and occurs only in the presence
of pulmonary tuberculosis. Hoarseness occurs as a result of tuberculous
granulations and agonizing dysphagia may follow.Treatment is by antituberculous drugs.
Syphilitic laryngitis
Syphilitic laryngitis is also extremely rare but the possibility of a gumma
must be considered in cases of chronic hoarseness. Malignant change may
also be present.
NB. Any case of persistent hoarseness must be considered malignant until
examination and, if necessary, biopsy have excluded such a cause.

CHAPTER 35
Tumours of the Larynx

BENIGN TUMOURS
Benign tumours of the larynx are rare and cause persistent hoarseness.The
commonest tumours encountered are:
1 papilloma solitary or multiple;
2 haemangioma almost exclusively in infants;
3 fibroma.
Papillomata and haemangiomata are considered in more detail in Chapter
37.
MALIGNANT TUMOURS
PATHOLOGY
Malignant tumours of the larynx are virtually always squamous cell carcinoma. Adenoid cystic carcinoma and sarcoma may occur on rare
occasions.
AETIOLOGY
Malignant tumours are commoner in males by a ratio of 10:1, occurring
almost exclusively in smokers. The peak age incidence is 5565 years, but
it can occur in young adults.
Glottic carcinoma (60% of cases)
The prime symptom of glottic carcinoma (Fig. 35.1) is hoarseness,
which may persist as the only symptom for many months. Only when
spread from the cord has occurred will earache, dysphagia and dyspnoea
supervene.
Supraglottic carcinoma (30% of cases)
Supraglottic carcinoma, as well as producing a change in the voice, may
metastasize early to the cervical nodes.

131

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Chapter 35:Tumours of the Larynx

Fig. 35.1 Early glottic

carcinoma.

Subglottic carcinoma
Subglottic carcinoma produces less hoarseness but increasing airway obstruction. It must not be mistaken for asthma or chronic bronchitis.
SPREAD OF LARYNGEAL CARCINOMA
Spread is local initially and proceeds:
1 along the cord to the anterior commissure and onto the opposite cord;
2 upwards onto the ventricular band and epiglottis;
3 downwards to the subglottis;
4 deeply into the laryngeal muscles, causing cord fixation.
Lymphatic spread from glottic lesions is late, but occurs readily from supraglottic and subglottic sites to the deep cervical nodes.
Pulmonary metastases occur occasionally but other distant metastases
are rare.
DIAGNOSIS
Every case of hoarseness should be examined by indirect laryngoscopy;
malignant growths are usually seen easily. Diagnosis is confirmed by microlaryngoscopy and biopsy.
The chest must be X-rayed as bronchial carcinoma also may be present.
CT scanning of the larynx is often helpful in defining the extent of spread,
and is usually performed prior to deciding on treatment.

Larynx Tumours 133

Fig. 35.2 Laryngectomy

specimen opened from
posteriorly, showing a
left-sided carcinoma.

TREATMENT
1 Radiotherapy by external radiation is usually employed. In a small tumour limited to one cord (the stage at which it should be diagnosed), the 5year survival rate is 8090% and the patient retains a normal larynx.
2 In very extensive disease or if there is recurrence following radiotherapy, total laryngectomy is necessary (Fig. 35.2). The patient obviously then
has a permanent tracheostomy and will need to develop oesophageal
speech. Good oesophageal speech is attained by about 30% of patients; a
further 30% develop reasonable voice but the remainder never manage
more than a mouthed whisper.
Many patients are now provided with a tracheopharyngeal valve. A
fistula is formed between the trachea and pharynx and a prosthetic valve
fitted to the fistula. Occlusion by the finger of the tracheostomy allows
air to flow into the hypopharynx, while vibration of the soft tissue produces phonation. This then allows fluent lung-powered voice for the
laryngectomee.
Rehabilitation following laryngectomy concentrates on the development of speech with help from the speech therapist, but also requires
training in looking after the tracheostomy, changing the tube as necessary
and developing confidence socially after mutilating surgery.

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Chapter 35:Tumours of the Larynx

PROGNOSIS
Glottic carcinoma diagnosed early and treated effectively is virtually a curable disease.The later the diagnosis is made, the worse the prognosis. Never
neglect hoarseness.
Supraglottic and subglottic tumours have a poorer prognosis owing to
the likelihood of rather later development of symptoms and early nodal
spread. About 10% of all patients successfully treated for laryngeal cancer
will subsequently develop carcinoma of the bronchus.

CHAPTER 36
Vocal Cord Paralysis

Nerve supply of the laryngeal muscles

All the intrinsic muscles of the larynx, with the exception of the cricothyroids, are supplied by the recurrent laryngeal nerves.
The cricothyroids, which act as tensors of the cords, are supplied by
external branches of the superior laryngeal nerves.
Semons law
In a progressive lesion of the recurrent laryngeal nerves, the abductors are
paralysed before the adductors.Thus, in incomplete paralysis, the cord will
be brought to the midline by the adductors, but in complete paralysis it falls
away to the paramedian position. Semons law is not fully understood, but
may reflect the fact that the adductor muscles are much more powerful
than the abductors.
Recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy (Figs 36.1 and 36.2)
The left recurrent laryngeal nerve has a long course, extending down into
the chest before recurring around the arch of the aorta to return to the
larynx. It is therefore more susceptible to disease than the shorter right
recurrent nerve, which turns around the subclavian artery.
The voice in recurrent nerve palsy is weak and breathy, and the cough
is ineffective. As compensation by the opposite cord occurs, the voice
improves.
The causes of left recurrent nerve palsy in the chest are:
1 carcinoma of the bronchus;
2 carcinoma of the oesophagus;
3 malignant mediastinal nodes;
4 aortic aneurysm;
5 cardiac and oesophageal surgery.
The causes of paralysis of the right or left recurrent nerve in the neck are:
1 thyroid surgery;
2 carcinoma of the thyroid gland;
3 carcinoma of the hypopharynx and oesophagus;
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Chapter 36: Vocal Cord Paralysis

CORDS IN FULL ABDUCTION

Fig. 36.1 The cords in full

abduction during
inspiration.

LEFT RECURRENT NERVE PALSY ON

PHONATION

Fig. 36.2 Left recurrent

nerve palsy on phonation
(mirror view). Note the
persisting glottic aperture
owing to the inability of the
left cord to move to
the midline.

Vocal Cord Paralysis 137

4 cervical spine surgery (Clowards operation);
5 penetrating wounds;
6 mediastinoscopy.
Some cases of recurrent nerve palsy are idiopathic or may follow viral infections, such as influenza.
Bilateral recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy
Bilateral recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy occurs most commonly following
surgery or malignancy of the thyroid gland, but may be the result of
pseudobulbar palsy. Because the cords lie near the midline, the airway is
impaired and tracheostomy may be necessary.
Combined vagal and recurrent nerve palsy
Combined vagal and recurrent nerve palsy occurs in lesions of the medulla
or vagus trunk.
1 Medulla neoplasm, vascular lesions, syringobulbia, bulbar poliomyelitis.
2 Vagus trunk tumours of the skull base, e.g. carcinoma of the nasopharynx; tumours of the jugular foramen glomus jugulare tumour; chemodectoma of the vagus.
Functional aphonia
Functional aphonia is a condition found mostly in teenaged females and is
psychogenic. The voice is reduced to a whisper, examination shows weak
adduction of the cords but sound is produced normally on coughing.Treatment lies in the realm of the communication therapist or psychotherapy.
Treatment of vocal cord paralysis
The first step is always to try to identify the cause.
Bilateral cord palsy will probably produce stridor and urgent tracheostomy may be required. The airway can be improved by arytenoidectomy, but the voice will be worse as a result.
The voice can be improved in cases of unilateral cord palsy by the endoscopic injection of a suspension of microspheres of inert plastic material
alongside the paralysed cord.This will move the paralysed cord medially and
allow the opposite cord to meet its fellow. Improvement in voice quality results. It will also restore laryngeal competence and improve the ability to
cough effectively. It is a very good palliation in cases of carcinoma of the

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Chapter 36: Vocal Cord Paralysis

bronchus. For unilateral vocal cord palsy of a cause compatible with survival, the operation of vocal cord medialization is available. A window is cut
in the thyroid cartilage and a block of silastic inserted to displace the cord
towards the mid line. It has the advantage of being reversible if the cord
palsy should recover. Functional aphonia is usually self-limiting, or responds
to explanation and encouragement. The help of the speech therapist is
valuable in persistent cases and some patients may require psychiatric
treatment.

