Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.

8, 2014

Predicating The Crop Coefficient of Eggplant from Crop

Evapotranspiration and Atmometer (ETgage)

Ehab Fahkree Hikamat

Engineering College, University of Baghdad/ Baghdad
Sabah Anwer Almasraf
Engineering College, University of Baghdad/ Baghdad
Email:Sabah_dawood@yahoo.com

Received on: 3/10/2013

&

Accepted on: 6/3/2014

ABSTRACT
The objectives of the study are to predicate crop coefficient (Kc) for eggplant using
watermarks gypsum blocks and atmometer (or ETgage) devices during the growing
season and to compare the predicating values of the crop coefficient with FAO
recommended Kc and with local study values. The study was conducted in the field
within Al-Yusufiya Township, 30km south of Baghdad under semi- arid weather
conditions. The watermarks and atmometer were used to measure crop evapotranspiration
(consumptive use) and reference evapotranspiration respectively. Watermarks
wereinserted in the root zones of eggplant staring from the time of planting till harvest
time, with the same time the atmometer was installed in the same field after evaluation
and comparison was done with the FAO-56 modified Penman Monteith equation.
Comparison between the predicating crop coefficient that obtained from crop
evapotranspiration and reference evapotranspiration and the recommended FAO for Kc
values showed thatthe relative error was29.61%, and with mean absolute error was0.2.
Moreover, root mean square difference was 0.25. Additionallythe comparison between
the predicating crop coefficient with the local study for Kc values showed a relative error
of 36.91% and with mean absolute errorwas 0.26.Moreover, the root mean square
differencewas 0.31.
Keywords: crop coefficient, crop evapotranspiration, soil moisture sensor.

()

, ) (
.
. 30

1971

Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.8, 2014

Predicating The Crop Coefficient of Eggplant from

Crop Evapotranspiration and Atmometer
(ETgage)

.
,

.(56 )
%29.61
.0.25 .0.2
%36.91
.0.31 0.26

INTRODUCTION
stimating of crop evapotranspiration for specific crops is important for irrigation
scheduling and agricultural water management[1]. Close agreement between
alfalfa reference evapotranspiration (ETr) values measured with ET gage or
computed using the 1982 kimberly Penman equation. A strong correlation was found
between the watermark sensor readinds and water content[2]. Crop water use information
can be used to schedule irrigation systems. Crop water use is directly related to
evapotranspiration (ET). The ET information must be adjusted to correspond to the crop
and climate. Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) is measurement of the water use for that
reference crop. The crop coefficient (Kc) takes into account the crop type and crop
development to adjust the ETo for that specific crop. The water requirement of a crop
must be satisfied to achieve potential yields. The crop water requirement is also called
crop evapotranspiration and is usually represented as ETc. As ETcvaries with plant
development stage and weather conditions, both the amount and timing of irrigation are
important. The water balance method of irrigation scheduling is one method of estimating
the required amount and timing of irrigation for crops [3]. Crop coefficient was
developed based on irrigation scheduling protocols for cotton grown in the Southeastern
ofUnited States. The model was uses a simplified water balance approach to track plant
available soil water during the growing season of cotton[4].The FAO 56 procedures for
estimating the crop coefficient was a function of fraction of ground cover and crop height
[5]. Formalization for the FAO - 56 procedures was done using density coefficient and
multiplied by the crop coefficient to represented full cover conditions to produce the
actual conditions of ground coverage [6].In order to apply reference evapotranspiration
results to all other non-standard crops, multiplier crop coefficients (Kc) have been
developed to convert the reference data to each alternate crop and growth stage[7]. The
most common forms of these smart technologies are evapotranspiration (ET)-based
controllers. In recent years a relatively simple type of modified Bellani plate atmometer
under the brand name (ET gage), has gained increasing popularity[8]. An atmometer is
one of the alternative tools that can be used to measures the amount of water evaporated
to the atmosphere from a wet, porous ceramic surface, atmometer is an atmospheric
meter, and it measure evaporation rates affected by weather conditions and plant
transpiration [2], this information can be utilized for irrigation scheduling. Based on the
study conducted by [9,1] to determine the water demand of ornamental plants and

