Angular Measurement

Angular measurements are required for

manufacturing of parts
It is required for navigation of ships and
planes
They are required for accurate determination
of stars and their approximate distances.
Def of an angle?

Angular Measurement
Its defined as the opening between the two lines that meet at a point.
If one of the lines is moved around the point in an arc then a complete
circle through an arc then a complete circle can be formed.
The basic unit for measuring the angle is the right angle which divides
a circle into four equal parts
If a circle is divided into 360 equal parts, each part is called as degree
(o) and each degree is divided into 60 minutes () and each minute is
divided into 60 seconds ()
Alternate method is to define the angle on the basis of the radius and
the arc of a circle.
Its called as a radian
Radian is an angle subtended at the centre by the arc of a circle of
length equal to its radius.
2
radians = 360o, giving
1 degree = /180
1 radian = 57.2985

Instruments for Angular measurements

Selection of the instrument depends on the accuracy required
The following instruments are generally used:
Vernier Bevel Protractor
Optical Bevel Protractor
Universal Bevel protractor
Sine Bar
Angle Gauges
Clinometer
Angle Dekkor
Auto collimator etc

Angular Measurement
Universal Bevel Protractor:
It is used to measure angles accurately to 5 minutes. it is
finely made tool with dial, graduated in degrees, a base and
a sliding blade.
The blade can be locked against dial by tightening the blade
clamp nut. The blade and dial can be rotated as one unit to
any position and locked by tightening the dial clamp nut for
accurate measurement, a vernier or a fine adjustment
device, is fitted on the dial.
The vernier scale is divided into twelve equal parts on each
side of zero, every third division is numbered 0, 15, 30, 45,
60 representing minutes.

Angular Measurement
Universal Bevel Protractor:

Instruments for Angular measurements

Sine Bars:
It is a precision measuring instrument and combines linear
measurement and angular measurement when used in
conjunction with gauge blocks (slip gauges).
It consists of a bar carrying a suitable pair of rollers set a
known centre distance. It is made of high carbon, high
chromium corrosion resistant steel, suitably hardened,
precision ground and stabilized. Relief holes are provided for
easy handling of sine bar and for reducing the weight of the
sine bar. It should be used on a grade A surface plate.

Instruments for Angular measurements

The center to center distance between the rollers or plugs is

available for fixed distance i.e. l = 100, 200, 250, 300 mm. The
diameter of the plugs or roller must be of the same size and the
center distance between them is accurate. The important
condition for the sine bar is that the surface of sine bar must be
parallel to the center lines of the plug.

Instruments for Angular measurements

If l is the linear distance between the axes of the rollers

and h is the height of the slip gauges, then
sin = h/l

Instruments for Angular measurements

Instruments for Angular measurements

Principle of Working:
As shown in Figure the taper angle of the job WX YZ is
to be measured by the sine bar.
The job is placed over the surface plate. The sine bar is
placed over the job with plug or roller of one end of the
bar touching the surface plate. One end of the sine bar
is rested on the surface plate and the other end is
rested on the slip gauges.
The angle of the job is then first measured by some
non-precision instrument, such as bevel protector. That
angle gives the idea of the approximate slip gauges
required, at the other end of sine bar.

Instruments for Angular measurements

Principle of Working:
Finally the exact number of slip gauges are added equal to height
h, such that, the top most slip gauges touches the lower end of
the roller. The height of the slip gauges required is then
measured. Then the taper angle can be measured by making sine
bar as a hypotenuse

sin = h/l

Instruments for Angular measurements

Sine Centers:
It is the extension of sine bars where two ends are
provided on which centers can be clamped, as shown
in Figure. These are useful for testing of conical work
centered at each end, up to 60. The centers ensure
correct alignment of the work piece. The procedure of
setting is the same as for sine bar. The dial indicator is
moved on to the job till the reading is same at the
extreme position. The necessary arrangement is made
in the slip gauge height and the angle is calculated as

Instruments for Angular measurements

Sine Centers

Instruments for Angular measurements

Design requirements of Sine Bars:
The rollers must be of equal diameter and true
geometric cylinders.
The distance between the roller axes must be precise
and known, and these axes must be mutually parallel.
The upper surface of the beam must be flat and
parallel with the roller axes.

