Tybmm - Advertising & Market Research Notes

ADVERTSING AND MARKETING
RESEARCH
Revised SYLLABUS
2016-2017
Semester-VI- TYBMM
EDITION I
By: Dr HANIF LAKDAWALA
haniflakdawala@gmail.com
NOTE: This material is for non commercial purpose. Only for the purpose of reference.
BY: Dr M H Lakdawala
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x
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ADVERTISING AND MARKETING RESEARCH

Max. Marks: 100 (Theory:75, Internals: 25)
Objectives:
To inculcate the analytical abilities and research skills among the students.
To understand research methodologies Qualitative vs Quantitative
To discuss the foundations of Research and audience analysis that is imperative to successful advertising.
To understand the scope and techniques of Advertising and Marketing research, and their utility.
MODULE: I
FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH
a.
b.
c.
d.
Meaning and objectives of Research

Concepts in Research: Variables, Qualitative and Quantitative
Literature review
Stages in Research process
RESEARCH FUNDAMENTALS
x MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as a scientific and
systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. The
Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as a careful investigation or
inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. Redman and Mory define research as a
systematized effort to gain new knowledge. Some people consider research as a movement from the known to the
unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown
confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the
unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the
knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.
OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of
research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study
has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into number of broad grouping:
x To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are
termed as exploratory or formulative research studies.
x To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object
in view are known as descriptive research studies);
x To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else
(studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies).
x To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing
research studies).
Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of
underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or
hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and
opinions, and dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semistructured techniques. Some common methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and
participation/observations. The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota.
Qualitative research is any which does not involve numbers or numerical data.
It often involves words or language, but may also use pictures or photographs and observations.
Almost any phenomenon can be examined in a qualitative way, and it is often the preferred method of investigation in
the UK and the rest of Europe; US studies tend to use quantitative methods, although this distinction is by no means
absolute.
Qualitative analysis results in rich data that gives an in-depth picture and it is particularly useful for
exploring how and why things have happened.
However, there are some pitfalls to qualitative research, such as:
x If respondents do not see a value for them in the research, they may provide inaccurate or false
information. They may also say what they think the researcher wishes to hear. Qualitative researchers therefore
need to take the time to build relationships with their research subjects and always be aware of this potential.
x Although ethics are an issue for any type of research, there may be particular difficulties with qualitative
research because the researcher may be party to confidential information. It is important always to bear in
mind that you must do no harm to your research subjects.
x It is generally harder for qualitative researchers to remain apart from their work. By the nature of their
study, they are involved with people. It is therefore helpful to develop habits of reflecting on your part in the
work and how this may affect the research. See our page on Reflective Practice for more.
Sources of Qualitative Data
Although qualitative data is much more general than quantitative, there are still a number of common
techniques for gathering it. These include:
x Interviews, which may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured;
x Focus groups, which involve multiple participants discussing an issue;
x Postcards, or small-scale written questionnaires that ask, for example, three or four focused questions of
participants but allow them space to write in their own words;
x Secondary data, including diaries, written accounts of past events, and company reports; and
x Observations, which may be on site, or under laboratory conditions, for example, where participants are
asked to role-play a situation to show what they might do.
Analysing Qualitative Data
Because qualitative data are drawn from a wide variety of sources, they can be radically different in scope.
There are, therefore, a wide variety of methods for analysing them, many of which involve structuring and coding the
data into groups and themes. There are also a variety of computer packages to support qualitative data analysis. The best
way to work out which ones are right for your research is to discuss it with academic colleagues and your supervisor.
Quantitative Research
is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data

that can be transformed into useable statistics. It is used to quantify or for the measurement of the attitudes, opinions,
behaviors, and other defined variables and generalize results from a larger sample population. Quantitative Research
uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methods are much
more structured than Qualitative data collection methods. Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of
surveys online surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone
interviews, longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and systematic observations.
The data produced are always numerical, and they are analysed using mathematical and statistical methods. If
there are no numbers involved, then its not quantitative research.
Some phenomena obviously lend themselves to quantitative analysis because they are already available as numbers.
Examples include changes in achievement at various stages of education, or the increase in number of senior managers
holding management degrees. However, even phenomena that are not obviously numerical in nature can be examined
using quantitative methods.
Sources of Quantitative Data
The most common sources of quantitative data include:
x Surveys, whether conducted online, by phone or in person. These rely on the same questions being asked in the
same way to a large number of people;
x Observations, which may either involve counting the number of times that a particular phenomenon occurs,
such as how often a particular word is used in interviews, or coding observational data to translate it into
numbers; and
x Secondary data, such as company accounts.
Analysing Quantitative Data
There are a wide range of statistical techniques available to analyse quantitative data, from simple graphs to show the
data through tests of correlations between two or more items, to statistical significance. Other techniques include cluster
analysis, useful for identifying relationships between groups of subjects where there is no obvious hypothesis, and
hypothesis testing, to identify whether there are genuine differences between groups.
The development of Likert scales and similar techniques mean that most phenomena can be studied using
quantitative techniques.
This is particularly useful if you are in an environment where numbers are highly valued and numerical data is
considered the gold standard.
However, it is important to note that quantitative methods are not necessarily the most suitable methods for
investigation. They are unlikely to be very helpful when you want to understand the detailed reasons for particular
behaviour in depth. It is also possible that assigning numbers to fairly abstract constructs such as personal opinions risks
making them spuriously precise.
Variable:
A variable is defined as anything that has a quantity or quality that varies. The dependent variable is the variable a
researcher is interested in. An independent variable is a variable believed to affect the dependent variable.
Confounding variables are defined as interference caused by another variable.
Variable is central idea in research. Simply defined, variable is
a concept that varies. There are two
types
of concepts: those that refer to a fixed phenomenon and those that vary in quantity, intensity, or amount (e.g. amount
of education). The second type of concept and measures of
the concept are
variables. A variable is defined as anything that varies or changes in value. Variables take on two or more values.
Because variable represents a quality that can exhibit differences in value, usually
magnitude or
strength,
it may be said that a variable generally is anything that may assume different
numerical or categorical values. Once you begin to look for them, you will see variables everywhere.
For example gender is a variable; it can take two values: male or female. Marital status is a variable; it can take on
values
of never married, single, married, divorced, or widowed. Family income
is
a
variable; it can take on
values from zero to billions of Rupees. A
person's attitude toward women
empowerment
is variable; it can range from highly favorable to highly unfavorable. In this way the
variation can be
in quantity, intensity, amount,
or type; the examples can be production units,
absenteeism, gender, religion, motivation, grade, and age. A variable may be situation specific; for example gender is
a variable but if
in
a particular situation like a class of Research Methods if
only female students, then in this situation gender will not be considered as a variable.
there are
Relationship among Variables

Once the variables relevant to
the topic of research have been identified, then the researcher is
interested
in
the relationship among them. A statement containing the variable is called a proposition. It may contain one or
more than one variable. The proposition having one variable in
it may be called as
univariate proposition, those with two variables as bivariate proposition, and then of course multivariate
containing three
or
more variables. Prior to
the formulation of
a proposition the researcher has to
develop strong logical arguments which could help in establishing the relationship. For example, age at
marriage and education are the two variables that could lead to
a proposition: the higher the education,
the higher the age at marriage. What could be the logic to reach this conclusion?
All relationships have to
be explained with strong logical arguments.
If
the relationship refers
to
an
observable reality, then the proposition can be put to test, and any testable proposition is hypothesis
Literature review
A literature review is a text of a scholarly paper, which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings,
as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources,
and do not report new or original experimental work.
A literature review can be a precursor in the introduction of a research paper, or it can be an entire paper in itself, often
the first stage of large research projects, allowing the supervisor to ascertain that the student is on the correct path.
A literature review is a critical and in depth evaluation of previous research. It is a summary and synopsis of a particular
area of research, allowing anybody reading the paper to establish why you are pursuing this particular research program.
A good literature review expands upon the reasons behind selecting a particular research question.
A literature review goes beyond the search for information and includes the identification and articulation of
relationships between the literature and your field of research. While the form of the literature review may vary with
different types of studies, the basic purposes remain constant:
Purpose of Literature Review
The following are the purposes of literature review:
1. To avoid duplication of research work, in case an almost similar work as the present one has already been done
by some one.
2. To adopt an alternative method of study in case an almost similar work as already done has to be for some
reason carried out.
3. To fill up gaps in research by incorporating objectives not thoroughly probed by earlier researchers.
4. To effectively, formulate hypotheses in the light of findings of earlier research works or policy pronouncement
of governments or statutory development.
5. To test the efficacy of suggested courses of action in earlier works.
6. To ward of methodological problems or troubles that might have been suffered by earlier researchers.
7. To refine the methodology of research in the light of suggested improvement by or for earlier works.
8. To add new dimensions of research in a study based on recommendations of earlier research works or scholarly
research papers or legal pronouncements or investigations or other reports.
9. To have an idea of the diverse tools of analysis used by others and that could be used for the present research.
10. To build a theory, review of literature is needed. Fitting the findings of the present work with the findings of
earlier work, and on that basis evolving a theory becomes possible.
11. Review of earlier research works also helps in developing on impressive structuring of research report. Based
on knowledge gained on this aspect from the structures adopted in earlier works, right structuring of report is
worked out.
Objectives of Literature Review
Review of research report is done to know what research works have already been done on this and related topics or
fields, the methodology adopted by them, the hypotheses formulated and tested by them, the findings and conclusions,
the listed scope for further research, and so on. Similarly review of research papers is intended to know from the papers
the thrust issues, the hypothesis, the tool of data collection, the methodology, the findings and the implications of them
for the research for his current work. Review of literature helps understanding the present research in a better way. In
fact, review of literature beginning with a research for a suitable topic for research and continues until final stages of the
current research work.
A literature review has four main objectives:
x It surveys the literature in your chosen area of study
x It synthesises the information in that literature into a summary
x It critically analyses the information gathered by identifying gaps in current knowledge; by showing
limitations of theories and points of view; and by formulating areas for further research and reviewing areas of
controversy
x It presents the literature in an organised way
A literature review shows your readers that you have an in-depth grasp of your subject; and that you understand where
your own research fits into and adds to an existing body of agreed knowledge.
Heres another way of describing those four main tasks. A literature review:
x demonstrates a familiarity with a body of knowledge and establishes the credibility of your work;
x summarises prior research and says how your project is linked to it;
x integrates and summarises what is known about a subject;
x demonstrates that you have learnt from others and that your research is a starting point for new ideas.
Steps for Conducting a Lit Review

1. Choose a topic. Define your research question: Your literature review should be guided by a central research
question. Remember, it is not a collection of loosely related studies in a field but instead represents background
and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a
synthesized way.
x Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.
x Is it manageable? Begin writing down terms that are related to your question.
x These will be useful for searches later.
x If you have the opportunity, discuss your topic with your professor.
2. Decide on the scope of your review: How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it
be? How many years should it cover?
x This may depend on your assignment.
x How many sources does the assignment require?
3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches: Make a list of the databases you will search.
Remember to include comprehensive databases such as WorldCat and Dissertations & Theses, if you need to.
Tips: Look at the Library's research guides in your discipline to select discipline-specific databases. Don't
forget to look at books!Make an appointment with or contact your subject librarian to make sure you aren't
missing major databases.
4. Conduct your searches and find the literature: Keep track of your searches:
x Review the abstracts of research studies carefully. This will save you time.
Write down the searches you conduct in each database so that you may duplicate them if you need to
later (or avoid dead-end searches that you'd forgotten you'd already tried).
x Use the bibliographies and references of research studies you find to locate others.
x Ask your professor or a scholar in the field if you are missing any key works in the field.
x Use RefWorks to keep track of your research citations.
5. Review the literature: Some questions to help you analyze the research: What was the research question of
the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying to discover? Was the research funded by a source
that could influence the findings? What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the
samples and variables used, the results, and the conclusions. Does the research seem to be complete? Could it
have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise? If there are conflicting studies, why
do you think that is? How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited?; if so, how has it been
analyzed?
x Again, review the abstracts carefully.
x Keep careful notes so that you may track your thought processes during the research process.
x
Stages in Research process.