1972

Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.8, 2014

Predicating The Crop Coefficient of Eggplant from

Crop Evapotranspiration and Atmometer
(ETgage)

affected by its roots and the availability of water available during the growth stages
between that it is possible, an atmometer (ETgage) tool can be used to calibrate a nursery
or landscape microclimate against a nearby weather data.Farmers have been using the
ETgage to estimate the crop evapotranspiration, for better irrigation management
practices through proper scheduling of their irrigation.ET gage is an accurate and reliable
way to observe potential evapotranspiration. A comparison of observations for Egage
with pan evaporation method, indicated that ET gage has similar trends but slightly
higher than pan evaporation [10]. Crop evapotranspiration can be observed and measured
by monitoring soil moisture content, when no rainfall and irrigation are added to the soil.
Soil water status can be measured directly with sensors such as gypsum block,
tensiometers, and capacitance probes. The choice of sensor will depend on soil water
range to be measured, cost effectiveness, easiness to maintain, and the sensors
performance reliability type of soil, climate, plant root zone depth, soil salinity, and soil
temperature[11].
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Location of the field study
The research field for this study is located within AL-YUSIFIYAH township, ALQASIR region which lies north of ALMAHMODIYA district, 30 km away from south of
Baghdad. The field is located at (Latitude 36 62 18 N and Longitude 43 09 16 E
Altitude 30m), Figure (1) shows Google map for the field site location.The main source
of the water for the Yusufiya River is fed from the Euphrates River through Fallujah
channel. The usual method used to irrigate the field study is the flood irrigation. The
approximated total field study area is 12500 m 2.Eggplant is used in the study; the field
area is about 870 m2.
The laboratory analyzes of the soil samples are conducted in the laboratories of the
National Center for Water Resources (NCWR) in Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR).
The objective of the analysis is to verify the physical characteristics of the soil in order to
determine the texture of the soil and all physical properties. The soil texture is loamy
clay.
Devices and Equipment
The followings are specifications and description of devices and equipment are used
in the study field work.
1.Atmometer or ETgage
An atmometer, the brand name (ETgage), has gained increasing
popularity(Manufacture by C&M Meteorological Supply, Colorado Springs, CO, USA).
It is one of the alternative tools that can be used to measures the amount of water
evaporated to the atmosphere from a wet, porous ceramic surface as shown in Figures 2
and 3.
The atmometer consists of a canvas-covered ceramic evaporation plate mounted on a
distilled water reservoir. The reservoir capacity is 300 mm as water depth. The fabric
covering creates a diffusion barrier (resistance) that controls the evaporation rate and

1973

Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.8, 2014

Predicating The Crop Coefficient of Eggplant from

Crop Evapotranspiration and Atmometer
(ETgage)

ranging from (112294) s m1 similar to that found in healthy leaves in a well-watered

plant community.

Figure (1) Google map for the research site.

The green canvas cover that surrounds the ceramic plate mimics the crop al bedo so
that solar radiation absorption by the ET gage will be similar to the solar radiation
received at the crop canopy. In theory, the diffusion barrier of the canvas cover and the
stomata resistance of healthy, actively growing, green, and well- watered grass vegetation
is assumed to be similar. The cover over the ceramic plate can be changed to simulate the
ET rate for alfalfa-reference ET (ET r or ETo). The standard model with Number 54 green
canvas cover is recommended for estimating ETr similar to modified Penman- Monteith
(ETo).In the ETgage system, water is provided to the ceramic cup by suction through a
glass or plastic supply tube and check valve consisting of a diaphragm mounted in a
section of silicon tubing attached at the lower end of the glass supply tube. A white polytetrafluoroethlylene (PTFE) membrane has been introduced to be placed between the
canvas cover and the evaporating surface (ceramic plate), replacing the check valve to
prevent entry of rainwater into the system. The shape of the evaporating surface also
helped in easier fabric mounting and maintained better contact between the canvas cover
and the ceramic plate.
1974

Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.8, 2014

Predicating The Crop Coefficient of Eggplant from

Crop Evapotranspiration and Atmometer
(ETgage)

Figure (2) Location of atmometer in the field when the eggplant was in the
initial stage.