Instruments for Angular measurements

Sources of errors in Sine Bars:
Error in the distance between the rollers
Errors in slip gauge combination
Error in parallelism between gauging surface and
plane of roller axes
Inequality of size of rollers and cylindrical accuracy in
the form of rollers
Errors in the flatness of the upper surface of the bar

Instruments for Angular measurements

Limitations of Sine Bars:
Its essentially a length measuring process so the
accuracy depends on the measurement of length
accurately
Its fairly reliable at angles less than 15o but becomes
increasingly inaccurate when the angle increases.

Instruments for Angular measurements

Angle Gauges:
Angles gauges are wedge shaped block and can be used as
standard for angle measurement.
They reduce the setup time and minimize the error.
The angle gauges enable the angle to be set at 3o.
These are made of hardened steel blocks and typically have
dimensions 75 mmX17 mm and available in 2 sets
One sent contains 12 pieces and a square block in three series
values of angles
1o, 3o, 9o, 27o, 41o
1, 3, 9 and 27
6, 18 and 30.

Instruments for Angular measurements

Angle Gauges:
The second set consists of 13 pieces and a square block
1o, 3o, 9o, 27o, 41o
1, 3, 9 and 27
3, 6, 18 and 30.
Each angle gauge is accurate within 1 second and is marked
with V that indicated the direction of the inclined angle.
These angle gauges can be wrung together to add or subtract
angles.

Instruments for Angular measurements

Practical uses of Angle Gauges:
Angles gauges are wedge shaped block and can be used as
standard for angle measurement.
They reduce the set uptime and minimize the error.
Angle gauges are used in industry to make quick measurement of
angles between two surfaces.
The frequent use of these gauges is to see whether the
component is within its tolerance angle or not.
Limitation:
By combining the angle gauges any angle could be formed but
the block formed by combination is rather bulky not convenient
to use.

Problem 1

An angle of 33o-9-15 is to be measured with

the help of the following standard gauges:
[1o,3o,27o,9o][ 1, 3,927]& [3,6, 18,30]
Show the arrangement of angle gauges with a
neat sketch by selecting minimum number of
gauges.

Problem solution
33o-9-15
[1o,3o,27o,9o][ 1, 3,927]& [3,6, 18,30]
3
18

3o
9o
27o

Problem 2
Angle to be measured is 102o-8-42 with the
set of angle gauges and a square block
What would be the combination?

Instruments for Angular measurements

Clinometer:
A Clinometer is a special case of application of spirit level.
Here the spirit level is mounted on a rotary member carried
in a housing.
One face of the housing forms the base of the instrument.
On the housing, there is a circular scale.
The circular scale can measure the angle of base.
The Clinometer is mainly used to determine the included
angle of two adjacent faces of work piece.

Instruments for Angular measurements - Clinometer

Instruments for Angular measurements

Clinometer:
To measure the angle, the instrument base is placed on one
face & the rotary body adjusted till zero reading of the bubble is
obtained.
The angle of rotation is then noted on the circular scale against
the index.
A second reading is then taken in a similar manner on the
second face of the work piece.
The included angle between the faces is the difference between
the two readings.
Various types: Vernier Clinometer, micrometer clinometer,
dial clinometers etc.
Uses: Used mainly to measure included angles, angular faces of
large cutting tools etc.

Instruments for Angular measurements

Auto Collimater:
This is an optical instrument used for the measurement of small
angular differences, changes or deflections.
Principle of auto collimator:
Auto-collimator is a telescope used for collimating other
instruments. Collimating lens is used to convert the light rays into
a parallel beam of light.

Instruments for Angular measurements

Auto Collimater:
If the reflector is tilted to an angle as shown in Figure, then the
reflected ray from it will concentrate at some other point A' and
the rays will be deflected through an angle 2 . If the difference
between A and A' is h. When the reflector is straight, the path
traveled by the ray is AOBOA. When the reflector is tilted by an
angle then the path traveled by the ray is A', AOBO1,A with an
angle 2 .

h= 2 f
Where f is the focal length

Instruments for Angular measurements

Autocollimator has three parts; micrometer microscope, lighting
unit & collimating unit.
Micro-optic autocollimators have a micrometer to measure the
angles

Instruments for Angular measurements

Applications of Auto Collimator:
Auto Collimator are used for:
The measurement of straightness and flatness of surfaces
Comparative measurement using master angles
Assessment of square ness and parallelism of components
Measurement of small linear dimensions
For machine tool adjustment setting

Instruments for Angular measurements

In the field of view of the microscope there

is another datum scale fixed across the
center of screen & the reflected image of
the illuminated scale is received at right
angle to this fixed scale & the two scales, in
this position intersect each other.