CHAPTER 37
Airway Obstruction in
Infants and Children

Upper airway obstruction in children is dangerous and may progress

rapidly. It is essential to make a firm diagnosis and take the appropriate
action without delay.
SIGNS OF AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION
1 Stertor is the noise produced by obstruction in the throat, i.e. above the
larynx, and is usually a low-pitched choking type of noise.
2 Stridor is a high-pitched sound produced by narrowing within the more
rigid confines of the larynx or trachea. In laryngeal obstruction the stridor
is inspiratory; in tracheal lesions it is usually both inspiratory and
expiratory.
3 Use of accessory muscles of respiration.
4 Pallor, sweating and restlessness.
5 Tachycardia.
6 Cyanosis. It is important to examine the child in adequate lighting,
preferably daylight. The lips particularly will show the dusky coloration,
which may be very subtle.
7 Intercostal and sternal recession (Fig. 37.1). The sternum may be sucked
in almost to the vertebrae in the childs attempts to breathe.
8 Exhaustion a late stage in asphyxia, which should be avoided. The
child makes less effort to breathe, stridor and insuction become less
pronounced and apnoea is not far off.
Box 37.1 Signs of airway obstruction.

Management of airway obstruction

The management of airway insufficiency always depends on the severity of
the obstruction, and severe obstruction necessitates immediate airway
support by oxygen, endotracheal intubation or even tracheostomy.
If time and the childs condition allow, every child with stridor should
have a PA chest X-ray and a lateral soft-tissue film of the neck, which will
show the larynx and upper trachea clearly. If a vascular ring or tracheooesophageal fistula is suspected, a barium swallow is a necessary
investigation.
139

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Chapter 37: Airway Obstruction in Infants and Children

Fig. 37.1 Baby with severe upper airway obstruction. Note the sternal
recession and paradoxical abdominal movement.

Neonates may be intubated without the need for general anaesthesia

but great care must be taken not to damage the larynx and cause further obstruction from haematoma or oedema. Older children, unless so anoxic as
to be unconscious, will require general anaesthesia for intubation, and at
the same time the larynx, trachea and bronchi should be inspected. The
diagnosis is then usually apparent and further management can be directed
appropriately.
LARYNGOSCOPY AND BRONCHOSCOPY
Inspection of the airways in cases of respiratory obstruction calls for the
highest degree of cooperation between surgeon and anaesthetist.
The larynx is inspected under deep anaesthesia using a rigid paediatric
laryngoscope and Hopkins rod telescope (Fig. 37.2). An anaesthetic type
laryngoscope usually gives an inadequate view owing to its poorer lighting.
Bronchoscopy in babies and children has been facilitated greatly by the
introduction of ventilating bronchoscopes, which allow coupling to a Tpiece anaesthetic circuit and at the same time provide superb vision
through a rod-lens telescope system (Fig. 37.3). A side channel allows for instrumentation and suction. Using this type of bronchoscope, the airways of
even small premature babies may be examined with a much greater degree
of precision and safety than is possible with the older type open bronchoscope tube.

Airway Obstruction 141

Fig. 37.2 A small

laryngoscope used for
examining young children.

Fig. 37.3 Ventilating bronchoscopes. Note the telescope, the side channel for
instrumentation and the inlet for anaesthetic gases and oxygen.

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Chapter 37: Airway Obstruction in Infants and Children

Causes of upper airway obstruction in infancy

SUPRA LARYNGEAL CAUSES
Choanal atresia
Failure of posterior canalization of the nasal airways results in severe neonatal airway obstruction, which is relieved by crying. Surgical correction will
be required.
Micrognathia
Underdevelopment of the mandible as in Pierre Robin syndrome or
TreacherCollins syndrome results in posterior displacement of the
tongue and oropharyngeal obstruction.The neonate may asphyxiate unless
corrective measures are taken.
Adeno-tonsillar hypertrophy
Large tonsils and adenoids may occlude the naso-oro-pharyngeal airway
to a serious degree, especially during sleep. This may result in obstructive
apnoea during sleep, with loud snoring punctuated by periods of silence
followed by a large gasp. If not recognized and treated, right heart failure
may ensue.
LARYNGEAL CAUSES
Congenital
Laryngomalacia (Fig. 37.4)
The stridor starts at or shortly after birth and is due to inward collapse of
the soft laryngeal tissues on inspiration. It usually resolves by the age of 2 or
3 years, but meanwhile the baby may have real respiratory difficulties. Diagnosis is confirmed by laryngoscopy without intubation when the supraglottic collapse is seen on inspiration. It can be relieved by division or excision of
the aryepiglottic folds.
Congenital subglottic stenosis
This occurs at the level of the cricoid cartilage. There will be stridor from
birth and the stenosis may be visible on a lateral X-ray of the neck. Diagnosis is confirmed by laryngoscopy.
Laryngeal webs
Laryngeal webs are anteriorly situated (Fig. 37.5) and if large can cause

Airway Obstruction 143

Fig. 37.4 Laryngomalacia.

Note the insuction of the
supraglottic structures,
causing airway narrowing.

Fig. 37.5 Anterior

laryngeal web.

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Chapter 37: Airway Obstruction in Infants and Children

Fig. 37.6 Part of a ball-point

pen lodged in the left main
bronchus as seen at
bronchoscopy. The chest
film shows loss of lung
volume and mediastinal
shift.

Airway Obstruction 145

severe stridor and obstruction.The most extreme degree of webbing, atresia, is fatal unless immediate tracheostomy is performed.
Laryngeal cysts
Laryngeal cysts may be congenital or may be the result of endotracheal
intubation. They may cause variable airway obstruction, often dependent
on position.
Vascular ring
A vascular ring developmental anomaly of the aorta surrounds the oesophagus and trachea, causing constriction. Diagnosis is made by barium
swallow and angiography, and the treatment is by surgery to divide the vascular ring.
Acquired
Foreign body (Figs 37.6 and 37.7)
The sudden onset of stridor in a formerly normal child must always be regarded as being due to a foreign body until proved otherwise. A history of
choking and coughing, especially if while eating, should alert the attending
doctor to the likelihood of aspiration; peanuts are particularly dangerous in
this respect and should never be given to youngsters. Examination and chest
X-rays may be entirely normal and the only way to exclude a foreign body in
the bronchus is by bronchoscopy.
A larger foreign body may lodge in the larynx and cause severe respiratory distress. It may be possible to remove it by the Heimlich manoeuvre
(compression of the upper abdomen to raise intrathoracic pressure) but if
this fails, endoscopy or tracheostomy will be necessary.
Acute laryngitis,acute epiglottitis and laryngotracheobronchitis
Described in Chapter 33.
Subglottic stenosis (Fig. 37.8)
Subglottic stenosis is now seen most commonly in low-birth-weight babies
who have required prolonged ventilation by endotracheal tube, but may
occur at any age from intubation or trauma.Treatment is highly specialized
and entails some form of laryngotracheoplasty. Subglottic stenosis cannot
always be avoided.
Multiple laryngeal papillomata (Fig. 37.9)
Multiple laryngeal papillomata should be suspected in a child with progressive hoarseness or aphonia and airway obstruction. There may be little

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Chapter 37: Airway Obstruction in Infants and Children

Fig. 37.7 Foreign body in the right main bronchus in a baby of 6 months. Note
that the right lung is hyperinflated and therefore darker on the X-ray.

Fig. 37.8 Endoscopic view

showing moderate
subglottic stenosis and
small ductal cysts
following ventilation as a
neonate.

Airway Obstruction 147

Fig. 37.9 A large mass of

papillomata on the left
vocal cord.

stridor since the mass of papillomata is too soft to vibrate the air column.
Diagnosis is by direct laryngoscopy, and removal of the papillomata is best
accomplished using the carbon dioxide laser, which is very accurate and, if
used carefully, causes least damage.The papillomata are of viral origin (HPV
6 or 11) and have a strong tendency to recur.
NB. Any child with stridor is potentially at risk of dying from
asphyxia and every case should be investigated to determine the
cause. It is dangerous to believe that all children grow out of a
tendency to stridor.

