Is Fetal Growth Restriction Associated with a More

Severe Maternal Phenotype in the Setting of Early Onset

Pre-Eclampsia? A Retrospective Study
Jane Weiler1, Stephen Tong2, Kirsten R. Palmer2*
1 Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Monash Medical Centre, Clayton, Victoria, Australia, 2 Translational Obstetric Group, Department of Obstetrics and
Gynaecology, University of Melbourne, Mercy Hospital for Women, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia

Abstract
Background: Both pre-eclampsia and fetal growth restriction are thought to result from abnormal placental implantation in
early pregnancy. Consistent with this shared pathophysiology, it is not uncommon to see growth restriction further
confound the course of pre-eclampsia and vice versa. It has been previously suggested that superimposed growth
restriction is associated with a more severe pre-eclamptic phenotype, however this has not been a consistent finding.
Therefore, we set out to determine whether the presence of fetal growth restriction among women with severe early-onset
pre-eclampsia was associated with more severe maternal disease compared to those without a growth-restricted fetus.
Methods and Findings: We undertook a retrospective cohort study of women presenting to a tertiary hospital with severe
early-onset pre-eclampsia (,34 weeks gestation) between 20052009. We collected clinical data, including severity of preeclampsia, maternal and neonatal outcomes. Of 176 cases of severe pre-eclampsia, 39% (n = 68) were further complicated
by fetal growth restriction. However, no significant difference was seen in relation to the severity of pre-eclampsia between
those with or without a growth-restricted baby. The presence of concomitant growth restriction was however associated
with a significantly increased risk of stillbirth (p = 0.003) and total perinatal mortality (p = 0.02).
Conclusions: The presence of fetal growth restriction among women with severe early-onset pre-eclampsia is not
associated with increased severity of maternal disease. However the incidence of stillbirth and perinatal death is significantly
increased in this sub-population.
Citation: Weiler J, Tong S, Palmer KR (2011) Is Fetal Growth Restriction Associated with a More Severe Maternal Phenotype in the Setting of Early Onset PreEclampsia? A Retrospective Study. PLoS ONE 6(10): e26937. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026937
Editor: Nick Harvey, University of Southampton, United Kingdom
Received September 18, 2011; Accepted October 6, 2011; Published October 28, 2011
Copyright: 2011 Weiler et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: Stephen Tong is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council Career Development Award (#490970). Kirsten Palmer is supported by
a National Health and Medical Research Council postgraduate medical and dental research scholarship (#607219). The funders had no role in the study design,
data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
* E-mail: kpalmer@unimelb.edu.au

Furthermore, an elevation in anti-angiogenic factors soluble fmslike tyrosine kinase 1 (sFlt-1) and soluble Endoglin (sEng) are also
seen in such pregnancies, albeit to a lesser extent [6,7,8].
These findings are in keeping with the long held belief that both
IUGR and pre-eclampsia are likely part of a similar pathophysiological spectrum, being abnormal placental implantation in early
pregnancy [9]. This premise is further strengthened by the
significant overlap in their clinical presentations, with evidence
suggesting that 12.858.6% of women with severe early onset preeclampsia will be further complicated by the presence of fetal
growth restriction [10,11]. Conversely, it has been shown that
approximately 15% of women diagnosed with FGR will be
diagnosed with superimposed pre-eclampsia later in the pregnancy
[12].
Of clinical interest, several studies have proposed that the
combination of pre-eclampsia with FGR is associated with a more
severe pre-eclamptic phenotype when compared to women with
pre-eclampsia and no FGR [12,13]. Mitani et al. [12] examined
133 women between 22 weeks gestation and term with preeclampsia with or without FGR. They found that women with pre-