Stage 1: Formulating the Marketing Research Problem
Formulating a problem is the first step in the research process. In many ways, research starts with a problem that
management is facing. This problem needs to be understood, the cause diagnosed, and solutions developed. However,
most management problems are not always easy to research. A management problem must first be translated into a
research problem. Once you approach the problem from a research angle, you can find a solution. For example, sales
are not growing is a management problem.
Translated into a research problem, we may examine the expectations and experiences of several groups: potential
customers, first-time buyers, and repeat purchasers. We will determine if the lack of sales is due to:
x Poor expectations that lead to a general lack of desire to buy, or
x Poor performance experience and a lack of desire to repurchase.
What then is the difference between a management problem and a research problem? Management problems focus on
an action. Do we advertise more? Do we change our advertising message? Do we change an under-performing product
configuration? If so, how? Research problems, on the other hand, focus on providing the information you need in order
to solve the management problem.
Stage 2: Method of Inquiry
The scientific method is the standard pattern for investigation. It provides an opportunity for you to use existing
knowledge as a starting point and proceed impartially.
The scientific method includes the following steps:
1.
Formulate a problem
2.
Develop a hypothesis
3.
Make predictions based on the hypothesis
4.
Devise a test of the hypothesis
5.
Conduct the test
6.
Analyze the results
The terminology is similar to the stages in the research process. However, there are subtle differences in the way the
steps are performed. For example, the scientific method is objective while the research process can be subjective.
Objective-based research (quantitative research) relies on impartial analysis.
The facts are the priority in objective research. On the other hand, subjective-based research (qualitative research)
emphasizes personal judgment as one collect and analyze data.
Stage 3: Research Method
In addition to selecting a method of inquiry (objective or subjective), one must select a research method.
There are two primary methodologies that can be used to answer any research question:
x Experimental research and

x Non-experimental research.
Experimental research gives you the advantage of controlling extraneous variables and manipulating one or more
variables that influences the process being implemented.
Non-experimental research allows observation but not intervention. One simply observe and report on findings.
Stage 4: Research Design
The research design is a plan or framework for conducting the study and collecting data. It is defined as the specific
methods and procedures one use to acquire the information needed.
Stage 5: Data Collection Techniques:
Research design will develop as researcher selects techniques to use. There are many ways to collect data. Two
important methods to consider are interviews and observation.
Interviews require researcher to ask questions and receive responses.
Common modes of research communication include interviews conducted face-to-face, by mail, by telephone, by email,
or over the Internet. This broad category of research techniques is known as survey research. These techniques are used
in both non-experimental research and experimental research.
Another way to collect data is by observation. Observing a persons or companys past or present behavior can predict
future purchasing decisions. Data collection techniques for past behavior can include analyzing company records and
reviewing studies published by external sources. In order to analyze information from interview or observation
techniques, researcher must record the results. Because the recorded results are vital, measurement and development are
closely linked to which data collection techniques researcher decide on. The way researcher record the data changes
depends on which method researcher use.
Stage 6: Sample Design
Marketing research project rarely examine an entire population. Its more practical to use a samplea smaller but
accurate representation of the greater population. In order to design sample, researcher must find answers to these
questions:
1.
From which base population is the sample to be selected?
2.
What is the method (process) for sample selection?
3.
What is the size of the sample?
Once researcher has established who the relevant population is (completed in the problem formulation stage), researcher
have a base for sample. This will allow researcher to make inferences about a larger population. There are two methods
of selecting a sample from a population:
x Probability or
x Non-probability sampling.
The probability method relies on a random sampling of everyone within the larger population.
Non- probability is based in part on the judgment of the investigator, and often employs convenience samples, or by
other sampling methods that do not rely on probability. The final stage of the sample design involves determining the
appropriate sample size. This important step involves cost and accuracy decisions. Larger samples generally reduce
sampling error and increase accuracy, but also increase costs.
Stage 7: Data Collection
Once researcher established the first six stages, he can move on to data collection.
Depending on the mode of data collection, this part of the process can require large amounts of personnel and a
significant portion of research budget. Personal (face-to-face) and telephone interviews may require researcher to use a
data collection agency (field service). Internet surveys require fewer personnel, are lower cost, and can be completed in
days rather than weeks or months. Regardless of the mode of data collection, the data collection process introduces
another essential element to research project: the importance of clear and constant communication.
Stage 8: Analysis and Interpretation
In order for data to be useful, researcher must analyze it. Analysis techniques vary and their effectiveness depends on
the types of information researcher is collecting, and the type of measurements been used. Because they are dependent
on the data collection, analysis techniques should be decided before this step.
Stage 9: Research Report
The marketing research process culminates with the research report. This report will include all of information,
including an accurate description of research process, the results, conclusions, and recommended courses of action. The
report should provide all the information the decision maker needs to understand the project. It should also be written in
language that is easy to understand. Its important to find a balance between completeness and conciseness. Researcher
dont want to leave any information out; however, he cant let the information get so technical that it overwhelms the
reading audience.
One approach to resolving this conflict is to prepare two reports: the technical report and the summary report. The
technical report discusses the methods and the underlying assumptions. In this document, researcher discusses the
detailed findings of the research project. The summary report, as its name implies, summarizes the research process and
presents the findings and conclusions as simply as possible.
Another way to keep research findings clear is to prepare several different representations of findings. PowerPoint
presentations, graphs, and face-to-face reports are all common methods for presenting research information.
Along with the written report for reference, these alternative presentations will allow the decision maker to understand
all aspects of the project.
MODULE: II
HYPOTHESIS
Meaning, Nature, Significance, Types of Hypothesis,
Hypothesis is one of the fundamental tools for research in any kind of investigation. In fact, it is the second step to
follow in any kind of research process. The hypothesis is a tentative solution of a problem. The research activities are
planned to verify the hypothesis . It is very essential for a researcher to understand the meaning and nature of
hypothesis. The researcher always plan or formulate a hypothesis in the beginning of the problem.
MEANING OF HYPOTHESIS:
The word hypothesis is made up of two Greek roots which would roughly mean some sort of sub-statements if they
are sense translated in English. Thus, the word hypothesis consists of two words: Hypo + thesis = where, Hypo means
tentative or subject to the verification and Thesis means statement about solution of a problem.
The word meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem. Hypothesis offers
a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some rationale. Another meaning of the word
hypothesis which is composed of two words: Hypo means composition of two or more variables which is to be
verified. Thesis means position of these variables in the specific frame of reference. This is the operational meaning of
the term hypothesis.
Hypothesis is the composition of some variables which have some specific position or role of the variables i.e. to be
verified empirically. It is a proposition about the factual and conceptual elements.
Hypothesis is called a leap into the dark. It is a brilliant guess about the solution of a problem. A tentative generalization
or theory formulated about the character of a phenomenon under observation are called hypothesis. It is a statement
temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is known at the time about the phenomenon. It is the basis for planning
and action- in the research for new truth.
NATURE OF HYPOTHESIS
The following are the main features of a hypothesis:
1. It is conceptual in nature. Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework are involved in a
hypothesis.
2. It is a verbal statement in a declarative form. It is a verbal expression of ideas and concepts, it is not
merely an idea but is also available in the verbal form, though the idea is in itself is enough for empirical
verification.
3. It has some empirical referent. A hypothesis contains some empirical referent. It indicates the tentative
relationship between two or more variables.
4. It has a forward or future reference. A hypothesis is future oriented. It relates to the future verification and
not to the past facts and information.
5. It is the pivot of a scientific research. All the research activities are designed for its verification.
Significance of hypothesis
The following are the significance of hypothesis in the research
1. It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth which enables an investigator to
start his research works.
2. It offers a basis in establishing the specificity what to study and may provide possible solutions to the
problem.
3. Each hypothesis may lead to formulate another hypothesis.
4. A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of a final hypothesis.
5. Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which may be objectively tested and
accepted or rejected.
6. It places clear and specific goals: A well thought out hypothesis is that which places clear and specific
goals before the researcher and provides him/her with a basis for selecting sample and research procedure to
meet these goals.
7. It links things together: It serves the important function of linking together the related facts and
information and organizing them into whole.
8. It prevents blind research: The use of hypothesis prevents a blind search or research and saves the
researchers from gathering of masses of data which may later prove irrelevant to the study.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS:
Hypotheses vary in form and some extent and in some cases the form is determined by the function of hypotheses in
different contexts. Thus a working hypothesis is described as the best guess or statement derivable from known or
available evidence. The amount of evidence and the certainty or quality that can be determined will bring different
forms of hypotheses, such as specific or general.
In other cases, the type of statistical treatment generates a need for a particular form of hypothesis. In either case, there
are some set forms of hypothesis and they can be explained as follows:
1. Declarative Statement: A hypothesis may be developed as a declarative statement which provides an
anticipated relationship between variables. The anticipation of a difference between variables would imply that
the hypothesis developer has examined existing evidences very carefully and they have led him/her to believe
that differences may be anticipated as a process of additional evidences.
2. Cause and effect relationship hypothesis: - Hypothesis describing a relationship between two variables is
said to be relational hypothesis. Here, relationship between variables is observed where change in one variable
gives change in other variables. Fast food eating habits is cause of obesity in children is a good example.
3. Directional Hypothesis: States that the independent variable will effect the dependent variable and
the direction of the effect in the experiment. E.g. Consuming 2 grams of caffeine will make you sleep less
than 5 hours in one night.
4. Non-Directional Hypothesis: States that the dependent and independent variable will have an effect on one
another but it does not specify what that effect will be. E.g. Consuming 2 grams of caffeine will alter how
much sleep you will get in hours.
5. Null Hypothesis: It indicates that there is no relationship between the dependent and independent variables.
Null Hypothesis States that if there is an effect between the dependent and independent variables, it is down to
chance and not an effect from the experiment. E.g. Consuming 2 grams of caffeine will not influence how much
you sleep in one night. It depends on the participant levels of stress at the time.
A GOOD HYPOTHESIS IS ONE WHICH:

1. Clearly defines the assumption will all operational definitions which are easy to understand and communicate.
2. Should be brief so that it meaningfully describes the concept involved in the assumption.
3. Requires limited assumption and conditions to testify it.
4. It should meet the criteria, or disprove or add new knowledge to the theory.
5. Based on phenomena which are easily observed or else it is difficult to test it empirically.
6. Explaining and expected relationship between the variables.
7. Initially researcher should make one hypothesis which is significant and can be easily tested. If he finds a need of
designing or formulating number of hypothesis, he should do it.
MODULE: III
RESEARCH DESIGN
a. Meaning, Definition, Need and Importance, Scope of Research Design
b. Types- Descriptive, Exploratory and Causal.
Research Design: Meaning and Importance

A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project. It details the
procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure or solve marketing research problems.
In simple words it is the general plan of how you will go about your research.
Definitions of Research Design:

1. According to David J Luck and Ronald S Rubin, A research design is the determination and statement
of the general research approach or strategy adopted for the particular project. It is the heart of planning. If the
design adheres to the research objective, it will ensure that the clients needs will be served.
2. According to Kerlinger, Research in the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to
obtain answers to research questions and to control variance.
3. According to Green and Tull, A research design is the specification of methods and procedures for
acquiring the information needed. It is the over-all operational pattern or framework of the project that
stipulates what information is to be collected from which source by what procedures.
The function of a research design is to ensure that requisite data in accordance with the problem at hand is
collected accurately and economically. Simply stated, it is the framework, a blueprint for the research study
which guides the collection and analysis of data. The research design, depending upon the needs of the
researcher may be a very detailed statement or only furnish the minimum information required for planning
the research project.
To be effective, a research design should furnish at least the following details.
x
x
x
x
A statement of objectives of the study or the research output.

A statement of the data inputs required on the basis of which the research problem is to be solved.
The methods of analysis which shall be used to treat and analyze the data inputs.
More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
What is the study about?

Why is the study being made?
Where will the study be carried out?
What type of data is required?
Where can the required data be found?
What periods of time will the study include?
What will be the sample design?
What techniques of data collection will be used?
How will the data be analyzed?
In what style will the report be prepared?
Advantages of research design

x
x
x
x
x
x
Consumes less time.