CHAPTER 38
Conditions of
the Hypopharynx

FOREIGN BODIES
Fish, poultry and other bones are often swallowed inadvertently. Usually
they will scratch or tear the pharyngeal mucosa before passing down into
the stomach. However, they may on occasions lodge in the hypopharynx or
oesophagus, where they may lead to perforation, mediastinitis or abscess,
or even fatal perforation of the aorta. Children and the mentally disturbed
may swallow coins, toys or more bizarre objects (Fig. 38.1) and the elderly
may swallow their dentures.
MANAGEMENT
It may be very difficult for the casualty officer or novice ENT surgeon to decide whether a foreign body has simply caused an abrasion and has passed
on, or is impacted.The following routine should be adopted.
1 Take a careful history, noting the nature of the suspected foreign body
(is it radio-opaque?) and the time of ingestion.
2 Examine the pharynx and larynx, paying particular attention to the tonsils and valleculae. (Fish bones often stick here.) A foreign body lodged in
the cervical oesophagus will cause pain on pressing the larynx against the
spine.
3 X-ray the chest and neck (lateral view) remember that fish bones and
plastic are likely to be radiolucent and may not show.
4 If marked dysphagia is present, or a foreign body is seen on X-ray,
oesophagoscopy is indicated.
5 If symptoms persist despite normal X-ray appearances, oesophagoscopy is necessary to exclude a foreign body.
The potential gravity of an impacted foreign body cannot be overemphasized, and if there is any doubt, expert advice must be sought.
Post-cricoid web
The PatersonBrown Kelly syndrome (later described by Plummer and
Vinson) usually occurs in middle-aged women but can occur in males,
though rarely. It is associated with iron-deficiency anaemia and the develop148

The Hypopharynx 149

Fig. 38.1 Man eats dog.

ment of a postcricoid web.The features of iron deficiency (glossitis, angular

stomatitis and microcytic anaemia) will be present and the web will be
demonstrated by barium swallow.
TREATMENT
The iron deficiency is corrected by iron supplements and the web is dilated
periodically. A small number of patients with this condition will go on to
develop postcricoid carcinoma.
PHARYNGEAL POUCH
(PHARYNGEAL DIVERTICULUM)
The pharyngeal mucosa herniates between the oblique and transverse
fibres of the inferior constrictor muscle to produce a persistent pouch
(Fig. 38.2). The condition occurs almost exclusively in the elderly and is
thought to be due to failure of the cricopharyngeus part of the inferior
constrictor to relax during swallowing, thus building up pressure above it.
CLINICAL FEATURES
1 Discomfort in the throat initially.
2 Dysphagia as the pouch enlarges.
3 Regurgitation of undigested food.
4 Aspiration pneumonia if untreated.
5 Gurgling noises in the throat on swallowing or pressure on the neck.
NB. A pouch almost never causes a palpable neck swelling.

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Chapter 38: Conditions of the Hypopharynx
VIEWS OF PHARYNGEAL POUCH
Oesophagus

Pouch

Fig. 38.2 External and endoscopic views of the pharyngeal pouch. The
photographs show appearances before and after endoscopic diverticulotomy
with a stapling device.

INVESTIGATION
The pouch is revealed by barium swallow (Fig. 38.3).
TREATMENT
1 The early case can be managed by periodic dilatation of the
cricopharyngeus.
2 An established pouch causing symptoms will require surgical treatment. Under general anaesthesia, a dilating rigid pharyngoscope is used to
demonstrate the party wall between the oesophagus anteriorly and the
pouch posteriorly. A staple gun is then used to divide the wall and at the
same time staple the cut edges (Fig. 38.2).The patient is usually able to eat
the following day and the hospital stay is very short.
3 Only rarely is it now necessary to excise a pouch by external approach
through the neck.

The Hypopharynx 151

(b)

(a)

Fig. 38.3 A barium swallow X-ray showing a

pharyngeal pouch (left); lateral view (right).

MALIGNANT DISEASE OF THE HYPOPHARYNX

Malignant disease of the hypopharynx occurs in two main forms.
1 Carcinoma of the piriform fossa predominantly a disease of males
(Fig. 38.4).
2 Post-cricoid carcinoma predominantly a disease of females (Fig. 38.5).
This may supervene on long-standing PatersonBrown Kelly syndrome.
CLINICAL FEATURES
1 Increasing dysphagia and weight loss.
2 An enlarged cervical node due to metastasis may be the first complaint
of a patient with a small hypopharyngeal cancer not yet large enough to
produce dysphagia.
3 Hoarseness may be present from involvement of the recurrent laryngeal nerve or direct spread to the larynx.
4 Referred otalgia is often present, especially on swallowing.
5 Mirror examination may reveal the malignant ulcer, or pooling of saliva
in the hypopharynx.
Spread occurs locally by direct invasion, but nodal metastases in the neck
occur early in the course of the disease. Distant metastases sometimes
occur (compare with laryngeal carcinoma).

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Chapter 38: Conditions of the Hypopharynx

CARCINOMA OF PIRIFORM FOSSA

Fig. 38.4 Carcinoma of the

piriform fossa.

POST-CRICOID CARCINOMA

Fig. 38.5 Post-cricoid

carcinoma.

The Hypopharynx 153

Fig. 38.6 A sword swallower

in Prague. The first ever
oesophagoscopy was
performed in the 19th century
on a sword swallower by
Kssmaul to demonstrate its
feasibility.

INVESTIGATIONS
Every case of dysphagia must be investigated by barium swallow and
oesophagoscopy. Even if the X-ray is normal, direct examination must be
performed in the presence of dysphagia.
TREATMENT
1 Hypopharyngeal cancers are usually treated by pharyngolaryngectomy,
a major operation with a definite mortality. Repair of the pharynx is difficult
and accomplished either by stomach pull-up or by the use of vascularized
skin flaps.The use of a free graft of jejunum with microvascular anastomosis
has been shown to be effective and is a less severe operation than stomach
pull-up, though with less certain results. The 5-year survival rate is of the
order of 35%.
2 Radiotherapy may produce cure or good palliation but the patient will
suffer considerable discomfort during the course of treatment and should
be warned accordingly.

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Chapter 38: Conditions of the Hypopharynx

3 Many cases are unfortunately untreatable when first diagnosed and no
effort must be spared to relieve the patients misery with analgesics, tranquillizers and devoted nursing care.

GLOBUS PHARYNGIS
Globus pharyngis is the term applied to the sensation of a lump or discomfort in the throat, probably owing to cricopharyngeal spasm. The
discomfort is relieved by eating and there is no interference with the
swallowing of food or liquids.
The symptoms tend to be aggravated by the patients constant action of
swallowing, and frequently introspection and anxiety add to the problem. A
proportion of patients with globus pharyngis will be found to have reflux
oesphagitis or a gastric ulcer and a barium swallow should always be performed, both to find such conditions and to exclude as far as possible
organic pathology in the throat. Many cases have a psychological cause and
are aggravated by anxiety and introspection.
If symptoms persist, oesophagoscopy is essential a normal barium
swallow does not rule out organic disease.
If no organic cause for the symptoms exists, most patients improve with
reassurance reinforced by adequate examination and investigation. A short
course of tranquillizers is often helpful.

CHAPTER 39
Tracheostomy

Tracheostomy, the making of an opening into the trachea, has been practised since the first century BC, and is a procedure with which all doctors
should be familiar.
INDICATIONS
Indications for tracheostomy may be classified as follows:
1 conditions causing upper airway obstruction;
2 conditions necessitating protection of the tracheobronchial tree;
3 conditions causing respiratory failure.

Protection of the tracheobronchial tube

Any condition causing pharyngeal or laryngeal incompetence may allow aspiration of food, saliva, blood or gastric contents. If the condition is of short
duration, e.g. general anaesthesia, endotracheal intubation is appropriate,
but for chronic conditions tracheostomy is necessary. It allows easy access
to the trachea and bronchi for regular suction and permits the use of a
cuffed tube, which affords further protection against aspiration. Examples
of such conditions are:
1 polyneuritis (e.g. GuillainBarr syndrome);
2 bulbar poliomyelitis;
3 multiple sclerosis;
4 myasthenia gravis;
5 tetanus;
6 brain-stem stroke;
7 coma due to:
(a) head injury;
(b) poisoning;
(c) stroke;
(d) cerebral tumour;
(e) intracranial surgery (unless the state of coma is likely to be prolonged, endotracheal intubation is preferable in the first place);
8 multiple facial fractures.
155

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Chapter 39:Tracheostomy

UPPER AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION

Congenital
1
2
3
4
5

Subglottic or upper tracheal stenosis.

Laryngeal web.
Laryngeal and vallecular cysts.
Tracheo-oesophageal anomalies.
Haemangioma of larynx.

