Mulla Sadras Concept of the Soul:

The sperm in the womb is like a plant and the soul comes into being with the body
when the sperm develops, at that moment the soul is vegetative (nafs-e-nabatiya)
in actuality but possessing the potential of becoming an animal (nafs-e-haywaniya),
as soon as the soul exits the womb it is an animal in actuality but possesses the
potential to become a human (nafs-e-insaniya) and when it matures and develops it
becomes a human in actuality having the potential to become a devil or an angel.
This transformation takes place through the process of trans-substantial motion
(harkat-al-jawhariya). There are three worlds or realms namely the spiritual world
(alam-e-arwah) also known as the Jabarut or the intelligibilia, the intermediate
world (alam-e-barzakh) also called the malakut or the imaginilia and the sensible
world (mulk) also called sensibilia. The intermediate world both connects as well as
separates the spiritual and sensible worlds. Mulla Sadra compares our existence in
the sensible realm with the existence of a baby in its mothers womb, while in the
womb the baby is present in the sensible world but is unaware of its existence, and
only comes to realize it when it comes out of the womb, similarly the intermediate
world (alam-e-barzakh) is present in this world but we are unaware of its existence
and only come to know of it posthumously after death. In this material and sensible
world the soul has a body of gross matter i.e. a material body however when the
soul passes into the imaginal world from the sensible one on death it sheds off the
material body and is given a subtle imaginal body (jism-e-mithali), similarly when
the soul passes from the imaginal world into the akhira so it is given a material
body but not of gross matter of the sensible world rather it is of a subtle material
substance. According to Mulla Sadra every existent or being found in the sensible
world has had to travel a journey (safar/asfar) of descent travelling through the the
imaginal world before entering the sensible realm, this is the journey of its origin
(mabda), similarly every being or existent in its journey of ascent has to pass from
the sensible world through the imaginal world in its journey of return (maad), this
completes the cycle of the origin and return (mabda-wa-maad). At each level or
stage the soul is given a different body (jism) as has been stated above. Everything
that comes down into the sensible world from the heavens(including
revelation,angels and sustenance) has to pass through the intermediate world of
the imaginilia (alam-e-barzakh) before entering the sensible world of matter,
similarly anything ascending upwards also has to pass through the intermediate
world of the imaginilia, and at every level it takes on a different bodily form. When
the soul leaves the world of matter as a result of death and enters the imaginal
realm so it is given a subtle body called jism-e-mithali, the form that this imaginal
body takes, whether beautiful or ugly, depends upon the actions performed and the
thoughts possessed by the soul during its existence in the sensible world. Mankind
combines within his existence aspects of the spiritual, imaginal and the sensible
worlds such that the human existence is a composition of body (jism), soul (nafs)
and spirit (ruh) where the body is an aspect of the sensible world, the soul is an
aspect of the imaginal world and the spirit an aspect of the spiritual realm. Man has

been bestowed with faculties for perceiving all the three worlds, for instance, he has
been given the faculty of sense perception (hawas-e-khamsa) for perceiving the
sensibilia, the imaginative faculty (quwat-al-mutakhayala) capable of producing
imaginal forms (khayal) for perceiving the imaginilia and the intellect (aql) for
perceiving the intelligibilia. In the sensible world there is an ontological disparity
between the imaginal forms produced by the imaginative faculty (quwat-almutakhayala) and their objective existence in the external reality, in other words
the forms imagined by the soul are other than their objective realities (e.g. the
imaginal form of a date produced by the imaginative faculty cannot be consumed
unlike its objective reality). However according to Mulla Sadra in the intermediate
realm of the imaginilia (alam-e-barzakh) the disparity between the imaginal forms
and their objective existence ceases to exist as the forms imagined by the soul
assume an objective existence. It has been stated above that the form of the
imaginal body (jism-e-mithali) will depend upon the thoughts and actions performed
during the souls existence in the sensible world, in order to elaborate this further it
can be said that the form taken by the imaginal body in the intermediate world
(alam-e-barzakh) will depend upon the souls existence in the sensible world in all
the three modes of being namely spiritual, imaginal and sensible. In the imaginilia
the imaginal forms contained within the soul as a result of its actions and thoughts
performed during its existence in the world of matter will become objective realities
being the cause of felicity and heavenly pleasures, in case of a pure soul, or pain
and punishment of the infernal hell, in case of an impure soul. According to Mulla
Sadra from among the body and the soul it is the soul that has primacy because the
body needs the soul for its existence and survival and not the other way round
because the soul is immortal in nature, in other words the soul is independent of the
body even though it originates and comes into being together with the body.
Pleasure or pain, felicity or suffering are embodied within the soul depending upon
the actions performed in the sensible world but this does not mean that paradise
and hell do not have objective existence. The purpose of creation is for the soul to
deliberately cultivate and develop within itself divine attributes (sifat-e-ilahiya) and
to be able to reflect these divine attributes as best as possible, Mulla Sadra names
this process takhalluq-bil-sifat-e-ilahiya. The ascent towards the spiritual world
(alam-e-arwah) through the intermediate world of the imaginilia signifies the return
(maad) to God. In the sensible world the souls imaginative faculty (quwat-almutakhayala) requires a material substratum, the human mind, for producing
imaginal forms (khayal) however in the intermediate realm of imaginilia (alam-ebarzakh) this dependency ceases to exist, and the soul is able to produce imaginal
forms without requiring a material substratum. The soul on commencement of its
journey of ascent (maad) towards the imaginal world (alam-e-malakut) sheds of its
robe of materiality and this phenomenon is known as tajarrud-e-nafs.
Mulla Sadra on Existence & Essence:

Existence (wujud) answers the question whether a thing is? whereas Essence
(mahiya) is the answer to what is it? In other words essence of a thing defines what
it is. Existence is perceivable through sense perception and therefore has wujude-aini, essence on the other hand is not perceivable through sense perception and
therefore is devoid of wujud-e-aini and is only a mental concept subject to
conceptualization. Existence is an external objective reality whereas essence is not
an external objective reality and is simply a mental concept (wujud-e-dhihni) and
is devoid of wujud-e-khariji. Essence is a universal idea that is abstracted from
specific or concrete objects or entities by extracting their common and essential
attributes or properties to formulate an abstract or universal concept applicable and
common to all. Essential attributes or properties are those features of an entity or
object without which it would be impossible for it to exist or survive. Therefore
attributes or properties that are common but non-essential or accidental do not
form part of the essence. Hence it is correct to assert that essence is a universal
idea or concept that is shared by many things and is common to them all whereas
existence of a thing is particular to it and cannot be shared by other objects and
entities. Since essence is an idea or concept that is abstracted from existence
therefore it is dependent upon existence and not independent. Due to the reasons
stated above Mulla Sadra formulated his doctrine of the Primacy of Existence
(asalat-al-wujud) according to which reality and significance is of existence
instead of essence. The more intense and strong the existence of a thing the lesser
or weaker is its essence and hence greater the reality of it and the less intense or
weaker the existence the greater is the essence and lesser the reality. According to
Mulla Sadra since God is pure existence therefore he has no essence, this is
because the existence of God is the strongest and most intense of all and hence he
has no essence and is the greatest reality. Mulla Sadras doctrine of Primacy of
Existence (asalat-al-wujud) contradicts the formerly held belief of the Primacy of
Essence (asalat-al-mahiya) which asserted that the essence was particular and
existence was universal, in other words it considered existence a common feature
shared by all things, this idea is similar to the theory of the Unity of Existence
(wahdat-ul-wujud) and leads to Pantheism, and is therefore contrary to the
Principle of Unity (tauhid). Mulla Sadras doctrine of Primacy of Existence (asalatal-wujud) by negating the concept of Primacy of Essence (asalat-al-mahiya)
safeguards the Principle of Unity (tauhid). The former doctrine of the Primacy of
Essence by declaring the universality of existence made existence a common
attribute or feature shared by all things, in other words it supported the notion that
all existents or things are God because all things have a unified existence. Mulla
Sadras doctrine of Primacy of Existence (asalat-al-wujud) asserts that the
existence of a thing is particular to that thing only and therefore cannot be shared
with other entities or objects. This notion leads to the logical conclusion that if the
existence of a thing is something particular to it only and is not a shared attribute,
therefore the existence of God is also something particular to God alone and is not a
common or shared attribute.

Mulla Sadra on Substance & Accident:

According to Mulla Sadra accidents (aradh) such as taste, color and smell reside
within the substance (jauhar) of a thing (shay) and arise as a result of the
existence of the substance and therefore do not have an independent existence of
their own but are dependent upon the substance (jauhar) for their existence. It is
the substance (jauhar) of an object that has an independent existence and not its
accidents because accidents need the substance for their appearance and
existence. Mulla Sadra argued that if the accidents (aradh) cannot exist
independently of the substance so how can they change independently of the
substance? Therefore Mulla Sadra stated that changes in accidents such as taste,
color and smell occur as a result of a change in the substance, in other words it
could be said that changes in accidents are the effects caused by a change in
substance. Mulla Sadra refers to this change in substance as substantial motion or
harkat-al-jauhariya. In other words it could be asserted that change in
substance (jauhar) is caused by substantial motion (harkat-al-jauhariya), and
this change in substance in its turn causes changes in accidents (aradh). Therefore
it can be safely concluded that substantial motion (harkat-al-jauhariya) is the
main cause for change in both substance as well as accidents.

Mulla Sadra on Actuality & Potentiality:

According to Mulla Sadra potentiality (quwa/istidad) is latent within the substance
of an existent that may be converted into actuality (haqiqa) through motion or
change in the substance of the object or thing (shay) which he refers to as
substantial motion or change or harkat-al-jauhariya. In other words it could be
asserted that the manifestation of that which is potential (quwa/istidad) into
actuality (haqiqa) is caused by substantial motion (harkat-al-jauhariya). This
manifested actuality (haqiqa) is the effect of substantial motion and change. Mulla
Sadra states that this actualization of latent potential represents a movement
(haraka) towards perfection (kamal). To seek this existential perfection (kamal) is
the objective of every being (wujud). Substantial motion (harkat-al-jauhariya)
represents movement from potentiality towards actuality, from a state of
imperfection to that of existential perfection. This movement from potentiality to
actuality, from imperfection to existential perfection is represented in Mulla Sadras
concept of the soul, where he states that initially the soul that comes into being
with the body is vegetative (nafs-e-nabatiya) in actuality but possesses the
potential to become an animal soul (nafs-e-haywania), at birth the soul is animal
(haywan) in actuality with the potential to become human (nafs-e-insania) and
finally when the soul develops and matures it is human in actuality but possesses
the potential to become either a devil or an angel (malak). Every manifested

actuality (haqiqa) was previously a potentiality (quwa/istidad) brought into

existence through the process of substantial motion (harkat-al-jauhariya).
Mulla Sadra on Reality of Existence:
According to Mulla Sadra the sensible world or sensibilia is the lowest form of
existence whereas the spiritual world i.e. the intelligibilia is the highest form of
existence or being. In other words the existence of specific objects and beings in the
sensible world (mahsoosat) is weakest whereas the existence of intelligibles
(maqulat) is the strongest. It could be asserted that as things move from the
sensible realm (alam-e-maddi) to the intermediate realm of the imaginilia
(alam-e-barzakh) and from there into the realm of spirits (alam-e-arwah) their
existence intensifies and becomes stronger, in other terms it could be said that as
things move from the sensible world towards the spiritual realm they become
existentially more real. Similarly it is also correct to say that as things move from
the spiritual world through the intermediate world of imaginilia into the sensible
world they become weaker in existence, in other words it could be said that they
become less real existentially. Therefore according to Mulla Sadra as things move
from the spiritual world towards the sensible realm they experience diminution
(tadauf) in their existential reality, and as they move upwards from the sensible
world towards the intelligibilia they experience intensification (tashaddud) in
their existential reality. This intensification (tashaddud) of existential reality has
also been expressed by Mulla Sadra in the framework of actuality (haqiqa) and
potentiality (quwa/istidad) where the actualization of latent potential in a being
or a thing represents intensification in its existence (wujud). In other terms when
an existent moves through the process of substantial motion (harkat-aljauhariya) from a state of potentiality to a state of actuality so this motion or
movement (haraka) causes an intensification in its existence i.e. it becomes more
real as it actualizes its latent potential. In Mulla Sadras thought as things become
more and more material (maddi) their existence weakens (taduf) as they
experience diminution in their reality. Similarly as things become more and more
detached from matter through disembodiment (tajarrud) they experience
intensification (tashaddud) in their existence as they become more real. Therefore
as all things move from the sensible world through the intermediate realm of
barzakh towards the spiritual realm they experience disembodiment from matter
(tajarrud) and therefore become more real as their existence intensifies. The
intensification of existence and the strengthening of reality constitute perfection
(kamal), similarly diminution in existence and the weakening of reality constitute
imperfection. For instance when a thing actualizes its latent potential and thereby
experiences intensification in its existential reality through substantial motion so it
is said to be moving towards existential perfection (kamal-e-wujudi). Similarly
when an existent commences its ascent or return (maad) from the sensible world
towards higher realms of existence so then too it is said to be moving towards
existential perfection.Similarly when a thing descends in its journey of origin

(mabda) from a higher existential realm into the sensible world of matter so it is
said to be moving towards existential imperfection (wujud-e-naqis). This is
because the material realm is a world of generation, corruption, decay and
imperfection whereas the higher realms of the imaginilia and intelligibilia since
they are free of matter therefore they are not plagued by corruption, decay and
imperfection.
Mulla Sadra on Intelligibles & Sensibles:
In Mulla Sadras philosophy the world of spirits (alam-e-arwah) or the
intelligibilia consist of intelligibles (maqulat) which are disembodied (mujarrid)
forms or substances, this means that they are free from matter (madda) and hence
are immaterial. These disembodied forms or substances are objective existents
possessing substantive and concrete reality. The intelligibles are disembodied which
means that they do not possess a corporeal existence. The existential state of the
intelligibles is much more intense and stronger than the existential state of
material existents of the sensible world (alam-e-maddi). In other words it could be
said that the intelligibles have a more real existence as compared to the existents
subsisting in the world of matter i.e. the senibilia. It could be deduced from the
above that the stronger the association of a being or a thing with matter the weaker
and less intense is its existence (wujud) and the more disembodied it is the more
intensified is its existence.The stronger the material association the less real the
existence and the weaker the material association the more real the existence. The
material objects and existents subsisting in the sensible world are imperfect and
incomplete copies or reflections of the intelligibles found in the spiritual realm.
The intelligible forms (maqulat) subsisting in the intelligibilia are the true
essences of material existents subsisting in the sensible world of matter, but are
more perfect and complete than the particular material existents. Their perfection is
due to their immateriality and immutability. The intelligibles (maqulat) are
immutable and therefore possess an unchanging and permanent nature. On the
contrary material existents are subject to change and lack permanence. Mulla Sadra
states that sense perception (idrak-e-hissi) of material existents only tells us
about their existence (wujud) but fails to disclose their true reality or quiddity
(mahiya). The quiddity or reality (haqiqa) of material objects or things tells us
what that thing is and is therefore its meaning or definition. This reality or quiddity
is equivalent to the disembodied forms or essences called intelligibles (maqulat)
subsisting in the intelligibilia. Knowledge (ilm) is acquired by appropriating or
grasping these intelligible forms or essences that subsist in the spiritual world of
the intelligibilia. This knowledge is more credible and perfect due to the
immutable and unchangeable character of the intelligible essences or forms.
Mulla Sadra on Gradation of Existence:
According to Mulla Sadras theory of Gradation of existence (tashkik-al-wujud) the
existence of things intensifies (tashaddud) depending upon the realm or world in

which they subsist. In other words as things or beings move upwards from the
sensible world through the intermediate realm of Barzakh towards the spiritual
world (alam-e-arwah), also known as the intelligibilia, they experience an
intensification (tashaddud) in their existence, alternatively speaking as things
ascend upwards from the sensible world of matter (alam-e-maddi) through the
intermediate realm of imaginilia (alam-e-barzakh) towards the intelligibilia
they become more real i.e. their reality becomes stronger. Similarly as existents
descend downwards from the spiritual world (alam-e-arwah) through the realm of
Barzakh towards the sensible world they experience a diminution (tadauf) in their
existence (wujud), in other words it could be said that their existential reality
becomes weak as they move downwards in their descent from the intelligibilia
towards the sensible world. Therefore the intelligibles (maqulat) that subsist in
the spiritual world have a more intense existence and a stronger existential reality
as compared to those existents that subsist in the world of matter (alam-emadda). Similarly when an existent realizes its latent potential (istidad/quwa)
into an actuality so then too it experiences intensification (tashaddud) in its
existence (wujud), in other words it is said to have become more real and actual.
This intensification of existence and actualization of latent potentiality
(quwa/istidad) enhances the existential reality of the thing. Alternatively speaking
the object becomes more perfect (kamil) as it becomes more actual and real. In the
sensible world the cause of the intensification (tashaddud) in the existence of an
object or being is substantial motion (harkat-al-jauhariya) that actualizes the
latent potentialities (quwa/istidad) into an actuality (haqiqa) thereby resulting in
a more real and intense existential reality. It could therefore be asserted that in the
sensible world of matter (alam-e-madda) it is this substantial motion that leads an
existent towards the attainment of existential perfection (kamal-e-wujudi).
Mulla Sadras Theory of Tashkik-al-Wujud:
Mulla Sadra grades existence (wujud) in the following increasing order of intensity
(tashaddud), vegetative, animal and human. According to this gradation of
existence (tashkik-al-wujud) the most intense existence is that of humans
followed by animals and then finally the least intense existence is that of plants and
vegetation. In other words human existence is strongest in reality followed by that
of animals and then lastly vegetation whose existence is the least real of all. It could
be said that human existence is the most perfect whereas that of plants and
vegetation the least perfect of all. Plants possess the faculty and the ability to
receive nourishment and produce growth whereas animals possess the faculty or
ability to receive nourishment or sustenance resulting in growth as well as the
faculty of sensation (idrak-e-hissi) and motion (haraka) which is absent in plants
therefore it is fair to say that animal existence is more intense and real than that of
vegetation or plants. Therefore it is fair to deduce that animal existence is more
perfect than vegetative existence because it possesses both the faculties and the
abilities found in the vegetative existence, as well as the faculties of sensation and

motion which the vegetative existence lacks. Similarly human existence possesses
within itself the faculty or ability to receive nourishment thereby producing
growth,which are found in vegetative existence and also sensation and motion
which are found in animal existence. However in addition to the faculties and
abilities mentioned above human existence also possesses the faculty of intellection
and imagination which both the animal as well as the vegetative existences lack.
Therefore human existence is the most intensified and real existence and hence is
also the most perfect. Similarly when the soul first comes into being along with the
body so it is vegetative in nature (nafs-e-nabatiya), which means that it
possesses the ability to receive nourishment and produce growth like plants, but
has the potential (quwa/istidad) of sensation and motion, at birth the soul is
animal in nature (nafs-e-haywania), which means it now carries within itself the
vegetative faculties of receiving nourishment and growth as well as sensation and
motion which are animal qualities, in other words it could be asserted that it has
experienced intensification (tashaddud) in its existence (wujud) and has become
stronger in its reality by moving from one imperfect state of being to a more actual
and perfect state or existence with the potential to become human (nafs-einsania). Similarly when the soul matures and develops so it is human and rational
in nature (nafs-e-insania) which means that it has intensified in existence and has
become more real and perfect. This movement from one imperfect existential state
to a more perfect one, or from a weaker existence to a more intense one takes
place through substantial motion (harkat-al-jauharia).
Mulla Sadra on the Order of Existence & the Order of Perception:
According to Mulla Sadra at the commencement of origin (mabda) the intelligible
forms or essences (maqulat) come into existence first i.e. before the existence of
the imaginal forms, and the imaginal forms have priority in existence over the
material existents of the sensible world. The most intense (tashaddud) existence
comes into being before all others and the least intense or the weakest (tadauf)
existence comes into being last. In other words the most real and perfect existence
comes into being before the imaginal and the material, followed by the imaginal
and then lastly the material, this means that the weakest in reality and the least
perfect existence comes into being in the end. Therefore the intelligible forms have
priority in the order of existence followed by the imaginal forms and then the
material existents. This is because it is the intelligible forms, the true essences or
archetypes that are the cause of the existence of both the imaginal forms and the
material existents and since most causes (illat) have priority in existence over their
effects (malul) therefore the intelligible forms hold existential priority over both
the imaginal forms as well as the material existents which are the effects of the
intelligible forms (maqulat). However there is an asymmetrical relation between
the order of existence and the order in which we perceive things and their reality
i.e. the order of perception (idrak). In the material world we begin with sense
perception (idrak-e-hissi) of material existents and then use our imaginative

faculty (quwat-e-mutakhayyala) for perceiving the imaginal forms and then

finally move upwards towards perceiving the intelligible forms (maqulat) of
material existents through the intellect (aql), therefore in perception that which
comes into existence first i.e. the intelligibles (maqulat) is perceived last and that
which comes into being last in existence i.e. the sensibles (mehsusat) is perceived
first.

Mulla Sadra on Essences & Existential Intensity:

In Mulla Sadras philosophical thought the more intense (tashaddud) the existence
of a thing or the stronger its reality the lesser is its essence, and the weaker the
existence or the reality the greater the essence (mahiya) in other words it could be
said that there is a negative co-relation between the essence of a thing and the
intensity of its existence or its reality. This is because as the existence of a thing
intensifies new meanings (maani) are added to its essence, in other words a thing
becomes more real and actual as multiple meanings get unified in its being. The
essence of a thing is something that makes that thing what it is. Therefore the
essence of the vegetative soul (nafs-e-nabatiya) is for instance that it receives
nourishment and grows, now since this is the weakest or the least intense stage or
level of existence (wujud) therefore its essence is the strongest, this is because the
essence of the vegetative soul i.e. its definition or meaning or that which makes it
what it is, is that it receives nourishment and grows, if this essence is to be
withdrawn from it, it will cease to exist because at this stage this is all that the
vegetative soul is, hence it is accurate to say that at this stage the existence is least
intense or is very weak and the essence is strong. However when the vegetative
soul through substantial motion (harkat-al-jauhariya) actualizes its latent
potentiality (istidad/quwa) and becomes an animal soul (nafs-e-haywania) so it
experiences an intensification (tashaddud) in its existence as it becomes more real
and perfect (kamil). This intensification adds new meanings (maani), such as
sensation (hiss) and motion (haraka), to the essence (mahiya) thereby
weakening the essence but strengthening the existence. At this level or stage
existence undergoes intensification whereas the essence experiences diminution
(tadauf). Now the essence of the animal soul i.e. its definition, meaning or that
which makes what it is, is that it receives nourishment, grows, senses and has
motion as well, if either one of these meanings is to be withdrawn still the existence
of that thing will remain intact, for instance if a dog becomes deaf or blind it will still
remain in existence despite diminution in its senses, this is because of the
unification of multiple meanings (maani) in its being or existence, which does not
only consist of sensation (hiss) because had that been the case so the loss of
sensation would have resulted in elimination of its existence as well. Similarly when
the animal soul (nafs-e-haywania) actualizes its dormant potentiality to become a
human-rational soul (nafs-e-insania) so once again it experiences intensification in
its existence as it becomes more real and perfect. At this stage or level due to the

addition of new meanings (maani) such as speech (kalam) and the intellect
(aqal), with the previously existing ones in the essence of the thing the existence
becomes more intense but its essence becomes weaker. To reiterate what has been
said above about the essence of a thing that it is its definition , meaning or that
which makes a thing what it is, therefore the essence of the human-rational soul i.e.
its definition or meaning is that it receives nourishment, grows, senses, has motion,
speaks (kalam/nutq) and possesses intellect (aql) as well. If any one of these
meanings that make up the essence of Man are to be withdrawn so his existence
would still remain intact, for instance if a Man becomes blind or deaf or both so the
loss or diminution in his senses would not result in his losing his existence which
would still be there, similarly if a person loses his sanity or intellect and becomes
insane or loses his power of speech (kalam/nutq) and becomes dumb he would
still continue to exist. Therefore it can be deduced from the above that as existence
intensifies the essence of the thing becomes weaker due to the addition of multiple
meanings in the essence.
Mulla Sadras Unification Argument:
According to Mulla Sadra as new meanings (maani) are added to the essence of a
thing (shay) that object or being becomes more intense in its existence (wujud). In
other words as more multiple meanings get unified in a single existence that thing
experiences intensification (tashaddud) in its existence (wujud). The unification
(ittihad) of various meanings makes the thing more real and perfect. Therefore it
can be stated that unification of different meanings in a single being is positively corelated with existential intensity. To explain this idea Mulla Sadra once again refers
to the example of the soul (nafs), at the time of its creation with the body (jism)
the soul is vegetative in actuality (nafs-e-nabatia) which means that its essence
can be defined as that which receives nourishment and grows, at this stage the soul
is least intense in its existence. When the vegetative soul (nafs-e-nabatia) realizes
its latent potentiality (istidad/quwa) to become more real and actual it becomes
an animal soul (nafs-e-haywania). At this stage or level new meanings (maani)
such as sensation (hiss) and motion (haraka), get unified in its being to the
previously existing ones resulting in the intensification of its existential reality
(haqiqat-al-wujud). Similarly when the animal soul realizes its dormant potential
to become a human-rational soul (nafs-e-inania) so more meanings (maani) such
as speech (kalam/nutq) and intellect (aqal) get unified with the previously
existing ones in its existence. This unification (ittihad) of additional meanings with
the prior ones results in a more actualized and real i.e. a more intensified
(tashaddud) existence (wujud). Therefore unification of multiple meanings
(maani) results in a more intense, perfect and real existential reality (haqiqat-alwujud).
Mulla Sadras Epistemology:

Sense perception (idrak-e-hissi) tells us only about the existence (wujud) of a

thing but fails to disclose its true reality (haqiqa), this true reality is nothing but
the essence (mahiya) of that object or thing (shay). Sense perception only
discloses to us the accidents (awaridh) of an object, such as its taste, color, smell,
sound, size and shape. In other words it could be stated that our senses reveal the
thing in us and not the thing in itself which is the true reality or essence of that
thing. The true reality or essence of a thing is its intelligible form (maqul)
subsisting in the spiritual world (alam-e-arwah) or the intelligibilia that have a
most intensified (tashaddud), real and perfect (kamil) existence. These intelligible
forms (maqulat) are concrete realities having a substantial existence. The
intelligible forms cannot be perceived through sense perception (quwat-e-hissia)
because our senses can only perceive that which is material (maddi) and hence fail
to perceive objects or things that lie beyond the realm of matter (madda). This is
because our sense organs can only perceive the sensibles (mehsusat) that exist in
the material world (alam-e-maddi). Therefore these intelligible forms (maqulat)
can only be perceived by the use of the intellective faculty (quwat-e-aqlia) or the
intellect (aql). According to Mulla Sadra the true reality (haqiqa) or the essence of
an existent (mawjud) can only be perceived by grasping or appropriating its
intelligible form (maqul) that subsists in the spiritual world (alam-e-arwah)
because this intelligible form is the universal form or the true essence of that thing
(shay). Mulla Sadra states that knowledge (ilm) is acquired when the intellector
(aqil) unites (ittehad) with that which is intellected. That which is intellected is
none other than the intelligible form (maqul). Therefore knowledge (ilm) is
attained through intellection (taqul) when the intellector (aqil) unites (ittehad)
with the intelligible form (maqul). Mulla Sadra refers to this unification of the
intellector with the intelligible as ittehad-e-aqil-wa-maqul. The knowledge
that is acquired by grasping or appropriating the intelligible form by means of the
intellect is more credible than that attained through sense perception of material
objects subsisting in the sensible world (alam-e-hissi).
Mulla Sadra on Disembodiment from Matter:
According to Mulla Sadra as an object or thing descends in its journey of origin
(mabda) towards the material world (alam-e-maddi) it experiences an increase in
its materiality, in other words it could be said that as it moves downwards towards
the sensible world its association or link with matter strengthens. On the contrary
when an existent (mawjud) ascends in its journey of return (maad) towards the
spiritual world (alam-e-arwah) so it experiences a decline or decrease in its
materiality, alternatively it could asserted that as it moves upwards towards the
realm of intelligible forms or the intelligibilia its link or association (taalluq) with
matter weakens. Therefore the ascent renders a thing more immaterial whereas the
descent renders it more material (maddi). This disembodiment from matter is
called tajarrud. Disembodiment from matter liberates the thing from material
imperfections such as change, decay and corruption. In other words the more

disembodied and detached a thing is from matter the more existentially perfect
(kamil) it is. As a thing becomes more and more disembodied it becomes more
intense in its existence (wujud) and hence more real as well as actual. According to
Sadra there are three kinds or stages of disembodiment (tajarrud), namely perfect,
medial and imperfect or incomplete. The disembodiment of the intelligible forms
(maqulat) is perfect disembodiment whereas that of the imaginal forms is medial
and lastly the material existents subsisting in the sensible world are said to be
imperfectly or incompletely disembodied.
Mulla Sadra on Ontological Simplicity:
As multiple meanings (maani) or existential properties get unified (ittehad) in a
single being that thing experiences intensification (tashaddud) in its existence
(wujud) and becomes ontologically simple (basit). In other words as more and
more meanings (maani) are added (idhafa) into an essence the essence becomes
multiple in nature and hence weak or less whereas the existence of that thing
intensifies (tashaddud) as more and more existential properties or meanings get
unified in a single being or existence (wujud) and therefore that thing becomes
ontologically simple (basit) due to the unification of multiple existential properties
or meanings in a single being. Mulla Sadra refers to such a being as a simple reality
(basit-al-haqiqa), and since this simple reality contains within its essence all
meanings hence it is called basit-al-haqiqa kulli shay or the simple reality is all
things which means that the more existentially intense an object or being (wujud)
the more multiple in nature is its essence i.e. the essence would contain multiple
meanings.
Mulla Sadras Concept of Love:
According to Mulla Sadra every existent or thing (shay) in the sensible world has an
innate or instinctive desire within itself to seek perfection (kamal), and it is this
desire or affection to attain perfection that is referred to as mahabbah. It is this
innate or instinctive desire or love (mahabbah) that causes substantial motion
(harkat-al-jauhariya) which in its turn converts potentiality (quwa/istidad) into
an actuality (filiat) and results in the intensification (tashaddud) of existence
(wujud), in other words it is mahabbah that causes existential intensity and
thereby results in the strengthening of reality (haqiqa) of a thing. Therefore it is
this mahabbah that causes a thing to become more actual, more real and
existentially more intense, in other words it is this instinctive desire or affection that
leads to perfection (kamal). According to Mulla Sadra God loves existents which are
his creation and his effects in proportion to the existential perfection that they
attain. In other words the more existentially intense and real or actual a being the
more it is loved by God. A things drive or motivation to achieve perfection is
nothing but an unconscious desire to seek God, because God is absolute existence
and perfection.

Mulla Sadra on the Corporeality & Incorporeality of the Soul:

According to Mulla Sadra the soul (nafs) is corporeal in its origin but incorporeal in
its subsistence (maddi ul wujud wa ruhaniat al baqa), it means that when the
soul initially comes into being along with the body so it is material (maddi) in its
origination, but as it develops and matures it becomes more and more immaterial.
In other words the more existentially intense (tashaddud) and hence the more
actual and real the existence (wujud) the less material the soul. The more perfect
the existence (kamil al wujud) the less material the soul. This shows that there is
a negative co-relation between the materiality of the soul and its existential
perfection and intensity, such that the higher a being is in its gradation of existence
(tashkik al wujud) the less material is its soul (nafs). As more and more
existential properties get unified (ittehad) in a single being it becomes more
intense in its existence, more actual and real and consequently more perfect ,
therefore this unification of multiple meanings (maani) causes the soul to become
more immaterial. To reiterate Mulla Sadras frequently used example of the soul it
could be stated that at the moment of its origination the soul is vegetative (nafs-enabatia) in actuality (filiat) and possesses the faculty or capacity to receive
nourishment and growth, but as it realizes its latent potential (quwa/istidad) to
move from a lesser stage of existence and being to a higher one ,through
substantial motion (harkat al jawharia) it becomes an animal soul (nafs-ehaywania) as new existential properties or meanings, such as sensation (hiss) and
motion (haraka), get united in its being. This results in existential intensification
(tashaddud) as the being becomes more actual and real thereby increasing the
immateriality of the soul. Later on as the animal soul further realizes its dormant
potentiality and moves from a lesser state of existence and being to higher and
more perfect one, it becomes a human ration-soul (nafs-e-insania) as more
meanings (maani), such as speech (kalam) and intellect (aqal), get added
(idhafa) into its essence making it more existentially intense, real , actual and
hence more perfect further increasing the immateriality of the soul. So far we have
been discussing motion and change on the horizontal plane, similarly when the soul
commences its vertical ascent towards the higher realms of barzakh and the
intelligibilia (alam-e-arwah) it experiences disembodiment (tajarrud) and
detachment from matter causing it to become incorporeal (nafs-e-mujarrid). This
is a higher level of disembodiment (medial) after the imperfect and incomplete
disembodiment of the sensible world and therefore a higher level of immateriality
for the soul. Finally as the soul moves from the intermediate stage of the imaginilia
(alam-e-malakut/barzakh) towards the spiritual world (alam-e-arwah) it
becomes perfectly disembodied and hence perfectly incorporeal. The reason for the
souls initial attachment or association with matter is that the soul cannot act
independently without matter or the body (jism) and therefore is reliant upon a
material body (jism-e-maddi) for performing its actions and deeds. According to
Mulla Sadra the body ought to be submissive and subservient to the soul and
therefore should obey it.

Mulla Sadra on the Imaginal Forms:

According to Mulla Sadra imaginal forms are perceived by the imaginative faculty
(quwat al mutakhayyala). The imaginal forms perceived by the faculty of
imagination in our material existence lack an external objective reality (wujud-ekhariji) and therefore cannot be perceived through sense perception (idrak-ehissi). These imaginal forms perceived through imagination lack any visible
existence (wujud-e-aini). Therefore there is a disparity between the imaginal
forms and their external reality in this material world (alam-e-maddi). This is
because the sensible world happens to be the least existentially intense realm, in
other words it is the weakest realm as far as the reality of existence is concerned in
the three world hierarchy of existences in Mulla Sadras philosophy. Secondly the
soul (nafs) too is weakest in its embodiment within a material body (jism) this is
due to the fact that disembodiment (tajarrud) in the sensible world is imperfect
and incomplete disembodiment which means that the souls association with matter
is the strongest in the material world and hence the stronger this attachment the
weaker would be the soul and due to this the imaginal forms perceived by the
imaginative faculty in the material world do exist but their existence is intensely
weak (tadauf) and therefore is devoid of an objective reality. However substantial
motion (harkat al jawharia) causes the dormant or the latent potentiality
(quwa/istidad) to become actual (filiat) thereby causing existential
intensification (tashaddud) and perfection (kamal). When all the latent
potentialities have been actualized through substantial motion such that there no
longer remains any potentiality that requires actualization it means the soul is now
perfect and capable of subsisting independently of matter (ruhaniat al baqa).
When the soul achieves this stage of perfection or actuality it experiences death or
disembodiment from matter and becomes immaterial (mujarrid). The disembodied
soul (nafs al mujarrid) is existentially more intense, real and actual due to its
immateriality and the actualization of all its dormant potentialities through
substantial motion during its material existence (wujud-e-maddi). In addition to
the intensification of the soul, when the soul passes into the intermediate realm of
barzakh (alam-e-malakut) from the sensible world, so it is entering a more perfect
and real world as compared to the one below it i.e. the material realm. The
intermediate realm of the imaginilia (barzakh) is more real, perfect and complete
than the sensible world and therefore has a more intense existence. Because of the
intensified existence of the soul and also the intense reality of the more perfect
realm of barzakh there would be no disparity between the imaginal forms created
by the soul in barzakh and their external or objective reality. In other words the
imaginal forms created by the intensified soul in the existentially more real and
perfect realm of barzakh would also have a more real and intense existence
(wujud) and would consequently have an external existence (wujud-e-khariji)
that would be sensible or visible (wujud-e-aini).
Mulla Sadra on Material death:

According to Mulla Sadra as a being or existent converts its dormant or latent

potentialities (quwa/istidad) into an actuality (filiat) it experiences
intensification (tashaddud) in its existence (wujud), in other words it could be
stated that that existent becomes more intense in its existence. This intensification
occurs through substantial motion (harkat al jawharia) which causes an existent
to move from a lower and weaker or diminutive level of existence to a higher and
more real one. Therefore it could be accurately asserted that as a being realizes its
dormant potentialities it becomes more real, actual and intensified. As multiple
meanings (maani) get added into the essence (mahiya) of an existent, the
essence weakens but the being or the existence of that thing experiences
intensification and hence becomes more real, actual and perfect. In other words as
more and more existential properties get united (ittehad) into a single being it
becomes stronger and more intense as it achieves ontolological simplicity and
becomes a simple reality (basit al haqiqa kulla shay). When the soul first comes
into existence it is completely material or corporeal (jismaniat al hudoos) but as it
realizes its hidden potentialities through substantial motion into actualities its
materiality diminishes and weakens, alternatively said the soul becomes immaterial
or incorporeal (mujarrid) as it becomes more and more actual, real and simple
(basit). That is why according to Sadra the soul is material in its origination but
incorporeal in its subsistence (ruhaniat al baqa). Therefore it could be stated that
as a being becomes more and more actual through substantial motion it becomes
gradually immaterial and when it actualizes all its potentialities and thereby
becomes fully actual it is said to be completely immaterial (mujarrid) and this is
where the soul experiences death (mout) which is referred to as material death by
Sadra. Therefore death or material death occurs when the soul realizes all its latent
potentialities and becomes immaterial. This happens when the soul (nafs) is no
longer dependent upon the material body for its survival and subsistence and can
subsist independently of its material shell or body into the intermediate realm of
barzakh or alam-e-malakut. Therefore when the soul through substantial
motion acquires the capacity to subsist independently of its material body it sheds
off its cloak of materiality and becomes an immaterial soul (nafs-e-mujarrid).
Mulla Sadra on Resurrection :
According to Mulla Sadra resurrection (maad) can be classified into two distinct
categories namely spiritual (rouhani) and bodily (jismani). Spiritual resurrection
(maad-e-rouhani) takes place when the soul (nafs) experiences material death.
This happens when all the dormant or latent potentialities (quwa/isitidad) get
realized into actualities (filiat) and the soul becomes more real, actual and intense
(tashaddud) in other words the soul experiences material death when it undergoes
existential intensification through substantial motion (harkat al jawharia). With
the conversion or actualization of its latent potentialities the soul becomes more
and more incorporeal (mujarrid) as its materiality diminishes. Finally when the soul
becomes incorporeal when all latent potentialities have become actual it

experiences material death because now it is no longer dependent upon the body.
This is the point where the soul experiences spiritual resurrection. Bodily
resurrection is experienced on the day of resurrection (youm al qayama) when the
soul is embodied within a material body (jism-e-maddi), however according to
Mulla Sadra this matter will not be gross matter (kathif) but it will be subtle (latif).

Anthropomorphism(tajsim) & the Divine Being:

The Pure Imams from the Ahlulbayt have explicitly rejected the idea of
Anthropomorphism (tajsim) and have always stated that God is an entity devoid of
both substance/body (jism) and form(surat).The belief that God is free of both
substance and form is based on a principle that the Imams have mentioned in their
traditions, the principle states that the Divine Essence (dhat) cannot resemble his
actions (fail), and that there is a distinction between the two. The Imams declare
that God imparts substance and form to his creation and therefore substance/body
(jism) and form (surat) are his actions (fail) and hence are other than the divine
essence (dhat).If we eliminate the distinction between the divine essence and
actions and state that Gods actions are inseparable from his essence,,meaning that
they exist as soon as the divine essence comes into being (like heat with fire) so the
divine actions will also become eternal by virtue of the eternal (qadim) nature of the
divine essence (dhat), it means that Gods creation which is his action will become
eternal, and this is impossible, or alternatively in order for the creation to remain
non-eternal (hadith) god will also have to become non-eternal (hadith) if it is held
that essence and actions of the divine are inseparable, but this too is impossible
because in that case God would become a contingent being (mumkin ul wujood)
and would no longer remain a Necessary Existent (wajib ul wujood).
On the attributes of God:
Imam Ali ibn-e-Musa Ar Reza (as) delivered a famous sermon in the court of Mamun
ur Rashid in which he negates the divine attributes (siffat) being an addition to the
divine essence (zaid bil dhat) a belief that is held by the asharites. The Asharites
declare that God is Omniscient (alim) by virtue of his knowledge (ilm), he is
Omnipotent (qadir) by virtue of his might (qudrat) and that he is the perceiving one
(mudrik) by virtue of his perception (idrak), such a belief would render God
dependent (muhtaj) upon the divine attributes which again is an impossibility
because the Quran declares God to be Absolute (Ghani). Secondly the divine
attributes would either be eternal or non-eternal, if they are believed to be eternal
along with the divine essence so there would be a plurality of eternals which is not
possible, on the other hand if the attributes are held to be non-eternal so it means
that there was a period of time during which the divine essence was not

omnipotent, omniscient or the perceiving one, and this too is inadmissible. This
confusion can only be resolved by eliminating the distinction between the divine
essence and the divine attributes and believing the attributes of God to be identical
to the essence as has been evidently proven by the Imams.
On Divine Unity:

The Imams declare that God has no beginning or end (ibtida wa intiha) because to say that he
came into being at a certain time would involve accepting that a period of time was empty of his
presence, and the same argument applies to his end.
The Imams reject the idea that a place or location (makan) could be assigned for God because to
do so would be equivalent to limiting the divine essence whereas he is held to be limitless (la
mehdud), because if it is said that he is in a certain place so by implication one is asserting that
all other places are empty of the divine essence.
The Imams have utilized the principle of causality (burhan-e-inni) to establish the existence of a
creator. According to them (Imams) God can only be recognized through his actions (fail) and
his creation are his actions, in other words the Imams use the effects to prove the existence of the
cause. The Imams refer to all existents besides God as existing through another (qaim bil ghayr),
and that which is Qaim bil Ghayr is an effect (malool) that requires a cause (illat) for its
existence.
Ameer ul momineen (as) in one of his sermons on divine unity (tauheed) declares God to be an
imperceptible entity meaning that God is beyond sense perception and experience. This is
because the senses can only perceive that which lies within the realm of matter and hence are
incapable of perceiving that which is immaterial (mujarrid). The senses can only perceive that
which possesses both substance and form, therefore that which lacks both body and form cannot
be perceived by the external senses (hawas-e-zahira). According to Imam Reza (as) the existence
of God is not amongst those matters that are self-evident (badihat), therefore his recognition
(marifat) is only possible by means of the intellect (aql).The principle that God is unlike his
actions/creations (fail) comes into play again when Imam Reza (as) states that Gods creation is
composite (murakab) therefore God cannot be composite because he is other than his creation or
actions. God cannot be composite because every composite existent is dependent upon its
individual component parts (ajza/azaa) for its composition (tarkeeb) and hence is muhtaj,
whereas God is independent and absolute (ghani). The fact that there is a beginning (ibtida) and
an end (intiha) for every existent, therefore there can be no beginning or end for the creator
because he is other than his actions/creations. Similarly since all existents have a cause therefore
God who is other than his creation/actions, cannot have any cause, he is self-existing (Qaim bil
dhat) and the First Cause. Imam Reza (as) states that since all material existents are subject to
change (taghayur) therefore it logically follows that God is free from any kind of change,
because he is unlike his creations/actions. Imam Reza (as) describes God as eternal (qadim),

which he defines as an existent who does not comes into being from non-existence (adum), or
before whom there is no non-existence (adum).
The Divine Essence and Attributes:
Imam Reza (as) states that God cannot be encapsulated within time (zaman) because he is both
before and beyond time, and to claim the contrary would be equivalent to limiting the divine
essence whereas we have already established that God is limitless (la mehdud). The divine
essence is not subject to change (taghayyur), because change is either progressive, bringing
about a qualitative or quantitative increase/improvement, or regressive causing decay or decline.
Progression in the divine essence would be equivalent to asserting that previously the divine
essence was imperfect or incomplete (nuqs), similarly regression for the divine essence is also
impossible because it would lead to the divine essence becoming imperfect. Imam Reza further
elaborates that God is not subject to motion (harkat) and rest (sukun), because motion and rest
are both hawadith and that which is subject to either or both of them becomes hadith and
every hadith is a contingent being (mumkin ul wujood) and hence God in that case would no
longer remain a Necessary existent (wajib ul wujood). Motion is defined as the movement of a
body from one place or location (makan) to another, since God is not at any particular place or
fixed location but on the contrary is everywhere therefore he cannot be said to be subject to
motion. Motion and rest are imparted by God to his creations therefore motion and rest are his
creations/actions and if we apply the Imamic principle that God is other than his actions/creation
therefore God cannot be subject to motion and rest.Hazrat Ali (as) states in one of his sermons
that God is beyond empirical and intellectual apprehension because that which is perceivable by
the senses (hawas-e-zahira) or comprehensible through the intellect (aql) would be limited
(mehdud), whereas as has already been stated God is unlimited (la mehdud), he further states that
the divine essence is perfect and free from all kinds of defects and imperfections. All other
existents besides God are limited. Imam Ali (as) rejects Panentheism (hulool) the idea that God is
within material objects, because by asserting panentheism we are limiting the divine essence.
Ameer ul Momineen (as) talks about the doctrine of creation ex nihilo by saying that God
brought into being creation (makhlooq) out of nothing, in other words he did not create the
cosmos from any pre-existing matter or substance. The Prophet and the Imams declare God to be
the First Existent (maujud e awwal), to believe otherwise would render God contingent (mumkin
ul wujud) and God would no longer remain a necessary existent. Asserting that God is not the
First Existent would be equivalent to saying that there was a period of time that was empty of the
divine essence (dhat) and this is impossible. Imam Hasan (as) states that unlike his creation,
some of whose acts are involuntary and unintentional, all divine acts are voluntary and
intentional because God is a voluntary agent (fail bil qasd) meaning that he does what he wills.
God is aware of what he does, meaning that he acts with absolute knowledge (ilm) because
willing about something requires prior recognition of that affair or matter. According to the
Imams (as) God has given his creation (makhlooq) the faculties/organs of sense perception and
since he is other than his actions/creation therefore this is proof of the fact that he has no organs.