Ensures project time schedule.
Helps researcher to prepare himself to carry out research in a proper and a systematic way.
Better documentation of the various activities while the project work is going on.
Helps in proper planning of the resources and their procurement in right time.
Provides satisfaction and confidence, accompanied with a sense of success from the beginning of the
work of the research project.
Need for Research Design: Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various
research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Research design has a significant impact on the reliability of
the results obtained. It thus acts as a firm foundation for the entire research. For example, economical and
attractive construction of house we need a blueprint (or what is commonly called the map of the house) well
thought out and prepared by an expert architect, similarly we need a research design or a plan in advance of
data collection and analysis for our research project.
Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and
the techniques to be used in their analysis.
The need for research design is as follows:
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
It reduces inaccuracy;
Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability;
Eliminates bias and marginal errors;
Minimizes wastage of time;
Helpful for collecting research materials;
Helpful for testing of hypothesis;
Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money, manpower, time, and
efforts;
Provides an overview to other experts;
Guides the research in the right direction.
Importance and scope of Research Design
Research design carries an important influence on the reliability of the results attained. It therefore provides a
solid base for the whole research. It is needed due to the fact that it allows for the smooth working of the
many research operations. This makes the research as effective as possible by providing maximum
information with minimum spending of effort, money and time. For building of a car, we must have a suitable
blueprint made by an expert designer. In a similar fashion, we require a suitable design or plan just before data
collection and analysis of the research project. Planning of design must be carried out cautiously as even a
small mistake might mess up the purpose of the entire project. The design helps the investigator to organize
his ideas, which helps to recognize and fix his faults, if any. In a good research design, all the components go
together with each other in a coherent way. The theoretical and conceptual framework must with the research
goals and purposes. In the same way, the data gathering method must fit with the research purposes,
conceptual and theoretical framework and method of data analysis.
The importance and scope of research design in research methodology is due to the following:
1. It may result in the preferred kind of study with helpful conclusion.
2. It cuts down on inaccuracy.
3. Allows you get optimum efficiency and reliability.
4. Reduce wastage of time.
5. Reduce uncertainty, confusion and practical haphazard related to any research problem.
6. Of great help for collection of research material and testing of hypothesis.
7. It is a guide for giving research the right path.
8. Gets rid of bias and marginal errors.
9. Provides an idea concerning the type of resources needed in terms of money, effort, time, and
manpower.
10. Smooth & efficient sailing (sets boundaries & helps prevent blind search) Maximizes reliability of
results.
11. Provides firm foundation to the endeavor.
12. Averts misleading conclusions & thoughtless useless exercise. Provides opportunity to anticipate
flaws & inadequacies (anticipates problems). I
13. ncorporates by learning from other peoples critical comments & evaluations.
14.
Types of Research design:
On the basis of information to be collected, research designs can be classified into the following three
categories:
a) Exploratory research
b) Descriptive research
c) Causal research
Exploratory Research:
Exploratory research is conducted to clarify ambiguous situations or discover potential business opportunities.
As the name implies, exploratory research is not intended to provide conclusive evidence from which to
determine a particular course of action. In this sense, exploratory research is not an end unto itself. Usually
exploratory research is a first step, conducted with the expectation that additional research will be needed to
provide more conclusive evidence.
i.
Exploratory research is often used to guide and refine these subsequent research efforts.
ii.
Exploratory research aims to develop initial hunches or insights and provide direction for any further
research needed.
iii. The primary purpose of exploratory research is to shed light on the nature of a situation and identify
any specific objectives or data needs to be addressed through additional research.
iv.
Exploratory research is most useful when a decision maker wishes to better understand a situation
and/or identify decision alternatives.
v.
Exploratory research is conducted when decision makers sense a need for marketing research but are
unsure of the specific direction the research should take.
Methods for Conducting Exploratory Research

a. Key-Informant Technique: Conducting exploratory research by interviewing knowledgeable
individuals is sometimes called the key-informant technique. It is also known as an expertopinion survey or a lead-user survey. An effective way to do exploratory research is to seek out
and talk to individuals with expertise in areas related to the situation being investigated. The
technique is necessarily a very subjective and flexible procedure with no standard approach. In
todays fast-changing technological world, very few individuals possess all of the relevant
information about the market. Careful attention must be given to the selection of knowledgeable
people. This observation is not limited to business-to-business market settings; it is relevant in
almost every context requiring exploratory research. When properly used, the key-informant
technique can be very productive in situations where a decision maker senses the need for
research but lacks well-defined research objectives.
b. Focus Group Interviews: In a focus group interview, an objective discussion leader introduces a
topic to a group of respondents and directs their discussion of that topic in a non-structured and
natural fashion. This is sometimes simply called a focus group. Respondents (typically about 8 to
12) discuss a given topic in a fairly informal fashion. A well-trained researcher, called a
moderator, leads the discussion. The moderators primary tasks are to ensure that key aspects of
the topic are discussed and to observe or record the participants reactions. Focus groups are used
in a variety of situations.
c. Analysis of Secondary Data: Examining appropriate secondary data is a fast and inexpensive way
of conducting exploratory research that can generate valuable insights. Such insights, in turn, will
provide a proper focus for conclusive research. Sometimes the insights revealed by secondarydata analysis may even eliminate the need for conclusive research.
d. Case Study Method: The case study method is an in-depth examination of a unit of interest. The
unit can be a customer, store, salesperson, firm, market area, website, and so on. By virtue of its
insight-generating potential, the case study method is a useful form of exploratory research. This
method is suitable in a research setting in which the company has a general research objective but
is unsure of exactly what it is looking for. It involves collecting in-depth data on a variety of
important dimensions or factors for the unit of interest. Only the investigators time and
imagination limit the number and types of factors to be examined. The analysis of case data is
nonquantitative and primarily involves numerous comparisons and contrasts of the data. It
requires an alert investigator capable of recognizing even subtle differences across cases as well
as possible relationships among factors within a case.
e. Observational Method: The observational method involves human or mechanical observation of
what people actually do or what events take place during a buying or consumption situation. In
this method of data collection, researchers or mechanical/electronic devices witness and record
information as events occur or compile evidence from past events. It is useful to assess behavior
such as use of products, frequency of store visits, teens shopping with and without supervision,
use of media, and time spent on specific websites. It is particularly useful in researching young
children, a group that is typically not amenable to many research techniques. Exploratory
research is not limited to the five methods just described, although they are the most frequently
used methods. Variations or combinations of these methods can also be employed in an
exploratory research project. Insights gained through exploratory research pave the way for
conclusive research. Many research projects involve an exploratory phase followed by a
conclusive phase.
Descriptive Research
As the name implies, the major purpose of descriptive research is to describe characteristics of
objects, people, groups, organizations, or environments. In other words, descriptive research tries
to paint a picture of a given situation by addressing who, what, when, where, and how
questions.
This research describes the who, what, when, where, and how regarding the current economic and
employment situation. Unlike exploratory research, descriptive studies are conducted after the
researcher has gained a firm grasp of the situation being studied. This understanding, which may
have been developed in part from exploratory research, directs the study toward specific issues.
These statements help greatly in designing and implementing a descriptive study. Without these,
the researcher would have little or no idea of what questions to ask.
Descriptive research often helps describe market segments. For example, researchers used
descriptive surveys to describe consumers who are heavy consumers (buy a lot) of organic food
products. The resulting report showed that these consumers tend to live in coastal cities with
populations over 500,000, with the majority residing on the West Coast. The most frequent
buyers of organic foods are affluent men and women ages 4554 (36 percent) and 1834 (35
percent).
Interestingly, consumers who buy organic foods are not very brand-oriented81 percent of them
cannot name a single organic brand. Research such as this helps high-quality supermarkets such
as Whole Foods make location decisions. Over half of Whole Foods food products are organic.
Methods for Conducting Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is by far the more frequently used form of conclusive research. Descriptive research
studies are classified into two basic types: cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies.
i. Cross-Sectional Studies: Cross-sectional studies are one-time studies involving data

collection at a single period in time. They provide a snapshot of a situation being
researched. Cross-sectional studies can also be used to obtain data pertaining to different
periods in time. A cross-sectional study makes use of a cross-sectional sample or a group of
units (e.g., consumers, stores, organizations) selected specifically and solely for the onetime data collection. The sample is disbanded after the data are collected. Several firms
maintain omnibus panels as a source of samples for cross-sectional studies. Such samples
are composed of panel members who are returned to the panel after participating in a crosssectional study. Within the domain of descriptive research the cross-sectional study is the
most popular method. Cross-sectional studies account for the majority of formal research
projects involving primary-data collection.
ii. Longitudinal Studies: Longitudinal studies are repeated-measurement studies that collect
data over several periods in time. The primary purpose of longitudinal studies is to monitor
changes over time. A longitudinal study produces a motion picture (or a series of
snapshots) of a situation over time. In general, longitudinal studies are more informative
than cross-sectional studies, just as motion pictures are more revealing than still pictures.
Longitudinal studies are also more expensive than cross-sectional studies. A longitudinal
study typically employs a panel, or a group of units recruited to provide measurements over
a period of time. At the conclusion of each measurement phase, a panel is maintained intact
for future use. Successive measurements in longitudinal studies can be obtained from a
physically different but representative sample of units or from the same sample of units
each time. Although both sample options will yield longitudinal data, the nature of the
findings and the implications can differ.
Types of Longitudinal studies:
a. True Panel Studies: A longitudinal study using the same sample of respondents will
provide richer information than one using a series of different samples. The
dynamics of changes between measurements can be captured only by using the same
panel of respondents. Such a panel has been labeled a true panel to distinguish it
from omnibus panels used to generate different cross-sectional samples at various
periods in time. A true-panel study, compared with a longitudinal study using
different samples for the various measurements, is also capable of generating more
data directly pertaining to the research purpose, for the following reasons: A true
panel is a captive sample of willing respondents who are likely to tolerate extended
interviews or fill out lengthy questionnaires. Background data such as demographic
and lifestyle data need not be collected from panel respondents during each
measurement. Therefore, for a given interview or questionnaire length, more data of
primary research interest can be collected.
b. Omnibus survey: An omnibus survey is a method of quantitative marketing
research where data on a wide variety of subjects is collected during the same interview.
Usually, multiple research clients will provide proprietary content for the survey (paying to
'get on the omnibus'), while sharing the common demographic data collected from each
respondent.The advantages to the research client include cost savings (because the sampling
and screening costs are shared across multiple clients) and timeliness (because omnibus
samples are large and interviewing is ongoing). An omnibus survey generally uses
a stratified sample and can be conducted either by mail, telephone, or Internet.
c. A cohort study is a particular form of longitudinal study (panel study) that sample
a cohort (a group of people who share a defining characteristic, typically who experienced a
common event in a selected period, such as birth or graduation), performing a cross-
section at intervals through time. A cohort study is a panel study, but a panel study is not
always a cohort study as individuals in a panel study do not always share a common
characteristic.
Different types of panels
Same questions
Different questions
Same people
Different people
True panel
Cohort panel
Omnibus panel
Cross-sectional
survey
Causal or Experimental Research
If a decision maker knows what causes important outcomes like sales, stock price, and employee satisfaction,
then he or she can shape firm decisions in a positive way. Causal inferences are very powerful because they
lead to greater control. Causal research seeks to identify cause and effect relationships. When something
causes an effect, it means it brings it about or makes it happen. The effect is the outcome. Rain causes grass to
get wet. Rain is the cause and wet grass is the effect.
The different types of research discussed here are often building blocksexploratory research builds the
foundation for descriptive research, which usually establishes the basis for causal research.
Thus, before causal studies are undertaken, researchers typically have a good understanding of the phenomena
being studied. Because of this, the researcher can make an educated prediction about the cause-and-effect
relationships that will be tested. Although greater knowledge of the situation is a good thing, it doesnt come
without a price. Causal research designs can take a long time to implement. Also, they often involve intricate
designs that can be very expensive. Even though managers may often want the assurance that causal
inferences can bring, they are not always willing to spend the time and money it takes to get them.
CAUSALITY
Ideally, managers want to know how a change in one event will change another event of interest. As an
example, how will implementing a new employee training program change job performance?
Causal research attempts to establish that when we do one thing, another thing will follow. A causal inference
is just such a conclusion. While we use the term cause frequently in our everyday language, scientifically
establishing something as a cause is not so easy. A causal inference can only be supported when very specific
evidence exists. Three critical pieces of causal evidence are:
i.
Temporal Sequence
ii.
Concomitant Variance
iii. Nonspurious Association
Temporal Sequence
Temporal sequence deals with the time order of events. In other words, having an appropriate causal order of
events, or temporal sequence, is one criterion for causality. Simply put, the cause must occur before the effect.
It would be difficult for a restaurant manager to blame a decrease in sales on a new chef if the drop in sales
occurred before the new chef arrived. If a change in the CEO causes a change in stock prices, the CEO change
must occur before the change in stock values.
Concomitant Variation
Concomitant variation occurs when two events covary or correlate, meaning they vary systematically. In
causal terms, concomitant variation means that when a change in the cause occurs, a change in the outcome
also is observed. A correlation coefficient, which we discuss in a later chapter, is often used to represent
concomitant variation. Causality cannot possibly exist when there is no systematic variation between the
variables. For example, if a retail store never changes its employees vacation policy, then the vacation policy
cannot possibly be responsible for a change in employee satisfaction. There is no correlation between the two
events. On the other hand, if two events vary together, one event may be causing the other.
Nonspurious Association
Nonspurious association means any covariation between a cause and an effect is true, rather than due to some other
variable. A spurious association is one that is not true. Often, a causal inference cannot be made even though the other
two conditions exist because both the cause and effect have some common cause; that is, both may be influenced by a
third variable. For instance, there is a strong, positive correlation between ice cream purchases and murder ratesas ice
cream purchases increase, so do murder rates. When ice cream sales decline, murder rates also drop. Do people become
murderers after eating ice cream? Should we outlaw the sale of ice cream? This would be silly because the concomitant
variation observed between ice cream consumption and murder rates is spurious. A third variable is actually important
here. People purchase more ice cream when the weather is hot. People are also more active and likely to commit a
violent crime when it is hot. The weather, being associated with both may actually cause both.
Differences Between descriptive and causal research design

Data collected through experimental research can provide much stronger evidence of cause and
effect than can data collected through descriptive research. This does not necessarily mean that
analysis of descriptive research data cannot suggest possible causal linkages among variables,
especially when the effects of uncontrolled variables are filtered through certain analysis techniques
available for that purpose.
Viewing descriptive versus experimental research is not a clear-cut dichotomy. Conclusive projects
vary from purely descriptive with no control at one extreme to purely experimental with strict
control and manipulation at the other extreme.
Conducting Causal or Experimental Research
Causal or Experimental research is intended to generate the type of evidence necessary for confidently
making causal inferences about relationships among variables.
To make causal inferences with confidence, then, we must manipulate the causal variable and effectively
control the other variables. Another condition is that the causal variable and effect variable must occur in
MODULE: IV
SAMPLING
1. Meaning of Sample and Sampling,
2. Process of Sampling
3. Methods of Sampling:
i) Non Probability Sampling Convenient, Judgment, Quota, Snow ball.
ii) Probability Sampling Simple Random, systematic, Stratified, Cluster, Multi Stage.
Meaning of Sample and Sampling
In statistics, a sample is a subset of a population that is used to represent the entire group as a whole. When doing
research, it is often impractical to survey every member of a particular population because the sheer number of people is
simply too large. Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations are
taken from a larger population. Thus Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a
population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from
which they were chosen.
Why Do Researchers Use Samples?