Trauma
1 Prolonged endotracheal intubation.
2 Gunshot wounds and cut throat, laryngeal fracture.
3 Inhalation of steam or hot vapour.
4 Swallowing of corrosive fluids.
5 Radiotherapy (may cause oedema).
Infections
1 Acute epiglottitis (see Chapter 33).
2 Laryngotracheobronchitis.
3 Diphtheria.
4 Ludwigs angina.
Malignant tumours
1 Advanced malignant disease of the tongue, larynx, pharynx or upper trachea.
2 As part of a surgical procedure for the treatment of laryngeal cancer.
3 Carcinoma of thyroid.
Bilateral laryngeal paralysis
1 Following thyroidectomy.
2 Bulbar palsy.
3 Following oesophageal or heart surgery.
Foreign body
1 Remember the Heimlich manoeuvre grasp the patient from behind with a fist in
the epigastrium and apply sudden pressure upwards towards the diaphragm. It may
need to be repeated several times before the foreign body is expelled.
Box 39.1 Upper airway obstruction.

Respiratory failure
Tracheostomy in cases of respiratory failure allows:
1 reduction of dead space by about 70 mL (in the adult);
2 bypass of laryngeal resistance;
3 access to the trachea for the removal of bronchial secretions;
4 administration of humidified oxygen;
5 positive-pressure ventilation when necessary.
Respiratory failure is often multifactorial and may be considered under the
following headings.

Tracheostomy 157
1 Pulmonary disease exacerbation of chronic bronchitis and emphysema; severe asthma; postoperative pneumonia from accumulated
secretions.
2 Abnormalities of the thoracic cage severe chest injury (flail chest);
ankylosing spondylitis; severe kyphosis.
3 Neuromuscular dysfunction e.g. GuillainBarr syndrome; tetanus;
motor neurone disease; poliomyelitis.
Criteria for performing tracheostomy
Tracheostomy should, whenever possible, be carried out as an elective
procedure and not as a desperate last resort.There are degrees of urgency.
1 If the patient has life-threatening airway obstruction when first seen, it
is obvious that urgent treatment is required. If endotracheal intubation fails,
tracheostomy must be done at once.There is no time for sterility with the
left hand, hold the trachea on either side to immobilize it, make a vertical incision through the tissues of the neck into the trachea and twist the blade
through 90 to open up the trachea.There will be copious dark bleeding but
the patient will gasp air through the opening. Using the index finger of the
left hand as a guide in the wound, try to insert some sort of tube into the trachea.The blood should then be sucked out by whatever means are available.
Once an airway is established, the tracheostomy can be tidied up under
more controlled conditions.
2 In patients with airway obstruction of more gradual onset, do not allow
the situation to deteriorate to that described above. Stridor, recession and
tachycardia denote the need for intervention, and cyanosis and bradycardia
indicate that you are running out of time.The case should be discussed with
an experienced anaesthetist, and the patient taken to the operating theatre.
The ideal is to carry out tracheostomy under general anaesthesia with endotracheal intubation. Once a tube has been inserted, the airway is safe and
the tracheostomy can be performed calmly and carefully with full sterile
precautions. If the anaesthetist is unable to intubate the patient, it will be
necessary to perform the operation under local anaesthetic using infiltration with lignocaine. The anaesthetist meanwhile will administer oxygen
through a face-mask.
3 Elective tracheostomy should be carried out before deterioration
occurs in non-obstructive cases as listed above and patients who have
previously been intubated because of obstruction or for ventilation but
who cannot be extubated safely.
Such elective tracheostomy cases are ideal for trainees to learn the technique of the operation safely under supervision and every such opportunity should be taken.

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Chapter 39:Tracheostomy

Dictum
In cases of respiratory obstruction and respiratory failure and in the
absence of steady improvement, support the airway by tracheostomy or
endotracheal intubation.
Remember that children may deteriorate with dramatic suddenness.
THE OPERATION OF ELECTIVE TRACHEOSTOMY
Like any other operation, tracheostomy can be learned only by instruction
and practice, so that only a brief description will be given.
The operation should be carried out under general anaesthesia with
endotracheal intubation. The neck should be extended and the head must
be straight, not turned to one side. A transverse incision is preferable to a
vertical incision, and should be centred midway between the cricoid cartilage and sternal notch (Fig. 39.1). The strap muscles are identified and retracted laterally (Fig. 39.2) and the thyroid isthmus is divided. Once the
trachea has been reached (it is always deeper than you expect), the cricoid
must be identified by palpation and the tracheal rings counted. An opening
is made into the trachea, centred on the third and fourth rings (Fig. 39.3).
In adults, an ellipse of sufficient size to accept the tracheostomy tube is
excised, but in children, a single slit in the tracheal wall is preferable, after
TRACHEOSTOMY INCISION MARK

Fig. 39.1 Tracheostomy

showing the land marks of
the neck and the incision
for operation.

Tracheostomy 159

STRAP MUSCLES RETRACTED

Fig. 39.2 The strap

muscles are retracted,
exposing the trachea and
the thyroid isthmus.

OPENING MADE INTO THE TRACHEA

Fig. 39.3 The thyroid

isthmus has been divided
and an opening made in
the anterior tracheal wall.

first inserting stay sutures on either side to allow traction on the opening
in order to insert the tube.
After insertion of the tracheostomy tube, the trachea is aspirated thoroughly and unless the skin incision has been excessively long it is left unsutured.To sew the wound tightly makes surgical emphysema more likely and
replacement of the tube more difficult.

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Chapter 39:Tracheostomy

Choice of tracheostomy tube

The choice of tube depends on the reason for the tracheostomy.
1 In cases of airway obstruction, a silver tube such as the Negus is ideal. It
has an inner tube, which can be removed for cleaning, and has an expiratory flap-valve (sometimes called a speaking valve) to allow phonation.
2 In cases requiring ventilation or protection from aspirated secretions, a
cuffed tube is necessary.The day of the red rubber tube has gone, and inert
plastic tubes are now used. The cuff should be of a low-pressure design to
prevent stricture formation.
3 Small children should never be fitted with a cuffed tube because of the
risk of causing stenosis. A plain silastic tube should be used initially, and if
ventilation is not required it can be changed at a later date to a silver tube
fitted with an optionally valved inner tube (e.g. Sheffield tracheostomy
tube). It is beyond the scope of this book to consider in detail the indications
for metal or plastic tubes.
After-care of the tracheostomy
Nursing care
Nursing care must be of the highest standard to keep the tube patent and
prevent dislodgement.
Position
Adult patients in the postoperative period should usually be sitting well
propped up; care must be taken in infants that the chin does not occlude the
tracheostomy and the neck should be extended slightly over a rolled-up
towel.
Suction
Suction is applied at regular intervals dictated by the amount of secretions
present. A clean catheter must be passed down into the tube in conscious
patients. Unconscious or ventilated patients will require deeper suction
and physiotherapy.
Humidification
Humidification of the inspired air is essential to prevent drying and the formation of crusts and is achieved by any conventional humidifier. Remember
that the humidity you can see is due to water droplets, not vapour, and may
waterlog small infants.

Tracheostomy 161

Fig. 39.4 A newly performed

tracheostomy in a small
child. Note the stay sutures
on either side to aid
replacement of the tube
should it become dislodged.

Avoidance of crusts
Avoidance of crusts is aided by adequate humidification; if necessary, sterile
saline (1 mL) can be introduced into the trachea, followed by suction.
Tube changing
Tube changing should be avoided if possible for 2 or 3 days, after which the
track should be well established and the tube can be changed easily. Meanwhile, if a silver tube has been inserted, the inner tube can be removed and
cleaned as often as necessary. Cuffed tubes need particular attention, with
regular deflation of the cuff to prevent pressure necrosis.The amount of air
in the cuff should be the minimum required to prevent an air leak.
Decannulation
Decannulation should only be carried out when it is obvious that the tracheostomy is no longer required. The patient should be able to manage
with the tube occluded for at least 24 h before it is removed (Fig. 39.4).
Decannulation in children often presents particular difficulties. After decannulation, the patient should remain in hospital under observation for
several days.
Complications
Periochondritis and subglottic stenosis
Periochondritis and subglottic stenosis may result, especially if the cricoid
cartilage is injured. Go below the first ring.