Angle Dekkor:
This is also a type of an
autocollimator. It contains a
small illuminated scale in the
focal plane of the objective
lens.
The illuminated scale is
projected as a parallel beam
by the collimating lens which
after a striking the reflector
below the instrument is refocused by the lens in the
field of view of the eye
piece.

Angle Dekkor
The angle -dekkor is used with the
combination of angle gauges;
the reading is taken for the angle gauges
and the reflected image of angle gauge is
obtained in the field of view of eyepiece
as shown in Figure.

Surface Texture
Surface Finish:
The parts produced by manufacturing processes like casting,
hot working, cold working, powder metallurgical processes
Surface texture influences properties like appearance,
corrosion resistance, wear resistance, fatigue resistance,
lubrication, initial tolerance, ability to hold pressure load
carrying capacity, noise reduction in gears.
Surface generated by various machining operations such as
turning, milling, shaping, planning and grinding, show marked
variations when compared with each other.
The surface of produced by any manufacturing process is never
perfectly smooth and will have irregularities or roughness
The roughness or irregularities are in terms of peaks and
valleys

Surface Texture
Surface Roughness:
They are series of regularly repeated deviations in the
form of a wave, with a ratio of pitch to height.
The following factors affect the surface roughness:
Type of coolant used
Cutting parameters such as feed, speed and depth of cut
Type of machining
Rigidity of the system, consisting of machine tool, fixture,
cutting tool and work
Vibrations
Type of machining
Material of tool and work piece.

Surface Texture
The surface roughness has been experienced and
understood by the sense of light and touch.
Any material being machined by conventional
machining process cannot be finished perfectly.
The surface generated will have some irregularities and
these geometrical irregularities could be classified as
follows
First Order: It includes the irregularities developed due
to the inaccuracies in the machine tool such as lack of
straightness of guide ways, on which tool post is
moving.
Second Order: It includes the irregularities developed
due to the vibrations and rigidity of the machine tools.
Chatter marks

Surface Texture
Third Order: Even if the machines are set properly and are
devoid of vibrations and alignment some irregularities are
caused by machining itself due to the characteristic of the
process.
Fourth Order: These occur due to fracture of material during the
machining operation.
These are further grouped in two categories
Primary Texture (roughness): Surface irregularities of small
wavelength are called as primary texture or roughness. The
are caused by direct action of the cutting elements on the
material. Eg. Cutting tool shape, tool feed rate, or by some
other disturbances such as friction, wear or corrosion.
Secondary Texture (waviness): Surface irregularities of larger
wavelength are called as secondary texture or waviness.

Surface Texture

Surface Texture
Elements of surface Texture: Various definitions

Surface:
The surface under consideration, confined by a boundary which
separates that part from other parts/substance or space.

Nominal Surface:
A nominal surface is a theoretical, geometrically perfect
surface which does not exist in practice but is an average of the
irregularities superimposed on it.
Profile:
Its defined as the contour of any section through a surface

Roughness:
It refers to the relatively finely spaced micro-geometrical
irregularities. It is also called as primary texture and constitutes a
third and fourth order irregularities

Roughness Height:
This is rated as the arithmetic average deviation expressed in
micrometer normal to the imaginary centre line running through the
roughness profile

Surface Texture
Elements of surface Texture: Various definitions

Roughness Width:
Roughness width is the distance parallel to the normal surface
between successive peaks or ridges that constitutes the
predominant pattern of the roughness

Waviness:
Waviness consists of those surface irregularities which are of greater
spacing than roughness and it occurs in the form of waves. These
are also termed as macro-geometrical errors and constitute
irregularities of first and second order.
These are caused due to the misalignment of centers, vibrations
machine or work deflection, warping etc.