Introduction
Pre-eclampsia is a condition that affects 58% of all pregnancies
and is responsible for a significant proportion of global maternal
and perinatal morbidity and mortality [1]. The pathophysiology
has been shown to relate to abnormal shallow trophoblast invasion
of the maternal uterine spiral arteries in early pregnancy [2]. This
results in a reduction in the amount of blood flow to the uteroplacental bed leading to a persistent state of placental hypoxia
through-out pregnancy [3]. In response to this hypoxic state the
placenta releases a number of anti-angiogenic factors into the
maternal circulation that result in widespread endothelial
dysfunction [4]. It is this endothelial dysfunction that produces
the clinical characteristics of pre-eclampsia, being hypertension,
renal dysfunction and proteinuria, liver impairment, thrombocytopenia, and increased vascular permeability with oedema
affecting the periphery, brain and liver.
The complexity of this system becomes apparent as similar
placental changes are also seen in pregnancies complicated by fetal
growth restriction (FGR) without co-existent pre-eclampsia [5].
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Pre-Eclampsia Severity and Fetal Growth Restriction

eclampsia and FGR had more severe hypertension and proteinuria, as well as higher rates of complications, such as placental
abruption and disseminated intravascular coagulation. However
this was not seen in a study by Haddad et al. [14] who found no
significant difference in the severity of hypertension or rates of
maternal complications between 239 women with early-onset preeclampsia either with or without a growth restricted fetus.
Given the heterogeneity of pre-eclampsia and the likelihood that
the pathophysiology differs between early-onset and late-onset
disease [15], it is important to study these populations separately.
Here we undertake the first study among women with exclusively
severe early-onset pre-eclampsia examining whether severity of the
maternal disease is worse if there is co-existing FGR.

Neonatal outcome data recorded was steroid administration

pre-delivery, apgar scores at one and five minutes, cord lactates,
stillbirth, total perinatal mortality, and rates of necrotising
enterocolitis, intraventricular haemorrhage, respiratory distress
syndrome and jaundice requiring phototherapy.

Ethics
The Human Research Ethics Committee at Southern Health
approved this study (application number 10157Q). In accordance
with this approval for a retrospective analysis of patient data, no
individual patient consent was required.

Statistical Methods
Normally distributed continuous variables were analysed using
an unpaired students t test, with data expressed as mean (6
standard error of the mean (SEM)). Categorical variables were
assessed using a Fishers exact test and data expressed as number
(percentage of population involved). Statistical analysis was
performed using GraphPad Prism software (La Jolla, CA).

Methods
Objectives
The primary outcome was to determine whether the severity of
pre-eclampsia differed depending on the presence or absence of
FGR.
Secondary outcome measures related to whether there were any
significant differences in the baseline characteristics, antenatal
ultrasound assessments or neonatal outcomes between women
with severe pre-eclampsia with or without FGR.

Results
A total of 583 women diagnosed with pre-eclampsia were
delivered between 20052009 at Monash Medical Centre. Of
these, 179 were found to have delivered between 24 and 34 weeks
gestation. Clinical details were analysed, leading to the further
exclusion of 3 women who did not meet the criteria for severe preeclampsia. From the remaining 176 women identified as having
severe early-onset pre-eclampsia, 39% (n = 68) were also complicated by the presence of FGR. Of those with FGR 41% (n = 30/
68) were less than the 5th centile.
A comparison of women with severe early-onset pre-eclampsia
both with or without FGR showed no significant differences in
maternal age, primiparity, ethinicity, BMI, smoking status or use
of alcohol during pregnancy, as outlined in Table 1. Similarly the
majority of women in both cohorts delivered via caesarean section
(90% without FGR vs. 86% with FGR) with the indication for
delivery in both cohorts mainly being on fetal grounds (53%
without FGR vs. 64% with FGR). Women with pre-eclampsia and
FGR delivered infants with a significantly lower birthweight than
those without FGR (968.2 g (644.13) vs. 1481 g (639.61);
p,0.0001). Furthermore, those with FGR delivered more
prematurely than those without FGR (30 weeks vs. 31 weeks;
p = 0.02).
There were no significant differences in the severity of preeclampsia experienced between the two groups. Similar systolic/
diastolic blood pressures were seen among those with FGR when
compared to those without FGR (174.6/103.1 mmHg Vs. 177.3/
105.6 mmHg; p = 0.22/0.18). The level of proteinuria also showed
no significant differences between those with or without FGR
(4.597 g/day Vs. 4.925 g/day; p = 0.70). A number of biochemical parameters were elevated among women complicated by preeclampsia and co-existent FGR compared to pre-eclampsia and no
FGR, but none were statistically significant. This was evidenced by
the level of platelets (1926109/L Vs. 194.16109/L; p = 0.88),
ALT (84.63 U/L Vs. 47.93 U/L; p = 0.09) and creatinine
(83.44 mmol/L Vs. 79.66 mmol/L; p = 0.54) in those with versus
without FGR, as shown in Table 2.
Significant differences were found however on antenatal
ultrasound assessments for fetal growth and wellbeing (Table 3).
The placental function and degree of fetal compromise was
assessed through the use of umbilical artery Doppler and amniotic
fluid index measurements. Doppler analysis was abnormal with
either raised, absent or reversed end-diastolic flow in 31% of