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Chapter 39:Tracheostomy

Mediastinal emphysema or pneumothorax

Mediastinal emphysema or pneumothorax may occur after a very low tracheostomy, or if the tube becomes displaced into the pretracheal space.The
chest should be X-rayed after operation.
Obstruction
Obstruction of the tube or trachea by crusts of inspissated secretion may
prove to be fatal. If the airway becomes obstructed and cannot be cleared by
suction, act boldly. Remove the whole tube and replace it if blocked. If the
tube is patent, explore the trachea with angled forceps to remove the obstruction. An explosive cough may expel the crust and the tube can then be
replaced.
Complete dislodgement
Complete dislodgement of the tube may occur if it is not adequately fixed.
Hold the wound edges apart with a tracheal dilator and put in a clean tube.
A good light is essential.
Partial dislodgement
Partial dislodgement of the tube is more difficult to recognize and may be
fatal. The tube comes to lie in front of the trachea, the airway will be impaired and, if left, erosion of the innominate artery may result in catastrophic haemorrhage. Make sure that at all times the patient breathes
freely through the tube, and such an occurrence should be avoided. Surgical
emphysema of startling severity may occur if the patient is on positivepressure ventilation.
It is common experience that as soon as a tracheostomy has been performed there is pressure from all concerned to close it. A tracheostomy
must be retained until you are sure it is no longer necessary.

CHAPTER 40
Diseases of the
Salivary Glands

The salivary glands consist of:

1 the parotid glands;
2 the submandibular glands;
3 minor salivary glands throughout the mouth and upper air passages.
(The sublingual collection is included in this group.)
Parotid gland
The parotid gland lies on the side of the face in close relationship to the ear,
the angle of the mandible and styloid muscles. The facial nerve enters the
posterior pole of the parotid gland and divides within its substance into its
various branches, which exit at the anterior margin of the gland. It is the
presence of the facial nerve within the parotid that makes surgery of this
gland so difficult. Its duct opens opposite the second upper molar tooth,
where it forms a small visible papilla. Its secretomotor nerve supply comes
from the glossopharyngeal nerve via the tympanic plexus in the middle ear.
The saliva produced is entirely serous.The surface outline of the gland is
shown in Fig. 40.1.
The submandibular salivary gland
The submandibular gland lies in the floor of the mouth below and medial
to the mandible and its greater part is external to the mylohyoid muscle.
The deep part of the gland curves around the back of the mylohyoid and
the duct runs forwards to open at the sublingual papilla. The deep part
of the gland lies on the lingual nerve, from which it receives its secretomotor supply derived from the facial nerve via the chorda tympani in the
middle ear. The saliva from the submandibular gland is both serous and
mucous.
The minor salivary glands
The minor salivary glands can be seen and felt in the lips, cheeks, palate and
upper air passages. They produce mainly mucous saliva (remember the
noun is mucus) and are responsible for a large proportion of the total saliva
secreted.They are subject to many of the diseases that affect the major salivary glands.
163

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Chapter 40: Diseases of the Salivary Glands

PAROTID AND SUBMANDIBULAR GLANDS

Parotid duct

Parotid
gland

Submandibular gland

Sublingual
gland

Fig. 40.1 The surface outline of the parotid and submandibular glands. The
parotid gland is larger than is usually appreciated.

HISTORY-TAKING SALIENT POINTS

In asking the history, enquire particularly about pain and swelling of the
glands in relation to eating. If the duct is obstructed, the whole gland will
become tense and painful and enlarge visibly during saliva production, and
will resolve slowly over about an hour.
If a lump is present, ask about variation in size and whether it is related
to food.Tumours do not enlarge during salivation, but do tend to get bigger
with the passage of time.
Ask about dryness of the mouth, remembering that obstruction of even
two major glands produces little apparent change. Persistent dryness suggests diffuse salivary gland disease.
Ask about recent contact with mumps.
EXAMINATION OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS
First, inspect the salivary glands externally, noting any swellings or asymmetry.The function of the facial nerve should be tested in all its divisions.The
parotid and submandibular ducts should be inspected to assess saliva flow,
redness and the presence of pus or an obvious stone.The mouth should be
inspected to see if it is excessively dry.

Salivary Glands 165

After inspection, the glands should be palpated carefully by bimanual exploration. It is only in this way that a proper assessment can be made. The
ducts should be felt carefully for calculi and then massaged gently towards
the opening to express any pus present.
The patient can be given an acid-drop to suck and any enlargement on
salivation assessed.
The ears should be inspected to make sure that there is no salivary
fistula or tumour extension through the anterior meatal wall.
Gentle probing of the duct may produce a gush of turbid saliva.
INVESTIGATION
1 Plain X-ray, including occlusal views, will show a radio-opaque calculus.
2 Ultrasonic scanning of the gland is quick, non-invasive and exposes the
patient to no radiation. It will identify masses, cysts and calculi but is only
comprehensible to the radiologist!
3 Sialography will outline the duct system. Contrast medium is injected
into the gland after cannulation of the duct, and will show radiolucent
stones or strictures. A solid tumour will not fill with contrast, but an area of
sialectasis will be seen as droplets in the dilated ducts. Sialography contributes little to tumour diagnosis and is not usually performed in such
cases.
4 If there is a large parotid tumour with parapharyngeal extension, an MR
scan will outline its extent.
Acute inflammation
Mumps
Mumps is the commonest acute inflammatory condition of salivary glands.
It affects mainly the parotid glands, which become uniformly swollen and
painful, but the submandibular glands may also be involved. Its incidence had
fallen to very low levels as a result of immunization, but is now rising alarmingly as some parents decline to have their children immunized.
Acute suppurative parotitis
Acute suppurative parotitis is uncommon and usually occurs in debilitated
patients. Treatment is with antibiotics, rehydration and oral hygiene. If an
abscess develops, surgical incision is required.
Acute sialadenitis
Acute sialadenitis may affect the submandibular gland (commonly) or
the parotid gland (rarely) because of the presence of a duct calculus. The

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Chapter 40: Diseases of the Salivary Glands

affected gland is painful and swollen and is made worse by eating.The patient
is usually unwell with a pyrexia.
Removal of the stone provides dramatic relief in most cases.

Recurrent acute inflammation

Recurrent acute inflammation of the major salivary glands presents a
problem of management if no stone is present. If there is a duct stricture,
gentle dilatation may be curative. In childhood, recurrent episodes of
acute inflammation will usually subside by puberty and should be treated
conservatively.
Chronic inflammation
Chronic inflammation of the parotid or submandibular gland is usually
due to sialectasis (duct dilatation leading to stasis and infection) and will not
usually respond to conservative measures. The gland is thickened with
episodic pain and infection, and can be felt easily on bimanual examination.
TREATMENT
The submandibular gland so affected can be excised; chronic sialectasis of
the parotid poses a difficult problem. Excision has a high risk of facial nerve
damage and long-term antibiotics should be tried before resorting to
parotidectomy.
Sjgrens syndrome
Sjgrens syndrome is an auto-immune systemic disorder affecting the salivary and lacrimal glands.There is enlargement of the glands and loss of secretion, leading to dryness of the eyes and mouth. In many cases, biopsy of
the lip mucosa will show minor salivary glands heavily infiltrated by lymphocytes. Symptomatic relief can be obtained by the use of artificial saliva or
glycerin and warm-water mouthwash.
Salivary retention cysts
Salivary cysts occur most commonly in the floor of the mouth, where they
may become very large and expand the loose tissues (Fig. 40.2). The name
ranula is often applied. Less commonly, such retention cysts occur on the
mucosal aspect of the lips.

Salivary Glands 167

Fig. 40.2 Sublingual retention cyst.

Fig. 40.3 Calculus in left submandibular duct orifice.

Salivary calculi
Most salivary calculi occur in the submandibular gland because of the
mucoid nature of its saliva, which can become inspissated (Fig. 40.3).
However, calculi do also occur in the parotid gland.

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Chapter 40: Diseases of the Salivary Glands

CLINICAL FEATURES
The flow of saliva from the affected gland becomes obstructed, causing the
gland to swell during salivation. Such swelling is painful and its size may be
alarming.The swelling will usually resolve over about an hour.
The calculus can be seen if it presents at the duct opening, or felt within
the duct or gland.
INVESTIGATION
Most, but not all, calculi are radio-opaque, and X-rays should be performed
as described above.
TREATMENT
1 Intraductal calculi can be removed from the duct under local anaesthetic. A suture should first be passed around the duct proximal to the
stone to prevent its movement back into the gland. Removal of such a stone
may be more difficult than you might expect.
2 If the stone is within the substance of the salivary gland, excision of the
gland will have to be considered. The submandibular gland presents no
problem as it is straightforward to excise, but parotidectomy for calculus
requires a high degree of skill.
Salivary gland tumours
Salivary glands, because they contain lymph nodes within their structure,
may be the site of metastases from a non-salivary primary site or from
blood dyscrasias such as leukaemia (Fig. 40.4). Salivary gland disease is uncommon in childhood, but a solid parotid tumour presenting under the age
of 16 is more likely (60:40) than not to be malignant.