This is so because if God is assumed to have faculties/organs of sense perception so this would
lead to anthropomorphism (tajsim). Imam Reza (as) states that since all existents besides God are
hadith therefore God has to be Qadeem/eternal and since all hadith existents are contingent
(mumkin ul wujud) therefore God has to be a necessary existent (wajib ul wujud) because he is
other than his actions/creation. Imam Jafer As Sadiq (as) states that it is not possible to define
God in words because to do so would be equivalent to limiting the divine essence and would be
contrary to the idea of his being limitless (la mehdud). Imam Reza (as) states that God possessed
knowledge (ilm) prior to the existence (wujood) of any knowable existent (maloom).
The Eternity,Knowledge and Imperceptibility of God:
Imam Jafer As Sadiq (as) states that Gods creative agency (takwin) is such that he creates a
thing (shay) from nothing (la shay) and similarly can turn a thing (shay) into nothing (la shay).
Imam Ali (as) states in one of his sermons on Tauheed that since all hadith existents have a
beginning this is evidence of the fact that God is azali/qadim and since all hadith existents have
an end therefore this is proof of the fact that God is abadi because God is other than his
actions/creation. God is lam yalid meaning that he begets not, because begetting something
implies divisibility whereas God is an indivisible entity. The indivisibility of God is a proof of
his unity. Imam Baqar (as) states that the Quranic term huwa points towards an entity/object
that is imperceptible to the senses meaning it is a sign towards that which cannot be perceived
through the senses (hawas-e-zahira) whereas the term haza points towards that which can be
perceived through the senses, meaning that which is perceptible. The Imams refute the possibility
of beatific vision for God because the divine essence cannot be perceived through the senses but
they affirm that the divine essence can be perceived through ayn al qalb or the eye of the
intellect. According to the Imams divine knowledge can be divided into two parts namely
particular (ilm-e-khass) and general (ilm-e-aam). Particular knowledge is not shared by God with
anyone, whereas general knowledge is shared by him with his exalted angels (malaikat ul
muqaribun), prophets, messengers and Imams.
The Attributes,Eternity and Immutability of God:
Imam Jafar As Sadiq (as) denies the eternity of matter and states that all existents are either
created (masnoo) or uncreated (ghayr-e-masnoo). He further elucidates that every existent has
certain attributes or qualities by which it is recognized and the affirmation or denial of its
existence requires an understanding of these qualities. He further states that that which is eternal
will not experience any transformation or change (taghayur), whereas all non-eternal existents
experience transformation or change due to addition or decrease. The Imam presents the cosmic
harmony as evidence of the unity of the creator because had there been more than one Gods so
their conflicting divine wills would have resulted in chaos in the universe. The Imam also
presents a logical proof of the unity of the divine essence by stating that had there been more
than one Gods so they would either have been all equally powerful, equally weak or some more

powerful than the others. In the first case all of them would have been able to overcome the
others therefore that which can be overcome cannot be divine, similarly in the second case had
all of them been weak none of them would have been able to impose his will on the others and
this implies weakness and imperfection, and that which is imperfect cannot be divine. Lastly if
some are more potent/powerful than the others and therefore can overcome them so this means
that that which can be overcome cannot be regarded as God. According to the Imams God
transcends the confines of both time (dahr/zaman) and space (makan) and cannot be
encompassed by them as he is their creator. Imam Jafar (as) states that the names of existents are
other than the essence of those existents, for instance fire is the name of a thing that burns, but
the word fire is devoid of this quality, and this proves that the names of existents are other than
their essences. Similarly the divine names (asma) are other than the divine essence (dhat).
According to the Imams the divine attributes (sifat) can be divided into two categories namely,
the eternal attributes (sifat-e-azali) and the contingent attributes (sifat-e-hadis). The eternal
attributes include attributes such as hayy,alim and qadir whereas the contingent attributes include
attributes such as raziq,mutakallim and khaliq.God became a creator (khaliq) when he created
other existents, before the process of creation he had the potential (quwa/qudrat) of creating
things (ashya) but this capacity was actualized with the genesis of creation. Similarly he became
a raziq (sustainer) when he provided sustenance to his creation, before that he possessed the
potential (quwa/qudrat) of providing sustenance that was actualized later.Lastly he possessed the
potential of kalam/speech but became a mutakallim later when he spoke.
Eternal and Non-eternal attributes:
The eternal attributes (sifat-e-azali) have a priority in existence over the contingent attributes
(sifat-e-hadis), for instance the attribute of hay comes before every other attribute because in
order to be a creator (khaliq), sustainer (raziq) or speaker (mutalallim) the agent (fail) first needs
to be alive. Similarly the attribute of Omnipotence (qudrat) has priority over the attributes of
creation (khaliq), sustainer (raziq) or speaker (mutakallim) because in order to perform all these
acts the agent must possess the capacity or the potential (qudrat) to carry out these actions.
Lastly the attribute of omniscient (alim) comes before the attribute of will (mureed) because in
order to will or decide about a certain affair or matter one needs to have sufficient knowledge
regarding that particular thing. To state that all divine attributes are eternal or that there are no
contingent attributes of God would be equivalent to saying that the divine actions are inseparable
from the eternal divine essence. This is so because God became a creator (khaliq) when he
created his creation (makhluq), and if he was a creator eternally so his creation/action is also
eternal, which is an impossibility, or alternatively in order to maintain the contingency of
creation and also the idea of the inseparability of divine actions and essence, the divine essence
would have to be assumed to be contingent (hadis), which again is not possible because every
contingent being is mumkin-ul -wujud and in that case the divine essence would no longer remain
a necessary existent (wajib-ul-wujud) as has already been explained earlier in this discussion.
Similarly God became a mutakallim when he produced speech (kalam) and if it is assumed that

he was a mutakallim eternally so his speech (kalam) which is his action and his creation
(makhluq) would also become eternal (azali) and this idea is inadmissible because the creator
(khaliq) and the created (makhluq) would both become eternal (azali) in which case the creator
would no longer remain unlike his creation (makhluq) and this would lead to tashbih and
tamthil whereas according to the principle laid down by the pure Imams (as) God is other
(ghayr) than his actions/creation.
Divine Will:
Imam Jafar As Sadiq (as) states that the divine will (irada) is contingent (hadith), meaning that it
is non-eternal, because if it is assumed that divine will is eternal so this assumption is not without
either one of two possibilities, first that that which was willed by God, meaning the creation of
the universe and all other existents, came into being instantaneously or that it came into being
after a certain period of time. In the first case that which was willed, meaning the creation
(makhluq) of God would also become eternal (azali), which is unacceptable, and the second
assumption implies a time gap between divine will and that which was willed (murad) by God,
this implies an imperfection (nuqs) in the divine essence which is impossible. According to the
blessed Imam (as) there is no interval or time gap between divine will (irada) and that which is
willed (murad). To assume a time gap or interval between the divine will and that which is willed
is equivalent to implying impotency to the divine essence, and this assumption goes contrary to
the idea of omnipotence (qudrat). The implication hidden in the second assumption is that God
had willed to create the universe and the other existents but due to a specific weakness or
imperfection was delayed in accomplishing that which he willed, and this is absurd.Belief in the
absolute perfection (kamal) and omnipotence (qudrat) of the divine essence(dhat) necessitates
belief in the inseparability of the divine will (irada) and that which is willed (murad) while at the
same time accepting the contingency or non-eternity of creation (makhluq).
On the Divine Will, Essence and Actions:
Imam Jafar As Sadiq (as) states that divine will (irada) is unlike human will in that the later is
preceded by the mental processes of deliberation and reflection before the formulation of an
intention to perform a particular action whereas God does not need to think, deliberate or reflect
before taking a decision, and all these are the attributes of his creation (makhluq) and he is other
(ghayr) than his creation. The Imam (as) further states that divine will is the same as divine
actions (fail), the two are one and the same. His will (irada) is his action and his action (fail) is
his will. This is another reason why divine will is contingent or non-eternal (hadith) because if it
is assumed to be eternal (azali/qadim) so consequently the divine acts/creation would also
become eternal because the two are not distinct or separate, they are the same. This would imply
eternity for creation (makhluq), which is impossible. This assumption would also by implication
result in the belief in the inseparability of the divine essence and the divine actions as the act of
burning is inseparable from the fire.Imam Jafar As Sadiq (as) states that imagination (wahm)

cannot conceive the divine essence even though the extent of imagination is vast in comparison
to the extent of sense perception, therefore how is it possible to have sense perception of God
when he cannot even be imagined. Most of our imaginable ideas are reflections of this or that
external reality, however the mind is capable of imagining ideas that do not have any real or
substantial existence in the external world, for instance the flying horse or a unicorn etc. This is a
proof of the vastness of the realm of imagination (awham).
Principle of Recognition of the Divine Essence:
Imam Ali (as) in one of his sermons presents another rule or principle that can be used for
recognizing the divine essence, he states that what is deemed possible for God is impossible for
his creation and that which is deemed impossible for God is possible for his creation (makhluq),
for instance creation is composite (murakab) therefore it is impossible for God to be composite
and he is simple or non-composite, creation is limited by time (zaman) and space (makan)
whereas it is impossible for God to be confined by time and space and therefore he is limitless
(la mehdud), his creation is contingent (hadith) but it is impossible for the divine essence to be
contingent because he is eternal (azali/qadim). Similarly his creation is qaim-bil-ghayr and
therefore it is impossible for God to be qaim-bil-ghayr because every qaim-bil-ghayr is an
effect whereas it is impossible for God to be an effect of some cause because he himself in the
words of the Imams (as) is the first existent and the cause of all that exists. Creation is finite
(fani) and it is not possible for God to have this attribute because he is infinite (la fani), in the
words of the purified Imams (as) he is without a beginning and an end (ibtida wa intiha). His
creation is divisible but it is impossible for God to be divided, he is indivisible. His creation is
subject to change (taghayur) whereas it is not possible for the divine essence to be subject to
change. The created existents are fallible but it is impossible for God to be fallible, he is absolute
perfection according to the Imams (as). The created existents have a beginning and an end
(ibtida wa intiha) therefore in the words of the Imams (as) there can be no beginning and an end
for the divine essence. It is possible for the created existents to be perceived through the senses
(hawas-e-khamsa) therefore as per the principle established by Imam Ali (as) God cannot be
perceived through the senses, his recognition (marifat) can only be acquired through the intellect
(aql). Substance (jism) and form (surat) are the attributes of his creation therefore it is impossible
for God to have substance and form.
On the Divine Will and the Problem of Evil:
It has already been explained that according to the Imams (as) the divine actions (fil) are
contingent (hadith) and non-eternal, because had they been eternal (azali) and inseparable from
the divine essence so the creation of God would also have become eternal (azali) and this is
impossible as this notion results in the multiplicity of eternals. According to the Imams (as) there
is no difference or distinction between divine will and the divine actions and they are both
identical and the same, and we know that the divine actions are contingent (hadith) therefore it

logically follows that the divine will (irada/mashiyat) is also contingent (hadith). According to
the Imams (as) God possesses divine foreknowledge, meaning that he is fully aware of what will
happen before the events actually come into existence.
Imam Musa Al Kazim (as) attributes the problem of evil or sin (sayyiah) to man and explains this
logically by setting forth an example wherein he states that the commission of sin is due to either
one of three possibilities, first that it is an act of God where man is simply an instrument, second
that it is the act of both God and man, and lastly that it is the act of man alone. In the first case
that is if the commission of sin is the act of God so why is man to be held responsible and
punished for something which he didnt do out of his own free-will (ikhtiyar/irada) and did it
only under compulsion from God as this is contrary to the concept of divine justice (adl) and we
know that God is just (adil) and that he cannot be unjust as that would be equivalent to implying
imperfection in the divine essence (dhat). In the second case where the commission of evil/sin
(sayyiah) is an act of both God and man so here too why is man to be held responsible and
punishable by God for an act in which God himself was an accomplice as this notion is also
contrary to the idea of divine justice (adl). Therefore the only logical conclusion is that the
commission of sin/evil is an act of man only. Through this example the Pure Imam (as)
demonstrates the logical principle of identifying and eliminating the impossible options to arrive
at the accurate solution which is the last remaining option.
Determinism and Free Will:
Imam Ali (as) divides divine decree and determination (Qadha-wa-Qadar) into binding and
unavoidable divine decree and determination (Qadha-e-hatmi wa Qadar-e-lazmi) and nonbinding and avoidable divine decree and determination (Qadha-e-ghayr-e- hatmi wa Qadar-eghayr-e- lazmi). Imam Ali (as) states that all human actions are determined by God in a nonbinding and avoidable manner through qadha-e-ghayr-e-hatmi wa qadar-e-ghayr-e-lazmi but
rejects the idea that they are determined in a binding and unavoidable manner through qadha-ehatmi wa qadar-e-lazmi. He refutes binding and unavoidable determinism because it is contrary
to the idea of free-will and freedom of choice and is also a negation of the concept of divine
justice (adl). If as binding and unavoidable determinism (jabr) asserts all human actions are
determined by God so why should man be held responsible and punishable for wrongs
committed by him under coercion and compulsion from God, because after all he didnt commit
those sins out of his own free-will (irada) but was compelled by God to carry out those acts.
Similarly what makes an individual worthy of receiving divine rewards when the good deeds
performed by him were actually determined by God and he didnt perform those acts out of his
own free-will. Punishing an innocent individual and rewarding an unworthy one are both
inconsistent with the idea of divine justice (adl). Imam Ali (as) demonstrates that the idea of
binding and unavoidable determinism (jabr) is incompatible with the concept of freedom of
choice and free-will (ikhtiyar/irada) and is therefore unacceptable because it renders
questionable the very basis of divine reward and punishment. According to Imam Ali (as) man

has been endowed with freedom of choice and free-will and it is the exercise of this gift that
entitles him to receive either divine reward or punishment.The Imams (as) reject both the
jabarite as well as qadarite view points and have declared that the truth lies in between these
two positions (al amru bain al amrain).
On the Impossibility of Perceiving the Divine Being:
Imam Reza (as) in a letter to one of his disciples presents a logical proof to refute the possibility
and the futility of having visual perception (ruya) of the divine essence in the hereafter as well.
He states that there is no doubt in the fact that visual perception of objects (ashya) results in
cognizance (marifah) of those objects, this recognition either causes faith (iman) or not. If it is
assumed that visual perception and the resultant cognizance (marifah-bil-ruya) leads to faith, so
it will have to be accepted that the recognition of the divine essence that is acquired (marifahbil-iktisab) without experiencing visual perception of the divine essence will not cause faith,
because not seeing is the opposite of seeing, and this implies that all people in this worldly
life are unbelievers. In the second case that is if it is assumed that visual perception (ruya) and
the resulting cognizance (marifah-bil-ruya) would not lead to faith (iman) so the recognition
acquired (marifah-bil-iktisab) in this world and the resulting faith would either disappear or will
remain on experiencing visual perception of the divine essence (dhat). If it is assumed that the
faith acquired in this life would disappear on having visual perception of God in the afterlife so
this means that all believers would become unbelievers which is unacceptable, and if it will
remain even after visual perception (ruya) so experiencing the divine essence visually would be
futile as it would not result in adding faith which is already possessed by the believers.
The Essence & Attributes of the Divine Being:
The Imams (as) regard the divine essence (mahiya) beyond comprehension and the existence of
God (wujud) beyond sense perception (idrak). According to the Imams (as) questions like how is
God (kaifa) and where is God (aina) do not apply to the divine essence because he is the creator
of how (kaifiyyah) and where (aina) and is therefore other than his actions/creation (fil), he is
the one who imparts kaifiyyah to things (ashya), and therefore kaifa cannot be applied to
him, similarly he is the creator of space (makan) therefore aina cannot apply to him. Imam
Jafar As Sadiq (as) states that divine knowledge (ilm) encompasses the essence (mahiya) of all
things before they come into existence (wujud) as he does after their existence. According to the
Imams (as) the divine attributes (sifat) can be divided into the attributes of essence (sifat-e-dhati)
and the attributes of action (sifat-e-fili). The attributes of essence are eternal (azali) attributes
whereas the attributes of action are contingent or non-eternal attributes (hadith).The sifat-edhat are hay,qadir and aleem and sifat-e-fili are mutakallim,khaliq and raziq
this is because the divine actions are separate from the divine essence which is eternal, if the
actions are inseparable from the essence so they too would become eternal and this is impossible
because it implies that Gods creation is eternal like his essence.The divine names (asma) are

other than his essence because words can be created through the acts of speaking and writing and
that which is created (makhluq) is contingent (hadith).
On the Unity of the Opposites in the Divine Being:
The Imams (as) describe God as an entity in whose essence the opposites unite, as he is both
manifest (zahir) and hidden (batin), the alpha (awwal) and the omega (akhir), far and near
(qareeb). He is manifest not in the sense of being perceivable through the senses (hawas-ekhamsa) but he is manifest through his creation (makhluq) which acts as his signs (ayat). He is
hidden in the sense that he is imperceptible to the senses and vision cannot perceive him. He is
alpha because in the words of the infallibles he has been described as the first existent
(mawjud-e-awwal) who existed before creation and is also considered as the first cause without
any beginning (ibtida) being assigned for him because to assign a commencement period for him
is tantamount to considering the period prior to that vacant of his presence. He is the omega
because he will continue to exist even after all other things (ashya) have ceased to exist and is an
entity without an end (intiha) because to assign an ending for him is equivalent to considering
that a certain period after his ending would be vacant of his existence (wujud). He is far not in
the meaning of being distant or remote because distances are for his creation (masnoo) that is
subject to motion and rest (hawadith) and is therefore contingent (hadith) and confined by space
(makan) and consequently that which is confined by space would possess substance (jism)
whereas God in the words of the Imams (as) is other (ghayr) than his actions/creation (fil) and
therefore that which is possible for the created existents is impossible for the creator (khaliq)
hence he cannot be subject to motion (harkat) and rest (sukun) because that would make him a
contingent being which is impossible. Similarly he cannot be confined by space because that
would be equivalent to limiting the divine essence. He is without substance and form because
substance and form are his actions/creation and are imparted by him to his creations whereas he
is other than his actions/creations. Every substantial existent (jauhar) is a composite (murakkab)
being that is reliant upon its component parts for its composition therefore God cannot be
substantial (jauhar) because that would render him dependent upon his component parts (azaa
wa jawareh).
The Immutability of God and Creation ex-nihilo:
Imam Jafar As Sadiq (as) states that God does not become angry, frustrated, worried or happy
because all these are the attributes of his creation (makhluq) and God is other than his
action/creation. It is his creation that experiences alternating emotional states because it is
subject to change (taghayyur) and the divine essence is inimitable or unchanging because that
which is subject to change is finite and it is impossible for God to be so. Change requires the
input or issuance of something to bring it about whereas nothing can go in (dukhool) the divine
essence or come out (ikhraj) of it. The idea of a thing going in the divine essence (dukhool)
necessitates addition in it which is impossible because it implies perfecting the divine essence

which was previously imperfect. Similarly the notion of something coming out of the divine
essence (ikhraj) is equally reprehensible because it implies division in his essence whereas he is
indivisible.
Imam Baqar (as) refutes the notion that God created this universe from a previously existing
substance or matter thereby affirming the concept of creation ex nihilo, because to say that he
created the cosmos from some prior existing substance would lead to infinite regress (tasalsul)
because the same question would arise for that thing and so on and so forth and would lead to
there being a co-eternal with God which is impossible. In response to the question who created
existents, Imam Jafar As Sadiq (as) states that the existents either created themselves or were
created by God, assuming that they created themselves so they were either in existence prior to
creating themselves or they were not in existence. If they were in existence so what was the need
of creation as they already did exist, and if they were not in existence so how can a non-existent
thing impart existence (wujud) to itself. This therefore establishes God as the creator. According
to the Imams (as) God is neither a makhraj nor a mudkhil because ikhraj and dakhul are
his acts and he is other than his acts (fil), therefore nothing comes out of him nor has he come
out of anything, because the former idea implies divisibility and reduction whereas the latter
implies a beginning for him. God cannot be considered divisible because divisibility implies
reduction and imperfection and assigning a beginning (ibtida) for him negates the eternity of the
divine essence (dhat). Similarly nothing can enter the divine essence as that would lead to
addition and the implication that the divine essence was previously imperfect, nor can he enter
into anything as that would result in limiting his essence whereas as he is unlimited (la mehdud).
According to the Imams (as) both the macrocosm and the microcosm (nafs) contain adequate
signs (ayat) for the recognition of God. These signs or effects (malool) are used to prove the
existence of God through the principle of causality (burhan-e-inni). The Imams (as) regard God
as a sentient being (mudrik) who perceives without possessing sense organs (jawareh) because
he is not in need of sense organs for exercising perception (idrak), and this is due to the fact that
he is other (ghayr) than his action/creation that is dependent upon sense organs for exercising
their powers of perception. Imam Jafar As Sadiq (as) affirms that knowledge is acquired through
empirical experience (tajurba) as well, and that non-experience results in ignorance (jahal). God
is other than his creation (makhluq) and is therefore not in need of any form of empirical
experience for acquiring knowledge (ilm). It is inferable from what Imam Jafar As Sadiq (as)
states that experience or perception (idrak) is not identical to knowledge but is a means of
attaining it. According to Imam Jafar As Sadiq (as) in case of humans empirical knowledge is
subject to experience and is therefore subsequent to it and this quality renders empirical
knowledge contingent (hadith) whereas in the light of the principle established by Imam Ali(as)
that which is possible for creation is impossible for the creator (khaliq) and hence Imam Jafar A s
Sadiq (as) asserts that the divine essence is eternally knowing (khabeer-e-azali). It is inferable
from the Imams (as) that desire, emotion and feeling (shahwah) reside in the soul (nafs). It is the

soul that acts through the body (jism), it is the soul to whom the divine commands are addressed
and it is the soul that earns reward or punishment.
Existence of God and the Non-relativity of Truth:
In response to a question put forward by an atheist Imam Ali (as) responds by saying that there
are two possibilities concerning the existence of God, he either exists or he does not exist. If it is
assumed that God does not exist so belief in his existence will not in any way harm the theists
and nor will disbelief in his existence result in any form of benefit reaching the atheists or
agnostics, neither will be better off or worse off than the other. However assuming that he does
exist so belief in his existence will result in eternal reward for the theists and disbelief would
result in eternal punishment for the atheists, therefore it is safe to conclude that believing in the
existence of the divine essence is a far more secure and safer approach and a win win strategy.
The Pure Imams (as) reject the Sophistical idea that truth (haq) is relative and individualistic and
establish the existence of Absolute truth as opposed to relative truth. The Imams (as) regard the
intellect (aql) as the means of attaining both knowledge (ilm) as well as truth (haq). They use
both scriptural evidence (daleel-e-naqli) as well as logical evidence based on reason (daleel-eaqli) to establish the truth. According to the Imams (as) the first creation (khalq-e-awwal) was
the intellect or nous (aql) but Imam Reza (as) states that the eternity (azaliyyah) of God was not
shared by anything (shay) therefore the first creation (khalq-e-awwal) is not co-eternal with the
divine essence (dhat). To state that there was no existential interval between God and the first
creation implies a plurality of eternals which is impossible. Imam Reza (as) states that if it is
assumed that there was a co-eternal with God so it would no longer be possible to consider God
the creator of that co-eternal because it was with him since eternity. The implication of Imam
Rezas (as) statement is that in a causal relationship the cause (illat) always precedes the effect
(malool). Here by precedence is meant existential priority. Imam Reza (as) further elaborates that
although the divine names (asma-u-llah) are shared by both God and his creation (makhluq) but
this sharing (ishtirak) is only linguistic (ishtirak-e-lafzi) and not in meaning (ishtirak-emaanawi). Imam Reza (as) elucidates that the divine name alim applies to both God as well as
his creation but this application or sharing (ishtirak) is similar only in language (lafzi) and not in
meaning (maani), this is due to the fact that the knowledge (ilm) of the people is contingent
(hadith), in the sense that it was not there with them from before and was acquired later and is
separate from their essence therefore they (people) may even lose it in the future, whereas divine
knowledge is eternal (azali) and identical with the divine essence (dhat) and inseparable from it.
Imam Reza (as) states that the divine names sami and baseer are also shared by both God as
well as his creation but here too the sharing is only linguistic (lafzi) and not in meaning (maani),
because existents require the use of bodily organs (aaza) to exercise the faculties of hearing and
sight whereas God is not dependent upon any such bodily organs (jawareh/aaza) for his hearing
or seeing. Imam Musa Al Kazim (as) states that all existents besides God are composites
(murakkab) and every composite existent is created (makhluq). It can be logically concluded

from what the Imam (as) has said concerning composites that the divine names (asma) are also
composites (murakkab) being composed of Arabic alphabets (huruf) and dependent upon those
alphabets for their composition.According to the Imams (as) God may be referred to as a thing
(shay),because he is either a thing (shay) or not a thing (la shay),the latter statement implies nonexistence therefore it is logical to consider God a thing in the sense that he exists.The Imams (as)
demonstrate a tendency to interpret revelation (wahy) through tawil/scriptural exegesis to
conform to reason (aqal) where there is an apparent conflict between reason and revelation.This
highlights the fact that revelation is to be interpreted and understood rationally through the use of
intellect (aqal) in cases where certain Quranic verses apparently suggest anthropomorphism
(tashbih wa tajsim) and similitude (tamthil) for the divine essence.
On the Nature of the Spirit, Faith and Divine Perfection:
Imam Baqar (as) states that the spirit (rooh) is similar to air (rih) and that it has motion (harkat).
The word rooh is a derivative of the term rih meaning wind or air. He further states that
the divine essence is spirit-less. It is a contingent and created being (makhluq/masnoo) and
therefore non-eternal (hadith) which means that it was brought into existence (wujud) from nonexistence (adum).
Imam Reza (as) states that God did not create the existents out of any need of his. It can be
inferred from what the Imam (as) has said that since need implies dependence and reliance
therefore God is without any need since the existence of needs for God would mean that he is
imperfect and dependent on his creation for the fulfillment of his needs. Imam Reza (as) states
that in order to differentiate and distinguish a thing (shay) from certain other things (ashya) it is
necessary to first acquire knowledge and awareness regarding the thing that is to be
differentiated and also of the things from which it is to be differentiated. According to Imam
Reza (as) belief in God is necessary in order to lead a moral and ethical life, because it is this
belief in God that prevents one from behaving in an unethical and immoral manner due to fear of
divine punishment.
According to the Imams (as) the greatest virtue is belief (iman) which is of various degrees
(darajat) and stages (tabaqat) and is subject to both increase and decrease. The Imams (as)
categorize belief as perfect and complete (atmam) and imperfect or defective (naqis). Imam Jafar
As Sadiq (as) has categorized belief (iman) as iman-e-mustaqar which is stable belief meaning
that which never leaves the possessor thereof and iman-e-mustoda which is volatile and
unstable and may be lost. According to Imam Raza (as) belief (iman) is a combination of
affirmation from the heart (tasdiq-bil-qalb), profession of faith from the tongue (iqrar-bil-lisan)
and acting in accordance with this belief (amal-bil-arkan). According to the Imams (as) qalb
or heart is the intellective faculty with which one comprehends and rationalizes. It is the qalb
that affirms and therefore performs tasdiq. It can be inferred from what the Imams (as) have