Surface texture:
Repetitive or random deviations from the nominal surface obtained
by using instruments

Flaws:
Flaws are irregularities or defects that occur at infrequent intervals
and at random intervals. Eg. scratches, holes, cracks atc

Surface Texture

Elements of surface Texture: Various definitions

Lay:
It is the direction of predominant surface pattern
produced by tool marks or scratches. It is determined by
the method of production used.

symbol

Interpretation
Parallel to the plane of projection
of the view in which the symbol is used

Perpendicular to the plane of projection

of the
view in which the symbol is used
Crossed in two slant direction relative to
the plane of projection of the view in
which the
symbol is used
Multidirectional

Approximately circular relative to the

centre of the surface to which the symbol
is applied
Approximately radial relative to the
centre of the surface to which the symbol
is applied

Surface Texture
Elements of surface Texture: Various definitions
Sampling length:

It is the length of the profile necessary for the evaluation of

the irregularities to be taken into account. It is also called
as cut off length. It is measure in the direction parallel to
the general direction of profile.

The sampling length is the related to the process used for

finishing and is evolved by the Indian Standards.

Surface Texture
Evaluation of surface roughness:
A numerical assessment can be carried out in number of ways.
These numerical values are obtained with respect to a datum.
The three methods of evaluation of primary texture are:
1. Peak to valley height measurement
2. The average roughness
3. Form factor or bearing curve
Peak to Valley Height:
This method uses the maximum depth of the surface
irregularity over a given sample length, and largest value of
the depth is accepted as a measure of roughness.

Surface Texture
Average Roughness:
For measurement of average roughness three statistical
methods are used
CLA method (Centre Line Average):
To calculate the value of Ra, from a graph, it is necessary to
have a mean line. The mean line can be drawn along the
direction of the surface profile and dividing the profile in such a
way that the area above the line should approximately equal to
the area under the line.
Then suitable length L is selected which is called sampling
length for the given surface. Then average height Ra is
calculated as follow:

Surface Texture
Surface roughness value:

Ra is the most commonly specified parameter to specify

the surface roughness value
Roughness average (Ra) is the arithmetic average of the
absolute values of the roughness profile ordinates.

Surface Texture
Surface roughness value:

Surface Texture

Surface Texture
Average Roughness:
2. R.M.S Average:
RM.S. average means Root mean square number. It is the
geometrical average of the ordinates of the profile about the mean
line. The mean line or center line is located such that the sum of the
areas above the line is approximately equal to sum of the areas
below the line.
If n measurements are made from the mean line above and below to
the points on the surface profile, which are denoted by Yi. Then the
RM.S. Value is the positive square root of the arithmetic mean
of the squares of the Yi values in the set

Surface Texture
Average Roughness:
2. Ten point height Method (RZ Method):
In this method the average difference between 5 highest peaks
and five lowest valleys of surface texture within the sampling
length measured from a line parallel to the mean line and not
crossing the profile is used to denote the amount of surface
roughness

R2

R4
R6

R1
R7

R5

R3
R8

R9

R10

Rz = [(R1+R2+R3+R4+R5) [(R6+R7+R8+R9+R10)]

Surface Texture
Statement of Surface roughness:
Surface roughness value : It is expressed as Ra value in
microns (
m). If a single Ra value is stated then it is
understood that any Ra value from 0 to that stated number
is acceptable.
Limiting Value: When both the maximum or minimum Ra
values are needed to be specified then it is expressed as
Ra8.0/16.0 or Ra 8.0 16.0
Sampling Length: It is expressed in the parenthesis following
the roughness value eg. Ra 0.8 (2.5). Here the Ra value is 0.8
for the sampling length of 2.5 mm
Lay: It is sometimes expressed in the direction of lay. Eg. Ra
2.5 lay parallel. Unless its specified surface roughness is
across the direction of lay
Process: The production process that is used is specified

Surface Texture
Sr. No

Manufacturing process

casting

Hot Working

Machining Operation

Ra value in
Sand casting
Permanent mould casting
Die casting
High pressure die casting