Fig. 40.4 Enlarged right

submandibular gland from
chronic infection.

Salivary Glands 169

Fig. 40.5 A pleomorphic

adenoma in the tail of the
parotid gland.

It is not usually possible to detect clinically whether a tumour in a salivary gland is benign or malignant. Fine needle aspiration cytology may be
helpful in predicting the type of tumour present. All such tumours should be
treated as malignant until the diagnosis is confirmed by histology.The same
tumours occur in minor salivary glands as in the major glands but malignant
tumours in minor glands have a more aggressive course.
PATHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
Benign tumours
Pleomorphic salivary adenoma (mixed salivary tumour,PSA)
(Fig. 40.5)
Occurs most frequently in the parotid gland. Propensity for recurrence if
not removed with surrounding cuff of tissue. PSA accounts for about 90% of
parotid tumours in adults.
Warthins tumour (cystic lymphoepithelial lesion)
Almost exclusive to the parotid gland, it causes a smooth swelling in the tail
of the gland that may feel cystic.
Haemangioma
A rare tumour, usually congenital or occurring in early childhood; occurs
most commonly in the parotid gland. A haemangioma is also often present
on the skin of the face or in the mouth.

170

Chapter 40: Diseases of the Salivary Glands

Fig. 40.6 The facial nerve after superficial parotidectomy for a benign tumour in a boy aged
12 years.

Malignant tumours
Adenoid cystic carcinoma
The commonest malignant tumour of salivary glands.With early perineural
invasion, the long-term prognosis is poor but survival for many years is
usual.
Muco-epidermoid tumours
Can arise in any of the salivary glands and have a variable degree of malignancy; the majority will behave as benign tumours but a small proportion
are aggressively malignant.
Acinic cell tumours
Are usually of low-grade malignancy and occur almost exclusively in the
parotid gland.
Malignant pleomorphic adenomata
May arise in an existing adenoma.The malignant change is made apparent by
a rapid increase in size and, in the case of parotid tumours, the development
of facial weakness. A benign tumour causes no such weakness.

Salivary Glands 171

Squamous carcinoma
Squamous carcinoma of the submandibular and parotid glands is uncommon and has a very poor prognosis. Radical excision followed by radiotherapy is the only treatment that offers any chance of cure.
Lymphoma
Lymphoma can occur in any of the salivary glands, major or minor. Surgery
has no part in treatment other than for biopsy, but radiotherapy and/or
chemotherapy may be curative.The lymphoma arises from lymphoid tissue
within the salivary gland.
Salivary incontinence (drooling)
While not due to disease of the salivary glands, children or adults with, for
example, cerebral palsy or stroke may be unable to control the saliva produced, particularly from the sublingual and submandibular ducts. This results in much distress and discomfort to patient and relatives. It can often be
relieved by surgical relocation of the submandibular ducts to a posterior
position near the tonsil combined with excision of the sublingual gland.
Surgery of the salivary glands
SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND EXCISION
This is usually performed for tumour removal but may be made necessary
by calculus or by chronic infection.The gland is approached externally and
care is taken not to damage the marginal mandibular branch of the facial
nerve or the lingual nerve.
PAROTIDECTOMY
Again, usually undertaken for removal of tumour (Fig. 40.6).The facial nerve
is identified at an early stage in the operation and its branches followed carefully. Usually the tumour lies superficial to the nerve but if it is deep, the
nerve will need to be mobilized. All patients having parotidectomy must be
warned of the risk of facial nerve damage.

Index

Page references in italics refer to figures

accessory auricles 19, 21
acinic cell tumours 170
acoustic neuroma 1617, 17
management 1617
vertigo and 64
adenoid cystic carcinoma
larynx 131
nasopharynx 97
salivary glands 170
see also carcinoma
adenoidectomy 52, 10910
adenoids 10910, 110
airway obstruction 142
complications 110
diagnosis 109
Eustachian tube obstruction 109
nasal obstruction 109
treatment 10910
agranulocytosis 112
airway obstruction 13947, 156
acquired laryngeal causes 1457
acute epiglottitis 145
acute laryngitis 145
foreign body 144, 145
laryngotracheobronchitis 145
multiple laryngeal papillomata 1457,
141
subglottic stenosis 145, 146
congenital laryngeal causes 1424
laryngeal cysts 145
laryngeal webs 1424, 143
laryngomalacia 142, 143
subglottic stenosis 142
vascular ring 145
management 13941
bronchoscopy 140, 141
laryngoscopy 140, 141
see also tracheostomy
signs 139
supra-laryngeal causes 142
adeno-tonsillar hypertrophy 142
choanal atresia 142
micrognathia 142

allergic rhinitis 99102

allergens 99
atopic syndrome 99
investigations 1012
signs 101
symptoms 99101
treatment 102
analgesics, acute otitis media treatment 37
angiofibroma, nasopharyngeal 98
antibiotic treatment
acute mastoiditis 44
otitis media 37, 40
peritonsillar abscess (quinsy) 113
pharyngitis 114
retropharyngeal abscess 120
sinusitis 91, 92, 94
tonsillitis 112
antrochoanal polyps 104
ataxia 64
atopic syndrome 99
atresia
external auditory meatus 25
laryngeal 145
of the ear canal 19, 21
see also choanal atresia
atrophic rhinitis 87
audiometry 1014
electric response audiometry 1314
impedance tympanometry 1113
oto-acoustic emissions (OAE) 14
pure tone audiometry 10, 12, 13, 14
speech audiometry 11
aural polyps 41
auriscope 56, 5
avulsion, pinna 20
balance 61
see also vertigo
basal cell carcinoma, pinna 24
bat ears 19
Bells palsy 66
treatment 68
benign paroxysmal positional vertigo 63

173

174

Index

Bezolds abscess 43
bone-anchored hearing aid (BAHA) 18, 19,
25
brain abscess 468
cerebellar 467
cerebral 93
diagnosis 47
prognosis 48
temporal lobe 46, 47
treatment 48
brain-stem responses (BSER) 14
bronchoscopy 140, 141
carcinoma
ethmoid sinuses 97
hypopharynx 1514
carcinoma of the piriform fossa 151,
152
clinical features 151
investigations 153
post-cricoid carcinoma 151, 152
treatment 1534
larynx 1314
aetiology 131
diagnosis 132
glottic 131, 132, 133
pathology 131
prognosis 134
spread 132
subglottic 132
supraglottic 131
treatment 133
maxillary antrum 956, 96
clinical features 95
investigations 95
prognosis 96
treatment 96
nasopharynx 97
pharynx 115
pinna 24, 24
salivary glands 170, 171
tonsil 115
cauliflower ear 20
cerebellar abscess 467
cerebral abscess 93
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), meningitis and 45
children
acute laryngitis 1267
deafness management 15
see also airway obstruction; congenital
conditions; foreign body; otitis media
choanal atresia 1078
airway obstruction and 142
bilateral atresia 108
unilateral atresia 107, 107

cholesteatoma 41, 42, 48

chondrodermatitis chronicis helicis 24
cochlea 1, 4
cochlear implants 18
conductive deafness 78, 8, 12, 14
causes 16
congenital conditions
airway obstruction 1424
laryngeal cysts 145
laryngeal webs 1424, 143
laryngomalacia 142, 143
subglottic stenosis 142
vascular ring 145
external auditory meatus 25
pinna 19
cortical responses (CERA) 14
coryza, acute 86
cystic lymphoepithelial lesion, salivary gland
169
deafness 1518
causes 15, 16
conductive 78, 8, 12, 14, 16
acute otitis media 36
otosclerosis 54, 56
management 1518
cochlear implants 28
deaf child 15
electronic aids 18
hearing aids 1718, 56
lip-reading 18, 56
sudden sensorineural deafness 16
vestibular Schwannoma (acoustic
neuroma) 1617
mixed 8
sensorineural 8, 9, 11, 13, 16
management 16
see also ear; hearing tests
dermatitis, pinna 21, 23
treatment 213
diphtheria 112
laryngeal 128
drooling 171
ear
anatomy 14
clinical examination 56
Eustachian tube 13
external see pinna
external auditory meatus 1, 2532
congenital conditions 25
exostoses 312
foreign body 256
furunculosis 31
malignant disease 32