said that all virtue (hasana) is celestial or heavenly by nature whereas all evil (saiyya) is infernal
by nature.
The Purpose of Existence and Refutation of Anthropomorphism:
Imam Hussain (as) states that the purpose of existence or creation is to attain cognizance
(marifah) of the divine essence (dhat) because worship (ibadah) is only possible through and
after this cognizance, this statement of the Prince of Martyrs implies that knowledge regarding
the divine essence is not an end in itself but rather is a means to an end, the end is the worship
performed with this cognizance (marifah).The Imam (as) further states that cognizance of God is
acquired through recognition of the Divine Guide (Imam) and this implies that cognizance or
recognition of the divine guide is a means towards attaining cognizance of the divine essence
(dhat) which is the ultimate end.Through this statement Imam Hussain (as) identifies two ends
and an equal number of means for attaining those ends.The first end is the performance of true
worship (ibadah) and the means to it is recognition of the divine essence,whereas the second end
is the cognizance of the divine essence and the means to it is cognizance of the divine guide.
The Imams (as) of the Ahlul Bayt in their utterances and sermons have rejected the possibility of
Gods possessing sense organs (aza wa jawarih) and have stated that God speaks without the use
of a tongue, observes without the aid of eyes and hears without the assistance of ears. In addition
to the reasons mentioned above this rejection could also have been based on the fact that the
sensations (idrakat) received by sense organs from the external reality are the cause of the mental
impressions which in their turn cause the various perceptions and ideas that the mind possesses.
In other words it could be accurately asserted that the mental perceptions and impressions are
effects (malool) caused (illat) by an external reality and this assertion implies dependency
(ihtiyaj) on the external reality for the impressions/sensations and perceptions received from it.
This dependency implies an imperfection (nuqs) and therefore every being in possession of sense
organs suffers from this imperfection, and hence it could be safely concluded that to attribute the
possession of sense organs to God is equivalent to attributing dependency for the divine essence
(dhat) on the external reality and the acceptance of this notion consequently implies imperfection
in the divine essence and doing so would eliminate the distinction between the divine essence
and his creation (makhlooq).
Existence of God:
It is mentioned in Al-Kafi vol.1 that Imam Musa Al Kazim(as) stated that God is a positively
existing entity (musbit ul wujud), this could mean either one or both of two things. First that the
term musbit is a derivative of the word sabt which means to inscribe, establish, affix or
imprint something on some kind of a surface, for instance to write an inscription on a tablet or to
affix a seal on a document, God by creating this cosmos has inscribed and imprinted therein
proofs (isbat) of his existence (wujud) , these proofs are signs (ayat) of the existence of the

divine essence that have been sealed on the face of the universe. This is actually a reference to
the principle of causality whereby the Imam (as) is referring to the unseen existence of God, the
efficient cause (illat), through the visible effects of his existence found in the cosmos. Secondly
it could mean that unlike dream images and certain other ideas such as, a four sided triangle, a
circular square, a unicorn or the flying horse Pegasus, that exist only in the mind but do not have
a corresponding existence in the external reality, the idea of God has a corresponding existence
in the external reality and is not merely an idea with a conceptual existence (wujud-e-zahni) only.
The Imam (as) by using the term positive existence (musbit ul wujud) is also implying the
presence of objects that are negatively existing (manfi ul wujud) meaning ideas or concepts that
do not have a corresponding existence in the external world but merely a conceptual existence in
the mind and this mental existence is therefore an imperfect and incomplete existence as it has no
corresponding reality in the empirical realm. The divine essence is perfect in every respect
whereas negative existence implies an imperfection and therefore cannot be attributed to God.
Creation ex-nihilo:
It is mentioned in Al-Tauheed that Imam Jafar As Sadiq (as) states that God creates not from
anything (la min shay), he did not say that God creates from nothing (min la shay) this is
because the inclusion of the term from (min) implies the existence of something and is
therefore a negation and a contradiction of the idea that the Imam (as) is seeking to convey.
Therefore the statement God creates from nothing (min la shay) contains an inherent
contradiction within itself because apparently it implies creation not from anything but the
logical structure of the statement suggests creation from something. In other words the statement
God creates from nothing (min la shay) implies the simultaneous non-existence (adum wujud)
and existence (wujud) of a thing (shay) and according to the principle of non-contradiction a
thing cannot both exist and not exist at the same time. The sentence of the Imam (as) God
creates not from anything (la min shay) is an affirmation of the concept of creation ex nihilo
which is creation not from anything. The affirmation of the doctrine of creation ex nihilo
consequently is a rejection of the eternity of matter because to believe in the eternity of matter is
equivalent to accepting a co-eternal with the divine essence (dhat), which is an impossibility.
Therefore the statement of the Imam(as) established the contingency of matter and asserts that
matter is created (makhluq). It is also a confirmation of the fact that matter is not self existing
(qaim bil dhat) but exists through something other than itself (qaim bil ghayr).
Perfection of the Divine Essence:
It is mentioned in Al-Tauheed of Saduq that Imam Baqir (as) states that God does not eat or
drink, in other words he does not seek sustenance (rizq). Sustenance is required by Gods
creation (makhluq) and implies its dependence upon sustenance for survival. To assert that God
consumes food and drink would be equivalent to implying dependence (ihtiaj) for the divine
essence(dhat) on material sustenance and this is inadmissible because the divine essence is

absolutely independent (ghani). Secondly the consumption of food brings about growth in the
body consuming it, therefore if the consumption of sustenance is attributed to the divine essence
so it will have to be accepted that this consumption would consequently cause an increase or
growth in the divine essence which is an impossibility, because to assert the same would imply
imperfection in the divine essence prior to the consumption of sustenance, this is because there is
no deficiency in the divine essence which would be eliminated or removed by sustenance.
According to the principle established by the Imams (as) that the divine essence is other than his
actions (fail) it can be concluded that since consumption of food and reliance upon sustenance
are the attributes of Gods creation therefore the divine essence would be free from such
attributes, because God is other than his actions (fail) and his actions are his creation (makhluq).
Therefore the attributes found in Gods actions/creation (fail/makhluq) would not be found in the
divine essence (dhat). To attribute consumption of sustenance to the divine essence is equivalent
to considering the divine essence similar to its creation and placing the creator (khaliq) and the
created (makhluq) at the same level. Similarly using the rule laid down by Imam Ali(as) that
that which is possible for Gods creation is impossible in the case of God, and that which is
impossible in the case of creation is possible for God it can be said that since consumption of
material sustenance (rizq) is a possibility in case of creation therefore the same is to be deemed
impossible for God.
Intellect & Knowledge:
It is mentioned in Kulainis Al-Kafi that the Imams (as) regard the intellect (aql) as a divine gift
bestowed on mankind but this gift is initially in a potential state waiting to be actualized. It is the
acquisition of knowledge (ilm) that actualizes this gift into a faculty through the assistance of
which one acquires cognizance of the Divine Essence (marifah). It is through this recognition of
the divine that one is able to perform true worship (ibadah) and therefore attain Paradise
(jannah). The knowledge which actualizes the intellect (ilm) is acquired through the agency of
the Imam (as) and therefore true recognition of the divine essence is an impossibility without the
figure of the Imam(as).
The apparently confusing statements of the Imams such as intellect is aqcuired through
knowledge and also that knowledge is attained through the intellect now makes perfect sense
when understood in the context of the above description,where the Imams (as) say that
knowledge is aqcuired through the inetellect so they are referring to the potential intellect, and
similarly when they refer to the aqcuisition of the intellect by knowledge so they are talking
about the actualisation of the intellect through knowledge acquired through the Imam (as).
Incorporeality of the Divine Essence:
Allama Tabrisi in his Al-Ihtijaj states that the Holy Prophet (as) in his disputation with the Jews
and Christians refutes the idea of the materiality of the divine essence (dhat-e-illahi). The

Prophet negates the notion of divine corporeality, this is because that which is material (maddi)
has a body or substance (jism), is substantial and therefore occupies a certain space (makan),
hence a material god would also occupy a certain space and because of this certain other spaces
or places would become vacant of the presence of God, and this is an impossibility. This is
because if God, being a material entity, is present here so it means he is not there, and if he is
there so it means he is not here and it is inconceivable for any space or place to be vacant of the
presence of God. Secondly if God has a body so he would become limited (mehdud) whereas
God is without any limits (la mehdud). All material existents subsist within a specific time
(zaman) and space, therefore if God is said to be corporeal he too must exist within a specific
time, in other words if all material existents have a beginning and an end in time therefore if God
is a material being so he also must have a beginning and an end in time and this is inadmissible
because if a temporal beginning is attributed to the divine essence so the time before that
beginning would become vacant of God, similarly in case of assigning or attributing a temporal
end to God the period of time after this end would become vacant of the presence of God and
this is unacceptable. Furthermore God is a Necessary Existent (wajib al wujud) whereas all
material existents are contingent beings (mumkin ul wujud) and hence are created, therefore if
God is thought to be a material being so he too would become contingent and would no longer
remain a necessary existent and a creator (khaliq) would have to be accepted for God. All
material existents are hadith and are therefore subject to hawadith of motion (harkat) and
rest (sukun) and if God is said to be mobile so motion involves movement from one place to
another therefore if God is said to be moving towards a certain place so some other place would
become vacant of Gods presence. In addition to this all material existents are qaim bil ghayr
i.e. their existence and subsistence is dependent upon another and if God is said to be corporeal
so he would also become qaim bil ghayr and would no longer remain qaim bil dhat i.e.
self-subsisting, this would make God dependent upon some other being and he would not remain
ghani. Every qaim bil ghayr i.e. according to the Pure Imams (as) every existent that
subsists through another is an effect (malul) and is therefore in need of a cause (illat), hence if
God is material so he is qaim bil ghayr and consequently an effect that is in need for a cause
for its existence. Therefore if God is an effect in need for a cause so he would no longer remain
the First Existent (mawjud-e-awwal), and this is impossible. Matter (madda) is subject to
generation (kawn), corruption (fasad) and change (taghayur) therefore if God is thought to be
material so he too would become subject to the same imperfections (nuqs) and would lose the
quality of divine perfection (kamal). Material objects and existents (mawjudat) fall within the
realm of sense perception (idrak-e-hissi) and can therefore be perceived through the external
senses (hawas-e-khamsa) because of possessing bodies (jism) or substance (jawhar) therefore if
materiality is associated with the divine essence so it would become possible to experience sense
perception of God which is unacceptable because according to numerous reports transmitted by
the Imams (as) God is unperceivable through the senses. Imam Reza (as) states that the faculty of
imagination (awham) is more potent and stronger than the external senses, this is because
through our imagination we are capable of imagining that for which there is no corresponding
external reality, despite this we cannot imagine God, in other words God is beyond the realm of

imagination. Therefore if the divine essence cannot be perceived by the more powerful faculty of
imagination, so how can he be perceived by the less powerful faculty of the external senses and
hence beatific vision (ruya) is impossible.

Delegationism:

The Imams (as) have refuted the idea of delegationism (tafweedh) because this idea is equivalent
to asserting that God has become passive or inactive whereas passivity is the opposite of activity
and is in fact its contrary, and out of the two one is symbolic of perfection (kamal) and the other
is a symbol of imperfection (nuqs), and it is very clear that activity is a symbol of perfection
whereas inactivity or passivity is a symbol of imperfection. To state that God has become passive
by delegating his powers and authority (qudrat wa ikhtiyar) to his creation (makhluq) is
equivalent to accepting that the divine essence (dhat) has become defective and deficient which
is impossible. According to the Imams (as) God is other than (ghayr) his action or creation
therefore since defect and deficiency are qualities of his creation therefore God cannot be
deficient or defective or imperfect because if that were so then God would become identical or
similar to his creation whereas the Imams (as) have already rejected the idea of similitude
(tashbeeh) of the divine essence with other beings by declaring that he is unlike like any other
thing (shay).
Differentiation between the Divine Essence and Existents:
It is mentioned in Kulainis Al-Kafi that Imam Jafar As Sadiq (as) in response to an
atheist stated that God is a thing (shay) unlike any other thing (ashya), this
statement of the Imam (as) requires an understanding of the concept of thing.
What is a thing? A thing may be defined as that which exists (mawjud), therefore
in order to assert the existence of the divine essence (dhat-e-illahi) the Imam (as)
describes God as a thing to establish his existential reality. In other words to say
that God is not a thing is the same as asserting his nothingness (la shay) and this
is identical to declaring his non-existence. The things that exist can be categorized
as sensible (mehsusat), intelligibles (maqulat), conceptions (tasawwurat),
images (awham) and acts (amal). The divine essence cannot be a sensible entity
because sensible objects possess substance (jism) and form (surat) and are
contingent (hadith) and all hadith existents are subject to motion (harkat ) and
rest (sukun), are corporeal, and have a beginning and an end (ibtida wa intiha).
All existents that possess substance are composite (murakkab) and every

composite being is dependent (muhtaj) on its parts (aza wa jawareh), therefore

if God is said to possess substance (jism) so he too would become composite and
consequently dependent on his parts and this is impossible because god is
absolutely independent (ghani) of everything. In addition to this it could also be
stated that all contingent (hadith) and composite existents are created and hence
need a creator (sani) for their existence therefore if god is to have a body or
substance so he would become contingent and composite and would become
created (masnu) in need of a creator. Similarly all contingent things have a
beginning and an end whereas no such thing can be associated with god because
everything that has a beginning also comes to an end therefore if a
commencement, birth or beginning is assigned for god so an end (fana) would also
have to be associated with him. Since all contingent existents are subject to motion
and rest and if god is also assumed to be contingent so he too would be subject to
motion and rest therefore if he is in motion, which is movement from a place to
another, so some place would be full of his presence and some other place would be
vacant of his presence whereas he is omnipresent , similarly if he is thought to be at
rest at a certain location or place so all other places would become once again
vacant of his presence and he would no longer remain omnipresent. Secondly if he
is said to be at rest so it means he is confined in a certain place or location
(makan) and hence limited (mehdud).
The intelligibles (maqulat) are existents that can only be grasped through the
intellect (aql) and cannot be perceived through the senses(hawas) and that which
can be apprehended by the intellect will be limited and therefore cannot be God
because according to the Imams (as) the divine essence is incomprehensible,
limitless (la mehdud) and beyond imagination (awham). Concepts (tasawwurat)
also like the intelligibles (maqulat) are existents that can be conceived and
grasped by the mental faculty and therefore that which lies within the reach of
conception is limited and hence cannot be God. Lastly it can be stated that God
cannot be an existent similar to the human actions (amal) because actions are the
effects (malul) of human behavior and are therefore caused and that which is
caused is existent through another (qaim bil ghayr) in the words of the Imams (as)
and hence cannot be God because the divine essence (dhat-e-ilahi) is uncaused
and existent by itself (qaim bil dhat).
Mulla Sadra on Concomitants of Existence (lawazim al wujud):
Existence (wujud) can be categorized as external (wujud-e-khariji) and mental
(wujud-e-dhehni). According to Mulla Sadra the concomitants of existence (lawazim
al wujud) can only be found in external existence but mental or conceptual
existence is devoid of such concomitants of existence. Concomitants of existence
are the effects of existence which are inseparable from the existence of that thing,
in other words it can be stated that these concomitants are an integral feature of
existence, for instance heat (ahraq) is a necessary concomitant of fire because the
existence of heat is inseparable from the existence of fire and is something integral

to it. Similarly light (nur) is a necessary concomitant of the existence of a candle or

lamp and is therefore inseparable and integral to the existence of the lamp, such
lawazim al wujud are only associated with external existence and do not
accompany mental or conceptual existence. To elaborate the notion of the
concomitants further it can be said that the mental existence of fire which is merely
a concept, will not cause the person imagining it to feel a burning sensation or to
feel the heat, neither will it cause any perspiration. Similarly the mental or
conceptual existence of a candle or lamp which is simply an idea existing in the
mind will not light up a dark room. This is because both the mental existence of fire
and the conceptual existence of a candle lack the necessary concomitants of
existence i.e heat in case of fire and light which is a concomitant or effect of a
candle. However the external existence of fire or a candle would exhibit all such
effects or concomitants because they are integral to it and can never be separated
from it.
Mulla Sadra on Existing by itself and Existing through another:
Mulla Sadra divides existents into two distinct categories namely existing by itself
(mawjud bi nafsihi) and existing by another (mawjud bi ghayrihi). According to
Mulla Sadra only god exists by itself whereas all other things exist through him and
as a result of his being and existence (wujud) and are therefore called mawjud bi
ghayrihi. This is due to the fact that the existence of God is not dependent upon
the existence of any other being or thing, whereas on the contrary the existence of
every other thing or being is dependent upon the existence of the divine essence
(dhat-e-ilahi). Due to this absolute dependence and reliance upon the almighty for
subsistence and existence all existents besides God are referred to as faqir or
impoverished whereas God is known as ghani, one who is absolutely independent
of everything. According to the Pure Imams (as) all existents can be categorized as
those that are self-subsisting (qaim bil dhat) and those that subsist through another
(qaim bil ghayr), and God is the only self-subsisting existent (qaim bil dhat) and all
other existents subsist through the divine essence and are therefore qaim bil
ghayr. It can be seen from the above that Mulla Sadras view in this regard is
consistent with that of the Imams (as).
Perceiving the Divine Essence (ruya):
It is mentioned in Kulainis Al-Kafi that Imam Jafar As Sadiq (as) refutes the
possibility of perceiving the divine essence through the external senses (hawas-ekhamsa) of perception (idrak) by mentioning the inability of the people to perceive
the sun, which is a creation of God, unhindered, therefore when we with our bodily
sense organs cannot perceive that which is created (makhluq) so how can we
expect to succeed in perceiving the creator (khaliq), it can be inferred from what
the Imam (as) has said that when our external senses cannot completely grasp the
sensible reality so how can they apprehend that which lies beyond the realm of
sense perception (idrak-e-hissi). When the corporeal eye is unable to grasp that

which is material (maddi) so how can it be expected to apprehend that which is

incorporeal or immaterial. The material light of the sun (nur-e-shams) bears no
comparison with the perfect luminosity (nuraniah) of the sacred essence (dhat-equds) therefore the inability to perceive the former (nur-e-shams) demonstrates the
impossibility of perceiving the latter i.e. the divine being (dhat-e-ilhai). It can be
inferred from the statement of the Imam (as) that an effect (malul) cannot surpass
its cause (illat) in perfection (kamal) and excellence, the sun which is a creation of
God and hence is an effect of the divine essence cannot surpass its creator in
excellence, therefore the impossibility of apprehending the limited and finite
excellence of the creation (shams) sheds light on the impossibility of perceiving the
Divine Being that is absolute perfection. According to the Imams (as) the faculty of
imagination (awham) is stronger than the external senses because it permits the
mind to conceptualize things that do not possess a corresponding existence in the
external reality. However even this faculty of imagination is incapable of
conceptualizing the divine essence despite its superiority over sense perception,
this proves that the divine essence is far beyond being perceived through the
physical eyes. It is impossible to conceive the divine essence because that which
can be conceptualized will become limited (mehdud) whereas God is unlimited (la
mehdud).
Existential Intensification:
In Kulainis Al-Kafi Imam Jafar As Sadiq (as) is reported to have said the light of the
sun (shams) has a ratio equal to one seventieth of the light of the throne (nur-alkursi), the same is the ratio of the light of the throne to the Empyrean (nur-al-arsh),
the light of which is of the same ratio as the light of the Celestial Veil (nur-al-hijab),
the light of which is of the same ratio as the light of the Barrier (nur-al-satr) it can
be deduced from the statement of the Imam (as) that as the light ascends upwards
from the material world (alam-e-maddi) to the higher celestial worlds it increases in
intensity. There is a great deal of consistency between the above mentioned
statement of the Pure Imam (as) and Mulla sadras theory of Gradation of Existence
(tashkik al wujud) which states that as a thing (shay) traverses through the path of
ascension (qaus-e-saudi) from the sensible world (mulk) towards the higher celestial
realms of the imaginilia (alam-e-malakut) and the spiritual world (alam-e-arwah) it
experiences an intensification (tashaddud) in its existence (wujud). It can be
inferred from the statement of the Imam (as) that the light of the Celestial Veil (nural-hijab) is less intense than the light of the Barrier (nur-al-satr), similarly the light of
the Empyrean (nur-al-arsh) is weaker in intensity than the light of the Celestial Veil
(nur-al-hijab), and the light of the throne (nur al kursi) is lesser in intensity in
comparison to the light of the Empyrean (nur-al-arsh) and lastly the light of the sun
is weakest in intensity, this is a demonstration of the concept of decreasing
existential intensity as the light descends downwards from the higher celestial
worlds towards the sensible realm. Once again there is an apparent consistency
between the statement of the Imam (as) and Mulla Sadras theory of Gradation of

Existence according to which as a thing travels downwards through the path of

descent (qaus-e-nuzuli) from the higher celestial realms of the alam-e-arwah and
malakut it experiences diminution (tadhauf) in its existence causing it to become
less intense, less actual, less real and imperfect.
Mulla Sadra on the Soul as Barzakh:
In Mulla Sadras philosophy as mentioned by him in his Hikmat al Arshia the soul
(nafs) holds an intermediate position between the body (jism) and the spirit (ruh), it
both connects the two as well as divides or separates them, it can be described as
the Barzakh between the body and the spirit. Just as the intermediate realm of the
imaginilia (barzakh) both connects and separates the spiritual world (alam-e-arwah)
and the world of matter (alam-e-madda) the soul also performs a similar role. In fact
the very existence (wujud) of the soul marks the end of the corporeal world and the
beginning of the spiritual realm. According to Mulla Sadra the soul is the culmination
of the two seas or the point of convergence of the two seas of corporeality and
spirituality. At birth it is the body (jism) that is the soul (nafs) but when the soul
actualizes (filiat) its latent potentialities (quwa/istidad) through substantial motion
(harkat al jawharia) thereby experiencing material death (mout-e-tabiyi) and enters
the world of barzakh it is the soul (nafs) that becomes the body (jism). That is why
Mulla Sadra regards the soul as being corporeal in its origination but spiritual in its
subsistence (jismaniat al hudus wa ruhaniat al baqa) because through actualization
of its dormant potential it arrives at a stage where it becomes capable of subsisting
independently of its material body (jism-e-maddi).
Mulla Sadra on the Existence of Barzakh:
According to Mulla Sadra not every soul (nafs) is able to reach the spiritual or the
intelligible world, in other words it could be stated that not every soul acquires an
intelligible form and becomes an intellect (mawjud-e-aqli). Therefore if it is assumed
that there is no intermediate realm known as the Barzakh or malakut so it will
have to be accepted that the souls that fail to become intellects and reach the
intelligibilia will cease to exist or alternatively will be reincarnated (hulul) into a
different material body (jism-e-maddi). Mull Sadra considers reincarnation
(tanasukh) impossible because an actualized soul cannot change back to its
potential state as that would require a material substratum in which the change
(taghayur) could occur but which is non-existent in the intermediate realm of
Barzakh. When the soul through substantial motion (harkat al jawharia) actualizes
its latent potentialities (quwa) it experiences existential intensification (tashaddud)
thereby becoming more real and perfect, such that when all its potential has been
actualized it experiences material death and disembodiment from matter (tajarrud).
Therefore the moment it enters Barzakh it is already an actualized soul free from
every privation and imperfection. Reincarnation (tanasukh/hulul) would require such
souls to revert back to their potential state, and any such change requires a
material substratum which, as has been said above, is not present in the world of

Barzakh, that is why Mulla Sadra regards reincarnation as an impossibility. The first
mentioned option of such souls ceasing to exist is also unacceptable, therefore it
will have to be acknowledged that the souls that fail to reach the intelligibilia (alame-arwah) and become intellects will acquire an imaginal form in Barzakh and abide
therein until the resurrection (maad).
Mulla Sadra on the Nature of the Imaginal Forms:
According to Mulla Sadra the Forms that we perceive in the external reality are the
sensible impressions or effects of our sense perceptions (idrak-e-hissi) but the forms
that are perceived by us in our dreams or the ones which we imagine by the aid of
our imaginative faculty (quwat-e-mutakhayyala) are not the effects of any particular
external reality, but are contained or preserved within the soul (nafs) and generated
or created by it. The soul acquires these imaginal forms as a result of its empirical
experiences and observation. For instance the garden that one may perceive by the
help of his material eyes is an effect of a particular external reality and is in fact a
reflection of that reality but if a person dreams of a garden or a rose or any other
object, so that garden or thing will not be an effect or a reflection of any specific
external reality. Then how is it that we can perceive such imaginal forms, without
the assistance of our physical eyes, that do not represent or reflect any particular
external reality in our dreams or through imagination, Mulla Sadra states that these
imaginal forms are contained within the soul and which the soul acquires through
empirical experiences and preserves them within itself. According to Mulla Sadra
these imaginal forms that are perceived by us in dreams or the ones that are
produced by our imagination do actually exist but their existence lacks
concreteness and substantiality in the material world (alam-e-maddi). This is
because the corporeal realm is the least intense or the weakest modality of being or
existence, and in addition to this the existence of the soul in this sensible world is
also the weakest and least intense due to its attachment with matter. However in
the intermediate realm of Barzakh (alam-e-malakut) these imaginal forms created
by the soul will be concrete and substantial existents due to the existential intensity
(tashaddud) and actualization of the soul and also because of the intensity of the
realm of Barzakh.
Mulla Sadra on the Manifest & Hidden Reality:
Imam Ali (as) is reported to have said mankind are sleeping, when they die, they
awaken what follows is an explanation of the Imams (as) words mentioned above.
According to Mulla Sadra the sensible world or the material realm that can be
perceived through the external senses (hawas-al-khamsa) of perception (idrak) is
the outer shell or the external cover of the intermediate realm of Barzakh or alamal-malakut , in other words it can be stated that the material world or mulk veils
the inner world of Barzakh from being perceived. Similarly the Barzakh is the outer
shell or covering of the spiritual world or alam-al-arwah also known as the
intelligibilia, which means that the Barzakh acts as a veil for the spiritual realm.