5 to 50
0.8 to 6.3
0.8 to 3.2
0.32 to 2

Hot Rolling
Forging
Extrusion
Flame Hardening, sawing &
Chipping

2.5 to 50
1.6 to 25
0.16 to 5
6.3 to 100

Hand Grinding
Disc Grinding
Drilling
Boring, Broaching, Hobbing

3.6 to 25
1.6 to 25
1.6 to 20
0.4 to 3.2

Surface grinding
Cylindrical grinding
Grinding and surface finishing
Lapping
Polisinh & Burnishing

0.063 to 5
0.063 to 5
0.012 to 0.16
0.04 to 0.16

Surface Texture
Conventional Method of Designating Surface Finish :
As per IS 696 surface texture specified by indicating the
following characteristic in the symbols:
Roughness Value: i.e., Ra in m
Machining allowance: It is expressed in mm
Sampling length or instrument cut off: in mm
Machining production Process: The production process that
is used is specified
Direction of Lay in the symbol form: =, , X etc

Surface Texture
Symbol

Ra Value in m

Above 25

8 to 25

1.6 to 8

0.25 to 1.6

<0.025

Surface Texture
Measurement of Surface Finish/ Surface Texture:
Measurement of surface finish can be carried out by two
ways
Inspection by comparison
Direct instrument measurement
Inspection by Comparison:
Visual Inspection
Scratch Inspection
Microscopic inspection
Surface photographs
Micro Interferometers
Wallace surface Dynamometer
Reflected light intensity

Surface Texture
Measurement of Surface Finish/ Surface Texture:
Direct instrument measurement
These are the methods of quantitative analysis. These
methods enable to determine the numerical value of surface
finish at any surface by using instruments of stylus or probe.
The output is amplified and the amplified output is used to
operate recording or indicating instruments.
The diamond probe is drawn over the surface of the workpiece, the vertical movement of the stylus caused due to the
irregularities in the surface texture can be used to assess the
surface finish of the work-piece.

Surface Texture: Tomlinson Surface Recorder:

The stylus movement is restricted in vertical direction only

with the help of coil and leaf spring. The variation in the
surface is sensed by the probe and is magnified on a smoked
glass

Surface Texture: Tomlinson Surface Recorder:

Advantages:
1. It is simple.
2. It has low cost.
3. It gives reliable results.
Disadvantages:
1. It is delicate and requires great care.
2. It is slow in operation.
3. It is not suitable for rapid and continues use on the shop floor.

Surface Texture: The Talysurf

The Talysurf is a stylus and skid instrument working on the

carrier modulating principle.
Its response is more rapid and accurate as compared to the
Tomlinson Surface meter.
The stylus is moved over the work piece and the vertical
movement is converted into the change in electric current.

Surface Texture: The Talysurf

The motion of the measuring head is given by a Gear Box,
which has a motor.
This unit can be moved up and down over the guide ways by
a hand wheel provided at the top and a lead screw.
The diamond probe has a radius of about 2 m and the
gearbox can give a max travel of 12 mm to it. The work piece
is mounted on a stand, which is mounted on a table.
The averaging meter and a pen recorder is provided for
obtaining a graphical record on a continuous graph paper.
The arm carrying the stylus forms an armature, which is
pivoted on the centerpiece of E-shaped arm there are coils
carrying an A.C. current.

Surface Texture: The Talysurf

Surface Texture: The Talysurf

As the armature is pivoted about the center leg, any movement of the stylus
causes the air gap to vary and thus the amplitude of the original AC current
flowing in the coils is modulated. The output of the bridge thus consists of
modulation only. This is further demodulated so that the current now is
directly proportional to the vertical displacement of the stylus only and this
output is then recorded with the help of pen recorder.

Surface Texture: Other methods of surface roughness

evaluation
Pneumatic Methods of Evaluating surface Finish:
Popularly known as Air leakage method
Compressed air is made to pass through a self aligning
nozzle which moves on the surface to be tested.
The gap between the nozzle tip of the instrument and the
surface to be tested depends on the height of the micro
irregularities.
The size of the gap affects the air discharge through the
nozzle.
The air discharge is measured by a rotameter that
determines the height of the irregularity

Surface Texture

Problems
Q1: Calculate the CLA Ra value for a surface for which the
sampling length is 0.8 mm.
The graph was drawn with a vertical magnification of 10000
and horizontal magnification of 100 and the areas above and
below the datum line are
Above: 150, 80, 170 & 40 mm2
Below: 80, 60, 150 and 120 mm2
Q2: In the measurement of surface roughness height of 20
successive peaks and troughs were measured from a datum
and were 35, 25, 40, 22, 35, 18, 42, 25, 35, 22, 36, 18, 42, 22,
32, 21, 37, 18, 35 & 20 microns. If these were obtained over
a length of 20 mm determine the CLA (Ra) and RMS value of
the roughness.