Figure (3) Development stage for eggplant with the location of

atmometer device in the field.

1975

Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.8, 2014

Predicating The Crop Coefficient of Eggplant from

Crop Evapotranspiration and Atmometer
(ETgage)

The ETgage reservoir is ventilated by two (1.5 mm diameter) holes drilled at the upper
end of the clear polyvinyl chloride pipe. Distilled water is always used in the ETgage
reservoir to prevent accumulation of solutes in and on the plate that can reduce the
porosity of the plate and affects the evaporation rate a sight glass on the water reservoir
allows the water levels in the reservoir to be read manually. Accuracy of daily ET data by
reading the plastic sight tube is limited. The ETgage is easy to install and requires little
maintenance which is typically mounted on a wooden post along with a rain gage with
the evaporation surface approximately 1 m above the ground surface. It should not be
installed near tall trees, buildings, or tall crops that may prevent full exposure of the
gauge to prevailing winds and other environmental factors affecting evapotranspiration.
The bird spike that is mounted on the top of the gage is placed to discourage birds from
perching on the plate. It should be located at a site representative of the field conditions
for easy access. The atmometer was evaluated in the same site field; comparison was
done with the reference evapotranspiration calculated from modified Penman Monteith
equation. Good correlation was observed.
Watermarks (soil moisture sensor)
Watermark sensors are widely available and have a number of favorable technical
characteristics for on farm use, due to its low cost, ease of installation and
durability.These sensors typically require site calibration of the threshold soil-moisture
content to which the soil will be allowed to dry before irrigation will be permitted.The
threshold value is determined relative to field capacity, the permanent wilting point, and
the management allowed depletion between irrigation events.The patented watermark
sensor (manufactured by the Irrometer Co. of Riverside, CA,model 200SS) is a solidstate electrical resistance sensing device that is used to measure soil water tension.This
type of sensor consists of two electrodes embedded in a reference matrix material, which
is confined within a corrosion-proof and highly permeable case (unit range from (0-wetto 200cb-dry). The matrix material includes gypsum to buffer against the effects of salts
and fertilizer, but these sensors do not dissolve like gypsum block sensors. Soil moisture
is constantly absorbed or released from the sensor as the surrounding soil moisture
conditions change. As the soil moisture changes, the sensor moisture reacts as reflected
by the change in electrical resistance between the electrodes.Granular matrix sensors
operate on the same electrical resistance principle as gypsum blocks. As the moisture
level increases, conductivity increases, andthe sensor is calibrated to output the moisture
level in terms of soil tension [9].
When soil water content increases, either by rain or irrigation, water penetrates the
block, allowing more granular matrix (gypsum, which approximates compressed fine
sand) to go into the solution. Similarly, as evapotranspiration decreases soil moisture, the
electrical resistance increases. Thus, these moisture blocks give an idea of the amount of
energy with which water is held in the soil, and an understanding of water availability to
the crop. Total of five numbers of watermarks sensors are used in the field area within the
root zone of eggplant at depths 15, 30, 45, 75 and 95 cm.

1976

Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.8, 2014

Predicating The Crop Coefficient of Eggplant from

Crop Evapotranspiration and Atmometer
(ETgage)

CALCULATION AND PROCEDURES

Modified or predicated crop coefficients for Eggplant is calculated from water
consumption by dividing daily measured crop evapotranspiration (ET c) by reference
evapotranspiration (ET o) which measured from the atmometer as follows:

..(1)