When researching an aspect of the human mind or behavior, researchers simply cannot collect data from every single
individual in most cases. Instead, they choose a smaller sample of individuals that represent the larger group. If the
sample is truly representative of the population in question, researchers can then take their results and generalize them
to the larger group.
Basic Principles of Sampling
Theory of sampling is based on the following laws Law of Statistical Regularity This law comes from the mathematical theory of probability. According to King, Law
of Statistical Regularity says that a moderately large number of the items chosen at random from the large group are
almost sure on the average to possess the features of the large group.
According to this law the units of the sample must be selected at random.
Law of Inertia of Large Numbers According to this law, the other things being equal the larger the size of the
sample; the more accurate the results are likely to be.
Process of Sampling
There are seven steps in sampling process:
Step
1. Define the population
Description
The population is defined in terms of a) element, b)
2. Specify sampling frame

3. Specify sampling unit
4. Specify sampling method
5. Determine sample size
6. Specify sampling plan
7. Select the sample
units, c) extent and d) time.

The means of representing the elements of the
population for example telephone book, map, or city
directory are described.
The unit for sampling for example, city block,
company, or household is selected. The sampling unit
may contain one or several population elements.
The method by which sampling units are to be selected
is described.
The number of elements of the population to be sampled
is chosen.
The operational procedures for selection of the sampling
units are selected.
The office and fieldwork necessary for the selection of
the sample are carried out.
Step 1: Define the population

At the outset of the sampling process, the target population must be carefully defined so that the proper
sources from which the data are to be collected can be identified. The usual technique for defining the target
population is to answer questions about the crucial characteristics of the population.
The question to answer is, Whom do we want to talk to? The answer may be users, nonusers, recent
adopters, or brand switchers. To implement the sample in the field, tangible characteristics should be used to
define the population. A baby food manufacturer might define the population as all women still capable of
bearing children. However, a more specific operational definition would be women between the ages of 12
and 50. While this definition by age may exclude a few women who are capable of childbearing and include
some who are not, it is still more explicit and provides a manageable basis for the sample design.
Step 2: Specify the Sampling frame
In practice, the sample will be drawn from a list of population elements that often differs somewhat
from the defined target population. A list of elements from which the sample may be drawn is called a
sampling frame. The sampling frame is also called the working population because these units will eventually
provide units involved in analysis. A simple example of a sampling frame would be a list of all members of
the Indian Medical Association.
A sampling frame may be a telephone book, city directory, an employee roster, a listing of all students
attending a university, or a list of possible phone numbers.
Maps also serve frequently as sampling frames. A sample of areas within a city may be taken and another
sample of household then be taken within each area. City blocks are sometimes sampled and all households
on each sample block are included. A sampling of street intersections may be taken and interviewers given
instructions as to how to take Random walks. From the intersection and select the households to be
interviewed.
A perfect sampling frame is one in which every element of the population is represented once but only once.
One does not need a sampling frame to take a non-probability sample.
Step 3: Specify the sampling Unit
The sampling unit is the basic unit containing the elements of the population to be sampled. It may be the
element itself or a unit in which the element is contained.
During the actual sampling process, the elements of the population must be selected according to a certain
procedure. The sampling unit is a single element or group of elements subject to selection in the sample. For
example, if an airline wishes to sample passengers, it may take every 25th name on a complete list of
passengers. In this case the sampling unit would be the same as the element. Alternatively, the airline could
first select certain flights as the sampling unit and then select certain passengers on each flight. In this case the
sampling unit would contain many elements.
For example, if one wanted a sample of males over 13 years of age, it might be possible to sample them
directly. In this case, the sampling unit would be identical with the element. However, it might be easier to
select households as the sampling unit and interview all males over 13 years of age in each household. Here
the sampling unit and the population element are not the same.
Step 4: Specify the Sampling Methods
It indicates how the sample units are selected. One of the most important decisions in this regard is to
determine which of the two probability and non-probability sample is to be chosen. Probability samples are
also known as random samples and non-probability samples as non-random samples.
There are various types of sample designs, which can be covered under two broad groups random or
probability samples and non-random, or non-probability samples.
Step 5: Determination of the Sample size
The sample size is decided based on the precision required from the sample estimates, time and money
available to collect the required data. While determining the sample size due consideration should be given to
the variability of the population characteristic under investigation, the level of confidence desired in the
estimates and the degree of the precision desired in estimating the population characteristic. The number of
prospective units to be contacted to ensure that the estimated sample size is obtained and the additional cost
involved should be considered. The researcher should calculate the reachable rates, overall incidence rate and
expected completion rates associated with the sampling situation.
Step 6: Specify the Sampling Plan
The actual procedure to be used in contacting each of the prospective respondents selected to form the sample
should be clearly laid out. The instruction should be clearly written so that interviewers know what exactly
should be done and the procedure to be followed in case of problems encountered in contacting the
prospective respondents.
Step 7: Select the Sample
The sample respondents are met and actual data collection activities are executed in this stage. Consistency
and control should be maintained at this stage.
Characteristics of a good Sample Design
A good sample design requires the judicious balancing of four broad criteria goal orientation, measurability,
practicality and economy.
1. Goal orientation: This suggests that a sample design should be oriented to the research objectives,
tailored to the survey design, and fitted to the survey conditions. If this is done, it should influence the
choice of the population, the measurement as also the procedure of choosing a sample.
2. Measurability: A sample design should enable the computation of valid estimates of its sampling
variability. Normally, this variability is expressed in the form of standard errors in surveys. However,
this is possible only in the case of probability sampling. In non-probability samples, such a quota sample,
it is not possible to know the degree of precision of the survey results.
3. Practicality: This implies that the sample design can be followed properly in the survey, as envisaged
earlier. It is necessary that complete, correct, practical, and clear instructions should be given to the
interviewer so that no mistakes are made in the selection of sampling units and the final selection in the
field is not different from the original sample design. Practicality also refers to simplicity of the design,
i.e. it should be capable of being understood and followed in actual operation of the field work.
4. Economy: Finally, economy implies that the objectives of the survey should be achieved with minimum
cost and effort. Survey objectives are generally spelt out in terms of precision, i.e. the inverse of the
variance of survey estimates. For a given degree of precision, the sample design should give the
minimum cost. Alternatively, for a given per unit cost, the sample design should achieve maximum
precision (minimum variance).
It may be pointed out that these four criteria come into conflict with each other in most of the cases, and the
researcher should carefully balance the conflicting criteria so that he is able to select a really good sample
design.
Methods of Sampling
Sampling Techniques
Sampling techniques may be broadly classified as non-probability and probability sampling techniques.
Non-probability sampling techniques:
1. It relies on the personal judgment and convenience of the researcher rather than the chance to select
sample elements.
2. The researcher can arbitrarily or consciously decide which element to include in the sample.
3. Non-probability may yield good estimates of the population characteristic. However they do not allow
for objective evaluation of the precision of the sample results.
4. Since there is no way of determining the probability of selecting any particular element for inclusion in
the sample, the estimates obtained are not statistically projectable to the population.
Probability sampling techniques:
1. Researcher uses the element of chance for selecting sample.
2. It is possible to pre-specify every potential sample of a given size that could be drawn from the
population, as well as the probability of selecting each sample.
3. Every potential sample need not have the same probability of selection, but it is possible to specify the
probability of selecting any particular sample of a given size.
4. This requires not only a precise definition of the target population, but also a general specification of the
sampling frame. Because sample elements are selected by chance.
5. It is possible to determine the precision of the sample estimated of the characteristics of interest.
Confidence intervals, which contain the true population value with a given level of certainty, can be
calculated. This permits the researcher to make inferences of projections about the target population
from which the sample was drawn. Probability sampling techniques are classified based on :
Element versus cluster sampling
Equal unit probability versus unequal probabilities
Unstratified versus stratified selection
Random versus systematic selection
Single-stage versus multistage techniques
Diagrammatic representation of the sampling techniques.
Sampling techniques
Non probability
sampling techniques
Probability sampling
techniques
Convenience
Judgmental
Quota
Sampling
Sampling
Sampling
Simple
Systematic
Sampling
Random
Stratified
Sampling
Cluster
Sampling
Multistage
Sampling
Sampling
Non-probability method of sampling:
1. Convenience Sampling:
Definition
Convenience sampling involves using participants in a study because they are convenient and available. A nonprobability sampling technique that attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements. The selection of sampling units
is left primarily to the interviewer.
Explanation
1. It is a form of Non-Probability sampling.
2. It is mainly used for Dipstick studies. This type of sampling is normally used to get basic information to take
elementary decisions.
3. Convenience samples are often used in exploratory situations when there is a need to get only an approximation of
the actual value quickly and inexpensively.
4. Commonly used Convenience samples are associates and the man on the street. Such samples are often used in
the pre-test phase of the study, such as pre-testing of a questionnaire.
Examples:
x Use of students, church groups, and members of social organizations,
x Mall-intercept interviews without qualifying the respondents,
x Department stores using charge account lists
x Tear out questionnaire included in a magazines, and
x People on the street interviews
Advantages
x Convenience sampling is the least expensive and least time consuming of all sampling techniques.
x The sampling units are accessible, easy to measure and co-operative.
x This technique is used in exploratory research for generating ideas, insight or hypothesis.
Disadvantages
x Convenience samples contain unknown amounts of both variables and systematic selection errors.
x These errors can be very large when compared to the variable error in a simple random sampling of the same size.
Convenience samples are not representatives of any definable population. So they are not recommended for descriptive
or casual research.
Judgmental sampling:
A form of convenience sampling in which the population elements are purposively selected based on the judgment of
the researcher. A judgment sample is one in which there is an attempt to draw a representative sample of the population
using judgmental selection procedures. Judgment samples are common in industrial market research.
Example
A sample of addresses taken by the municipal agency to which questionnaires on bicycle riding habits were sent. A
judgment sample was taken after researchers looked at traffic maps of the city, considered the tax assessment on houses
and apartment buildings (per unit), and kept location of schools and parks in mind.
Advantages
x Judgmental sampling is low cost, convenient and quick.
x Judgmental sampling is subjective and its value depends entirely on the researchers judgment, expertise and
creativity.
x It is useful if broad population inferences are not required.
Disadvantage
x It does not allow direct generalization to a specific population, usually because the population is not defined
explicitly.
Quota Sampling
Definition: A non probability sampling techniques that is a two stage restricted judgmental sampling. The first stage
consists of dividing the population into various groups or quotas based on predefined population elements. In the second
stage, sample elements are selected from each group based on convenience or judgment .
Explanation
x It is a form of Non-Probability sampling.
x In Quota Sampling, the samples are selected in such a way that the interest parameters represented in the sample
are in the same proportion as they are in the universe/ population.
x Quota Sampling is widely used in consumer panels.
x The following aspects must be kept in mind while choosing the control variables:
The variables must be available and should be recent.
They should be easy for the interviewer to classify.
They should be closely related to the variable being measured in the study.
The number of variable must be kept to a reasonable number so as to avoid confusion while analyzing the data
The cost of sample per unit is directly proportional to the number of control variables.
In order to have a check mechanism about the quality of samples taken so as to reduce the selection errors, Quota
Samples are validated after they are taken.
The process of validation involves a comparison of the sample and the population with respect to characteristics not
used as control variables. For e.g. in a quota sample taken from a consumer panel for which income, education, and age
group are used as control variables. If the comparison of this panel and the population might be made with respect to
such characteristics as average number of children, occupation of the chief wage earner and home ownership. Then if
the panel differed significantly from the population with respect to any of these characteristics, it would be an indication
of the potential bias in the selection procedures. It should be noted that the similarity does not necessarily mean the
absence of bias.
Example
If one wants to select a Quota sample of persons for a test of flavored tea and wants to control (control variables are the
parameters based on which he would like to classify the universe) it by ethnic background, income bracket, age group
and geographical area. Then the sample taken would have the same proportion of people in each ethnic background,
income bracket, age group and geographical area as the population.
Disadvantages
x Scope for high variances
x Scope for sizable selection errors.
x Selection errors arise from the way interviewers select the persons/ variables to fill the quota. Incorrect
information of the proportions of the population in each of the control variables, biases in the relationship of the
control variables to the variables being measured, and from other sources.
Other types of non random samples:
4. Snowball Sampling
A variety of procedures. Initial respondents are selected by probability methods. Additional respondents are obtained
from information provided by the initial respondents.
5. Purposive sample
Subjects selected on the basis of specific characteristics or qualities. Users of a particular technology. Such as
Young mothers with small children, doctors, members of a fan club, target market members.
Probability Method of sampling:
Probability sampling techniques vary in terms of sampling efficiency. Sampling efficiency is a concept that reflects a
trade-offs between sampling cost and precision. Precision refers to the level of uncertainty about the characteristic being
measured. The greater the precision, the greater the cost and most studies require trade-off.
1. Simple Random Sampling
Definition
A probability sampling technique in which each element in the population has a known and equal probability of
selection is known as simple random sampling (SRS). Every element is selected independently of every other element
and the sample is drawn by a random procedure from a sampling frame.
Explanation
In random sampling, each element in the population has a known and equal probability or chance of selection.
Furthermore, each possible sample of a given size (n) has a known and equal probability or chance of being the sample
actually selected. This implies that every other element is selected independently of every other element. The sample is
drawn by a random procedure from a sampling frame. This method is equivalent to a lottery system in which names are
placed in a container, the container is shaken, and the names of the winners are then drawn out in an unbiased manner.
To draw a simple random sample, the researcher first compiles a sampling frame in which each element is assigned a
unique identification number. Then random numbers are generated to determine which element to include in the sample.
The random numbers may be generated with a computer routine or a table.
Advantages
x It is easy to understand
x The sample result may be projected to the target population.
Disadvantages
x It is often difficult to construct a sampling frame that will permit a simple random sample to be drawn.
x SRS can result in samples that are very large or spread over large geographic areas, thus increasing the time and
cost of data collection.
x SRS often results in lower precision with larger standard errors than other probability sampling techniques.
x SRS may or may not result in a representative sample. Although samples drawn will represent the population well
on average, a given simple random sample may grossly misrepresent the target population. This more likely if the
size of the sample is small.
Systematic sampling
Definition
A probability sampling technique in which the sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then picking
every ith element in succession from the sampling frame.
Explanation
In systematic sampling, the sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then picking every ith element in
succession from the sampling frame. The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the population size N by the
sample size n and rounding to the nearest integer.
Example
Its a three step process:
1. Find out Sampling Interval
Sampling interval = Population divided by sample size
2. To select random starting point through simple random process
3. To select the sample
Suppose there are 100,000 elements in the population and a sample of 1000 desired. In this case the sampling interval, is
calculated by dividing 100,000 by 1000. It comes to 100. A random number between 1 to 100 is selected. If say number
23 is selected, the sample will then consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.
Systematic sampling is similar to SRS in that each population element has a known and equal probability of selection.
However, it is different from SRS in that only the permissible samples of size n that can be drawn have a known and
equal probability of selection. The remaining samples of size n have a zero probability of being selected.
For systematic sampling, the researcher assumes that the population elements are ordered in some respect. In some
cases the ordering (alphabetic listing in a telephone book) is unrelated to the characteristic of interest. In other instances,
the ordering is directly related to the characteristic under investigation. (Credit card customers may be listed in order of
outstanding balances. If the population elements are arranged in a manner unrelated to the characteristic of interest,
systematic sampling will yield result quite similar to SRS.
On the other hand, when the ordering of the element is related to the characteristic of interest, systematic sampling
increases the representatives of the sample.
Advantages
x Systematic sampling is less costly and easier that SRS, because random selection is done only once.
x The random numbers do not have to be matched with individual element as in SRS. Since some lists contains
millions of elements, considerable time can be saved. This in turn again reduces the cost.
x If the information related to the characteristic of interest is available for the population, systematic sampling can
be used to obtain a more representative and reliable sample than SRS.
x Systematic sampling can even be used without knowledge of the composition (elements) of the sampling frame.
Stratified Random Sampling
Definition
A probability sampling technique that uses a two-step process to partition the population into subpopulations, or strata is
known as stratified random sampling. Elements are selected from each stratum by a random procedure.
Explanation
A probability sampling technique that uses a two-step process to partition the population:
Its a two step process:
i.
Divide the populations into subpopulations, or strata based on well defined criteria.
i.
Elements are selected from each stratum or group based on the proportionate representation by a random
procedure.
Stratified Random Sampling emerges from the word Stratum. A Stratum in a population is a segment of that population
having one or more characteristics. E.g. people in the age strata of 35-40, people in the income strata to Rs. 20000 p.m.
et c
Stratified Sampling involves treating each stratum as a separate subpopulation for sampling purposes, and from each
stratum sampling units would be drawn randomly.
The reasons for conducting Stratified Random Sampling are:
x To reduce sampling error by ensuring representation from the population.
x The required sample size for the same level of sampling error will usually be smaller.
As compared to other methods of sampling, in Stratified Random Sampling representativeness to a certain degree is
forced. The greater degree to which there is similarity within stratum, smaller is the sample size required to provide
information about that stratum.Thus the more homogeneous each stratum is with respect to the variable of interest the
smaller is the sample required.
Example
If the head of the household age strata (18-34, 35-49, 50+) are of interest in a study on household spending habits on
household furnishings, then each of these groups would be taken separately for sampling purposes. That is, the total
population could be divided into age groups and a separate sample is drawn from each group.
Cluster Sampling
Definition
The target population is divided into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive subpopulation called clusters. Then
a random sample of clusters is selected based on probability sampling techniques such as simple random sampling. For
each selected clusters, either all the elements are included in the sample or a sample of elements is drawn
probabilistically.
Explanation
x If all the elements in each selected cluster are included in the sample, the procedure is called one stage cluster
sampling.
x If a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically from each selected cluster, the procedure is called two-stage
cluster sampling.
x The key distinction between cluster sampling and stratified sampling is that in cluster sampling only a sample of
subpopulations (clusters) is chosen, whereas in stratified sampling all the subpopulations are selected.
x The objective of the cluster sampling is to increase the sampling efficiency by decreasing costs.
Example
If the study requires studying the households in the city then in cluster sampling the whole city is divided into Blocks
and to take each household on each block selected. Thus to get a representative whole of the universe.
Advantages
x Low population heterogeneity / high population homogeneity
x Low expected cost of errors.
x The main advantage of cluster sampling is the low cost per sampling unit as compared to other sampling methods.
Disadvantage
x High potential of sampling error as compared to other methods.
x For eg: The lower cost per unit and higher sampling error potential of a cluster sample is illustrated by considering
a sample of 100 households to be selected for personal interviews from a particular city. In this method the city
would be divided in blocks and 10 households from 10 selected blocks would be selected and interviewed. Thus
the cost of personal interview per unit will be low because of the close proximity of the units in the cluster. This
sample may not be the exact representation of the entire city. Thus there is a possibility of sampling error.
x Multistage sampling can be a complex form of cluster sampling because it is a type of sampling which involves
dividing the population into groups (or clusters). Then, one or more clusters are chosen at random and everyone
within the chosencluster is sampled.
MODULE: V
DATA COLLECTION
1. Types of data and sources- Primary and Secondary data sources