Problem- Home work

Q3: Describe the working of a tracer type
profilograph.
Q4:Explain why the surface finish is important
in Engineering applications.

Screw Thread Metrology

Threads are of prime importance, they are used as
fasteners.
To transmit force and motion (more important function)
In plain shaft, the hole assembly, the object of dimensional control is to ensure a
certain consistency of fit.
In case of thread work, the object is to ensure mechanical strength of the screw
thread, being governed by the amount of flank contact rather than by fit in a
threaded hole.
The performance of screw threads during their assembly with nut depends upon
a number of parameters such as the condition of the machine tool used for
screw cutting, work material and tool.
The inspection of the screw threads reveals the nature of defects present The
geometric aspects of screw threads are relatively complex with respect to the
interrelationship of pitch diameter, variation in lead, helix and flank angle.
The gauging of screw threads is the process of determining the extent to which
screw thread conform dimensionally to the prescribed limits of size.

Screw Thread Metrology

Screw Thread Terminology

Screw Thread Metrology

Screw Thread Terminology
Pitch: It is the distance measured parallel to the screw
threads axis between the corresponding points on two
adjacent threads in the same axial plane. The basic pitch
is equal to the lead divided by the number of threads.
Minor diameter: It is the diameter of an imaginary coaxial cylinder which touches the roots of external
threads.
Major diameter: It is the diameter of an imaginary coaxial cylinder which touches the crests of an external
thread and the root of an internal thread.
Lead: The axial distance advanced by the screw in one
revolution is the lead.

Screw Thread Metrology

Screw Thread Terminology
Pitch diameter: It is the diameter at which the thread
space and width are equal to half of the screw thread
Helix angle: It is the angle made by the helix of the
thread at the pitch line with the axis. The angle is
measured in an axial plane.
Flank angle: It is the angle between the flank and a
line normal to the axis passing through the apex of
the thread.
Height of thread: It is the distance measured radially
between the major and minor diameters respectively.

Screw Thread Metrology

Screw Thread Terminology
Depth of thread: It is the distance from the tip of thread to
the root of the thread measured perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis.
Form of thread: This is the shape of the contour of one
complete thread as seen in axial section.
External thread: A thread formed on the outside of a work
piece is called external thread.
Internal thread: A thread formed on the inside of a work
piece is called internal thread.
Axis of the thread: An imaginary line running longitudinally
through the center of the screw is called axis of the thread.
Angle of the thread: It is the angle between the flanks or
slope of the thread measured in an axial plane.

Screw Thread Metrology

Thread Forms
The form of the thread groove is a distinctive feature by
means of which screw threads may be grouped into two
types:
Vee threads are used for fastening purposes. Typical
forms are B.S.W (British standard Whiteworth), B.A
(British Association), unified, metric etc.
Transmission threads, used to cause displacements in a
mechanism.
The common examples may be lead screw of lathe the
typical forms are square and acme type of threads.

Screw Thread Metrology

The whitworth thread
has an included angle
of 55 between the
flanks and equal radii
at crest and root.
These are intended for
use as
standard nuts, bolts
and pipe work
The B.A. thread was
introduced by British
Association.

Screw Thread Metrology

Metric System International Thread

In metric threads, there is angle and clearance at
crest and root so that contact between mating
threads takes place only on the flanks.