Participants
All women who delivered between 2005 and 2009 at a tertiary
Melbourne womens hospital with a pregnancy complicated by
pre-eclampsia were identified from the hospital birthing outcomes
summary database. The inclusion criteria were severe, early-onset
pre-eclampsia requiring delivery ,34 weeks. Severe pre-eclampsia was defined according to the ACOG guidelines as the presence
of one or more of: blood pressure $160/110 on two or more
occasions, proteinuria $5 g/day, visual disturbance, oliguria,
epigastric pain, liver dysfunction, thrombocytopenia or fetal
growth restriction [16]. Gestational age was based on a first
trimester ultrasound determination of estimated date of delivery
(EDD) and/or accurate last menstrual period dates from regular
menstrual cycles. Where a difference of greater than one week
existed between the EDD derived from last menstrual period and
first trimester ultrasound, then the date from the latter was chosen
[17].

Study Design
A retrospective cohort study was undertaken of 176 women with
severe early-onset pre-eclampsia. Fetal growth restriction was
defined as ,10th centile according to the Australian population
infant birthweight chart [18]. When this was applied to our
population of 176 women, 68 were identified as having severe preeclampsia and FGR. Outcomes were then compared between
these women and the remaining 108 with severe pre-eclampsia
and without FGR.
Baseline characteristics were obtained relating to maternal age,
parity, body mass index (BMI), ethnicity, smoking status, alcohol
consumption, gestation at delivery, birthweight and indication for
delivery. The clinical features of pre-eclampsia were also recorded
relating to maximal systolic and diastolic blood pressures predelivery, level of proteinuria, alanine transaminase (ALT),
platelets, creatinine and uric acid, use of magnesium sulfate, use
of anti-hypertensives and proportion remaining on anti-hypertensives at discharge.
Antenatal ultrasound findings for fetal wellbeing were compiled,
including umbilical artery doppler results, amniotic fluid index
(AFI) and estimated fetal weight (EFW).
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Pre-Eclampsia Severity and Fetal Growth Restriction

Table 1. Baseline Characteristics of women with pre-eclampsia with or without fetal growth restriction.

PET Without FGR N = 108

PET With FGR N = 68

p-value
0.63

Maternal Age - Years

29.76 (60.61)

30.21 (60.68)

Primiparous

60 (56%)

44 (65%)

0.27

BMI (kg/m2)

27.97 (60.58)

29.38 (60.76)

0.14

Smoker

14 (14%)

9 (15%)

0.82

Alcohol Use

9 (10%)

4 (9%)

0.77

Gestation at Delivery - Weeks

31

30

0.02

Caesarean Delivery

100 (90%)

61 (86%)

0.48

Birthweight

1481 (639.61)

968.2 (644.13)

,0.0001

58 (53%)

44 (64%)

0.16

Indication for Delivery

Fetal
Ethinicity
White

83 (76%)

55 (81%)

0.53

African

3 (3%)

1 (1%)

0.58

Asian

14 (13%)

6 (9%)

0.25

Hispanic

2 (2%)

1 (1%)

0.86

Other

6 (5%)

5 (7%)

0.64

Data is shown as number (%) and mean (6 standard error of the mean) where appropriate. Where FGR = fetal growth restriction, BMI = body mass index.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026937.t001

Similarly total perinatal mortality was lower in our non-FGR

population compared to the FGR group (5.5% vs. 22.1%;
p = 0.02). By comparison, no significant differences in the
percentage of infants receiving steroids pre-delivery (96% without
FGR vs. 90% with FGR) was seen, with babies born in both
groups showing similar apgars and cord lactates at delivery. There
was also no significant difference in perinatal morbidity with
similar rates of necrotising enterocolitis, intraventricular haemorrhage, respiratory distress syndrome and jaundice requiring
phototherapy seen between both groups (see Table 4).

women without FGR vs. 87% of women with FGR (p,0.0001).