2. Methods of collection of primary data:
a. Observation
b. Experimental
c. Interview Method:
i) Personal Interview
ii) focused group,
iii) in-depth interviews -
d. Survey
e. Survey instrument i) Questionnaire designing.
f. Scaling techniques- i) Likert scale, ii) Semantic Differential scale, iii) Staple scale, iv) Constant sum scale
Types of data and sources- Primary and Secondary data sources

Market research can be either primary or secondary. In marketing research, there are two types of data. Primary data is
data that has to be collected and analyzed from scratch, while secondary data refers to data that already exists and was
gathered for purposes other than current research project. Primary research is new research, carried out to answer
specific issues or questions. It can involve questionnaires, surveys or interviews with individuals or small groups.
Secondary research makes use of information previously researched for other purposes and publicly available. This is
also known as 'desk research'. Secondary research includes published research reports in a library, surveys or the
Internet. It can also include scientific reports produced by medical councils, universities or government, for example,
the Royal College of Physicians, the Indian Heart Foundation and the Department of Health.
Primary research is defined as factual, firsthand accounts of the study written by a person who was part of the study.
Primary research involves the collection of original primary data by researchers. It is often undertaken after
researchers have gained some insight into an issue by reviewing secondary research or by analyzing previously
collected primary data. The methods vary on how researchers run an experiment or study, but it typically follows the
scientific method. One way you can think of primary research is that it is typically original research. Secondary data
comes in all sorts of shapes and sizes. There are plenty of raw data sources like the Census data, Data.gov, the stock
market, and countless others.
Secondary research is defined as an analysis and interpretation of primary research. Secondary research (also known
as desk research) involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research rather than primary research, in
which data are collected from, for example, research subjects or experiments. The method of writing secondary
research is to collect primary research that is relevant to a writing topic and interpret what the primary research found.
For instance, secondary research often takes the form of the results from two or more primary research articles and
explains what the two separate findings are telling us. Or, the author may have a specific topic to write about and will
find many pieces of primary research and use them as information in their next article or textbook chapter. Internal
company data like customer details, sales figures, employee timecards, etc. can also be considered secondary data.
Published articles, including peer-reviewed journals, newspapers, magazines, and even blog postings like this count as
secondary data sources. Sometimes, secondary research is required in the preliminary stages of research to determine
what is known already and what new data is required or else to inform research design. At other times, it may be the
only research technique used. A key performance area in secondary research is the full citation of original sources,
usually in the form of a complete listing or annotated listing. Secondary sources could include previous research reports,
newspapers, magazines and journals as well as government and NGO statistics.
You can break the sources of secondary data into internal sources and external sources. Internal sources include data
that exists and is stored inside your organization. External data is data that is collected by other people or organizations
from your organization's external.
Internal sources include data that exists and is stored inside your organization. External data is data that is collected
by other people or organizations from your organization's external environment.
Let's dig a little deeper into each of these general categories. Examples of internal sources of data include, but are
certainly not limited to, the following:
x
x
x
x
x
Profit and loss statements

Balance sheets
Sales figures
Inventory records
Previous marketing research studies
If the secondary data you have collected from internal sources will not be sufficient, you can turn to external sources of
data. Some external sources include:
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Government sources, such as the U.S. Census Bureau

Corporate filings, such as annual reports to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
Trade, business and professional associations
Media, including broadcast, print and Internet
Universities
Foundations
Think tanks, such as the Rand Corporation or Brookings Institute
Commercial data services
The main sources of external secondary sources are (1) government (federal, state and local) (2)
trade associations (3) commercial services (4) national and international institutions.
Government statistics
These may include all or some of the following:
Population censuses
Social surveys, family expenditure surveys
Import/export statistics
Production statistics
Agricultural statistics.
Trade associations
Trade associations differ widely in the extent of their data collection and
information dissemination activities. However, it is worth checking with
them to determine what they do publish. At the very least one would
normally expect that they would produce a trade directory and, perhaps, a
yearbook.
Commercial services
Published market research reports and other publications are available from
a wide range of organisations which charge for their information.
Typically, marketing people are interested in media statistics and consumer
information which has been obtained from large scale consumer or farmer
panels. The commercial organization funds the collection of the data,
which is wide ranging in its content, and hopes to make its money from
selling this data to interested parties.
National and international
Bank economic reviews, university research reports, journals and articles
institutions
are all useful sources to contact. International agencies such as World
Bank, IMF, IFAD, UNDP, ITC, FAO and ILO produce a plethora of
secondary data which can prove extremely useful to the marketing
researcher.
Methods of collection of primary data