Where:
Kc = estimated or predicated crop coefficient,
ETc = crop evapotranspiration (mm/day), and
ETo = reference evapotranspiration (mm/day).
Crop coefficient (ETc) is calculated from watermarks sensors reading, when there is no
irrigation and rainfall. Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) is calculated from atmometer
(or ETgage). The crop coefficient for the Eggplant is predicated for each growing stages
(development, improvement, mid of season and harvesttime or end of season) and
starting from the date of planting till harvest time.
Statistical Analysis Methods
Comparison between predicated Kc, local crop coefficient and FAO values are made on
daily basis, monthly and growing stages. For error analysis the following statistics are
used:

Where:

RMSD =

*100
=

..(2)

.(3)
|

(4)

RMSD = root mean square difference,

n = number of observations,
yi = predicated crop coefficient,
xi = local or FAO crop coefficient,
xav = average value of crop coefficient (from local or FAO values),
RE = relative error (%), and
MBE = mean bias error.

1977

Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.8, 2014

Predicating The Crop Coefficient of Eggplant from

Crop Evapotranspiration and Atmometer
(ETgage)

1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

Predicated Kc
Local used Kc
Initial stage
Initial stage
Development stage
Development stage
Development stage
Development stage
Development stage
Development stage
Development stage
Mid- season
Mid- season
Mid- season
Mid- season
Mid- season
late season
late season
late season

Crop coefficient, Kc

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The local crop coefficients (Kc) for eggplant (crop coefficients values were done by
Russian study in early of 1980s under Iraqi weather conditions) are presented monthly
starting from March, while the crop coefficient used by FAO are depend on the growing
season of the plant (initial, mid of season and late of season), the initial stage represent
April and May, while June and July represent mid of the season. August is representing
end of the season. The predicating Kc is calculating according to the daily measurements
of the soil water content when there is no irrigation and rainfall. Figure (4) shows the
comparison of crop coefficient for eggplant between predicating, local (Russian) and
FAO values.

FAO Kc

Figure (4) Comparison of Kc for eggplant between predicating,

local (Russian) and FAO values.
The predicating values of the crop coefficients in the early stages of the growing
season and up 19th. of May are low numbers, starting from 0.07 to 0.57, which is less than
the local and FAO values (0.76 and 0.6 respectively), because the plant is in the early
growing stage (crop development stage) and where the root zoneis less than 40 cm in
depth. In early days of June, the predicating Kc values are begin to be increased and to be
equal to local values (Kc = 0.9) and less than FAO (Kc = 1.05). After 17 th. of June the
improvement of the plantand the mid of the season is starting, the predicating Kc values
are starting to be more than the local and FAO values, the root zone depth is about 70 cm
and water demand is increasing (mid- season stage). The average value of Kc is about
1.23, comparing with the local value of 1.09 and the FAO value of 1.05. This high value
of the predicating Kc is due to the highly water demand in this stage of the plant. Then
the predicating values of Kc are began to decreased due to harvest time (or end of season)
to reach a value of 0.56, which is normal and acceptable due to the plant is in end of the
season and the water demand will be decreased to be as minimum as possible, while the
local and FAO Kc values are 0.76 and 0.9 respectively.
1978

Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.8, 2014

Predicating The Crop Coefficient of Eggplant from

Crop Evapotranspiration and Atmometer
(ETgage)

Table(1) shows the root mean square difference, relative error and the mean absolute
error for the predicating Kc and the local values. The error and the statistical analysis for
the comparison between the predicating Kc and the local values show that the root mean
square difference is ranged between 0.53 for May to 0.12 for August which is less than
1.0, while the mean absolute error ranged between 0.53 for May to 0.96 for August which
is less than 1.0. Moreover, the relative error is ranged between 83.3% in May to 15.5% in
August.

Table (1) Root mean square error, relative error and mean absolute
error for the comparison between predicating Kc and the local
(Russian) values.