Similarly just as is the case with the hierarchy of worlds the material body (jism al
maddi) of beings is like an outer shell or cover with respect to its soul (nafs) and
veils it from being perceived. Mulla Sadra also uses the example of the womb to
elaborate the above idea where he states that this sensible world is like the womb
of a mother such that for as long as we are inside or within it we are unaware of the
existence of the other world (barzakh), it is only when we exit the womb that this
vast inner world becomes manifest to us and we come to realize its existence
(wujud). The inner world of Barzakh is also a womb with respect to the spiritual
world (alam al malakut). It is material death that breaks open the shell of the
material body ushering us into the intermediate world, in other words it is death
alone that allows us to exit the womb of the material or sensible reality and witness
the inner realm of the malakut or Barzakh. In fact according to Sadra this death is
actually a second birth or rebirth after being born into the world of sensible reality
the first time. Death reveals the existence of the soul that lies hidden within its
material shell, thereby manifesting it. It also manifests the existence of the inner
realm of Barzakh that lies concealed behind the veil of the world of matter. Death
according to Mulla Sadra is the cause of the lesser rising (qayamat al sughra) which
is like a second birth or rebirth as has already been stated, it can be declared as an
eye opener as has been stated by Imam Ali (as) revealing and manifesting both the
existence of the soul and the inner realm of Barzakh. Just as there is a lesser rising
after the material death, there is also a greater rising (qayamat al kubra) that is
caused by the archangel Israfils (as) twofold blowing of the trumpet (sur) which will
manifest completely different reality.
Mulla Sadra on Alam-al-Barzakh:
Allama Majlisi mentions in his Ain al Hayat that the Holy Prophet (as) said beneath
their (dwellers of paradise) balconies will be flowing streams and fruit laden swaying
trees, whichever fruit will be desired its branch will itself extend towards the mouth,
rather every fruit will utter by the command of god oh believing slave (of god) eat
me first, according to Mulla Sadra the other world is completely different from the
sensible or material world (alam al maddi). In the sensible realm in order to create
an existent a material substratum is required whereas in the intermediate realm of
Barzakh the soul (nafs) would have the ability to create substantial and concrete
imaginal forms without requiring any kind of a raw material or substratum. The
process of creation in the world of matter is incremental and occurs in stages, but in
the realm of Barzakh the process of creation is an immediate and instantaneous
process, whatever the soul desires it will have the ability to bring it into existence
immediately. In addition to the above mentioned differences Mulla Sadra states in
his Hikmat al Arshia that in the other world all things are alive, which means that
every existent possesses life in that realm unlike the sensible world of matter
wherein many existents are lifeless, and the Holy Prophets statement mentioned in
the beginning also sheds light on the same idea that Barzakh and Akhira are realms
in which all objects including trees and fruits have life. Life is a symbol of perfection

whereas death represents privation and imperfection, and since the higher realms
of Barzakh and Akhira are more perfect, real and complete in comparison to the
material world therefore all things that subsist therein have a more perfect, real and
actualized existence (wujud) and are therefore endowed with an intense existential
reality or being such that all things therein are alive.

Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi on the Different Types of Causes(Amuzish-e-Falsafeh):

Mediate & Immediate: an immediate cause is one between which and its
effect there is no intermediary, for example, the movement of the hand,
when a person moves his hand so there is no intermediary between his-self,
which is causing the movement, and the hand that is being moved. A
mediate cause is one between which and its effect there is an intermediary
such as the movement of the pen, when a person causes the pen that he is
holding to move on paper so the intermediary between the cause, which is
the self, and the movement of the pen, which is the effect, is the movement
or motion of the hand.
Simple & Composite: A simple (basit) cause is one that has no parts or
components such as God and the spirit (ruh). A Composite (murakab) cause
on the other hand is one that has parts such as material existents.
Perfect & Imperfect: A perfect or complete cause (illat-e-tama) is one the
existence of which is sufficient to bring into existence its effect (malul)
without any other thing or things being added to it, because it has all the
components, parts, attributes or features deemed necessary for producing
the effect. An imperfect or incomplete cause (illat-e-naqisa) is one the
existence of which is not sufficient in itself to bring into existence the effect,
and a few more components or parts are also required the absence of which
renders the cause imperfect or incomplete, and the inclusion or addition of
which would render it complete & perfect.
External & Internal: An external cause is one which has a separate existence
which is external to the existence of its effect. An internal cause is one the
existence of which is not separate from the existence or being of its effect
and is internal to it.
Replaceable & Irreplaceable: A replaceable cause is one that can be
substituted or replaced by another for producing the desired effect and is not
the only existent or cause that can bring into existence that effect. An
irreplaceable cause is one which cannot be substituted by another for
producing the desired effect as it is the only existent that can bring into
existence that effect.

Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi on the Four Causes (Amuzish-e-Falsafeh):

Material : A material cause consists of the matter that makes up or

constitutes an effect or existent, for example wood in the case of furniture
and paper in case of a book.
Formal: A formal cause is the form (surat) or shape given to an object or
existent such as the form of a chair, without which it will not be what it is.
Final: A final cause is the purpose for which an effect is brought into existence
or is created, for example the final cause or purpose for writing a book is so
that people may read it. It may also be described as the reason or motivation
for producing a particular effect.
Efficient: An efficient cause is one without which the effect cannot attain or
acquire existence or being (wujud), for example the efficient cause in case of
a book is the author without whom the book could not have been written,
similarly the efficient cause in case of furniture such as a table or a chair is
the carpenter who makes these items. Therefore an efficient cause is the
producer or maker of an existent which is its effect, and the existence of the
effect is sufficient proof of the existence of its efficient cause who brings the
effect into being from non-being (adum).

Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi on Ontological Poverty(Amuzish-e-Falsafeh):

Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi on Cause & Effect(Amuzish-e-Falsafeh):
A cause (illat) may be defined as an existent (mawjud) the existence (wujud) of
which is necessary to bring into existence another being or thing, which is its effect
(malul). The existence of an effect is not independent, in fact it is a dependent
existence. An effect is dependent on its cause and is indebted to Ayatullah Yazdi
writes in his Amuzish-e-Falsafeh that according to Mulla Sadra an effect is an
ontologically impoverished existent and one that is dependent upon its cause for its
being or existence. Given two existents how can it be ascertained which one is the
cause and which the effect out of the two. This can be ascertained by determining
which of the two is ontologically impoverished or poorer, and that relatively
impoverished or poorer existent will be the effect whereas the one that is free from
ontological poverty will be regarded as the cause of the said effect which is
ontologically impoverished. Mulla Sadra calls this ontologically impoverished being
or existent mawjud-e-faqir. In Mulla Sadras philosophy every cause (illat) is more
perfect and independent in relation to its effect (malul), which is ontologically
impoverished or poorer in comparison to its cause and is dependent upon it for its
existence (wujud). Similarly that cause is in its turn ontologically impoverished and
dependent in comparison to its cause which is more perfect and independent than
its effect (malul), being the first mentioned cause. The cause of the cause is
ontologically superior in terms of perfection and independence as compared to its
effect which is the latter cause. In a similar manner the effect of the effect is
ontologically inferior in terms of both privation and dependence in comparison to its

cause, which is the latter effect. Therefore the existents subsisting at a higher level
in the chain of causality are ontologically more perfect and independent as
compared to those subsisting at the lower levels in the chain. Similarly existents
found at the lower levels in the causal chain are ontologically more impoverished
and dependent in comparison to the ones that subsist at a higher level. Since the
Divine Essence (dhat-e-ilahi) is the cause of all causes and the first cause (illat-eulaa) that exists at the top of the causal chain, therefore he is ontologically the most
perfect existent and one that is absolutely independent of all things. He (god) is
completely free from all kinds of ontological poverty because he is not an effect of
any cause.
its cause for bringing it into being from non-being (adum). Every existent is either a
cause or an effect or both. It is not possible for an existent to not be an effect of
some other existent, the only exception being the Divine Essence (dhat-e-ilahi)
because He is the only existent who is not the effect of any cause. The Divine
Essence lies at the top of the chain of causality and is therefore the only existent
that is a cause only, without being an effect. Just as the being that lies at the top of
the chain of causality can only be a cause and not an effect of some other cause,
similarly the being or existent that lies at the other end of the causal chain i.e. at
the bottom, can only be an effect without being a cause of some other effect.

Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi on Causality(Amuzish-e-Falsafeh):

Ayatullah Yazdi states in his Amuzish-e-Falsafeh that according to Mulla Sadra the
relationship between a cause (illat) and its effect (malul) is illuminative (ishraqi) in
character, where the cause acts as an illuminator and its effect is the illuminated,
and therefore the relation between the cause and its effect is said to be ishraqi.
According to Mulla Sadra light (nur) is an existent that is self-manifesting, meaning
that it is self illuminating, and also manifests others i.e. objects or things on which
the light happens to fall. Therefore according to Mulla Sadra just as light is selfmanifesting and also manifests others similarly the Divine Essence (dhat-e-ilahi)
who is the light of the heavens and the earth (nur us samat-e- wal ardh), is selfexisting, meaning that he is absolutely independent in his existence (wujud), and
also brings into existence others from the valley of non-existence (adum) into the
realm of being and existence.
Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi on Existence (Amuzish-e-Falsafeh):
In Mulla Sadras philosophy the common factor between a plant (nabatat), an
animal (haywan) and a human (insan) is existence (wujud) which all existents share

in common with each other. The difference being that this common or shared
feature, which is known as existence is most intense (tashaddud) in human beings
and the least intense in minerals or in those existents that belong to the vegetative
kingdom such as plants. According to Mulla Sadra it is this existential intensity or
diminution (tadhauf) thereof that causes a thing to be a plant, an animal or a
human. This existence is not simply an abstract notion or idea but it is a reality
(haqiqa), and that reality is the Divine Essence (dhat-e-ilahi) who is pure and
absolute existence. The Divine Essence is a reality that is a single unity (ahad) in
which there is no multiplicity or plurality (kathrat) and is therefore referred to as
wahdat-e-haqqa. Mulla Sadra categorizes existence into real or true existence
known as wujud-e-haqiqi and unreal or allegorical existence known as wujud-emajazi. According to Mulla Sadra the only true or real existence (wujud-e-haqiqi) is
that of the Divine Essence (dhat-e-ilahi) whereas the existence or being of all other
existents is unreal (wujud-e-majazi).
Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi on Divine & Natural Agents(Amuzish-e-Falsafeh):
It has been stated earlier that an Efficient Cause is one that bestows existence upon
its effect, it is an existent that creates or makes another existent and grants
existence and being to it, for example the carpenter in case of furniture and an
author who writes a book .There are two types of Efficient Causes namely a Natural
Agent and a Divine Agent. A natural agent is one that lacks the ability to create its
effect or produce the effect from nothing. In other words it can be said that in order
to create its effect a natural agent requires some preexisting material or thing, in
the absence of which it cannot bring the effect into existence. A divine agent on the
other hand is a cause that is capable of producing its effect from nothing or not from
anything. To elaborate this it can stated that a divine agent possesses the ability to
produce its effect without the use of any pre-existing material or thing. Therefore it
can be inferred from the above discussion that a divine agent is capable of creation
ex-nihilo, whereas a natural agent is not. A natural agent is incapable of bringing its
effect into existence from absolute non-existence (adum).
The Reality Proposition (qadhiya haqiqiya)(Amuzish-e-Falsafeh):
Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi writes in his Amuzish-e-Falsafeh that every effect has a
cause, meaning that an effect derives its existence from its cause and is
dependent upon it for coming into existence as well as subsistence or survival and
is a dependent existent in relation to its cause which is independent. The existence
giving cause would be more perfect than its effect which is less perfect in
comparison to its cause. The proposition does not states that every existent has a
cause this is because the Divine Essence is also an existent but one that is not the
effect of any cause but is a cause that has granted existence to all other existents,
whereas he himself is uncaused, therefore his existence is real existence (wujud-ehaqiqi) and the existence of all others is unreal (wujud-e-majazi). If the above
proposition that every existent has a cause is accepted as true so it would mean
that God also is an effect of some cause and this would then lead to infinite regress,

which is impossible. It has already been stated that there cannot exist an effect that
has no cause, because the existence of an effect is a dependent existence and one
that is ontologically poorer and imperfect, and is therefore in need of an existent on
which to depend for survival/subsistence and existence. This ontological need is
referred to as faqr-e-dhat by Mulla Sadra. It is due to this ontological poverty that
an effect is also referred to as mawjud-e-faqir or an impoverished existent.
Therefore it would be appropriate to state that every impoverished existent
(mawjud-e-faqir) has a cause. Since the Divine Essence is free from ontological
poverty (faqr-e-dhat) therefore his existence is not in need of any cause and is a
truly real existence (wujud-e-haqiqi) and because all other things are impoverished
existents hence their existence is unreal (wujud-e-majazi).
The Principle of Mutual Necessity (Amuzish-e-Falsafeh):
According to Ayatullah Taqi Misbah Yazdi an effect derives its existence from its
cause and is therefore dependent upon it for its existence or being. It is the
existence-giving cause that brings the effect into existence, but the cause will not
be able to bestow existence to its effect until it is a perfect or complete cause,
which means that in order to become a perfect or complete cause the cause will
have to possess all the attributes, features, components and parts that are
necessary for it to produce its effect and in the absence of which it will remain
incomplete and imperfect and hence will not be able to produce its effect. Because
if an incomplete cause is able to produce its effect so it would mean either that the
cause was not incomplete in the first place or alternatively that the parts or
attributes that were missing were not necessary for producing the effect, as the
effect got produced even without those parts or features. Therefore it has been
proven that an effect depends upon its cause for its existence and the cause in its
turn depends upon all those parts, features, attributes and characteristics that
render it complete and perfect, as the effect cannot be produced without them. If
the perfection or completion of a cause is impossible so the existence of its effect
would also be impossible. Similarly if the perfection or completion of a cause
becomes possible so the existence of its effect would also become possible.
However once a cause becomes perfect or complete so the existence of its effect
would then become a necessity. Alternatively if an effect exists so it logically follows
that its existence-giving perfect or complete cause also necessarily exists, in other
words it could be said that if an effect exists so the existence of its perfect or
complete cause would also be a necessity, this is the Principle of Mutual Necessity
of Cause and Effect which states that the existence of an effect proves the
necessary existence of its existence-giving perfect or complete cause as well
without which it would not have come into being, and the existence of a perfect or
complete cause necessitates the existence of its effect, and hence there exists a
mutual necessity between a cause and its effect. From this it could be inferred that
since the Cosmos exists and is recognized as an effect due to its Ontological Poverty
(faqr-e-dhat) and is therefore an impoverished existent (mawjud-e-faqir), therefore

according to the principle of mutual necessity the existence of the Cosmos is

sufficient proof of the necessary existence of its existence-giving perfect or
complete cause, who is none other but the Divine Essence.
Mulla Sadra on the Changeability of Matter:
The Material World that surrounds us and in which we live is subject to change and
alteration but what is the reason for this change or flux, or what is the cause of this
change in matter. According to Mulla Sadra the cause of this constant change in
matter is the latent potentiality (quwa) in every substance (jawhar) that exists in
the sensible realm, and it is the innate desire (fitra) to realize this hidden potential
that triggers change in every material substance. It is this desire to actualize latent
potential that causes motion in substances and leads to changes in matter. This
substantial motion (harkat al jawharia) or change will continue as long as there is
unrealized potential (bil quwa) that requires actualization. But once all hidden
potentialities have been realized and the material substance becomes fully
actualized (bil fil) change in matter also ceases. This is because matter through the
actualization of all its latent potential has achieved its ultimate perfection (kamal)
and has arrived at its final destination in the material realm.
Mulla Sadra on the Faculties of Perception:
In Mulla Sadras Transcendental Wisdom (Hikmat al Mutaaliyah) man is a tripartite
being composed of a body (jism), soul (nafs) and spirit (ruh) where the body
pertains to the material world, the soul is an aspect that is related to the Imaginal
Realm (malakut) and the spirit pertains to the intelligible world (alam al arwah). Man
has been endowed with powers to perceive all the three worlds even during his
earthly existence, the faculty of sense perception (hawas al khamsa) has been
gifted to acquire awareness concerning the material world, the faculty of
imagination (quwat al mutakhayyala) has been bestowed to explore the realm of
imagination (barzakh/malakut) and the intellect (aql) has been given to seek
knowledge of the world of intelligibles. The last level or stage of the sensible or
visible world (alam al shahud) is also the first level of the world of imagination and
the last level or stage of the imaginal world is the first stage of the intelligible world.
Initially the soul is more material and less immaterial therefore this is the time when
those faculties of the soul that pertain to the world of matter such as the faculty of
sensory perception (hawas-e-zahirah) are the strongest and the faculties related to
the invisible worlds (batin) such as imagination and intellection are the weakest.
Through substantial motion (harkat al jawhariya) the soul gradually becomes
immaterial (mujarrid) as it actualizes (filiat) its latent potential (quwa). Substantial
Motion realizes the hidden potential into an actuality thereby rendering the soul
existentially more intense (tashaddud), real and actual (bil fil). As the soul becomes
more and more immaterial due to substantial motion the senses become weaker,
which is an indication of the weakening of its relation with the body. This fact has
been very eloquently expressed by Shakespeare in As You Like It where he

describes the seventh stage of life as Sans teeth , sans eyes, sans taste, sans
everything(Act two, scene vii). As the soul becomes more and more incorporeal
and immaterial the faculties that are related to the invisible realm (batin) such as
imagination and intellection become stronger indicating that the soul is now nearer
the threshold of the invisible world and is incrementally moving away from the dark
world of matter.
Allama Tabatabai on the three Lives of Man:
Allama Tabatabai mentions in Al-Mizan that man has three lives namely Primordial,
Terrestrial and an After-Life, all three of which are interconnected such that the
succeeding life is dependent upon the preceding one, in other words our worldy life
is dependent upon the Primordial life and the after-life is dependent on the worldy
one,which means that the after-life is the fruit of our earthly existence and the
choices we make therein and the actions or deeds we perform.Therefore it can be
stated that the preceding life determines the state and quality of the succeeding
one. According to Allama Tabatabai the after-life is not something that will come into
being post terrestrial life but is something that exists even in the world at present
but cannot be perceived by us as long as we are in this material world due to its
being veiled from our eyes.It is this veil (hijab) that renders us heedless (ghaflah) of
the existence of the after-life (akhirah).However on the day of ressurrection this veil
shall be completely removed renderring self-evident (badihi) the reality of the afterlife.
Allama Tabatabai on Acquired & Bestowed Perfection:
Allama Tabatabai in his magnum opus "Al-Mizan" distinguishes between "Acquired
Perfection" and "Bestowed Perfection",where the difference between the two lies in
the presence or absence of free-will/consent. Acquired Perfection consists in the
positive character traits that are obtained by an individual out of his free-will and
consent or choice,whereas "bestowed perfection" consists in those positive
attributes that are not acquired through choice or free-will, but are granted or given.
An example of acquired perfection is the seeking of knowledge (ilm) or behaving
honestly etc. both of which involve the use of free-will and choice.If an individual
chooses to behave honestly without compulsion so this is an instance of acquired
perfection.
Beauty can be mentioned as an example of bestowed-perfection,because the
object or thing on which beauty is bestowed or conferred has no choice in acquiring
it,nor does it acquire it out of its own free-will or consent.The fragrance of a rose is
an instance of bestowed perfection because the rose did not choose or acquire it
out of its free-will but it is an attribute that was given to it.
Although both kinds of perfection are admirable,however it is the acquired
perfection which more praise-worthy than the other because of the presence of

free-will/consent.However in the case of God the divine perfections are neither

acquired nor bestowed,they are essential (dhatti).

Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi on the Principle of Simultaneity:

According to this principle if a perfect or complete cause (illat-e-tamma) exists, so
its existence necessitates the existence of its effect (malul), such that both the
existence-giving perfect or complete cause and its effect come into existence
simultaneously. However this applies only to perfect causes and not to imperfect or
incomplete causes (illat-e-naqisa), because they lack certain parts, components or
attributes deemed necessary for producing the required effect. For this principle to
apply it is necessary for both the existence-giving perfect or complete cause and its
consequent effect to be temporal (zamani), meaning that both the cause and its
effect should occur or exist in time, therefore if a temporal perfect cause exists so
its existence shall necessitate the simultaneous existence of its temporal effect
without any time interval. However if the cause and effect are non-temporal,
meaning that they are immaterial (mujarrid), such as god, so this principle will not
hold true, because simultaneity is with respect to time (zaman). Similarly this
principle will also not be applicable where the cause is non-temporal and immaterial
even if the consequent effect is temporal.
The Reality of Perception in Transcendental Wisdom:
In Mulla Sadras Transcendental Wisdom (Hikmat al Mutaalliah) everyday sense
perception (idrak-e-hissi) is the initial step in the process of disembodiment
(tajarrud) of the form (suwar) of the object perceived, meaning the percept, this is
because our senses (hawas-e-khamsa) only present to us an image of the object
perceived which is a reflection of the external objective reality. This image that is
presented to us by our senses is immaterial (mujarrid) but only imperfectly,
meaning that at this stage the disembodiment is imperfect or incomplete, this is
due to the fact that if the senses stop perceiving the percept so its image or
reflection would also cease to exist, because even though this image is immaterial
but only imperfectly because it arises as a result of matter (madda). If there is an
apple in front of me so the image of the apple presented to me by the senses is a
reflection of the sensible matter, meaning the apple, but is not the apple itself,
therefore this image is immaterial, grasped or disembodied from matter (apple)
through sense perception, however this image or reflection of the apple only lasts
as long as I continue to perceive the apple, and ceases to exist immediately just as
the sense perception of the apple ceases, therefore this sensible image of the apple
is only imperfectly immaterial because it is dependent upon the apple, meaning
matter, for being engendered. Later when we recollect the same image through the
faculty of imagination (quwat al mutakhayyala) so the imaginal form (suwar al
mutakhayyala) that is presented to us by our imagination is further disembodied

and more immaterial than the image given to us by our senses. This is due to the
fact that the form imagined is independent of the external objective reality and
need not rely upon the senses for being engendered. The disembodiment at this
stage is medial but it is still not perfect or complete, this is because the imaginal
form is disembodied from matter but not from the accidents of matter (awaridh)
such as color, size, shape and form, therefore the imaginal form is not perfectly
immaterial, it is only medially immaterial. It is only when the imaginal form is
stripped of the accidents of matter, such as color, size, shape and form that we
arrive at the intelligible form (suwar al aqlia/maqulat) which is perfectly
disembodied and purely immaterial. According to Mulla Sadra it is the appropriation
or grasping of the intelligible form that gives birth to true knowledge (ilm) to the
intellector (aqil). True knowledge arises as a result of the union (ittehad) of the
intellector with that which is intellected, meaning the intelligible form (ittehad al aqil
wa maqul).
The Souls Perception of the Ideal Forms or Universals:
It could be inferred from Ayatullah Khomeinis enlightening treatise on the soul
entitled Maad(The Return to the One) that we are aware of the fact that we are
able to comprehend Universals or Ideal Forms such as the notion of the Universal
Man which is commonly shared by all mankind, or the universal ideas of beauty
and justice. These Universals are immaterial (mujarrid) and incorporeal, because
had they been corporeal (mujassim) they would have possessed a particular form
(surat) and in that case they would not have been commonly shared by all, which
would be contradictory and inconsistent with the idea of a Universal, this therefore
proves that these universals, also known as Archetypes, are immaterial and
incorporeal existents that lack any particular form. But if they are immaterial and
incorporeal so how then are we able to perceive universals and have a mental
conception concerning them, because the senses (hawas-e-zahirah) can only
perceive that which is material and consequently corporeal, and we are certain that
it is not through the senses that we grasp universals. The Ideal Forms are perceived
by means of the intellect (aql), which is immaterial and resides in the soul (nafs),
this therefore establishes both the existence (wujud) and the immateriality of the
soul.
The Existence & Immateriality of the Soul (Nafs):
Ayatullah Khomeini states in his Maad that Humans and Animals, even though
they are both material existents, possess consciousness and are therefore aware of
their existence and their environment or surroundings, whereas other material
existents are non-sentient and do not possess consciousness. We know from our
empirical experience that matter lacks consciousness, nevertheless humans and
animals both being material beings possess it due to the presence and existence of
the Soul (nafs). Therefore it can be safely asserted that it is the presence and the
existence of the soul that bestows life on an existent.