Screw Thread Metrology

Measurement of Minor Diameter (Floating Carriage
Micrometer):
Floating carriage micrometer is used to measure the minor
diameter. It is suitable for almost all kinds of threads. The
Vee-piece are available in various sizes having suitable radii at
the edge. The standard is kept between the micrometer
anvils with the help of V- pieces as shown in Figure below:

Screw Thread Metrology

The indicator anvil is used to maintain the same constant
pressure at the time of measurement.
The diameter of standard cylinder is known to us and the
reading is taken for the V-pieces in position as r1.
Now without changing the position of indicator anvil, the
standard cylinder is replaced by screw. The reading is now
taken for the screw thread in position as r2
If d is the minor diameter of a screw thread then the value of
d can be calculated as, Minor diameter, d = (diameter of
standard cylinder) (difference between the readings)
d = d1 (r 2 r 1)

Screw Thread Metrology

Measurement of Major Diameter:
The major diameter of the screw threads can be checked by the
use of micrometer or vernier calipers as in plain diameter
measurement.
The major diameter is measured by bench micrometer as shown
in the Figure below
It uses constant measuring pressure i.e. the measurements are
made at the same pressure. Fixed anvil is replaced by fiducial
indicator.

Bench Micrometer

Screw Thread Metrology

Measurement of Major Diameter:
The work piece is held in hand and the machine can be used as
a comparator to avoid the pitch errors of micrometers. Instead
of slip gauge, a calibrated setting cylinder is used as a setting
standard, as it gives similarity of contact at the anvils
The cylinder is held and the readings of micrometer are noted.
The diameter of setting cylinder is approximately equal to the
major diameter.
The cylinder is replaced by threaded work pieces and the
readings are noted for the same reading of fiducial indicator.
If d1 = diameter of setting cylinder
r1 = reading of micrometer on setting cylinder
r2 = micrometer reading on the thread
Then major diameter = d1 + (r2 r1)

Screw Thread Metrology

Measurement of Major Diameter:
The work piece is held in hand and the machine can be used as
a comparator to avoid the pitch errors of micrometers. Instead
of slip gauge, a calibrated setting cylinder is used as a setting
standard, as it gives similarity of contact at the anvils
The cylinder is held and the readings of micrometer are noted.
The diameter of setting cylinder is approximately equal to the
major diameter.
The cylinder is replaced by threaded work pieces and the
readings are noted for the same reading of fiducial indicator.
If d1 = diameter of setting cylinder
r1 = reading of micrometer on setting cylinder
r2 = micrometer reading on the thread
Then major diameter = d1 + (r2 r1)

Screw Thread Metrology

Thread Measurement:
Tool Makers Microscope:

It is a versatile instrument that measures the variation by

optical means, with no pressure being involved. It is a
very useful instrument for making measurements on small
and delicate parts.
It is designed for following measurements:
1. Measurements of parts of complex form.
2. The profile of external thread as well as tools
3. Measuring center to center distance of holes in any
plane
4. Accurate angular measurement
5. Determining the relative position of various points on
work.

Screw Thread Metrology

Screw Thread Metrology

There are several detachable and interchangeable
eyepiece units.
The protractor unit is provided with radial and cross
setting lines and a protractor. This may be rotated by
a knurled screw for setting a line in the protractor
unit with a line on the image; and reading of the
protractor may be set to one minute.
shows the view through the protractor eyepiece.
The thread template unit has selected thread forms
arranged around the glass disc in the eyepiece and
this may be rotated to bring the required thread
form in position for comparing it with the magnified
shadow of the work.

Screw Thread Metrology

0.01 mm for length

measurement.
3' for angle measurement
with rotatable table.
I' for angle measurement
with the angle measuring
ocular.

Fig. shows the view through the

protractor eyepiece. The thread
template unit has selected thread
forms arranged around the glass disc
in the eyepiece and this may be
rotated to bring the required thread
form in position for comparing it with
the magnified shadow of the work.

Screw Thread Metrology

Applications of the tool makers microscope:
Length Measurement: Measuring the distance between two
points on work by measuring the table travel necessary to bring
the second point to the position previously occupied by the first.
Measurement of pitch of the screw:
The threaded work piece is mounted on the table. The
microscope is focused on by adjusting the height of the optical
head until a sharp image is seen on the ground glass screen. The
counter is set such that some point on the contour coincides
with the cross-line on the screen. The reading of the
micrometer is noted. The table is then moved until the
corresponding point on the contour profile is of the next thread
is matched with the cross line . The reading on the micrometer
is again noted and the difference in the two readings gives the
pitch of the screw.