Index 175
otitis externa 2731
wax 26
facial nerve 3
mastoid cells 3, 4
syringing 267, 27, 28
tympanic cavity 1
tympanic membrane 1, 2
injury 334
see also deafness; earache; hearing tests;
mastoiditis; otitis externa; otitis
media
ear drops, acute otitis media treatment
37
earache 36, 578
aural causes 57
referred earache 578
malignant disease 58
post-tonsillectomy earache 57, 117,
118
temporomandibular joint dysfunction
58
electric response audiometry 1314
electrocochleogram 14
electronic aids for deafness 18
eosinophilic vasomotor rhinitis 1023
treatment 1023
epiglottitis 127, 145
epistaxis 769
aetiology 76, 77
hypertensive epistaxis 76
spontaneous epistaxis 76
anatomy 76
treatment 769, 78, 79
bleeding from an unidentified site
78
bleeding from Littles area 77
surgical treatment 789
Epley manoeuvre 63
EpsteinBarr virus 97
ethmoidal sinuses 88
carcinoma 97
sinusitis 94
Eustachian tube 13
obstruction 109
exostoses 312
external auditory meatus 1
congenital conditions 25
exostoses 312
foreign body 256
insects 26
furunculosis 31
malignant disease 32
otitis externa 2731
wax 26
extradural abscess 46, 93

facial nerve 1, 3
parotidectomy and 171
facial nerve paralysis 668
Bells palsy 66
treatment 68
causes 67
diagnosis 66
otitis media 4950, 68
Ramsay Hunt syndrome 68
traumatic 67, 68
familial neurofibromatosis (NF2) 1617
fibroma, laryngeal 131
foreign body
ear 256
insects 26
hypopharynx 148, 149
larynx 144, 145
nose 701, 71
clinical features 70
dangers 70
management 701
fracture, nasal bones 725, 73
clinical features 72
septal dislocation with fracture 74
treatment 724
late treatment 74
reduction 734
frontal sinusitis 924
clinical features 92
complications 923, 93
recurrent and chronic infection 934
treatment 92
functional aphonia 137, 138
furunculosis
aural 31, 57
nasal 86
geniculate herpes zoster 65, 68
glandular fever 111, 112
globus pharyngis 154
glottic carcinoma 132, 132, 133
prognosis 134
glue ear see otitis media: with effusion
Gradenigos syndrome 50
granuloma, malignant 98
grommet insertion 53, 53
haemangioma
laryngeal 131
salivary gland 169
haematoma, pinna 20, 22
Haemophilus influenzae 35, 37, 86, 90, 127
hearing aids 1718, 56
bone-anchored hearing aid (BAHA) 18,
19, 25

176

Index

hearing tests 714

audiometry 1014
electric response audiometry 1314
impedance tympanometry 1113
pure tone audiometry 10, 12, 13, 14
speech audiometry 11
clinical assessment of the degree of
deafness 7
oto-acoustic emissions (OAE) 14
tuning fork tests 710, 10
Rinnes test 89, 10, 11, 12
Webers test 9, 10, 11, 12
see also deafness; ear
hereditary telangectasia 78
HIV 112
house dust mites 101
hyperkeratosis of the larynx 129
hypopharynx 14854
foreign bodies 148, 149
globus pharyngis 154
malignant disease 1514
carcinoma of the piriform fossa 151,
152
clinical features 151
investigation 153
post-cricoid carcinoma 151, 152
treatment 1534
pharyngeal pouch/diverticulum 14951,
150, 151
clinical features 149
investigation 150
treatment 150
post-cricoid web 1489
treatment 149
impedance tympanometry 1113
incus 1, 2
infectious mononucleosis 111
insect in ear 26
intubation 125, 140, 155, 157
iron deficiency 1489
labyrinth, trauma to 64
labyrinthectomy 63
labyrinthitis 48
suppurative 64
syphilitic 64
laryngeal cysts 145
laryngeal diphtheria 128
laryngeal webs 1424, 143
laryngectomy 133, 133
laryngitis
acute 1267, 145
adults 126
children 1267

chronic 129
syphilitic 130
laryngomalacia 142, 143
laryngoscopy
airway obstruction management 140, 141
direct 123
fibre-optic 123
indirect 121, 1213
laryngotracheobronchitis 127, 145
larynx
acute epiglottitis 127
cysts 145
examination 1213
direct laryngoscopy 123
fibre-optic laryngoscopy 123
indirect laryngoscopy 1212, 1213
hyperkeratosis 129
injury 1245
intubation 125
management 1245
laryngeal diphtheria 128
laryngotracheobronchitis 127
nerve supply 135
Semons law 135
tuberculosis 130
tumours 1314
benign tumours 131
malignant tumours 1314
aetiology 1312
diagnosis 132
glottic carcinoma 131, 132, 133
pathology 131
prognosis 134
spread 132
subglottic carcinoma 132
supraglottic carcinoma 131
treatment 1324
vocal cord nodules 129
webs 1424, 143
see also laryngitis; vocal cord paralysis
lateral sinus thrombosis 49
lip-reading 18, 56
Littles area, bleeding from 77
loudness recruitment 11, 17
lymphoma
nasopharynx 97
salivary glands 171
tonsil 115
malignant granuloma 98
malignant melanoma 98
malignant pleomorphic adenomata 170
malleus 1, 2
mastoid cells 3, 4
mastoidectomy 42

Index 177
mastoiditis
acute 434, 45
investigations 43
occasional features 43
signs 43
symptoms 43, 57
treatment 44
zygomatic 43
maxillary antrum 88, 89
carcinoma 956, 96
clinical features 95
investigations 95
prognosis 96
treatment 96
maxillary sinusitis see sinusitis
maxillectomy 96
mediastinal emphysema 162
melanoma, malignant 98
Menires disease 613
treatment 623
meningitis 456, 93
clinical features 45
treatment 46
micrognathia 142
microtia 19, 25
mixed deafness 8
mixed salivary tumour 169, 169
Moraxella catarrhalis 35, 37
muco-epidermoid tumours 170
mucoid discharge, otitis media 36,
39
multiple laryngeal papillomata 1457,
147
mumps 165
myringoplasty 40
myringotomy 37, 53
nasal airway assessment 70
nasal endoscope 70
nasal polyps 1034, 103, 104
treatment 104
nasal septum 804
dislocation with fracture 74
haematoma 745
treatment 745
septal deviation 803, 81
aetiology 80
signs 80
symptoms 80
treatment 803
complications 84
septoplasty 834
submucous resection (SMR) 83
septal perforation 8485
vessels 76

nasal vasoconstrictors
acute otitis media treatment 37
sinusitis treatment 91
nasopharynx see nose and nasopharynx
non-eosinophilic vasomotor rhinitis 1046,
105
aetiology 105
signs 106
symptoms 1056
treatment 106
nose and nasopharynx
adenoids 10910, 110
complications 110
diagnosis 109
Eustachian tube obstruction 109
nasal obstruction 109
treatment 10910
antrochoanal polyps 104
choanal atresia 1078
airway obstruction and 142
bilateral atresia 108
unilateral atresia 107
clinical examination 6970, 70
anterior rhinoscopy 69
nasal airway assessment 70
nasal endoscope 70
foreign bodies 701, 71
clinical features 70
dangers 70
management 701
fracture of nasal bones 725, 73
clinical features 72
septal dislocation with fracture 74
treatment 724
late treatment 74
reduction 734
infections 867
acute coryza 86
atrophic rhinitis (ozaena) 87
chronic purulent rhinitis 867
furunculosis 86
nasal vestibulitis 86
injury 72
septal haematoma 745
treatment 745
nasal polyps 1034, 103, 104
treatment 104
tumours 958
carcinoma of the ethmoid sinuses 97
carcinoma of the maxillary antrum
956, 96
clinical features 95
investigations 95
prognosis 96
treatment 96