Similarly, 27% of women without FGR showed evidence of
oligohydramnios vs. 57% of women with FGR (p = 0.003).
Ultrasound has been shown to have good positive and negative
predictive values in identifying FGR in women with severe preeclampsia [19]. Certainly within our study population, ultrasound
biometry assessments proved to be relatively reliable in identifying
women with FGR antenatally. 79% of women with pre-eclampsia
who delivered a growth-restricted baby were diagnosed with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) antenatally, compared to 11%
without growth-restriction appearing IUGR antenatally
(p,0.0001).
Assessment of neonatal outcomes showed significant differences
in relation to stillbirth and total perinatal mortality rates. One
stillborn baby occurred in the cohort without FGR vs. eight
stillbirths among women with FGR (0.9% vs. 11.3%; p = 0.003).

Discussion
Our findings demonstrate that 39% of women with severe earlyonset pre-eclampsia are further complicated by fetal growth
restriction. The severity of maternal disease was not altered by the

Table 2. Pre-eclamptic characteristics.

PET Without FGR N = 108

PET With FGR N = 68

p-value

Maximum SBP

177.3 (61.75)

174.6 (63.02)

0.22

Maximum DBP

105.6 (61.08)

103.1 (62.54)

0.18

Use of MgSO4

43 (40.2%)

19 (29%)

0.14

Use of anti-hypertensives

104 (98%)

63 (95.4%)

0.37

Discharged on anti-hypertensives

87 (89%)

43 (77%)

0.06

Proteinuria (g/day)

4.925 (60.54)

4.597 (60.62)

0.70

ALT (U/L)

47.93 (68.05)

84.63 (624.05)

0.09

Platelets (6109/L)

194.1 (69.02)

192.0 (610.80)

0.88

Creatinine (mmol/L)

79.66 (63.58)

83.44 (65.34)

0.54

Uric Acid (mmol/L)

423.6 (68.75)

409.2 (611.37)

0.31

Data is shown as number (%) and mean (6 standard error of the mean) where appropriate. Where SBP = systolic blood pressure, DBP = diastolic blood pressure,
ALT = alanine transferase.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026937.t002

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Pre-Eclampsia Severity and Fetal Growth Restriction

Table 3. Ultrasound Findings.

PET Without FGR N = 108

PET With FGR N = 68

p-value

Umbilical Artery Doppler

Raised

16 (19%)

18 (32%)

,0.0001

AEDF

9 (11%)

23 (41%)

,0.0001

REDF

1 (1%)

8 (14%)

,0.0001

22 (27%)

20 (57%)

AFI
Oligohydramnios

0.003

EFW

,0.0001

,3rd centile

1 (2%)

21 (40%)

3 10 centile

5 (9%)

20 (39%)

.10th centile

51 (89%)

11 (21%)

rd

th

Data is shown as number (%) and mean (6 standard error of the mean) where appropriate. Where AEDF = absent end diastolic flow, REDF = reversed end diastolic flow,
AFI = amniotic fluid index, EFW = estimated fetal weight, compared using a contingency table.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026937.t003

often a less severe disease and is associated with less maternal risk
[15]. More recently a number of studies have suggested that the
presence of FGR does not alter the severity of maternal disease
relating to pre-eclampsia [11,14,20], a finding that our research
further supports.
The main advantage of our data in comparison to other
contemporaneous studies [11,14,20] is that we focused solely on
the severe early-onset pre-eclamptic population, the population
group at highest risk of severe maternal morbidity and mortality.
Secondly, we are the first to examine the severity of the preeclamptic disease as our primary outcome. Furthermore, we were
potentially more thorough in reporting the pre-eclamptic phenotype by including a number of biochemical markers, antihypertensive use, maximal recorded blood pressure readings,
magnesium sulfate requirements and detailed neonatal outcomes.
While an observational study, our findings that the severity of
the maternal disease is not affected by the concomitant presence of
FGR should provide some reassurance to treating clinicians. For
women presenting with severe preterm pre-eclampsia, increasing
evidence is promoting expectant management to prolong gestation