1. Observation
2. Experimentation
3. Focus group
4. Depth interview
5. Survey
1. OBSERVATION
A. Observation Research - Observing consumers without communicating with them. It is the systematic process of
recording the behavioural patterns (or events) of people, objects, and occurrences without questioning or
communicating with them. Observational methods are tools to gather information on current behaviour. A wide ranging
set of research techniques aimed at observing consumers interacting naturally with their surroundings including
products and services in use. A wide ranging set of research techniques aimed at observing consumers interacting
naturally with their surroundings including products and services in use. A key advantage of observation research is that
often the respondent or consumer is unaware that they are being observed, allowing their behavior to be observed
naturally.
Conditions for Using "Observations" in Research: (all three must be present)
1. The desired information must be inferable from observation of subjects' behavior;
2. The behavior of interest must be frequent, repetitive, or predictable; and
3. The behavior of interest must be of relatively short duration.
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Advantages of Observation Method

1. If the researcher observes and record events, it is not necessary to rely on the willingness and ability of
respondents to report accurately.
2. The biasing effect of interviewers is either eliminated or reduced. Data collected by observation are, thus, more
objective and generally more accurate.
Disadvantages of Observation Method
1. The most limiting factor in the use of observation method is the inability to observe such things such as
attitudes, motivations, customers/consumers state of mind, their buying motives and their images.
2. It also takes time for the investigator to wait for a particular action to take place.
3. Personal and intimate activities, such as watching television late at night, are more easily discussed with
questionnaires than they are observed.
4. Cost is the final disadvantage of observation method. Under most circumstances, observational data are more
expensive to obtain than other survey data. The observer has to wait doing nothing, between events to be
observed. The unproductive time is an increased cost.
Types of observation research
I. Human Observations: - refers to people (rather than machines) watching other people. Types include:
A. Mystery Shoppers - people that are employed by a firm to pose as consumers and shop at competitors' stores to
compare prices, displays, service performances, cleanliness, and the like.
B. One-Way Mirror Observations - The practice of watching unseen from behind a one-way mirror. Often used for
product testing and with focus groups.
C. Shopper Patterns - refers to drawings that record the footsteps of a shopper through a store. They show the flow of
a representative sample of shoppers through a store.
[Also used to study the effect of music on shopper behavior. For instance, we know that slow music makes them stay
longer and buy more.]
D. Content Analysis - A technique used to study written material, usually advertising copy, by breaking it into
meaningful units, using carefully applied rules.
Content Analysis attempts to determine what is being communicated to a target audience by objectively and
systematically describing the communication's content.
E. Humanistic Inquiry - A method of inquiry in which the researcher is immersed in [becomes a part of] the system or
group under study, rather than using the scientific method of standing apart from the system being studied.
F. Audits - are examinations and verifications of the sales of subject products.
There are two general categories: Retail audits measure sales to final consumers, and wholesale audits determine the
amount of product movement from warehouses to retailers. Retail distribution audits are similar to store audits however
these audits do not measure inventory sales: instead they are observational studies at the retail level. Field agents enter
stores unannounced and without permission. They observe and record the brands present, price, shelf facings and other
relevant data for selected product categories. Audits provide relatively precise information on the movement of many
different types of goods. Since most products are not sold directly to the end user, but to retailers, wholesalers and
distributors, the manufacturer does not have information on sales at the retail level. Even though information on factory
shipments are available, warehouse stocks might be accumulating because of limited retail sales. Moreover, audits give
information on how competing products are faring in the marketplace.
II. People Watching an Activity
Audits: - are examinations and verifications of the sales of subject products. Audits involve the physical inspection of
inventories, sales receipts, shelf facings, prices, and other aspects of the marketing mix to determine sales, market share,
relative price, distribution, or other relevant information.
III. Machine Observation Types:
A. Traffic Counters - Machines used to measure vehicular flow over a particular stretch of roadway.
B. Physiological Measurement - refers to measuring the level of involuntary change in a person's activation based
upon the stimuli of interest. Activation - refers a person's feeling of arousal, inner tension, or alertness.
Activation is stimulated via a subcortical unit, called the reticular activation system (RAS), which is located in the
human brainstem.
2. EXPERIMENTATION
Experiment -- experiments are widely used in causal research designs. Experimental research allows a researcher to
control the research situation so that causal relationships among variables may be evaluated. The experimenter
manipulates one or more independent variables and holds constant all other possible independent variables while
observing effects on dependent variable(s). Events may be controlled in an experiment to a degree that is simply not
possible in a survey.
Independent variables are expected to determine the outcomes of interest. In an experiment, they are controlled by the
researcher through manipulations. Dependent variables are the outcomes of interest to the researcher and the decision
makers. A simple example would be thinking about how changes in price would influence sales. Price would be an
independent variable and sales would be a dependent variable. An experiment measures the change in the dependent
variable created by a specific, controlled change in another variable(s) which is called the independent variable(s).
Thus the researchers goal in conducting an experiment is to determine whether changing an experimental
independent variable causes changes in the specified dependent variable.
Examples
i. The effect of price changes on sales volume of a particular product can be examined by actually varying
the price of the product
ii. Advertising Experiment: Will replacing commercial A with commercial B lead to a marked increase in
consumer preference for a companys brand?
iii. Pricing Experiment: Can a company improve the profitability of its fashion clothing line by increasing its
price by 10 percent?
iv. Sales Productivity Experiment: Will an increase in the average number of sales calls per customer from
six to eight per year significantly improve sales?
Three types of Experimental research:

a. Laboratory Experiments - Tests done in a sterile environment in which the researcher can control almost all
possible causal factors. However, while the laboratory allows the researcher to control the variables involved,
the lab may not accurately represent the real marketplace. Thus, the research results my not hold up when
transferred to (generalized to) the actual marketplace. Thus, lab results are said to have good internal validity,
but often lack external validity. This suggests that lab results are more likely to be statistically correct than
results from field experiments, but less likely to be generalizable to the population of interest which is always
located outside of the laboratory.
b. Field Experiments - Tests conducted outside the laboratory in an actual market environment. A test market is a
good example. This solves the problem of realism of the test environment, but factors other than the
independent variable(s) of interest may influence the observed changes in the dependent variable of interest
because the researcher cannot control all other independent variables that may affect the dependent variable. For
instance, the researcher cannot control nor even precisely measure the effects of competitive actions, the
weather, the economy, societal trends, the political climate, nor other elements of the uncontrollable
environment. Thus, field experiments often lack internal validity, while having better external validity. This
suggests that the results have a better chance of being statistically wrong, but they are more likely generalizable
to other similar market situations, if they are statistically correct. A major difference between the two
approaches is the degree of control available during the manipulation and measurement process. A laboratory
experiment clearly offers better control than a field experiment with respect to extraneous factors capable of
influencing consumer preferences.
A laboratory experiment is a research study conducted in a contrived setting in which the effect of all, or nearly
all, influential but irrelevant independent variables is kept to a minimum. A field experiment is a research study
conducted in a natural setting in which the experimenter manipulates one or more independent variables under
conditions controlled as carefully as the situation will permit.
The validity of experimental results is usually evaluated on two dimensions: external validity and internal
validity.
x Internal validity is the extent to which observed results are solely due to the experimental manipulation.
x External validity is the extent to which observed results are likely to hold beyond the experimental
setting. An ideal experiment is one whose results will have high internal as well as external validity,
although there is usually a trade-off between these two forms of validity.
x Laboratory experiments generally have an advantage over field experiments in terms of internal validity
but not external validity. Field experiments generally have an advantage over laboratory experiments in
terms of external validity but not internal validity.
c.
Continuous research: A survey conducted on a regular and frequent basis among parallel samples within the
same population or a survey in which the interviews are spread over a long period of time. In this way, a picture
of market trends can be built up. This type of longitudinal research is often funded on a syndicated basis.
Syndicated research usually involves an independent research company collecting data and supplying it
simultaneously to a number of clients.
3. Focus group discussions (F.G.Ds):
The standard focus group interview involves 8 and 12 individuals and lasts about 2 hours. Normally each group is
designed to reflect the characteristics of a particular market segment. The respondents are selected according to the
relevant sampling plan and meet at a central location that generally has facility for taping and/ or filming the interviews.
In Europe, focus tend to consist of 6 to 8 respondents, vary in length from 1.5 to 4 hours and are often conducted in the
home of the recruiter. Otherwise the interviewers are similar.
The discussion itself is led by a moderator. The moderator attempts to progress through three stages during the
interviewer: (1) establish rapport with the group, structure the rules of group interaction, and set objectives; (2) provoke
intense discussion in the relevant areas; and (3) summarize the groups responses to determine the extent of agreement.
The general either the moderator or a second person prepares a summary of each session after analyzing the sessions
transcript.
Focus Group Interviews can be applied to:
1. Basic- need studies for product idea creation,
2. New product idea or concept exploration,
3. Product positioning studies,
4. Advertising and communications research,
5. Background studies on consumers frames or reference,
6. Establishment of consumer vocabulary as a preliminary step in questionnaire development and,
7. Determination of attitudes and behavior.
Advantages
1. Each individual is able to expand and refine their opinions in the interaction with the other members. This
process provides more detailed and accurate information than could be derived from each separately.
2. A group interview situation is generally more exciting and offers more stimulation to the participants than the
standard depth interviews.
3. The security of being in a crowd encourages some members to speak out when they otherwise would not.
4. As the questions raised by the moderator are addressed to the entire group rather than an individual the answer
contains a degree of spontaneity that is not produced by other techniques.
5. Focus groups can be used successfully with children over five. They are also very useful with adults in
developing countries where literacy rates are low and survey research is difficult. 88
6. A final major advantage of focus groups is that executives often observe the interview (from behind mirrors) or
watch films of the interview.
Disadvantages
1. Since focus group interviews last 1.5 to 3 hours and take place at a central location, securing cooperation from a
random sample is difficult.
2. Those who attend group interviews and actively participate in them are likely to be different in many respects
from those who do not.
3. There are chances that participants may go along with the popular opinion instead of expressing their own
which may be contrary to the popular opinions.
4. The presence of a one-way mirror and /or an observer(s) has been found to distort participants responses.
5. The moderator can introduce serious biases in the interview by shifting topics too rapidly verbally or
nonverbally encouraging certain answers, failing to cover specific areas, and so forth.
6. Focus groups are expensive on a per respondent basis.
4. Depth interviews
Depth interviews are frequently used by marketing researchers when direct questioning is impractical, more costly, or
less accurate. These techniques generally referred to as Qualitative research.
Depth Interviews - (unstructured one-on-one interviews intended to discover deep seated motivations) -- One-on-one
interviews that probe and elicit detailed answers to questions, often using clinical nondirective techniques to uncover
hidden motivations. Thus, psychologists and people with Doctorates in Marketing (which is a combination of applied
psychology and applied economics) are often called upon to conduct Depth Interviews, as well as Nominal Grouping
Sessions.
Individual depth interviews typically require 30-45minutes. The interviewer does not have a specific set of pre-specified
questions that must be asked according to the order imposed by a questionnaire. Instead, there is freedom to create
questions, to probe those responses that appear relevant, and generally to try to develop the best set of data in any way
practical. However the interviewer must follow one rule; one must not consciously try to affect the content of the
answers given by the respondents. The respondent. The respondent must feel free to reply to the various questions,
probes, and other, subtler, ways of encouraging responses in the manner deemed most appropriate.
Subject of interest is discussed in detail.
There is no fixed pattern for eliciting information from the respondents.