178

Index

malignant disease of the nasopharynx

97
malignant granuloma 98
malignant melanoma 98
nasopharyngeal angiofibroma 98
osteomata 98
see also epistaxis; nasal septum
nystagmus 63
obstructive apnoea 142
oesophageal speech 133
oropharynx
acute pharyngitis 114
carcinoma 115
chronic pharyngitis 11415
treatment 115
osteomata 98
external auditory meatus 31
osteomyelitis 93
otalgia see earache
otitis externa 21, 23, 2731, 29
causes 278
investigation 2930
pathology 289
prevention of recurrence 30
signs 29
symptoms 29, 57
treatment 213, 30
aural toilet 30
dressings 30
otitis media
acute 358
causes 35
facial paralysis and 49, 68
pathology 35
recurrent 38
signs 36
symptoms 36, 57
treatment 367
chronic 3942
bony/attico-antral type 40, 412, 41
treatment 42
causes 39
complications 44
facial paralysis and 49, 68
mucosal infection 3940
treatment 40
dry perforation 40
ear discharge 40
post-tonsillectomy 118
with effusion (OME) 513, 52
causes 51
screening 13
signs 52
symptoms 51

treatment 523
adults 53
children 523
oto-acoustic emissions (OAE) 14
otomycosis 27
otosclerosis 14, 546
clinical features 54
treatment 546
hearing aids and lip-reading 56
stapedectomy 54, 55
ototoxic drugs 64
ozaena 87
papilloma, laryngeal 131
multiple, airway obstruction and 1457,
141
parotid gland 163, 164
examination 164
see also salivary glands
parotidectomy 170, 171
parotitis, acute suppurative 165
PatersonBrown Kelly syndrome 1489
perichondritis 23, 23, 161
perilymph fistula 65
peritonsillar abscess (quinsy) 113
petrositis 50
pharyngeal pouch/diverticulum 14951,
150, 151
clinical features 149
investigation 150
treatment 150
pharyngitis
acute 114
chronic 11415
treatment 115
granular 115
pharyngolaryngectomy 153
pharynx see hypopharynx; oropharynx
Pierre Robin syndrome 142
pinna 1
carcinoma 24, 24
congenital conditions 19
accessory auricles 19, 21
microtia 19, 25
pre-auricular sinus 19, 22
protruding ears 19, 20
inflammation 214
acute dermatitis 213, 23
chondrodermatitis chronicis helicis 24
perichondritis 23, 23
trauma 20
avulsion 20
haematoma 20, 22
pleomorphic salivary adenoma 169, 169
malignant 170

Index 179
pneumothorax 162
polyps
antrochoanal 104
aural 41
nasal 1034, 103, 104
treatment 104
post-cricoid carcinoma 151, 152
post-cricoid web 1489
treatment 149
post-operative vertigo 64
post-tonsillectomy earache 57, 117, 118
pre-auricular sinus 19, 22
protruding ears 19, 20
pure tone audiometry 10, 12, 13, 14
pyrexia 36
quinsy 113
Ramsay Hunt syndrome 65, 68
ranula 166
respiratory failure 1567
retropharyngeal abscess 11920, 119, 120
clinical features 11920
treatment 120
rhinitis
allergic 99102
allergens 99
atopic syndrome 99
investigations 1012
signs 101
symptoms 99101
treatment 102
atrophic (ozaena) 87
chronic purulent 867
eosinophilic vasomotor 1023
treatment 1023
non-eosinophilic vasomotor 1046,
105
aetiology 105
signs 106
symptoms 1056
treatment 106
rhinitis medicamentosa 106
rhinolith 71
rhinoplasty 74
rhinoscopy, anterior 69
Rinnes test 89, 10, 11, 12
interpretation 9, 10, 11, 12
salivary glands 16371
acute inflammation 1656
acute sialadenitis 1656
acute suppurative parotitis 165
mumps 165
recurrent 166

calculi 1679, 167

clinical features 168
investigation 168
treatment 168
chronic inflammation 166
examination 1645
history taking 164
incontinence 171
investigations 165
minor salivary glands 163
parotid gland 163, 164
salivary retention cysts 1668, 168
Sjgrens syndrome 166
submandibular salivary gland 163, 164
surgery 171
tumours 16871
benign tumours 169
haemangioma 169
pleomorphic salivary adenoma 169,
169
Warthins tumour 169
malignant tumours 1701
acinic cell tumours 170
adenoid cystic carcinoma 170
lymphoma 171
malignant pleomorphic adenomata
170
muco-epidermoid tumours 170
squamous carcinoma 171
sarcoma, laryngeal 131
scarlet fever 11112
semicircular canals 1, 4
Semons law 135
sensorineural deafness 8, 9, 11, 13
causes 16
management 16
septal deviation/perforation see nasal septum
septoplasty 74, 834
sialadenitis, acute 1656
sialectasis 166
sialography 165
sinusitis 90
ethmoidal 94
frontal 924
clinical features 92
complications 923, 93
recurrent and chronic infection 934
treatment 92
maxillary 88, 90
acute 8891
aetiology 889
pathology 90
signs 901
symptoms 8990
treatment 91

180

Index

chronic 912
signs 91
symptoms 91
treatment 912
Sjgrens syndrome 166
slow vertex responses (SVR) 14
speech audiometry 11
squamous cell carcinoma
larynx 131
nasopharynx 97
pinna 24
salivary glands 171
see also carcinoma
stapedectomy 54, 55
stapes 1, 2
Staphylococcus aureus 35
Staphylococcus pyogenes 90
stenoses, subglottic
acquired 146, 146
post-tracheostomy 162
congenital 142
stertor 139
Streptococcus pneumoniae 35, 90
Streptococcus pyogenes 111
stridor 139, 1424, 147
subdural abscess 48, 93
subglottic carcinoma 132
prognosis 134
subglottic stenosis
acquired 146, 146
post-tracheostomy 162
congenital 142
submandibular salivary gland 163, 164
examination 164
excision 171
see also salivary glands
submucous resection (SMR) 75, 83
suppurative labyrinthitis 64
supraglottic carcinoma 132
prognosis 134
syphilitic labyrinthitis 64
syphilitic laryngitis 130
temporal bone 4, 4
fracture 33, 33
temporal lobe abscess 46, 47
temporomandibular joint dysfunction
58
Thudichums speculum 69, 69
tinnitus 5960
causes 60
management 5960
tonsillectomy 114, 115, 11618
complications 11718
haemorrhage 11718

infection 118
otitis media 118
pulmonary complications 118
indications 116
post-operative care 117
procedure 11617
tonsillitis
acute 11113, 112
complications 113
differential diagnosis 11112
agranulocytosis 112
diphtheria 112
HIV 112
infectious mononucleosis 111
scarlet fever 11112
recurrent 11314
signs 111
symptoms 111
treatment 11213
tonsils
carcinoma 115
lymphoma 115
peritonsillar abscess (quinsy) 113
tonsillar enlargement 114
airway obstruction and 142
see also tonsillectomy; tonsillitis
trachea
injury 1245
intubation 125
management 1245
tracheostomy 15562
complications 1612
dislodgement 162
mediastinal emphysema 162
obstruction 162
perichondritis 161
pneumothorax 162
subglottic stenosis 161
elective 15862, 160, 160
after-care 1602
crust avoidance 161
decannulation 161, 161
humidification 160
suction 160
tube changing 161
choice of tube 160
indications 1558
criteria for 1578
protection of the tracheobronchial tube
155
respiratory failure 1567
see also airway obstruction
trauma
facial palsy and 67, 68
labyrinth 64

Index 181
pinna 33
tympanic membrane 334, 34
Treacher Collins syndrome 19, 142
tuberculosis of the larynx 130
tumours see specific tumours
tuning fork tests 710, 10
Rinnes test 89, 10, 11, 12
Webers test 9, 10, 11, 12
tympanic cavity 1
tympanic membrane 1, 2
acute mastoiditis and 43
examination 6
injury 334, 34
signs 34
symptoms 34
treatment 34
otitis media and 36, 3941, 40, 41
tympanoplasty 40
vascular ring 145
vertebrobasilar insufficiency 64
vertigo 615
acoustic neuroma 64
benign paroxysmal positional vertigo 63
diagnosis 62
geniculate herpes zoster 65
labyrinthitis 48
Menires disease 613
treatment 623
ototoxic drugs 64
perilymph fistula 65

post-operative vertigo 64
suppurative labyrinthitis 64
syphilitic labyrinthitis 64
trauma to the labyrinth 64
vertebrobasilar insufficiency 64
vestibular neuroneitis 63
vestibular neuroneitis 63
vestibular Schwannoma 1617, 17
management 1617
vertigo and 64
vestibulitis, nasal 86
vocal cord nodules 129
vocal cord paralysis 1358
combined vagal and recurrent nerve palsy
137
functional aphonia 137, 138
nerve supply of the laryngeal muscles 135
Semons law 135
recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy 1357,
136
bilateral 137
treatment 1378
Warthins tumour 169
wax in ear 26
Webers test 9, 10, 11, 12
Wegeners granuloma 98
Youngs operation 87
zygomatic mastoiditis 43