We are aware of the fact that the bodily faculties decline and weaken with the
passage of time as well as excessive usage such as the faculty of sense perception.
Our senses lose their strength and weaken with time and use but the intellect,
which is resident in the soul, does not necessarily weaken or loses its strength with
time and use and in many people it intensifies and becomes stronger with use and
the passage of time. Therefore had the soul been material in nature the intellect
would also have declined in strength like the other bodily and physical faculties,
because excessive use and time cannot be the cause of increase and decrease in
the same thing, meaning matter, at the same time, this therefore proves the
Immateriality of the Soul.
The Immutability & Immortality of the Soul:
According to Ayatullah Khomeini matter is subject to change (taghayyur) and
therefore generation (kawn), corruption (fasad), decay and decomposition are the
properties of matter. However the soul (nafs) is held to be immutable and
unchangeable because it lacks matter that is receptive to change and hence due to
the absence of receptive matter (madda e qabila) immutability is a property of the
Soul. Once all the hidden potentialities (quwa) of matter have been actualized
(filiat) through substantial motion (harkat al jawhariya) and the soul has become
perfect, so at this stage the soul is independent and is no longer dependent upon
the body (jism) for subsistence, this is the stage when the soul experiences material
death and exits the body and the material world (mulk) to begin its journey in the
imaginal realm (malakut), at this stage the soul is immaterial (mujarrid) a state
acquired through substantial motion during its sojourn in the material body.
Therefore when the soul enters the isthmus (barzakh) it is immaterial and is not
subject to anykind of change in the form of corruption or decay because there is no
receptive matter capable of accepting such changes, and therefore the soul can
never experience non-existence (adum) and is therefore immortal. It is the
immateriality of the soul that renders it immortal. At this stage non-existence can
only be imparted to the soul by the entity that has endowed it with the gift of
immateriality (tajarrud) i.e. the Divine Essence.

Avicenna states in his Kitab al Najat that the Soul (nafs) can be divided into three categories
namely vegetative (nafs al nabatiya), animal (nafs al haywania) and rational (nafs al insania).
Each of these souls is endowed with certain facu...lties (quwa). The vegetative soul is endowed
with the faculties of nutrition, growth and reproduction. The function of the nutritive faculty is to
transmit food and to replace it with what has been dissolved. Avicenna defines food as a body
whose nature it is to transform or change itself into the nature of the body that consumes it. The
faculty of growth increases in substance the body in which it inheres in terms of length, breadth
and depth. The faculty of reproduction converts a part of the body in which it inheres which is
similar to the body in which this faculty resides in potentiality, into a body which is similar to the
body in which it inheres in actuality. The animal soul is endowed with the faculties of motion
(harakah) and perception (idrak). The motive faculty can be further classified into motive by
impulse and motive by activity. Impulse can be further divided into desire (quwat al shahwiyah)

and repugnance or anger (quwat al ghadhabiyah). The faculty of desire is a liking or attraction
towards that which is perceived to be good or as perfection (kamal) such as pleasure. The faculty
of repugnance or anger on the other hand is the opposite of desire in that it is characterized by a
loathing or dislike for that which is perceived to be evil or harmful such as pain. It is this desire
for that which is good (khayr) or the repugnance of that which is evil (sharr) that stirs into
activity the body in which it inheres for the purpose of attaining the good or perfection or
avoidance of evil or the harmful, this is the point when the soul which was previously motive by
impulse becomes motive by activity. Perception is the apprehension of the forms (suwar) of the
sensible objects (mehsusat) by the sense organs. The forms of the sensible objects reach the
sense organs, get imprinted on them and are then perceived by the faculty of sensory perception
(idrak al hissia). Perception takes place by means senses (hawas) which can be categorized into
internal (batini) and external (zahiri) for internal and external perception respectively. The
external senses (hawas al khamsa) are five in number namely sight, hearing, smell, taste and
touch. External perception is the abstraction of the form of sensible objects from their matter.
The abstracted form although immaterial is not completely free from matter because it still
retains the accidents (awariz) of matter such as color, shape and form etc. The form apprehended
by the senses is dependent upon them for its continuity and therefore lasts only as long as matter
exists, which establishes the imperfect immateriality of these abstracted forms and their reliance
upon matter. The external senses cannot retain the form in the absence of the matter to which
they relate. The internal senses are fantasia or sensus communus , the faculties of representation,
imagination, estimation and recollection. Fantasia is the faculty that receives the abstracted
forms, whereas the faculty of representation preserves these forms. Imagination can be subdivided into imagination in the animal soul and imagination in the rational soul. The faculty of
estimation is responsible for apprehending the non-sensible intention (niyyah) that inheres in the
sensible objects. The recollective faculty is responsible for recollecting the non-sensible
intentions residing within material objects. The forms of the material or sensible objects can be
apprehended or perceived both by the external as well as the internal senses, but they are first
perceived by the external senses, which after capturing and abstracting these forms transmit them
to the inner senses for perception. These forms as has been mentioned above are not completely
free from matter and its accidents and last only as long as the matter to which they pertain exists.
Intentions contrary to the forms can only be perceived or apprehended by the internal senses of
perception and not by the external senses. The forms of material things due to their material
attachment with the accidents of matter can represent only particular sensible objects or things
and can never be universally representative of an entire genus (jins). In order to be universally
representative the forms will need to be free and completely detached from the accidents of
matter, which is not possible. For instance when I observe a lion so the sight of it communicates
an intention of fear and harm to me even though I do not externally perceive this fear and harm
through my external senses of perception as it is only the form of the lion that is apprehended by
the external senses. Nevertheless the intention of fear and harm that is apprehended by the
internal faculty of estimation (quwat al wahmiya) causes us to flee to a safe destination. The
human rational soul (nafs al insaniya) can be sub-divided into Practical Intellect (aql e amali) and
Theoretical Intellect (aql e nazari). The faculties of the vegetative soul are meant to serve the
animal soul, those of the animal soul are meant to serve the human rational soul. The Practical
Intellect is the face of the rational soul turned towards the body or the material world and should
dominate the body and not be dominated by it. The Theoretical Intellect is the face of the rational
soul turned towards the higher principles or the universal forms. In the case of external

perception the presence of matter is necessary for the presence of the form, whereas in case of
internal perception the presence of matter is not essential for the presence of the form. That
which is material or corporeal can only be perceived by a material body or organ, for instance the
bodily sense organs or faculties of perception which inhere in the body, such as the faculty of
representation and estimation. Particulars can only be perceived by material faculties of
perception and universals by immaterial faculties of perception. The faculty of perception that
apprehends or captures the universals or the intelligibles will not be material or corporeal and nor
will it inhere within any material or bodily object.
Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi on the Principle of Homogeneity.part (1):
In a causal relationship it is the cause that imparts and it is the effect that receives, meaning that
the cause acts as an imparter of existence and the effect as a recipient.The cause cannot grant to
the recipient that which it does not itself possess.Therefore whatever qualities an effect has its
cause must also necessarily have t...hose same qualities and attributes according to the principle
of homogeneity.According to this principle whatever perfection a cause has its effect must also
necessarily possess in a more perfect and intense form, without its privations and
imperfections.We know that the Divine Essence is the cause of all causes and the first cause
(illat-e-ula'a) of all that exists.Therefore whatever perfections are found in the existing things are
found in a more perfect and intensified manner in the Divine Essence.An existence giving
perfect or complete cause can only impart existence to others if it possesses existence
itself.Similarly the Divine Essence can only impart existence to others if it possesses existence
itself, and according to Mulla Sadra God is absolute and pure existence.
Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi on the Persistence of the effect in need of a cause: It has already been
stated that if an effect exists so its existence giving perfect cause also necessarily exists as per the
principle of mutual implication, but the continued existence or persistence of an effect is al...so in
need of its cause, because to assume that an effect can exist or survive without its cause would
mean that the cause is not a perfect cause and that the effect is no longer dependent upon its
cause for its continued existence, an idea that is contrary to the very nature of its being an effect
which is an impoverished existent. The very fact of being caused necessitates the existence or
presence of an innate poverty (faqr e dhat) in the effect which is in constant need of a cause that
is more perfect than itself. Causes that vanish or get destroyed even though their effects continue
to persist even after their destruction are not real causes (haqiqi) but are preparatory causes. For
instance it may be argued that a building may continue to exist even after the death of its
architect or builder, which is truly the case, but in this case the architect or the builder are simply
preparatory causes and not real ones.
Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi on the Unity of Cause for Unity of Effect: Can a single effect be the
result of more than one causes? Well the answer is no, a single effect cannot be produced by
multiple perfect causes because if a cause is a perfect cause so it should be able to produce its
effect without any assistance from other causes, bu...t if it is unable to produce its effect without
aid from other causes so it means that it is not a perfect or complete cause, because it lacks
certain attributes or features due to the absence of which it lacks the ability to produce the
requisite effect. Therefore if there are multiple perfect causes so there should also exist multiple
effects otherwise those causes cannot be considered perfect.

Ayatullah Misbah Yazdi on The Criterion of the need for a cause: It is not correct to say that
every existent needs a cause because God is an existent that is not in need of any cause for its
existence because to attribute a cause for God would eventually lead to infinite regress, which is
impossible.
Some have stated that every c...ontingent existent (mumkin ul wujud) is in need of a cause
because a contingent existent is defined as a being the existence and non-existence of which are
both possible, or in other words the existence and non-existence of which are both nonnecessary. Therefore in order to convert the possibility of the existence of a contingent being into
a necessity an external agent or cause is necessary.
However according to Mulla Sadra every impoverished existent (mawjud e faqir) is in need of a
cause. It means there are two kinds of existents namely an impoverished existent and an
independent existent (mawjud e ghani). An impoverished existent is one that is dependent and
imperfect in relation to its cause, which is independent and rich (ghani) in comparison to its
effect, but an impoverished existent in relation to its own cause and so on. Therefore every
impoverished existent due to its inherent poverty is an effect and in need of a cause that is more
perfect and complete than itself.

From Sharia to Haqiqa:

The following essay was inspired by an excerpt from Khwaja Nasir Al-Din Al Tusis
great philosophical text Rawda yi taslim (Paradise of Submission) and is an
elaboration of the same, used by me to incorporate some of my own ideas
associated with Sadras Hikamt e mutaaliyah.
The exoteric letter of the Islamic Scripture represents the Sharia whereas the
esoteric aspect of the divine law is represented by the haqiqa which is the true
reality of sharia. The divine law (sharia) is the manifest (zahir) whereas the
haqiqa is the hidden (batin), the sharia is a symbol of alam e shahdah whereas
haqiqa is a sign of alam e ghayb. Sharia is at the level of revelation (tanzil) and
haqiqa at the level of esoteric interpretation (tawil). Sharia is the external shell
and haqiqa the kernel within it. The aim of faith is to achieve spiritual perfection for
the adept/initiate by causing him to move from the level of sharia or the exoteric
(zahir) to the haqiqa or the esoteric (batin). This motion (harkat) from shahadat to
ghayb, and from tanzil to tawil is a movement from a lower level of perfection
(kamal) to a higher one. Therefore the transference of an initiate from zahir to batin,
from sharia to haqiqa, and from tanzil to tawil results in the perfection of the
adepts soul (nafs). However as the initiate moves from a lower level of perfection
represented by the zahir/shahadat/tanzil to a higher level represented by the
batin/ghayb/tawil so this elevation does not in any way abrogates the
sharia/zahir, but in fact simply perfects it, meaning that the adept retains the
sharia/zahir but has now acquired a new meaning as well in the form of
tawil/haqiqa, just as the vegetative soul (nafs al nabatia) through substantial

motion (harkat al jawharia) actualizes into an animal soul (nafs al haywania) so it

still retains the attributes of the vegetative soul.
The sharia is like a body (jism) and encapsulated within it is the haqiqa which is
symbolic of its soul (nafs), just as the exoteric letter of the Quran is its body and
the meanings (maani) contained within it its soul. However this motion cannot be
performed by the initiates soul on its own, meaning that the initiate is not a perfect
cause of this motion, because had it been a perfect cause so the initiate would have
moved instantaneously (dafatan) from the level of sharia/zahir/tanzil to the
level of haqiqa/batin/tawil as soon as he were to become a perfect cause (illat e
tamma) and not being able to do so would have been contradictory to being a
perfect cause of this motion. But we know that this motion is an incremental motion
(tadrijan) and not an instantaneous one (dafatan). This incremental/evolutionary
motion proves that the initiate is not himself a perfect cause because according to
the Principle of Simultaneity the effect of a perfect cause comes into existence at
the same time as its existence-giving perfect cause occurs or comes into
being.Therefore had the initiate been the perfect cause of this motion himself so the
movement from zahir/sharia to batin /tawil would have occurred
instantaneously/immediately. However the incremental stage wise motion towards
spiritual perfection establishes beyond doubt the fact that this motion is being
caused by an external agent who is the perfect cause of this movement. That
external agent or perfect cause is the Imam/Wali who is responsible for revealing
through tawil the true reality (haqiqa) of the exoteric letter (zahir) of the Quran by
initiating the adept into the haqiqa, thereby causing him to move from zahir to
batin, from tanzil to tawil resulting in his spiritual perfection. As has been
established above that the initiate or adept is not the perfect cause of this motion
or perfection and is therefore dependent upon some other pefect cause for
imparting this perfection by causing it to move incrementally from sharia to haqiqa,
this therefore proves the Doctrine of the Necessity of an Imam for perfection of the
soul, which is simply a re-iteration of the philosophical principle called the Verity
Principle (Qadhiya Haqiqia) whereby every effect or impoverishe existent
(mawjud e faqir) needs a perfect cause. Since the initiate is not the perfect cause
of this motion himself therefore he is an impoverished existent, in need of a perfect
cause and dependent upon it.
According to the Principle of Homogeneity all the existential and ontological
perfections (kamal e wujud) that exist in an effect or impoverished being are to be
found in its existence giving perfect cause in a more intensified (tashaddud) form,
this is on the basis of a logical assumption that a cause can only impart a perfection
to its effect if it itself is first in possession of it, otherwise there will be no rational
explanation to justify the value addition. Therefore in order to be able to impart and
cause spiritual perfection in the initiate the perfect cause being the Imam needs
first to be able to possess all such perfections himself, this is the shiite theological

doctrine of the Infallibility or Inerrancy of the Imam as has been mentioned in the
Quran (Q.33:33).
According to Mulla Sadras Transcendental Philosophy (Hikmat al Mutaliyyah) an
existence giving perfect cause is at a higher ontological and existential level of
perfection in relation to its effect, which happens to be an impoverished and
dependent existent in relation to its cause and therefore on an inferior level of
existence in comparison to it. Since the Imam in every age (zaman) is the imparter
of spiritual perfection, and all other rational beings are in need of such sustenance
(rizq) to attain perfection of the soul by moving from an inferior perfectory level to
a superior one i.e. from sharia to haqiqa, therefore all such beings are
impoverished existents in relation to the Imam of the Age (sahib al zaman) who is
the perfect cause of this motion and the consequent perfection in the initiate, this
notion is identical to the shiite theological concept of the Imams Superiority
(tafdil) over all others which is also stated in the Quran with respect to the progeny
of Abraham(as)(Q.3:33) & (Q.4:54).
If sharia/tanzil is the body and haqiqa/tawil its soul then the Imam is the
resurrector (qaim) who blows the soul/spirit into the body giving it a new life, he is
the Jesus (as) for whom yearn all impoverished lazaruss(Q.3:49), and hence is
rightly called the Qaim. Sharia without haqiqa is like a body without a soul, a
lifeless corporeal being. The Imam/Qaim by initiating the adept into the haqiqa
through tawil blows life into the body, rendering it existentially complete and
perfect. This function of resurrecting the soul/spirit (nafs/ruh) is performed by the
Divine Guide through imparting Divine Knowledge (ilm) to the initiate, this
knowledge introduces or reveals to the adept the true reality of the sharia. This
secret knowledge is the breath that bestows life to corporeality renderring it
animate, perfecting the soul by causing it to move to a higher perfectory level from
an inferior one. According to the Principle of Homogeneity discussed earlier if an
effect is to receive esoteric-initiatory knowledge, so it logically follows that it can
only do so if its perfect cause (Imam) that is imparting this knowledge or perfection
is in possession of it itself, this is the Doctrine of Imamic Knowledge (ilm e Imam)
also mentioned in the Quran (Q.3:7). This knowledge is the sustenance required by
all impoverished and famished souls for perfection. In this respect the person of the
Imam is symbolic of the Quranic Adam (as) with respect to the angels as is
mentioned in the Quran (Q.2:33) and Khidr(as) with respect to Moses(as), when he
reveals secret knowledge through tawil to the initiate.
At this point a question may arise that why isnt the Imam in need of a human guide
himself? Even if we are to acknowledge the existence of a human guide/Imam for an
Imam so the same query will arise concerning the Imam of the Imam and so on ad
infinitum, resulting in an infinite regress (tasalsul) which is impossible. Therefore
this causal chain of an Imam upon an Imam must necessarily end at some point at
the First Cause (illat e ulaa) being the Divine Essence. On the contrary every
effect is a dependent and an impoverished existent in relation to its cause as has

been stated earlier, and this dependence causes it to possess existential privation
and imperfection (nuqs) in relation to its cause which is existentially more perfect
than its effect. Privation (nuqs) is the consequence of causation and dependence,
therefore if an Imam is also assumed to be in need of a human guide/Imam and so
on, so it means that every succeeding Imam is an effect and hence an impoverished
being in need of a perfect cause for imparting perfection, guidance and knowledge
to it, and this idea runs contrary to the Quranic notion of Infallibility/Inerrancy of an
Imam (Q.33:33).
Human intellect (aql e insani) at the level of the sharia is a potential intellect (aql
e hayulani) in need of actualization and perfection but itself lacking the ability
(istitaat) to do so, and hence is not a perfect cause because had it possessed the
requisite ability so it would be a perfect cause and would be capable of actualizing
itself instantaneously, because not being able to do so would be contrary and
inconsistent with the idea of its being a perfect cause. Since the human intellect is
not itself a perfect cause therefore it is in need of an external agent to actualize and
perfect it. This external agent as has been discussed above is the Imam who
through esoteric knowledge perfects the potential human intellect (aql e hayulani)
into an actual intellect (aql e fili). The above understanding is based on a number
of traditions mentioned in Kulainis Al Kafi wherein the Imams state that knowledge
is acquired by means of the intellect (aql) and in another tradition it is stated that
intellect is attained by means of knowledge. The intellect used for acquiring
knowledge is potential intellect, whereas the intellect that is acquired by means of
knowledge is actual intellect. In this setting the Imam can be said to be an agent or
active intellect with its function of perfecting and actualizing the potential human
intellect through knowledge. The actualization of the potential human intellect
renders it perfect thereby causing it to move from sharia to tawil.
It has been stated above that sharia is like a body and haqiqa is its soul (nafs), in
Mull Sadras philosophical system the soul is corporeal in its origination but
spiritual in its subsistence (jismaniat al hudus wa ruhaniat al baqa), as far as
the first part of this statement is concerned the analogy between the sharia being
the body (jism) and the haqiqa being its soul is accurate, because just as the soul is
in need of a corporeal or material body for coming into existence (wujud) similarly
one needs the exoteric-sharia in order to discover its true reality or esoteric-haqiqa,
and if the apparent sharia is abrogated or ignored so the haqiqa would not benefit
in the least, due to the significance of the sharia it is the responsibility of the
Imam/wali to safeguard the exoteric letter of the scripture, as is mentioned in the
Quran (Q.15:9) and also to interpret it to reveal its true reality (haqiqa) through
tawil. However according to the second part of the above statement the soul is
spiritual in its subsistence, this happens when the soul through substantial motion
actualizes all its latent potentialities (quwa) to become a completely actualized (bil
fil) being and thereby achieves perfection (kamal), as the soul moves from a
lower perfectory level to a higher one in its journey towards perfection it becomes

immaterial (mujarrid) gradually detaching itself from matter, until eventually when
it actualizes all its potential and nothing remains to be actualized that is the stage
when it is said to have attained spiritual perfection and is no longer dependent and
in need of the body for subsistence and in fact is capable of subsisting on its own,
this is the point when the soul experiences disembodiment (tajarrud) from matter
in the form of death. Therefore the second part of Sadras statement is inapplicable
to the sharia-haqiqa relationship, because discovering the haqiqa does not
liberates the initiate from continued adherence to the sharia. In this second
respect it is more appropriate to regard the sharia as a substance (jawhar) and
haqiqa as an accident (aradh) thereof, the existence of an accident is a dependent
existence that is derived from and subsists due to the existence of the substance,
such that if the substance were not to exist so the accident will also cease to exist.
Similarly the haqiqa is derived from the sharia, which is the exoteric letter or text of
the Quran, and the initiate cannot derive any benefit from the haqiqa without
adhering to the sharia first, in this regard the sharia is similar to a flower
(substance/jawhar) and haqiqa is its fragrance (accident/aradh), the fragrance is
dependent upon the existence of the flower for its origin and has no independent
being of its own, and one can only delight in the fragrance as long as the flower
continues to exist. Therefore in orderto benefit from the haqiqa it is necessary to
continue observing the sharia which is like the substance in relation to the haqiqa.
The Divine hand wrote two books namely the legislative (Kitab e Tashriy) or the
Quran and the Creative (Kitab e Takwin) or the Cosmos. Both these scriptures
contain within them signs (ayat) that indicate and point towards his existence. The
signs of kitab e tashriy are the verses mentioned therein composed of letters
(huruf), whereas the signs of kitab e takwin are the sun and the moon (shams
o qamar), the stars (kawakib), night and day (layl o nahar) etc. Both the
legislative and the Creative scriptures require tawil as is mentioned in (Q.3:7) & (Q.
Corporeal & Spiritual Ressurrection:
The question is not whether "ma'ad/return" is a bodily/jismani phenomenon or
simply a spiritual/ruhani experience, undoubtedly ma'ad is a corporeal/jismani as
well as a spiritual/ruhani phenomenon, however the dispute concerns the nature of
the resurrected body/jism.Will the resurrected body be material/maddi or will it be
immaterial/mujarrid such as an imaginal body/jism-e-mithali, and if the resurrected
body will be made of matter, so will this matter be of gross matter/mawad-e-kathif
or will it be made of subtle matter/mawad-e-latif. If it is assumed that the
resurrected body will be made of gross/kathif matter so why would a completely
actualized/bil f'il and perfected soul/nafs be in need of a material body, because
according to Mulla Sadra subsequent to the actualization/fi'liat of all hidden
potentialities/quwa the soul becomes perfect/kamil and is no longer dependent on
its material body for subsistence, hence the statement "wa ruhaniat al baqa", and
this is the moment of death or transcendence into barzakh/isthmus.

If the soul is to be raised in a body of gross matter so it would have to lose all its
existential perfections/kamal-e-wujudi acquired through the conversion of
potentialities into actualities through substantial motion/harkat al jawharia in order
to enter a body of gross matter. But it is not possible for the soul to lose its
existential perfections after it has been perfected and actualized, due to the fact
that the movement or change from perfection to privation/nuqs cannot occur in the
absence of matter since corruption/fana,decay/fasad and change/taghayyur are the
attributes of matter/hayula but in barzakh there is no matter to be the recipient of
change/taghayyur.