Generally conducted by highly trained interviewers. They must be thorough in probing the respondents.
The interviewee is asked about the subject of his choice, coffee, for example, and an attempt is made to explore
the respondents attitudes in depth by probing extensively into any other areas which may come up.
Interviewers have a general series of topics that they will introduce perhaps such topics as coffee, or sleep,
and will introduce them from time to time if the respondent does not bring them up.
Tone of the interview is permissive and the respondent is allowed to talk as much as he likes.
The interviewer must not influence the answers of the respondent.
The interpretation of the answers is very subjective and knowledge of human behavior is required to analyze the
information received.
Individual depth interviews uses three questioning techniques namely:
1. Laddering: The laddering method of interviewing is technique to understanding peoples core values and beliefs.
The technique is powerful, because it provides a simple and systematic way of establishing an individuals core set
of constructs on how they view the world. Laderring Technique is use to describe the linkages between customers
values and their overall purchasing behavior: the Means End Chain theory. This theory provides both a framework
for capturing qualitative laddering research data in the consumer space and a model for assessing consumer values
and behaviors. According to the Means End Chain theory, there is a hierarchy of consumer perceptions and product
knowledge that ranges from attributes (A) to consumption consequences (C) to personal values (V), as follows:
x AttributesAt the top level of this hierarchy, attributes are most recognizable by individuals. Individuals
recognize the attributes of a product or system easily. For example, I like this car, because it is a convertible.
x ConsequencesIn turn, the attributes have consequences for the individual. For example, the convertible makes
its driver feel young and free. Each attribute may have one or more consequences for any given individual.
x Core valuesfinally, each consequence are linked to a core value of the persons life. For example, the sense of
youth makes that driver feel attractive.
Purpose is to uncover the network of meanings associated with the product, brand, or concept.
2. Hidden-issue questioning focuses on individual respondents feelings about sensitive issues. Analysis on focus
on common underlying themes across respondents. These themes can then be used to guide advertising
development.
3. Symbolic questioning requires respondents to describe the opposites of the product/ activity of interest or a
specific attribute of the product/ activity.
Individual depth interviews have been found to generate more and higher quality ideas on a per respondent basis than
either focus or minigroups. They are particularly appropriate when:
1. Detailed probing of an individuals behavior, attitude or needs is required;
2. The subject matter under discussion is likely to be of a highly confidential nature (e. g. personal investment)
3. The subject matter is of an emotionally charged or embarrassing nature;
4. Certain strong, socially acceptable norms exist (e.g. baby feeding) and the need to conform in a group
discussion may influence responses;
5. Where highly detailed understanding of complicated behavior or decision- making pattern (e.g. planning the
family holiday) are required; or
The interviews are with professional people or with people on the subject of their jobs 9 e.g. finance directors)
5. Survey Method:
The Survey method is the technique of gathering data by asking questions to

people who are thought to have desired information. A formal list of questionnaire is prepared. Generally a non
disguised approach is used. The respondents are asked questions on their demographic interest opinion.
Advantages of Survey Method

1. As compared to other methods (direct observation, experimentation) survey yield a broader range of
information. Surveys are effective to produce information on socio-economic characteristics, attitudes,
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
opinions, motives etc and to gather information for planning product features, advertising media, sales
promotion, channels of distribution and other marketing variables.
Questioning is usually faster and cheaper that Observation.
Questions are simple to administer.
Data is reliable
The variability of results is reduced.
It is relatively simple to analyze, quote and interrelate the data obtained by survey method
Disadvantages of Survey Method

1. Unwillingness of respondents to provide information- This requires salesmanship on the part of the
interviewer. The interviewer may assure that the information will be kept secret or apply the technique
of offering some presents.
2. Inability of the respondents to provide information- This may be due to
a. Lack of knowledge
b. Lapse of memory
c. Inability to identify their motives and provide reasons why? for their actions
3. Human Biases of the respondents are there, for eg: Ego
4. Symantec difficulties are there it is difficult, if not impossible, to state a given question in such a
way that it will mean exactly same thing to each respondent. Similarly two different wordings of the
same question will frequently produce quite different results.
Types of Surveys:
There are mainly 4 methods by which we can collect data through the Survey Method
a. Telephonic Interview
b. Personal Interview
c. Mail Interview
d. Computer or Internet or Electronic Interview
1. Telephonic Interview
Telephone Interviewing stands out as the best method for gathering quickly needed information.
Responses are collected from the respondents by the researcher on telephone.
Advantages of Telephonic Interview
a. It is very fast method of data collection.
b. It has the advantage over Mail Questionnaire of permitting the interviewer to talk to one or
more persons and to clarifying his questions if they are not understood.
c. Response rate of telephone interviewing seems to be a little better than mail questionnaires
d. The quality of information is better
e. It is less costly method and there are less administration problems
Disadvantages of Telephonic Interview
f. They cant handle interview which need props
g. It cant handle unstructured interview
h. It cant be used for those questions which requires long descriptive answers
i. Respondents cannot be observed
j. People are reluctant to disclose personal information on telephone
k. People who dont have telephone facility cannot be approached
2. Personal Interviewing
It is the most versatile of the all methods. They are used when props are required along with the verbal
response non-verbal responses can also be observed.
Advantages of Personal Interview
a. The person interviewed can ask more questions and can supplement the interview with
personal observation.
b. They are more flexible. Order of questions can be changed
c. Knowledge of past and future is possible.
d. In-depth research is possible.
e. Verification of data from other sources is possible.
f. The information obtained is very reliable and dependable and helps in establishing cause and
effect relationship very early.
Disadvantages of Personal Interview
g. It requires much more technical and administrative planning and supervision
h. It is more expensive
i. It is time consuming
j. The accuracy of data is influenced by the interviewer
k. A number of call banks may be required
l. Some people are not approachable
3. Mail Survey
Questionnaires are send to the respondents, they fill it up and send it back.
Advantages of Mail Survey
a. It can reach all types of people.
b. Response rate can be improved by offering certain incentives.
Disadvantages of Mail Survey
c. It can not be used for unstructured study.
d. It is costly.
e. It requires established mailing list.
f. It is time consuming.
g. There is problem in case of complex questions.
4. Computer or Internet or Electronic Interview
Electronic interviewing is a process of recognizing and noting people, objects, occurances rather than
asking for information. For example-When you go to store, you notice which product people like to
use. The Universal Product Code (UPC) is also a method of observing what people are buying.
Advantages of Electronic Interview
a. There is no relying on willingness or ability of respondent.
b. The data is more accurate and objective.
Disadvantages of Electronic Interview
c. Attitudes cannot be observed.
d. Those events which are of long duration cannot be observed.
e. There is observer bias. It is not purely objective.
f. If the respondents know that they are being observed, their response can be biased.
g. It is a costly method.
Survey instrument i) Questionnaire designing.

Questionnaire construction
Questionnaires are frequently used in quantitative marketing research. They are a valuable method of collecting a wide
range of information from a large number of respondents. Good questionnaire construction is critical to the success of a
survey. Inappropriate questions, incorrect ordering of questions, incorrect scaling, or bad questionnaire format can make
the survey valueless. A useful method for checking a questionnaire for problems is to pretest it. This usually involves
giving it to a small sample of respondents, then interviewing the respondents to get their impressions and to confirm that
the questions accurately captured their opinions.
Questionnaire Design
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33
STRUCTURED Vs UNSTRUCTURED DATA COLLECTION

The data collection through questionnaires can be done through four ways as follows;
1. Structured disguised
2. Structured - nondisguised
3. Non-structured - disguised
4. Non structured - nondisguised
Note : non disguised data collection is also called as direct method & disguised is also called as indirect
method .
Structured data collection
A structured data collection is a formal list of questions framed so as to get the facts. The interviewer asks the questions
strictly in accordance with pre- arranged order. For e.g. this method can be used when the information is based on the
expenditures of the consumer on different types of clothing like. Cotton woolen or synthetic, etc. This structured
questionnaire can be of two types, disguised and nondisguised, based on whether the object or the purpose of the
survey is revealed to the respondent. The main advantage of this method is that, the information can be collected in a
systematic and orderly manner. However when it comes to personal questions, this method seems to be less effective.
Structured disguised: - in this case the researcher does not disclose the object of the interview, because he feels that by
revealing that the very purpose of the interview will get defeated.
Structured - nondisguised: - in this case the everything is pre- arranged and the researcher reveals the objective of the
survey to the respondent. This is the most widely followed approach in market research. This is because it is generally
felt that the respondent should be taken into confidence, so that he can realize the relevance and give desired
information.
Non-structured data collection
It is a kind of data collection method where the data to be collected is not pre- arranged or not listed in a proper
structured format. Therefore the entire responsibility is left on the researcher to ask the respondent, in the way he feels
fit. The researcher only has certain main points on which he develops the questions to be asked. Such a method is
devoid of rigidity and the researcher has sufficient amount of freedom to collect the data in the order he wants.
Normally this kind of method is used in exploratory research
This kind of data collection is most suitable when it comes to personal or motivational factors.
Again here there are two main types of non-structured methods of data collection.
(1) Non structured disguised: - again here the objective of interview is not described to the respondent
(2) Non structured - non-disguised: - like in case of structured nondisguised, the respondent is taken into confidence
by revealing the purpose of the survey.
CONCLUSION: The researcher should use the already viable data only when he finds them reliable, suitable and
adequate. But he should not blindly discard the use of such data if they are readily available from authentic sources and
are also suitable and adequate for in that case it will not be economical to spend time and energy in field surveys for
collecting information. At times there may be wealth of usable information in the already available data which must be
used by an intelligent researcher but with due precaution.
Guidelines for Devising a Good Questionnaire
1. The wording must be kept simple : no technical or specialized words. Use short sentences. Writing style should
be conversational, yet concise and accurate.
2. The meaning should be clear. Avoid ambiguous words and equivocal sentence structures. Avoid double
negatives. Even single negatives should be reworded as positives.
3. Avoid biasing the responses. A biased question or questionnaire encourages respondents to answer one way
rather than another. Avoid loaded questions.
4. Ask one question at a time. Avoid complex questions. If more than one question is hidden in a survey question,
the researcher will not know which one the respondent is answering.
5. Avoid personal or intimate questions. Most people will not answer them.
6. Consider the respondents frame of reference. What is their background, and how will this effect their
interpretation of the questions? Do respondents have enough information or expertise to answer the question?
7. Ask yourself if each question is really necessary. Unneeded questions are an expense to the researcher and an
unwelcome imposition on the respondents. To answer this question, you must consider the objective(s) of the
research.
8. Ask yourself what type of data analysis techniques are available for various kinds of questions. Will the
question provide you with the statistical analysis that you want?
9. What type of content will responses to the question yield? Will the question responses provide facts, beliefs,
feelings, descriptions of past behavior, or standards of action?
10. What type of scale, index, or typology should be used?
11. How should the questions be presented on the page (or computer screen)? How much white space? How many
colours? Do you use pictures, charts, or other graphics? It should be colourful enough to gain and maintain
respondent interest, but not so graphic as to distract from the of the questions.
12. Should questions be open-ended or should respondents answers be limited to a fixed set of responses?
13. What order should the questions be in? Is there a natural grouping to the questions? Will previous questions
bias later questions?
14. Should the questions be numbered? Generally this is a good idea.

15. Are possible responses mutually exclusive? The respondent should not find themselves in more than one
category, for example in both the married category and the not living with spouse category. Categories
should not overlap.
16. Is the list of possible question responses inclusive? The respondent should not find themselves with no
category that fits their situation.
17. Is the questionnaire going to be administered by research staff, or will it be self-administered by the
respondents. Self administered questionnaires must give clear, detailed instructions.
Principles of Developing Questions

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Be clear and precise.

Response choices should not overlap.
Use natural and familiar language.
Do not use words or phrases that show bias.
Avoid double-barreled questions.
State explicit alternatives.
Questions should meet criteria of validity and reliability.
Questionnaire Design
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34
Types of Questions
1. Contingency questions - A question that is answered only if the respondent gives a particular
response to a previous question. This avoids asking questions of people that do not apply to
them (for example, asking men if they have ever been pregnant).
2. Matrix questions - Identical response categories are assigned to multiple questions. The
questions are placed one under the other, forming a matrix with response categories along the
top and a list of questions down the side. This is an efficient use of page space and
respondents time.
3. Scaled questions - Responses are graded on a continuum (example : rate the appearance of the
product on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being the most preferred appearance). Examples of
types of scales include the Likert scale, semantic differential scale, and rank-order scale
4. Closed ended questions - Respondents answers are limited to a fixed set of responses. Most
scales are closed ended. Other types of closed ended questions include:
* Dichotomous questions - The respondent answers with a yes or a no.
* Multiple choice - The respondent has several option from which to choose.
5. Open ended questions - No options or predefined categories are suggested. The respondent
supplies their own answer without being constrained by a fixed set of possible responses.
Examples of types of open ended questions include:
6. Completely unstructured - For example, What is your opinion of questionnaires?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Question Sequence
Questions should flow logically from one to the next.