Month

RMSD

RE (%)

April

0.53

83.28

Mean
Absolute
Error
0.53

May

0.29

37.65

0.25

June

0.23

25.01

0.18

July

0.28

30.44

0.26

August
Average

0.12

15.48

0.096

0.31

36.91

0.26

Table (2) shows the root mean square difference, relative error and the mean absolute
error for the predicating Kc and the FAO values. The error and the statistical analysis for
the comparison between the predicating Kc and the FAO values show that the root mean
square difference is ranged between 0.49 for May to 0.17 for May and June which is less
than 1.0, while the mean absolute error ranged between 0.49 for May to 0.13 for May
which is less than 1.0. Moreover, the relative error is ranged between 82.2% in May to
17.81% in June.

1979

Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.8, 2014

Predicating The Crop Coefficient of Eggplant from

Crop Evapotranspiration and Atmometer
(ETgage)

Table (2) Root mean square error, relative error and mean absolute error for the
comparison between predicating Kc and the FAO values.

Month

RMSD

RE (%)

Mean
Absolute
Error

April

0.49

82.20

0.49

May

0.17

27.99

0.13

June
July

0.17
0.19

17.81
19.14

0.16
0.18

August
Average

0.22

24.23

0.19

0.25

29.61

0.20

CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions for this paper are:
1-The predicating crop coefficient for eggplant is more accurate than the local and FAO
values due to: first is the direct measuring for the crop evapotranspiration by using
watermarks soil water sensors within the root zones.No crop stress was observed, and the
allowable depletion values are always below 45%, and second is the direct reading of
referenceevapotranspiration from the atmometer without using the weather station or
complicated equations and meteorological information.
2- As recommended by FAO, the crop coefficients values are only an approximation,
because these values under standard climatic conditions and typical irrigation
management and soil wetting conditions. Accurate values can be adopted for most
applications related to irrigation planning, design, and management.
3- Accurate estimating of crop coefficient for specific crops is important for irrigation
scheduling, good agricultural water management, productivity and water saving.

REFERENCES
[1]. Irmak, S., Payero, J. D., Martin. "Using modified atmometers (ETgage) for
irrigation management" Irrigation Engineering, Irrigation Operations and Management,
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 2005.
[2]. Berrada, A.F., T. M.Hooten, G.E. Cardo and I. Broner. Assessment of irrigation
water management and demonstration of irrigation scheduling tools in the full service

1980

Eng. & Tech. Journal ,Vol.32, Part (A), No.8, 2014

Predicating The Crop Coefficient of Eggplant from

Crop Evapotranspiration and Atmometer
(ETgage)

area of the Dolores project. Technical report, Southwestern Colorado, Research

Center,2001.
[3]. British Colombia. Crop coefficients for use in irrigation scheduling. Factsheet,
order no. 577.100-S, 2001.
[4]. Weiss, M. A crop- coefficient model for scheduling irrigation in cotton. University
of Georgia, USA, 2012.
[5]. Allen, R.G., L.S. Pereira, D. Raes, and M. Smith. Crop EvapotranspirationGuidelines for computing crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper
56.Food and Agriculture Organization. Rome, Italy, 1998.
[6]. Allen, R.G. and L.S. Pereira. Estimating crop coefficients from fraction of ground
cover and height. Irrigation science, Vol. 28: 27-34, 2009.
[7]. Niyogi, Dev, Scheeringa, Ken. Estimating Evapotranspiration across Purdue
Agricultural Research Centers, 2009.
[8]. Altenhofen, J.A modified atmometer for on-farm evapotranspiration determination.
Proc., National Conf. Advances in Evapotranspiration, St. Joseph, Mich., 177184, 1985.
[9]. McCready, M.S., M.D. Dukes and G.L. Miller.Water conservation potential of
intelligent irrigation controllers on St. Augustine grass. Agric. Water Manage, 96: 16231632, 2009.
[10].Faber, B.A. Slope and aspect effect on evaporation as measured by atmometer
ActaHorticulturae, Vol. 664: 213-216, 2004.
[11]. Enciso, J. D. Porter, and X. Peries.Irrigation monitoring with soil water
sensors.B-6194.Texas Cooperative Extension Service. Juan M. Enciso Interpretation of
Watermark Sensor Readings in Specific Soil Types, Subtropical Plant Science, 61:6-14,
2006.

1981