The Sacred Effusion and Existence:

According to Khwaja Nasir Al Din Tusi all existence/wujud is an effusion/faidh of the sacred
Divine Essence/dhat-e-illahi which is the fountain and source of existence, this is because the
divine essence is absolute and pure existence.The divine essence is the ultimate cause/illat-eula'a of all existents, but in case of some it is the immediate cause whereas in ...case of others it
is a mediate cause. Existents for which the divine essence is the immediate cause are existentially
more perfect than those for which the divine essence is a mediate cause.Therefore existents that
are closer to the divine essence in terms of causation are more perfect due to their proximity to
the fount of existence as compared to those that are distant.This sacred effusion from the divine
causes a hierarchy of realms & beings wherein some are existentially more perfect due to their
proximity to the divine than certain others that are distant.
As far as the hierarchy of realms or worlds is concerned so the spiritual realm/alam-e-ruhani is
more perfect than the physical world/alam-e-jismani due to its proximity to the divine and also
because it possesses a greater capacity to partake of the sacred effusion/faidh as compared to the
physical world. The greater the capacity to receive the sacred effusion/faidh the greater the
existential perfection/kamal-e-wujudi and consequently the lesser the privations/nuqs in
existence.Similarly the lesser the capacity to receive effusion/faidh from the source of existence
the lesser the perfection and consequently the greater the privation/nuqs in existence.Therefore
existents that are in proximity to the divine essence have a greater capacity to receive effusion
and are hence more perfect existentially than those that are distant, because the existents that are
distant possess a lesser capacity to partake off the divine effusion and are hence consequently
less perfect than the proximate beings.
As far as the hierarchy of beings is concerned so there are in existence various beings of different
species (asnaf-e-khalaiq) that vary in their ability or capacity to receive the sacred effusion from
the divine essence.The beings or species that possess a greater capacity are more perfect than
those in which the capacity to receive this effusion is lesser and are as result of this less perfect.It
is apparent from the discussion so far that there is a direct relationship between the capacity to
partake of divine effusion and existential perfection and an inverse relationship between the said
capacity and privation, where the greater the capacity the lesser the privation and the weaker the
capacity the greater the privation.
The chain of being is divided into various species/asnaf-e-khalaiq such as the mineral
kingdom/jamadat,the plant kingdom/nabatat,the animal kingdom/haywanat and the human
kingdom/insaniat.The mineral kingdom has the least capacity to receive "faidh" and is therefore

the least perfect and hence the lowest in the hierarchy of existence and is replete with
privation/nuqs, the last stage of the mineral kingdom is the first stage of the plant kingdom which
has a greater capacity to receive perfection in comparison to the minerals and is therefore at a
higher level of perfection.The last stage of the plant kingdom is the first stage of the animal
kingdom which has a greater capacity to partake of divine effusion/faidh as compared to the
plants/nabatat and is therefore existentially more perfect than the plant kingdom and
consequently exists at a higher level in the existential hierarchy of beings.Similarly the last stage
of the animal kingdom is the first stage of the human kingdom which has a greater capacity to
receive faidh as compared to the animals/haywanat and is therefore more perfect existentially
and therefore at the highest existential level in the hierarchy of being.
Tusi on Appearance & Reality:
It is stated in Rawda yi Taslim, a work associated with Tusi, that in the material realm
appearance/batil, that is something which appears to be true but is not so in actuality, and
reality/haqiqa, that is som...ething which is truth in actuality, are both intermixed with one
another, and due to this it is very difficult to make a clear distinction between reality/haqiqa and
appearance/zahir, or truth/haq and falsehood/batil. It is not possible or very difficult to
distinguish between truth and falsehood in the physical world/alam-e-tabiat, which is the realm
of senses/hawas, due to the fact that in the world of senses falsehood appears similar to truth and
therefore is misleading.Due to the apparent,but not actual similarity that exists between truth and
falsehood the sensible relam/alam-e-hissi is referred to as the realm of similitude/kawn-emushabahat. However the spiritual realm/alam-e-ruhani is the realm where all things shall
become self-evident/badihi and a clear distinction would be effected between appearance and
reality or truth and falsehood. Therefore the other world is referred to as the realm of
distinction/kawn-e-mubayyanat.

1. Principle: God is eternal (qadim) and infinite (la fani/la mehdud).

Explanation: Since God is uncaused and uncreated therefore he is infinite and
eternal. Every thing (shay) that has been created (hadis) is finite
(fani/mehdud) and has a determined end to its existence (wujud), in other
words everything that has been caused and is therefore an effect (malul) is
non-eternal, because that which has a beginning (ibtida) must also have an
end (intiha), but since God is without any beginning therefore He is also
without an end. The Divine Essence is not an effect of any prior cause
(illat)and is the uncaused cause of all other causes (musabib ul asbab), and
hence is infinite and eternal, because every effect is finite and non-eternal as
has been mentioned.To come into existence or being and then subsequently
cease to exist is a characteristic of created existents, that are finite and noneternal, and implies change (taghayyur) from being to Non-being or from
existence to non-existence, but there can be no change in an absolutely
perfect(kamal-e-mutlaq) entity such as God. This is due to the fact that
change is either positive and progressive, that is towards perfection (kamal),
or negative and regressive, that is towards deficiency and privation (nuqs),
the former is impossible in case of God as His essence is already perfect prior
to any change, and the latter is also equally impossible because it would
result in the Divine Essence becoming deficient, whereas we know that the
Divine Essence cannot be deficient in any manner.
2. Principle: God is ever-living.
Explanation: The truth of this proposition is apparent from the fact that an
effect cannot be greater than its cause in terms of perfection, because all the
perfection which an effect possesses is due to its existence giving cause, in
other terms an effect derives all its existential perfection from its cause. God
is the creator of both the animate as well as the inanimate beings or
existents, therefore the animate beings who are the effects of God have
derived all their existential perfections including animation or life from their
existentiator or cause, meaning God. All the perfections that are found in an
effect, exist in its cause in a more perfect manner, therefore since animate
things possess life, this demonstrates the fact that their cause, meaning God
must also possess this perfection in an infinitely more perfect manner, this is
apparent from the principle according to which something cannot come from
nothing. Therefore a cause can only impart a particular perfection to its
effect if it itself possesses that perfection and not otherwise. Hence for God

to be able to create animate things or impart life to others it is necessary for

the Divine Essence to possess life. But God himself has not derived life from
any being or thing because He is the uncaused cause of all other causes as
has been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P1). Since God is an infinite and an
eternal entity therefore it logically follows that He is ever-living because an
effect cannot continue to exist without its cause in the absence of which it
will cease to exist, but experience and observation reveal the fact that since
animate things continue to exist, therefore it follows from the existence of
these effects that their existential cause also exists and that He possesses
life.
3. Principle: God is uncreated & uncaused.
Explanation: Every created existent is an effect of some other existent, in
other words every created thing requires a cause from which to derive its
existence, and is hence dependent upon its existentiating cause for not only
its being but also for the preservation of its existence on that
cause.Therefore if God were a created being so He too would by reason of
being created be considered an effect and would thereby be in need and
dependent upon an existentiating cause for its existence or being and also
for the preservation of its being, but this dependence on another existent for
causation and preservation implies imperfection and deficiency whereas we
know that the Divine Essence cannot be imperfect or deficient, therefore it is
necessary for God to be uncreated and uncaused. Secondly every effect or
created thing is posterior in relation to its cause, and due to this if God were
a created or caused being so He would also be posterior in causation in
relation to its cause, and so would no longer remain Pre-eternal, which is
inadmissible. This is because every created or caused thing is posterior to
another. In case of material things this other is time and the existentiating
cause from which that thing derives its being, whereas in case of immaterial
things it is only the existentiating cause, both possibilities are impossible in
relation to God because He cannot be posterior to anything. This is due to the
fact that being posterior to a cause implies dependence on some other entity
and temporal posteriority implies a period of time devoid of the Divine
Essence, both of which are impossible. Moreover every effect derives all its
perfections from its cause and therefore cannot be greater than its cause in
terms of its existential perfections as has been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P2),
therefore if God were a created being so He would no longer remain
supremely or absolutely perfect due to the existence of its cause. In addition
to all that has been explained it could be stated that every thing that is
created and caused has a determinate end to its being or existence as has
been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P1), but in that case God would no longer
remain infinite and eternal being, because cessation of existence is an
attribute of finite and non-eternal things.

4. Principle: God cannot be perceived through the external senses of

perception.
Explanation: Our external senses of perception can only perceive that which
is corporeal and material in nature, in other words the senses can only
perceive bodies and things made of matter.Therefore to assert the possibility
of Beatific Vission implies affirming that God is corporeal in nature and
possesses a body which is inadmissible. This is due to the fact that
corporeality implies limitation in terms of dimensions, because all bodies are
three dimensional existents, whereas God is unlimited and cannot be limited,
because if limits are attached or associated to the Essence of God so He
would become finite, because every limited being is finite. Every corporeal
being or body is a whole and therefore composed of parts the existence of
which must necessarily be prior to the existence of the whole in order for the
composition of the corporeal body to occur, and as a result of this the whole
is always posterior in its causal relation in comparison to its parts. Therefore
if God were to be corporeal and thereby possess a body so He too would
become posterior to its parts that compose His body, and in that case He
would no longer remain Pre-eternal, whereas the eternal & infinite nature of
God has been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P1). The parts of which the body is
composed off are the internal causes of the whole or the body which is the
result of the composition of the parts, therefore if God were to have a cause
or causes for its being so He would become a created and caused existent,
which is impossible as has been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P3). All corporeal
existents are either in motion or at rest. Being in a state of rest necessitates
confinement in a specific space, and to be confined by space imples
limitation and it is impossible for God to be limited by anything since He is
beyond limits. Moreover if God is thought to be in a certain space so the
other spaces will have to be considered to be empty of His being, and it is not
possible for God to be absent from anywhere.Similarly motion involves
movement of a body from one space to another and this necessitates a
space becoming devoid or empty of Gods presence, which is impossible
because the Divine Essence encompasses all spaces. Secondly in order to be
in a state of rest involves the object at rest to be posterior to space, whereas
God cannot be posterior to anything (ref: Exp of P3). Lastly if God is to be
perceivable through the senses and therefore possess a material body so it is
a characteristic of matter to change and suffer corruption and decay leading
to deficiency and imperfection, which is inadmissible in case of God.
5. Principle: God cannot be perceived by the internal senses of perception.
Explanation: The faculty of imagination in order to construct and form mental
images of things relies upon sense datum acquired through sense perception
of corporeal or material existents found in the external reality. The mind
cannot form any image that bears no correspondence with this or that object
existing in the external reality, in other words the faculty of imagination can

only form images of things that we experience or perceive through sense

perception. Therefore all images present in the human mind have a
corresponding object in the external reality to which it relates, either directly
or through the processes of combination and/or division, as in the case of a
flying horse, where although there is no such object, namely a flying horse, in
reality but the idea or image of a flying horse is a composite idea that is
made of two simple ideas namely the idea of a horse and that of a bird, for
which there are corresponding objects in the external reality. Therefore it is
apparent that all ideas with images or forms in the human mind are acquired
through sense perception of a particular object existing in the objective
reality. In order to perceive an object or thing through the external senses of
perception it is necessary for that thing to be corporeal and possess a body
as has been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P4).Therefore since God is incorporeal
and does not possesses a body that is why it is impossible to perceive His
essence thorugh the external senses of perception, and consequently to form
or construct an image of His essence.
6. Principle: God is the First and the Last.
Explanation: If God will not be the First being or existent so He will have to be
posterior to some other existent and in that case He would no longer remain
Pre-eternal, which is inadmissible. Secodly all existents or things that are
posterior to some other existent or thing in terms of causation are created
and caused, and all created or caused existents are in need of a cause from
which they derive their being or existence, and this implies dependence
which is a privation resulting from deficiency. Therefore if God will not be the
First existent so He will be posterior to some other being and hence a created
or caused entity that is in need of a cause from which to derive its being, but
this is impossible because there can be no deficiency or privation in God
since He is an absolutely perfect entity. Moreover if God is not the Last being
so He would no longer remain Post-eternal and would become a non-eternal
thing, and all things that are non-eternal are created and caused, in other
words all created things are effects and every effect is in need of a cause for
its existence, but this need implies dependence, which is a deficiency or
privation, and in case of God any kind of deficiency or privation is
inadmissible. Not being the Last involves an end for God, and things that
come to an end are finite and cannot be infinite, and as has been said above
all finite things are created and caused and are therefore in need of a cause
for coming into existence, which is inadmissible in case of God.
7. Principle: God cannot be confined in a particular space as He is beyond both
Time & Space.
Explanation: If God were to be confined in a specific space so He would
become limited and we are aware of the fact that all things that are limited
are finite and consequently all finite things are non-eternal. Therefore God

cannot be limited because He cannot be finite and non-eternal and is infinite

and eternal as has been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P1). This is because all
limited or finite things are created and are hence in need of a cause for
coming into existence, therefore if God were to be limited and hence finite so
He too would have to be created and therefore in need of a cause for coming
into being, which is inadmissible because every effect is posterior in relation
to its existentiating cause, therefore if God were to be an effect so He would
also become posterior to its existentiating cause and therefore would no
longer remain eternal as has been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P3). Secondly all
effects derive their existential perfections from their causes and can never
surpass their causes in those perfections, in other terms an effect can never
be greater than its existentiating cause, therefore if God were to be limited
and therefore an effect so He too would become dependent for its
perfections on another being, namely its cause, and consequently would
never be able to surpass its cause in perfection as has been shown (ref: Exp
of P2). Moreover in order for an object to be limited or confined by space, the
object in question would need to be corporeal in nature. But every corporeal
body has composed of parts and is dependent upon those parts for its
composition or existence, and therefore it is not possible for God to be a
body because in that case He would become dependent upon its parts for its
composition or existence and dependence is a deficiency and every
deficiency causes privation, but we know that God can never be deficient
because He is absolutely perfect. In addition to this it can also be stated that
every body is posterior in relation to its parts, which are the internal causes
of its being , therefore if God were to have a body so He too would have to be
posterior to its parts and in that case would no longer remain eternal,
because every posterior thing is non-eternal. Lastly every body ihas
dimensions and is therefore measureable and hence limited whereas God as
has been shown cannot be limited, therefore it is not possible for God to have
a body as has been shown (ref: Exp of P4) and therefore it is not possible for
God to be confined or limited by space. Moreover if God were to be confined
in a specific space so all other spaces will become empty of His presence,
which is absurd.
8. Principle: God is incorporeal or body-less.
Explanation: Corporeality implies limitation in terms of dimensions, because
all bodies are three dimensional existents, whereas God is unlimited and
cannot be limited, because if limits are attached or associated to the Essence
of God so He would become finite, because every limited being is finite.
Every corporeal being or body is a whole and therefore composed of parts
the existence of which must necessarily be prior to the existence of the
whole in order for the composition of the corporeal body to occur, and as a
result of this the whole is always posterior in its causal relation in comparison
to its parts. Therefore if God were to be corporeal and thereby possess a

body so He too would become posterior to its parts that compose His body,
and in that case He would no longer remain Pre-eternal, whereas the eternal
& infinite nature of God has been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P1). The parts of
which the body is composed off are the internal causes of the whole or the
body which is the result of the composition of the parts, therefore if God were
to have a cause or causes for its being so He would become a created and
caused existent, which is impossible as has been demonstrated (ref: Exp of
P3). All corporeal existents are either in motion or at rest. Being in a state of
rest necessitates confinement in a specific space, and to be confined by
space imples limitation and it is impossible for God to be limited by anything
since He is beyond limits. Moreover if God is thought to be in a certain space
so the other spaces will have to be considered to be empty of His being, and
it is not possible for God to be absent from anywhere.Similarly motion
involves movement of a body from one space to another and this
necessitates a space becoming devoid or empty of Gods presence, which is
impossible because the Divine Essence encompasses all spaces. Secondly in
order to be in a state of rest involves the object at rest to be posterior to
space, whereas God cannot be posterior to anything (ref: Exp of P3). If God
were to be corporeal and possess a body so like all bodies He would possess
direction and it would be possible to point towards Him, which is inadmissible
because if He is in a certain direction so it means that He is not in others,
which is impossible. Like all bodies a corporeal deity or God would be near to
some things, such as other bodies or places, and far from other things, which
again cannot be admitted.
9. Principle: God cannot be confined in a certain Time Frame.
Explanation: Time may be defined as a measure of change in matter, and
change is an attribute of matter or all material things. It is in the nature of
matter to corrupt and decay, to alter from perfection to privation and to
move towards finitude, therefore all material things are finite. Time does not
have an independent existence of its own, in fact its existence is dependent
upon matter and is as a result of matter, without which there will be no
time.God is an immaterial entity because if God were to be material so He
too like all material things would become subject to change, corruption,
decay and decline, and the Divine Essence cannot be subject to change or
decay. Secondly all material things are finite whereas God cannot be finite,
because all finite things are created and caused whereas God is uncreated
and uncaused because everything that is created has a beginning and an end
, and it is not possible for God to have a beginning or an end. All created
things require a cause for coming into existence and we know that it is not
possible for God to have a cause because causation involves dependence
and existential deficiency. Therefore God is far from being a material being
and therefore cannot be subject to change and decay and consequently
cannot be subject to time. Moreover if God were to have a temporal

beginning so the time prior to it would become devoid of His presence,

similarly if He were to have a temporal endd so the time posterior to it would
become devoid of His being and both of these are impossible.It is not
possible for God to be posterior to time (masbuq bil zaman) because in that
case God will no longer remain the first existent, whereas according to the
Imams(as) God is the first being or existent (mawjud-e-awwal).

10.Principle: God is unique and therefore unlike anything.

Explanation: God is the creator of all that exists therefore all other things are
His creations. God is an absolutely independent being whereas all others
things are dependent upon each other and on God for their existence and
survival. God is beyond both time and space whereas all the other existents
are subject to both time and space. He is incorporeal whereas other things
are corporeal. He is not subject to motion and rest since He is incorporeal
whereas other things are subject to motion or rest by reason of having
corporeal bodies. God is not subject to change, corruption and decay
because He is an immaterial being and change as has been demonstrated is
a characteristic of matter (ref: Exp of P9), He is absolute perfection free from
all kinds of deficiency and privation whereas all other existents are deficient
and suffer from privation to a greater or lesser degree. He is without a
beginning or an end whereas all the other things do have a beginning as well
as an end and are therefore finite whereas as He is infinite. He is the cause of
all that exists, infact He is the cause of all the other causes, and the other
existents are all His effects. He is a non-composite and simple being whereas
all corporeal or material things are composite beings and therefore are
dependent upon their parts for their composition, but the same cannot be
said for God.God is a Necessary Being whereas all the other things that exist
are contingent beings that are rendered necessary through and by Him, in
other words God is Necessary through itself whereas all others are necessary
through another. He has no genus or species because He is unique and there
is no one like Him, whereas all other existents belong to a specific genus or
species by which they are differentiated from other beings or existents. He is
an agent that acts and performs deeds but unlike other agents who carry out
or perform their various actions by the use of their bodily organs, He does
not depends upon bodily organs to perform His actions and therefore does
not have any since He is incorporeal. He is pre-eternal and not posterior to
either time or some other existent, whereas the other existents are noneternal since they are posterior either in relation to time and/or some other
being or beings.
11.Principle: God is not a composite being, but a simple one.
Explanation: He is a non-composite and simple being whereas all corporeal or
material things are composite beings and therefore are dependent upon their

parts for their composition, but the same cannot be said for God (ref: Exp of
P10), The parts of which the body is composed off are the internal causes of
the whole or the body which is the result of the composition of the parts,
therefore if God were to have a cause or causes for its being so He would
become a created and caused existent, which is impossible as has been
demonstrated (ref: Exp of P3). All composite entities or existents are
corporeal and it is impossible for God to be corporeal because corporeality
implies limitation in terms of dimensions, because all bodies are three
dimensional existents, whereas God is unlimited and cannot be limited,
because if limits are attached or associated to the Essence of God so He
would become finite, because every limited being is finite. Every corporeal
being or body is a whole and therefore composed of parts the existence of
which must necessarily be prior to the existence of the whole in order for the
composition of the corporeal body to occur, and as a result of this the whole
is always posterior in its causal relation in comparison to its parts. Therefore
if God were to be corporeal and thereby possess a body so He too would
become posterior to its parts that compose His body, and in that case He
would no longer remain Pre-eternal, whereas the eternal & infinite nature of
God has been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P1). The parts of which the body is
composed off are the internal causes of the whole or the body which is the
result of the composition of the parts, therefore if God were to have a cause
or causes for its being so He would become a created and caused existent,
which is impossible as has been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P3). All corporeal
existents are either in motion or at rest. Being in a state of rest necessitates
confinement in a specific space, and to be confined by space imples
limitation and it is impossible for God to be limited by anything since He is
beyond limits. Moreover if God is thought to be in a certain space so the
other spaces will have to be considered to be empty of His being, and it is not
possible for God to be absent from anywhere.Similarly motion involves
movement of a body from one space to another and this necessitates a
space becoming devoid or empty of Gods presence, which is impossible
because the Divine Essence encompasses all spaces. Secondly in order to be
in a state of rest involves the object at rest to be posterior to space, whereas
God cannot be posterior to anything (ref: Exp of P3). If God were to be
corporeal and possess a body so like all bodies He would possess direction
and it would be possible to point towards Him, which is inadmissible because
if He is in a certain direction so it means that He is not in others, which is
impossible. Like all bodies a corporeal deity or God would be near to some
things, such as other bodies or places, and far from other things, which again
cannot be admitted.
12.Principle: God is the creator of the Cosmos and whatever is in it and the
Cosmos is finite.

Explanation: everything that exists in this universe is created and caused, in

other words all the things or objects that are found in this world have a
beginning and that which has a beginning also has an end, and is therefore
finite. The Cosmos is the sum total or aggregate of all existence and since
everything that exists has a cause, so the Cosmos which is the sum total of
all existence, exists and therefore must also necessaily have a cause for its
existence. Therefore it can be safely asserted that the Cosmos is a caused
and created existent, and God is the cause or the creator of this universe.
Like all created existents the Cosmos also has a beginning and an end and is
therefore finite. Like all effects the Cosmos is also dependent upon its cause
not only for deriving its being or existence but also for the continuance of
that existence. This existential and ontological dependence is inherent within
each existent that is an effect and since the Cosmos is also an effect
therefore it also possesses this inherent dependence on its existential cause,
meaning God. Like all material things this material universe is also subject to
change and corruption. It is this corruptible nature that renders the Cosmos
finite.
13.Principle: God is manifest on the intellect through his actions/creation:
Explanation: when an object manifests itself or renders itself apparent so it
does so through something and On something, for instance sensible objects
are manifest through their corporeal bodies or the accidental properties of
their bodies, such as color, smell, taste etc.,On the bodily sense organs of the
perceiver. God is an incorporeal entity because corporeality implies limitation
in terms of dimensions, because all bodies are three dimensional existents,
whereas God is unlimited and cannot be limited, because if limits are
attached or associated to the Essence of God so He would become finite,
because every limited being is finite. Every corporeal being or body is a
whole and therefore composed of parts the existence of which must
necessarily be prior to the existence of the whole in order for the composition
of the corporeal body to occur, and as a result of this the whole is always
posterior in its causal relation in comparison to its parts. Therefore if God
were to be corporeal and thereby possess a body so He too would become
posterior to its parts that compose His body, and in that case He would no
longer remain Pre-eternal, whereas the eternal & infinite nature of God has
been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P1). The parts of which the body is composed
off are the internal causes of the whole or the body which is the result of the
composition of the parts, therefore if God were to have a cause or causes for
its being so He would become a created and caused existent, which is
impossible as has been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P3). All corporeal existents
are either in motion or at rest. Being in a state of rest necessitates
confinement in a specific space, and to be confined by space imples
limitation and it is impossible for God to be limited by anything since He is
beyond limits. Moreover if God is thought to be in a certain space so the

other spaces will have to be considered to be empty of His being, and it is not
possible for God to be absent from anywhere.Similarly motion involves
movement of a body from one space to another and this necessitates a
space becoming devoid or empty of Gods presence, which is impossible
because the Divine Essence encompasses all spaces. Secondly in order to be
in a state of rest involves the object at rest to be posterior to space, whereas
God cannot be posterior to anything (ref: Exp of P3). If God were to be
corporeal and possess a body so like all bodies He would possess direction
and it would be possible to point towards Him, which is inadmissible because
if He is in a certain direction so it means that He is not in others, which is
impossible. Like all bodies a corporeal deity or God would be near to some
things, such as other bodies or places, and far from other things, which again
cannot be admitted.Therefore since God is an incorporeal being that is why
He cannot manifest His Essence through a body, neither can our external
senses of perception perceive or apprehend His Essence because our
external senses of perception can only perceive that which is corporeal and
material in nature, in other words the senses can only perceive bodies and
things made of matter.Therefore to assert the possibility of Beatific Vission
implies affirming that God is corporeal in nature and possesses a body which
is inadmissible. God manifests his attributes through His actions and His
actions are identical to His creation, Onn the intellect. Therefore since every
created thing or existent is an effect that has derived its being or existence
from its existential or efficient cause, similarly the Cosmos which is both a
creation and an act of God and the sum total of all existence, exists and
hence must necessarily have an efficient cause for its existence as well as
the preservation of that existence, and that efficient cause is none other than
God. The intellect demonstrates the existence of God from the existence of
His effects or creation which is His actions.Creation or Gods act, which is the
effect of His being,reflects His attributes but not His person or the Divine
Essence,therefore some might argue that this does not amounts to an
adequate proof of Gods existence, but the error of the argument is apparent
from the fact that the existence of the attributes of a thing is sufficient proof
of the presence or existence of that which is attributed, and this irrefutably
establishes the existence of God.
14.Principle: God has endowed His creation with the ability and power to obey
Him.
Explanation: It is contrary and inconsistent with the notion of Divine Justice to
ask man to do something that lies beyond his capacity or strenghth, and in
consequence of his inability to comply, resulting from this lack of ability, to
thereafter punish him with the tormenting hell-fire. Had this been truly the
case, it would not have been right to consider God just, and infact it would
have been appropriate for us to consider Him unjust, but it is not possible for

God to be unjust because every injustice and inequity is an evil, and every
form of evil results from a privation or absence of Good, this is because Evil
does not have an independent existential reality of its own and its existence
is merely a dependent and derived existence resulting from an absence or
privation of Good,which is nothing but an impairment of existence and hence
an imperfection, whereas it is not possible for there to be anykind of privation
or evil in the Divine Essence, in other words it is not possible for the divine
essence to suffer from an absence of Good. This is due to the fact that that
which is absolute perfection and beauty has to be absolutely perfect in every
sense, and therefore that which is Absolute Good cannot be deficient in any
way conceivable. Secondly had man been bereft of the capability to obey his
creator so this would have given him a justifiable excuse or reason for noncompliance. Asking mankind to perform actions or deeds that lie beyond their
powers and to punish them for their unintended disobedience is also contrary
to the doctrine of worthiness, because in the absence of adequate ability and
powers to accomplish a divine command one cannot be deemed worthy of
punishment. However humans are not the only species to be endowed by
God with the ability to obey Him, in fact all existents have been endowed
with this capability, this is because existents may be classified as either
animate or inanimate, where the inanimate beings consist of minerals, solids
and plants, and the animate beings in turn can be classified as rational and
non-rational, where the non-rational consist of all animals save humans. God
has endowed these beings with differing capacities to receive and be infused
with the sacred effusion or grace (fadhl) and it is this infusion with divine
grace that determines the level or extent to which each species is capable of
obeying God.Since man has been endowed with the greatest amount of
effusion or grace therefore His capacity or potential to obey God is also the
highest. This is due to the fact that obedience (itaat) can also be divided into
two categories namely voluntary (ikhtiyari) and involuntary or compulsory
(jabri/qahri) which can be described as a necessitated obedience.The notion
of voluntary obedience is sufficiently understandable, but what is
necessitated or compulsory obedience?, well it is nothing but substantial
motion (harkat al jawhariya) which is a necessary natural movement towards
a determined end, such as a seed that grows into a plant and then becomes
a tree that finally bears fruit, or a pupa/larva that becomes a worm, which
eventually turns into a butterfly, or a sperm that becomes a man, all these
are instances of motion in substances to which all species of beings both
animate as well as inanimate are subject to. The inanimate and the nonrational animate beings are only subject to necessitated obedience or
substantial motion, therefore it is only the humans that are subject to both
types of obedience.
15.Principle: God is Immutable and unchanging.