co-existence of FGR. This was not the case however for the
neonate, as a significant increase in both the rates of stillbirth and
total perinatal mortality was seen among the cohort of growth
restricted babies compared to their appropriately grown counterparts.
It has been suggested that pre-eclampsia further complicated by
FGR results in a more severe pre-eclamptic phenotype. Indeed,
Mitani et al. [12] showed that women with pre-eclampsia and
FGR were more likely to demonstrate significantly elevated
hypertension and proteinuria compared to their pre-eclamptic
counterparts carrying appropriately grown infants. In keeping with
this the cohort affected by FGR had significantly elevated risks of
abruption, coagulopathy and HELLP syndrome. However, a
possible explanation for these findings could relate to the
difference in gestational ages between those complicated by
FGR compared to those without FGR in that study. The FGR
group delivered on average at 32.6 weeks consistent with a
diagnosis of early-onset pre-eclampsia. However, the non-FGR
group delivered on average at 36.1 weeks. While this is still preterm it is more consistent with late onset pre-eclampsia, which is
Table 4. Neonatal Outcomes.

PET Without FGR N = 108

PET With FGR N = 68

p-value

Apgar 1 min

6.6 (60.19)

6.4 (60.28)

0.55

Apgar 5 mins

8.3 (60.14)

8.1 (60.18)

0.21

IUGR,5th Centile

30 (42%)

IUGR 5th10th Centile

41 (58%)

Steroids pre-delivery

104 (96%)

63 (90%)

Cord Lactate

3.6 (60.21)

4.3 (60.32)

0.06

Stillbirth

1 (0.9%)

8 (11.3%)

0.003

0.11

Perinatal Death

6 (5.5%)

15 (22.1%)

0.02

NEC

2 (1.8%)

3 (4%)

0.38

IVH

4 (3.5%)

5(6.6%)

0.49

RDS

69 (61%)

42 (58%)

0.65

Jaundice req phototherapy

98 (88%)

60 (82%)

0.39

Data is shown as number (%) and mean (6 standard error of the mean) where appropriate. Where IUGR = intrauterine growth restriction, NEC = nectrotising
enterocolitis, IVH = intraventricular haemorrhage, RDS = respiratory distress syndrome.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026937.t004

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Pre-Eclampsia Severity and Fetal Growth Restriction

to reduce the potential morbidity and mortality of prematurity for

the infant [11,14]. These findings suggest that the presence of
FGR should not necessarily dissuade clinicians from expectant
management on the grounds that they may be concerned that
women will develop a more severe pre-eclamptic phenotype.
However, given the significantly higher mortality seen for the
neonate the suitability for expectant management should involve
regular assessment of fetal wellbeing.
It was interesting to note that the majority of pregnancies with
severe early onset pre-eclampsia complicated by FGR had
ultrasonographic evidence of placental insufficiency. 87% of these
pregnancies had abnormal umbilical dopplers and 57% had
oligohydramnios. The precise mechanisms that cause abnormal
umbilical dopplers and oligohydramnios are unknown. However,
these pregnancies often display villous maladaption with reduced
volumes of both villi and the intervillous space seen, changes that
have been linked to subsequent fetal hypoxia [21,22].
This study is limited by its retrospective design and relatively
small sample size. However, given severe early onset pre-eclampsia
complicates approximately 0.8% of all pregnancies [23] our cohort
is still relatively large. Monash Medical Centre is a major referral
centre meaning that we were able to capture a sizeable cohort.
Furthermore, being an observational study the ability to translate

the findings to a wider clinical audience is potentially limited.

Given the significant impact seen for the neonate it would be of
benefit to undertake a larger study to better understand the
implications of this presentation for both the mothers and their
babies.
This study highlights that while severe early-onset pre-eclampsia
is an uncommon condition of pregnancy, concomitant FGR
complicates a significant proportion. Of clinical reassurance, the
presence of FGR was not associated with a more severe maternal
pre-eclamptic presentation within our population, however higher
neonatal mortality was seen. The exact underlying aetiology that
results in their shared presentation remains the focus of ongoing
research.

Acknowledgments
We wish to thank the study participants.

Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: KRP ST. Performed the
experiments: JW KRP. Analyzed the data: KRP. Contributed reagents/
materials/analysis tools: JW. Wrote the paper: KRP ST JW.

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