Screw Thread Metrology

Measuring the distance between two points
on work by measuring the table travel
necessary to bring the second point to the
position previously occupied by the first.
Comparison of thread forms with master
profiles enlarged in the eyepiece and
measurement of pitch and effective diameter.
Measurement of angles using the protractor
eyepiece.

Gear Metrology
Gears are toothed wheels commonly used to
transmit power or motion
They are thus positive in action and provide constant
velocity ratio which is required in machinery
Transmission efficiency of the gears is 99% provided
there are no errors
Power transmission is the movement of energy from
its place of generation to a location where it is
applied to performing useful work
A gear is a component within a transmission device
that transmits rotational force to another gear or
device

Types of Gears
1. According to the position of axes of the
shafts.
a. Parallel
1.Spur Gear
2.Helical Gear
3.Rack and Pinion
b. Intersecting
Bevel Gear
c. Non-intersecting and Non-parallel
worm and worm gears

Types of Gears
SPUR GEARS
Teeth are parallel to
axis of rotation
Transmit power from
parallel shafts
Used in Electric
screwdriver, oscillating
sprinkler, windup
alarm clock, washing
machine and clothes
dryer

Types of Gears
Helical Gears
The teeth on helical gears are
cut at an angle to the face of the
gear forming a part of the helix
around the gear
These gears are used for
transmission of power between
parallel as well as non parallel
shafts
These gears rum smoothly and
are more quiet at high speeds as
compared to spur gears

Types of Gears
Rack and Pinion Gears
Rack and pinion gears
Rack gears are straight
gears with infinite radius.
Rack and pinion are used
in combination to
convert rotary motion
into reciprocating motion
A perfect example of this
is the steering system on
many cars

Types of Gears
Bevel Gears
Bevel gears are useful when the direction of a
shaft's rotation needs to be changed
They are usually mounted on shafts that are 90
degrees apart, but can be designed to work at other
angles as well
The teeth on bevel gears can be straight or spiral
locomotives, marine applications, automobiles,
printing presses, cooling towers, power plants, steel
plants, railway track inspection machines, etc.

Types of Gears
Straight and Spiral Bevel Gears

Types of Gears
Worm Gears
Worm gears are used when large gear reductions are
needed. It is common for worm gears to have
reductions of 20:1, and even up to 300:1 or greater
Many worm gears have an interesting property that no
other gear set has: the worm can easily turn the gear,
but the gear cannot turn the worm
Worm gears are used widely in material handling and
transportation machinery, machine tools, automobiles
etc

Types of Gears

Gear Nomenclature
NOMENCLATURE OF SPUR GEARS

Gear Nomenclature
Pitch surface: The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder
(cone, etc.) that the toothed gear may be considered to
replace.
Pitch circle: A right section of the pitch surface.
Addendum circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a
right section of the gear.
Root (or dedendum) circle: The circle bounding the spaces
between the teeth, in a right section of the gear.
Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and
the addendum circle.
Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and
the root circle.
Clearance: The difference between the dedendum of one
gear and the addendum of the mating gear.

Gear Nomenclature
Face of a tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside
the pitch surface.
Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the
pitch surface.
Circular thickness (also called the tooth thickness): The
thickness of the tooth measured on the pitch circle. It is the
length of an arc and not the length of a straight line.
Tooth space: pitch diameter The distance between adjacent
teeth measured on the pitch circle.
Backlash: The difference between the circle thickness of one
gear and the tooth space of the mating gear.
Circular pitch (Pc) : The width of a tooth and a space,
measured on the pitch circle.
D
Pc
N

Gear Nomenclature
Diametral pitch (Pd): The number of teeth of a gear unit pitch
diameter. The diametrical pitch is, by definition, the number
of teeth divided by the pitch diameter. That is,
Where
Pd = diametral pitch
N = number of teeth
D = pitch diameter

Pd =

N
D

Module (m): Pitch diameter divided by number of teeth. The

pitch diameter is usually specified in inches or millimeters; in
the former case the module is the inverse of diametral pitch.
m = D/N

VELOCITY RATIO OF GEAR DRIVE

d = Diameter of the wheel
N =Speed of the wheel
= Angular speed
velocity ratio (n)

d1
2 N 2
=
=
1 N 1 d 2

Types of Gears