Explanation: change is either progressive involving a movement towards

perfection from imperfection, or regressive involving a movement towards
imperfection from perfection. Since God is an absolutely perfect entity and
nothing more perfect than Him can be imagined or said to exist therefore the
former kind of change (taghayyur) is an impossibility, because in order for it
to be admitted God would have to be accepted to be imperfect prior to the
change, and this would be contrary to what has been said above concerning
the absolute perfection of Gods essence, in other words absolute perfection
cannot be perfected any further. The second type of change is equally
inadmissible because it involves accepting the possibility of Gods becoming
imperfect (naqis), in which case He would no longer remain an absolutely
perfect being which is inconsistent with the idea of His being God. Secondly
change is a characteristic of matter and material objects, therefore in order
for the divine essence to be receptive to any kind of change, God would need
to be material, but being material implies being created whereas God cannot
be a created entity due to the fact that every created existent is an effect of
some other existent, in other words every created thing requires a cause
from which to derive its existence, and is hence dependent upon its
existentiating cause for not only its being but also for the preservation of its
existence on that cause.Therefore if God were a created being so He too
would by reason of being created be considered an effect and would thereby
be in need and dependent upon an existentiating cause for its existence or
being and also for the preservation of its being, but this dependence on
another existent for causation and preservation implies imperfection and
deficiency whereas we know that the Divine Essence cannot be imperfect or
deficient, therefore it is necessary for God to be uncreated and uncaused.
Secondly every effect or created thing is posterior in relation to its cause,
and due to this if God were a created or caused being so He would also be
posterior in causation in relation to its cause, and so would no longer remain
Pre-eternal, which is inadmissible. This is because every created or caused
thing is posterior to another. In case of material things this other is time and
the existentiating cause from which that thing derives its being, whereas in
case of immaterial things it is only the existentiating cause, both possibilities
are impossible in relation to God because He cannot be posterior to anything.
This is due to the fact that being posterior to a cause implies dependence on
some other entity and temporal posteriority implies a period of time devoid
of the Divine Essence, both of which are impossible. Moreover every effect
derives all its perfections from its cause and therefore cannot be greater than
its cause in terms of its existential perfections as has been demonstrated
(ref: Exp of P2), therefore if God were a created being so He would no longer
remain supremely or absolutely perfect due to the existence of its cause. In
addition to all that has been explained it could be stated that every thing that
is created and caused has a determinate end to its being or existence as has
been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P1), but in that case God would no longer

remain infinite and eternal being, because cessation of existence is an

attribute of finite and non-eternal things (ref: Exp of P3). All material things
are corporeal (jismani) whereas God cannot be corporeal because
Corporeality implies limitation in terms of dimensions, because all bodies are
three dimensional existents, whereas God is unlimited and cannot be limited,
because if limits are attached or associated to the Essence of God so He
would become finite, because every limited being is finite. Every corporeal
being or body is a whole and therefore composed of parts the existence of
which must necessarily be prior to the existence of the whole in order for the
composition of the corporeal body to occur, and as a result of this the whole
is always posterior in its causal relation in comparison to its parts. Therefore
if God were to be corporeal and thereby possess a body so He too would
become posterior to its parts that compose His body, and in that case He
would no longer remain Pre-eternal, whereas the eternal & infinite nature of
God has been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P1). The parts of which the body is
composed off are the internal causes of the whole or the body which is the
result of the composition of the parts, therefore if God were to have a cause
or causes for its being so He would become a created and caused existent,
which is impossible as has been demonstrated (ref: Exp of P3). All corporeal
existents are either in motion or at rest. Being in a state of rest necessitates
confinement in a specific space, and to be confined by space imples
limitation and it is impossible for God to be limited by anything since He is
beyond limits. Moreover if God is thought to be in a certain space so the
other spaces will have to be considered to be empty of His being, and it is not
possible for God to be absent from anywhere.Similarly motion involves
movement of a body from one space to another and this necessitates a
space becoming devoid or empty of Gods presence, which is impossible
because the Divine Essence encompasses all spaces. Secondly in order to be
in a state of rest involves the object at rest to be posterior to space, whereas
God cannot be posterior to anything (ref: Exp of P3). If God were to be
corporeal and possess a body so like all bodies He would possess direction
and it would be possible to point towards Him, which is inadmissible because
if He is in a certain direction so it means that He is not in others, which is
impossible. Like all bodies a corporeal deity or God would be near to some
things, such as other bodies or places, and far from other things, which again
cannot be admitted. Material existents are finite but it is not possible for God
to be finite because Every thing (shay) that has been created (hadis) is finite
(fani/mehdud) and has a determined end to its existence (wujud), in other
words everything that has been caused and is therefore an effect (malul) is
non-eternal, because that which has a beginning (ibtida) must also have an
end (intiha), but since God is without any beginning therefore He is also
without an end. The Divine Essence is not an effect of any prior cause
(illat)and is the uncaused cause of all other causes (musabib ul asbab), and
hence is infinite and eternal, because every effect is finite and non-eternal as

has been mentioned.To come into existence or being and then subsequently
cease to exist is a characteristic of created existents, that are finite and noneternal, and implies change (taghayyur) from being to Non-being or from
existence to non-existence, but there can be no change in an absolutely
perfect(kamal-e-mutlaq) entity such as God. This is due to the fact that
change is either positive and progressive, that is towards perfection (kamal),
or negative and regressive, that is towards deficiency and privation (nuqs),
the former is impossible in case of God as His essence is already perfect prior
to any change, and the latter is also equally impossible because it would
result in the Divine Essence becoming deficient, whereas we know that the
Divine Essence cannot be deficient in any manner. Similarly
materiality/corporeality implies being visible or perceivable to the senses
whereas Our external senses of perception can only perceive that which is
corporeal and material in nature, in other words the senses can only perceive
bodies and things made of matter.Therefore to assert the possibility of
Beatific Vission implies affirming that God is corporeal in nature and
possesses a body which is inadmissible. Therefore since change implies
materiality and corporeality, both of which have been proven to be
impossible in relation to God therefore the divine essence is Immutable and
unchanging.
16.Principle: The Divine Essence is not subject to increase or decrease.
Explanation: increase could either be internally generated or caused, or
externally induced or caused, in the former case God would no longer remain
immutable because any increase implies a change in the essence of God,
even if that change is self caused. In the latter case God would become
dependent upon some external cause for inducing the change or increase in
His essence, whereas God cannot be dependent (muhtaj) upon any being or
existent as dependence is a deficiency and a sign of privation, which is
inconsistent with the notion of divine perfection. Externally induced increase
may be defined as a connection between that which is increased, and the
added thing which causes the increase in the former, therefore as has been
said earlier that in case of an externally induced increase God would become
dependent upon another existent for the increase which is impossible,
secondly increase by addition of an external object or thing can only occur in
corporeal existents, whereas God as has been dempnstrated is incorporeal
(ref: Exp of P8). Similarly decrease can also be internally caused or externally
induced. In the first case God would once again be subject to change and
become mutable, whereas in the latter case He would become dependent
upon some external cause or thing for causing the change in His essence and
dependence is a privation and deficiency. Decrease may be described as a
connection between that which is decreased and the thing separated as a
result of the decrease. But separation from or division of a thing implies
corporeality, whereas God as we know is incorporeal.

17.Principle: God is without a beginning or an end.

Explanation:It could be inferred from the teachings of the Shiite Imams(as)
that If god were to have a beginning so he would no longer remain the first
existent because everything that has a point of origination or a beginning is
created and caused and hence in need of a cause for its existence or being
and an effect is always posterior to its cause either temporally or in terms of
the existential status or dependence.Therefore if God is to have a beginning
or origin so he would have to be caused or created by some other preexisting entity and would thereby become posterior to and dependent upon
that entity for its existence.If God were to have a beginning in time and thus
be a temporal entity so he would be posterior to time, whereas if he were to
be an immaterial and non-temporal being with a beginning so he would have
to be posterior to some other pre-existeing being (masbuq bil dhat), and both
these possibilities are inadmissible.Secondly if God is to have a temporal
beginning so the time prior to his coming into being would become devoid of
his presence in which case he would no longer remain omnipresent .God
does not have an end because he is an uncreated and uncaused being
whereas only created and caused things are said to be finite and thus have
an end.If god is to have an end so the period posterior to that end would
become vacant of His presence and that is impossible bearing in mind the
doctrine of omnipresence. Lastly if God is to have an end so he would no
longer be the cause of things that come into being after His end and
therefore some other creator or cause would have to be assigned to those
things, but doing so would be contrary to the doctrine of divine unity (tawhid)
according to which God is the creator of all that exists.Therefore assigning a
creator apart from God would lead to associationism (shirk). To be and not to
be implies change whereas God is immutable and unchanging because
change is an attribute of material things and God is immaterial therefore not
subject to decay or corruption and thus cannot end.

Does God exist? Why is the idea of God so important? And if He exists so why
is He not sensible, why cant he be seen? Is it necessary for a thing to be
sensible in order to exist and is the fact that it is sensible the only proof of its
existence, and if sensibility is not the only proof of the existence of an object
so what other proof can there be? We are too busy in our every day lives to
entertain these important metaphysical issues and to try to seek their
answers, but the fact remains that most of our beliefs concerning God
depend heavily on the solutions to these philosophical questions.The
question of Gods existence is inextricably connected with the issue of Mans
origin and the beginning of life and in fact with the existence of the entire
Cosmos itself,because if there is no God so how did the universe come into
being, how did man come into being and how did life originate on this planet?
Did the universe create itself? Well to suggest that the universe could have
created itself is to assert that it both existed and not existed simultaneously
which is absurd, therefore universe or anything could not cause or create
itself because a thing cannot both exist and not exist at the same time. May
be the Cosmos was never created or caused simply because it always was, in
other words, may be the universe is eternal and hence not in need of a cause
to have created it,but this notion is erroneous because we know today from
the empirical evidence that we possess that everything in this material
cosmos is finite and limited and that all finite things have a beginning and an
end, the cosmos is the sum total of all finite things, therefore a whole
consisting of finite parts cannot be infinite and eternal, hence the universe is
also finite and non-eternal and since all finite things have a cause therefore
the universe which is finite, must also necessarily have a cause and we call
that cause God. We see that all things that exist have a cause from which
they derive their being or existence, the cosmos is the aggregate of all
existence and it exists therefore it must also have a cause, namely God. But
cant the same be said for God that since everything that exists must have a
cause therefore God also exists and hence He too must have been caused,
but then the same question would arise for the cause of God and so on ad
infinitum, so what? let there be an infinite regress, a never ending procession
of causes and their effects.

Quranic Philosophy & Theology:

The central idea is that of Divine Unity in which the Quran introduces God as the only deity and the sole
lord Say, "He is Allah , [who is] One,(112:1) , Allah witnesses that there is no deity except Him, and [so
do] the angels and those of knowledge - [that He is] maintaining [creation] in justice. There is no deity
except Him, the Exalted in Might, the Wise.(3:18) & Allah - there is no deity except Him(2:255).
According to the Quran God is the originator, existentiator & creator of all that exists and He created all
things(6:102), in other words all things derive their being and existence from God. The Quran states that
there are multiple realms of existence or multiple worlds, for instance the sensible realm, imaginal and
intelligible realms [All] praise is [due] to Allah , Lord of the worlds(1:2) & blessed is Allah , Lord of
the worlds(7:54). According to the Quran some of these realms are hidden or non-sensible, and therefore
beyond the reach of the external senses Who believe in the unseen(2:3) & Knower of the unseen and
the witnessed(6:73). In Quranic Cosmology God is said to have created two realms of existence, namely
the realm of Divine Command (alam al amr) and the realm of creation (alam al khalq) Unquestionably,
His is the creation and the command(7:54), the realm of Divine Command is the unseen realm, whereas
the realm of creation corresponds to the sensible or physical world that can be witnessed through the
senses.The unseen world or the realm of Divine Command is superior to the realm of creation , which is
the material reality, that can be perceived through the external senses, this is because the realm of
creation is subject to God through the Divine Command and [He created] the sun, the moon, and the
stars, subjected by His command(7:54), according to the Quran Man is a composite being composed of
an immaterial and invisible soul and a material body , therefore the Quran asserts a body-soul Dualism
thereby affirming the existence of the soul And when I have proportioned him and breathed into him of
My [created] soul, then fall down to him in prostration."(Q,15:29), [Satan] said, "I am better than him.
You created me from fire and created him from clay." (Q,7:12) & And [mention, O Muhammad], when
your Lord said to the angels, "I will create a human being out of clay from an altered black mud
(Q,15:28).Through the body-soul Dualism the Quran asserts that Mans being contains within himself
aspects of both the realm of Command, which is the invisible or non-sensible realm, and the realm of
creation, which is sensible, because Mans soul corresponds to the realm of Command, whereas his body
corresponds to the realm of Creation, therefore his body is sensible and the soul invisible, and therefore
since Mans being contains aspects of both the sensible and the invisible realms, that is Command &
Creation, therefore he can be easily described as a microcosm, which is a reflection of the greater
macrocosm And they ask you, [O Muhammad], about the soul. Say, "The soul is of the affair of my
Lord(7:85) , in the eyes of the Quran the immaterial and invisible soul is superior in comparison to the

material body, because the soul or the spirit is associated with the Divine Essence And when I have
proportioned him and breathed into him of My [created] soul, then fall down to him in
prostration."(Q,15:29). According to the Quran the Divine Essence cannot be perceived through sense
perception and therefore the Quran describes God as the Unseen (ghayb) Who believe in the
unseen(2:3), and due to this fact the Quran uses the existence of the effects as evidence of the existence
of their existentiating cause, because it is not possible for an effect to come into existence without its
cause. Both the microcosm and the macrocosm contain signs (ayat) concerning the existence of God and
therefore the existence of these signs and the existence of the Cosmos in general is sufficient proof of the
existence of their creator Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of the
night and the day are signs for those of understanding (Q,3:190) & We will show them Our signs in the
horizons and within themselves until it becomes clear to them that it is the truth(41:53). In the words of
the Quran the Universe has not been created in vain or without a purpose, because God does not acts
arbitrarily and in fact Gods actions have a definite purpose or aim Our Lord, You did not create this
aimlessly (Q,3:191), and in the eyes of the scripture the Cosmos and all that it contains has been created
for Man It is He who created for you all of that which is on the earth (Q,2:29), therefore the Cosmos
has been created to serve Man, whereas the purpose of the creation of Man is to serve God, therefore the
Universe has been created for Man and Man himself has been created for God, because the purpose of
mans existence is to worship God O mankind, worship your Lord, who created you and those before
you, that you may become righteous (Q,2:21) & And I did not create the jinn and mankind except to
worship Me (Q,51:56),worship here does not only includes the ritualistic aspect but has a much broader
meaning here, it means to perform beautiful deeds, and therefore the performance of beautiful acts has
also been highlighted by the Quran as being a purpose of the creation of man [He] who created death
and life to test you [as to] which of you is best in deed(67:2) .The Quran refutes the notion of the eternity
of the Cosmos and states that the Cosmos is created and therefore non-eternal Indeed, in the creation of
the heavens and the earth and the alternation of the night and the day are signs for those of
understanding (Q,3:190),Indeed, your Lord is Allah , who created the heavens and earth in six days
and then established Himself above the Throne (Q,7:54) & All] praise is [due] to Allah , Creator of the
heavens and the earth (Q,35:1), the Quran states that God did not create the universe from any prior
existing material or body , but instead puts forward the notion of creation ex-nihilo, which is creation not
from anything, it uses the word badiu to symbolize the idea of ex-nihilo creation Originator of the
heavens and the earth(2:117).There are three fundamental questions that have intrigued man
throughout his existence because they are concerned with his existence and being namely, where have we
come from? what is the purpose of my existence? And where am I heading towards? the answer to the
second of these has already been stated, whereas the Quran answers the first and the last of these by
stating that God is the Origin (mabda) of creation and also declares God to be the ultimate destination
towards which all existents must return (maad).Therefore in the view of the Quran we are in a journey
that commences with God as the source and origin of all existence, and which is destined to end with God,
because He is the ultimate end towards which all things are moving. This movement or motion towards
the Divine Essence is a necessary & involuntary movement (harkat-e-jabri) to which all existents are
subject Indeed we belong to Allah, and indeed to Him we will return."(2:156) & And to Allah [all]
matters are returned(2:210). The Divine Essence has written two books namely the book of legislation
(kitab-e-tashriy) and the book of creation (kitab-e-takwin), and just as there are verses or signs (ayat) in
the book of legislation, similarly the book of creation is also adorned with signs (ayat) that all point
towards the existence of their Creator. These signs include the sun (shams), the moon (qamar), the night
(layl), the day (nahar) & the stars (nujoom). The Quran uses both empirical as well as rational methods to
establish the existence of God by utilizing the sensible reality for moving towards the non-sensible truth,
or in other words it can be stated that it employs visible data for establishing the existence of that which is

invisible to the senses, this kind of proof whereby one seeks to establish the existence of a cause by
utilizing the existence of its effect as a proof of the existence of that cause is known as Burhan-e-Inni.It
is mans senses and his indulgence in the passions and desires associated with these senses that beguile
man fromGod, but the Quran uses these same senses to remind the negligent man of his Creator by
focusing mans attention on the sensible signs of the existence of God.There are many verses that use this
methodology Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of the night and
the day are signs for those of understanding (Q,3:190),We will show them Our signs in the horizons
and within themselves until it becomes clear to them that it is the truth(41:53).It was mentioned earlier
that Man is a composite being consisting of an immaterial soul and a material body and off the two it is
the human soul that is superior as compared to the body, but Man is not the only being to possess a soul
nor is he the only animate being, then why is it that Man is considered the best of Gods creations in
demonstration of which even the angels were asked to prostrate to him, because after all the animals and
beasts also possess all the characteristics of growth, sensation & motion like the humans, but the one
thing that distinguishes and elevates Man from the other animate beings is the possession of intellect or
reason, which the animals or beasts lack, and the human soul is the seat of this intellect or reasoning
faculty, therefore it is by virtue of the possession of intellect that the human soul occupies such a
prestigious position among Gods creatures and Man is considered as the best of creation, and it is due to
this that God associates the soul with his own self And when I have proportioned him and breathed into
him of My [created] soul, then fall down to him in prostration."(Q,15:29), And [mention] when We said
to the angels, "Prostrate before Adam"(2:34).It was stated above that the purpose of Mans existence is
to worship God and to perform beautiful deeds or good acts, but if our existence or life is to cease on death
so why perform good actions and lead a virtuous life? This is exactly what the Quran is trying to say, that
death does not mean the end of life or existence, in fact the Quran speaks of death as a beginning or
commencement of another form of existence or life and uses the word creation in association with death
[He] who created death and life to test you [as to] which of you is best in deed(67:2) this is so because
the Quran states that Man has three lives namely a primordial life,a worldly life and an after-life such that
the succeeding existence is the effect or the fruit of the preceding one, therefore our earthly existence is
the effect of our primordial life, and the after-life is an effect of our worldly life, in other words the
preceding existence is the cause of the succeeding one, hence the primordial life is the cause of our earthly
life and the earthly life is the cause of the after-life How can you disbelieve in Allah when you were
lifeless and He brought you to life; then He will cause you to die, then He will bring you [back] to life,
and then to Him you will be returned(2:28) this verse proves the existence of barzakh the intermediate
realm between the worldly life and akhira. Therefore barzakh & akhira or the after-life is a realm
where each soul will be compensated for whatever it has earned during its terrestrial existence through
the performance of good or evil actions Then every soul will be compensated for what it earned(2:281)
& The Day every soul will find what it has done of good present [before it] and what it has done of
evil(3:30) Good deeds (amal-e-salih) would render their agent worthy of praise and reward And give
good tidings to those who believe and do righteous deeds that they will have gardens [in Paradise]
beneath which rivers flow(2:25) whereas Evil actions (amal-e-soo) would render their agent worthy of
blame and punishment Yes, whoever earns evil and his sin has encompassed him - those are the
companions of the Fire; they will abide therein eternally(2:81). Therefore Man has been granted this
worldly existence to perform good or evil actions and thereby become worthy of either praise or blame
and consequently either eternal reward in the form of Paradise or eternal damnation in the form of the
Inferno, that is why it is important to lead an ethical and moral life through the performance of good
deeds and avoiding evil.The Quran asserts the Doctrine of Divine Omnipotence (qudrat-e-ilahi) stating
that God has power over all things Indeed, Allah is over all things competent(2:20) Gods omnipotence
extends over all possible existents (mumkinat), however it does not applies to affairs that are logically
impossible, such as can God ever create a stone heavier than He can lift, or could He ever create a four
sided triangle etc. things or affairs that fall within the scope of Gods omnipotence are referred to as

maqdoorat.It is not necessary for God to create or bring into existence all that lies in the realm of
possibility (alam-e-imkan), because God is under no obligation to do all that which is possible, and does
what He wills but Allah does what He intends(2:253).The Quranic Paradise is an abode of felicity and
tranquility that is devoid of fear and unhappiness or sadness of any kind Enter Paradise, [O People of
the Elevations]. No fear will there be concerning you, nor will you grieve(7:49) but why is grief or
sadness absent from paradise? The answer to this question necessitates a discussion of the nature of grief
or sadness. Grief is an emotion or feeling that affects existents, but not just anything that exists,but only
animate beings, in other words it affects only those beings that possess a soul, but once again not all
animate beings feel this emotion, but only the rational ones,but one may ask that what causes grief or
sadness? Well it can be stated that it is caused by a sense of loss, and this in turn can be categorized into
present loss, memory of a past loss and fear of a contingent future loss or the certainty of a future loss. But
loss of what causes grief? It is the loss of worldly goods and material possessions including the relations
that one develops during his earthly sojourn that is the primary cause of grief, this is because these
material or worldly goods and relations have an attraction that seeks to lure Man and distract him from
his ultimate purpose or objective, this worldly life seeks to attract and therey distract man from his noble
endeavor to seek God Beautified for those who disbelieve is the life of this world(2:212) & Beautified
for people is the love of that which they desire - of women and sons, heaped-up sums of gold and silver,
fine branded horses, and cattle and tilled land. That is the enjoyment of worldly life, but Allah has with
Him the best return(3:14). According to the Quran all good is in the hand of God In Your hand is [all]
good.(3:26) Therefore the divine essence is the source of all that is good, meaning that all kinds of
perfection and beauty which are different forms of goodness have their origin in god, so the good that we
observe in beings or existents is an endowment or a gift to those beings by the divine essence because
nothing can be good or come to possess goodness without deriving that quality or attribute from god and
it makes no difference whether that goodness is manifest like beauty or hidden such as virtue or
knowledge its source is god that is why no matter what we praise in the cosmos for possessing goodness
that praise ultimately reverts to God and in reality it is Him that we are praising even though we may not
be aware of it, because He it is who has created everything that exists and He created all things(6:102)
that is why the Quran states that all praise is for God All] praise is [due] to Allah , Creator of the
heavens and the earth (Q,35:1),

41:36