The researcher must ensure that the answer to a question is not influenced by previous questions.
Questions should flow from the more general to the more specific.
Questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most sensitive.
Questions should flow from factual and behavioural questions to attitudinal and opinion questions.
Questions should flow from unaided to aided questions
According to the three stage theory (also called the sandwich theory), initial questions should be
screening and rapport questions. Then in the second stage you ask all the product specific questions. In
the last stage you ask demographic questions.
Scaling techniques
Meaning of Scaling
Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other concepts. This
can be done in two ways viz., (i) making a judgement about some characteristic of an individual and then placing him
directly on a scale that has been defined in terms of that characteristic and (ii) constructing questionnaires in such a way
that the score of individuals responses assigns him a place on a scale. It may be stated here that a scale is a continuum,
consisting of the highest point (in terms of some characteristic e.g., preference, favourableness, etc.) and the lowest
point along with several intermediate points between these two extreme points. These scale-point positions are so
related to each other that when the first point happens to be the highest point, the second point indicates a higher degree
in terms of a given characteristic as compared to the third point and the third point indicates a higher degree as
compared to the fourth and so on. Numbers for measuring the distinctions of degree in the attitudes/opinions are, thus,
assigned to individuals corresponding to their scale-positions. All this is better understood when we talk about scaling
technique(s). Hence the term scaling is applied to the procedures for attempting to determine quantitative measures of
subjective abstract concepts. Scaling has been defined as a procedure for the assignment of numbers (or other symbols)
to a property of objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in question.
Measurement Scales
Scaling is the measurement of a variable in such a way that it can be expressed on a continuum. Rating your
preference for a product from 1 to 10 is an example of a scale.
Concept:
A researcher has to know what to measure before knowing how to measure something. The problem definition
process should suggest the concepts that must be measured. A concept can be thought of as a generalized idea
that represents something of meaning. Concepts such as age, sex, education, and number of children are
relatively concrete properties. They present few problems in either definition or measurement. Other concepts
are more abstract. Concepts such as loyalty, personality, channel power, trust, corporate culture, customer
satisfaction, value, and so on are more difficult to both define and measure. For example, loyalty has been
measured as a combination of customer share (the relative proportion of a persons purchases going to one
competing brand/store) and commitment (the degree to which a customer will sacrifice to do business with a
brand/store).Thus, we can see that loyalty consists of two components, the first is behavioral and the second is
attitudinal.
Scaling techniques
1. Nominal Scale:
This is a very simple scale. It consists of assignment of facts/choices to various alternative categories which are usually
exhaustive as well mutually exclusive. These scales are just numerical and are the least restrictive of all the scales.
Instances of Nominal Scale are - credit card numbers, bank account numbers, employee id numbers etc. It is simple and
widely used when relationship between two variables is to be studied. In a Nominal Scale numbers are no more than
labels and are used specifically to identify different categories of responses. Following example illustrates What is your gender?
[ ] Male
[ ] Female
Another example is - a survey of retail stores done on two dimensions - way of maintaining stocks and daily turnover.
How do you stock items at present?
[ ] By product category
[ ] At a centralized store
[ ] Department wise
[ ] Single warehouse
Daily turnover of consumer is?
[ ] Between 100 200
[ ] Between 200 300
[ ] Above 300
2. Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales are the simplest attitude measuring scale used in Marketing Research. It is more powerful than a nominal
scale in that the numbers possess the property of rank order. The ranking of certain product attributes/benefits as
deemed important by the respondents is obtained through the scale.
Example 1: Rank the following attributes (1 - 5), on their importance in a microwave oven.
1. Company Name
2. Functions
3. Price
4. Comfort
5. Design
The most important attribute is ranked 1 by the respondents and the least important is ranked 5. Instead of numbers,
letters or symbols too can be used to rate in a ordinal scale. Such scale makes no attempt to measure the degree of
favourability of different rankings.
Example 2 - If there are 4 different types of fertilizers and if they are ordered on the basis of quality as Grade A, Grade
B, Grade C, Grade D is again an Ordinal Scale.
Example 3 - If there are 5 different brands of Talcom Powder and if a respondent ranks them based on say, Freshness
into Rank 1 having maximum Freshness Rank 2 the second maximum Freshness, and so on, an Ordinal Scale results.
Median and mode are meaningful for ordinal scale.
3. Interval Scale
Herein the distance between the various categories unlike in Nominal, or numbers unlike in Ordinal, are equal in case of
Interval Scales. The Interval Scales are also termed as Rating Scales. An Interval Scale has an arbitrary Zero point with
further numbers placed at equal intervals. A very good example of Interval Scale is a Thermometer.
Illustration 1 - How do you rate your present refrigerator for the following qualities.
Less
Well
1
2
3
4
5
Known
Known
Few
1
2
3
4
5
Many
Functions
Low
1
2
3
4
5
High
Price
Poor
1
2
3
4
5
Good
Design
Very
Very
Overall
Dis1
2
3
4
5
Satisfied
Satisfaction
Satisfied
Such a scale permits the researcher to say that position 5 on the scale is above position 4 and also the distance from 5 to
4 is same as distance from 4 to 3. Such a scale however does not permit conclusion that position 4 is twice as strong as
position 2 because no zero position has been established. The data obtained from the Interval Scale can be used to
calculate the Mean scores of each attributes over all respondents. The Standard Deviation (a measure of dispersion) can
also be calculated.
Company Name
4. Ratio Scale
Ratio Scales are not widely used in Marketing Research unless a base item is made available for comparison. In the
above example of Interval scale, a score of 4 in one quality does not necessarily mean that the respondent is twice more
satisfied than the respondent who marks 2 on the scale. A Ratio scale has a natural zero point and further numbers are
placed at equally appearing intervals. For example scales for measuring physical quantities like - length, weight, etc.
The ratio scales are very common in physical scenarios. Quantified responses forming a ratio scale analytically are the
most versatile. Rati scale possess all he characteristics of an internal scale, and the ratios of the numbers on these scales
have meaningful interpretations. Data on certain demographic or descriptive attributes, if they are obtained through
open-ended questions, will have ratio-scale properties. Consider the following questions :
Q 1) What is your annual income before taxes? ______ $
Q 2) How far is the Theater from your home ? ______ miles
Answers to these questions have a natural, unambiguous starting point, namely zero. Since starting point is not chosen
arbitrarily, computing and interpreting ratio makes sense. For example we can say that a respondent with an annual
income of $ 40,000 earns twice as much as one with an annual income of $ 20,000.
Self Rating Scales

1. Graphic Rating Scale
The respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one
extreme of the criterion variable to another. Example
0
(poor
quality)
1
(bad quality)
7
(good
quality)
5
(neither good nor bad)
BRAND 1
This is also known as continuous rating scale. The customer can occupy any position. Here one attribute is
taken i.e. quality of any brand of ice cream.
po o r
Good
BRAND 2
This line can be vertical or horizontal and scale points may be provided. No other indication is there on the
continuous scale. A range is provided. To quantify the responses to question that indicate your overall opinion
about ice-ream Brand 2 by placing a tick mark at appropriate position on the line, we measure the physical
distance between the left extreme position and the response position on the line.; the greater the distance, the
more favourable is the response or attitude towards the brand.
Its limitation is that coding and analysis will require substantial amount of time, since we first have to measure
the physical distances on the scale for each respondent.
2. Itemized Rating Scales
These scales are different from continuous rating scales. They have a number of brief descriptions associated
with each category. They are widely used in Marketing Research. They essentially take the form of the multiple
category questions. The most common are - Likert, Sementic, Staple and Multiple Dimension. Others are Thurston and Guttman.
a. Likert Scale
It was developed Rensis Likert. Here the respondents are asked to indicate a degree of agreement and
disagreement with each of a series of statement. Each scale item has 5 response categories ranging from
strongly agree and strongly disagree.
5
Strongly agree
4
Agree
3
Indifferent
2
Disagree
1
Strongly disagree
Each statement is assigned a numerical score ranging from 1 to 5. It can also be scaled as -2 to +2.
-2
-1
For example quality of Mother Diary ice-cream is poor then Not Good is a negative statement and
Strongly Agree with this means the quality is not good.
Each degree of agreement is given a numerical score and the respondents total score is computed by
summing these scores. This total score of respondent reveals the particular opinion of a person. Likert
Scale are of ordinal type, they enable one to rank attitudes, but not to measure the difference between
attitudes. They take about the same amount of efforts to create as Thurston scale and are considered
more discriminating and reliable because of the larger range of responses typically given in Likert scale.
A typical Likert scale has 20 - 30 statements. While designing a good Likert Scale, first a large pool of
statements relevant to the measurement of attitude has to be generated and then from the pool
statements, the statements which are vague and non-discriminating have to be eliminated.
Thus, likert scale is a five point scale ranging from strongly agreementto strongly disagreement. No
judging gap is involved in this method.
b. Semantic Differential Scale
This is a seven point scale and the end points of the scale are associated with bipolar labels.
1
7
Unpleasant
2
3
4
5
6
Pleasant
Submissive
Dominant
Suppose we want to know personality of a particular person. We have options1. Unpleasant/Submissive
2. Pleasant/Dominant
Bi-polar means two opposite streams. Individual can score between 1 to 7 or -3 to 3. On the basis of
these responses profiles are made. We can analyse for two or three products and by joining these
profiles we get profile analysis. It could take any shape depending on the number of variables.
Mean and median are used for comparison. This scale helps to determine overall similarities and
differences among objects.
When Semantic Differential Scale is used to develop an image profile, it provides a good basis for
comparing images of two or more items. The big advantage of this scale is its simplicity, while
producing results compared with those of the more complex scaling methods. The method is easy and
fast to administer, but it is also sensitive to small differences in attitude, highly versatile, reliable and
generally valid.
c. Stapels Scale
It was developed by Jan Stapel. This is a unipolar scale. This scale has some distinctive features:Each item has only one word/phrase indicating the dimension it represents.
i.
Each item has ten response categories.
ii.
Each item has an even number of categories.
iii.
The response categories have numerical labels but no verbal labels.
For example, in the following items, suppose for quality of ice cream, we ask respondents to rank from
+5 to -5. Select a plus number for words which best describe the ice cream accurately. Select a minus
number for words you think do not describe the ice cream quality accurately. Thus, we can select any
number from +5,for words we think are very accurate, to -5,for words we think are very inaccurate.
This scale is usually presented vertically.

+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
High Quality
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Thurston Scales
These are also known as equal appearing interval scales. They are used to measure the attitude towards
a given concept or construct. For this purpose a large number of statements are collected that relate to
the concept or construct being measured. The judges rate these statements along an 11 category scale in
which each category expresses a different degree of favourableness towards the concept. The items are
then ranked according to the mean or median ratings assigned by the judges and are used to construct
questionnaire of twenty to thirty items that are chosen more or less evenly across the range of ratings.
The statements are worded in such a way so that a person can agree or disagree with them. The scale is
then administered to assemble of respondents whose scores are determined by computing the mean or
median value of the items agreed with. A person who disagrees with all the items has a score of zero.
So, the advantage of this scale is that it is an interval measurement scale. But it is the time consuming
method and labour intensive. They are commonly used in psychology and education research.
Guttman Scales/Scalogram Analysis

It is based on the idea that items can be arranged along a continuum in such a way that a person who
agrees with an item or finds an item acceptable will also agree with or find acceptable all other items
expressing a less extreme position. For example - Children should not be allowed to watch indecent
programmes or government should ban these programmes or they are not allowed to air on the
television. They all are related to one aspect. In this scale each score represents a unique set of
responses and therefore the total score of every individual is obtained. This scale takes a lot of time and
effort in development. They are very commonly used in political science, anthropology, public opinion,
research and psychology.
The Constant Sum Scale:
The constant sum scale requires the respondent to divide a constant sum, generally 10 or 100, among
two or more objects or attributes on order to reflect the respondents relative preference for each object,
the importance of the attribute, or the degree to which an object contains each attribute.
Divide 100 points among the characteristics listed so that the division will reflect how
Important each characteristic is to your selection of a new automobile.
Price
____
Economy
____
Dependability
____
Safety
____
Comfort
____
Style
____
Total 100
All three of the following groups average responses to the constant sum scale would be consistent with
the rank order results just described:
Price
Economy
Dependability
Safety
Comfort
Style
Group A
35
30
20
10
3
2
100
Group B
20
18
17
16
15
14
100
Group C
65
9
8
7
6
5
100
With rank order scale the researcher has no way of knowing if price is of importance (GROUP C);
part of a general, strong concern for overall cost (GROUP A); or not much important than the other attributes
(GROUP B).
Constant Sum Scale provides such evidence.
Figure 9 .8 Constant Sum S cal ing

F
igu
re
9.8
C
o
nst
an
t
u
S
m
S
cal
in
g
Ins tr uctions
Below are eight attributes of bathing soaps . Pleas e alloc ate 100 points among
the attributes s o that y our alloc ation ref lec ts the relativ e importanc e y ou attac h to
eac h attribute. The more points an attribute rec eiv es , the more important the
attribute is . If an attribute is not at all important, as s ign it z ero points . If an
attribute is tw ic e as important as s ome other attribute, it s hould rec eiv e tw ic e as
many points .
Form
AV ERA GE RES PONS ES OF THREE S EG MENTS
A ttribute
Segment I
Segment II
1. Mi ldnes s
8
2
2. Lather
2
4
3. Shrinkage
3
9
4. Pric e
53
17
5. Fragranc e
9
0
6. Pac kaging
7
5
7. Mois turiz ing
5
3
8. Cleaning Pow er
13
60
Sum
100
100
Seg ment III

4
17
7
9
19
9
20
15
100
The Q Sort technique

It is used to discriminate among large number of objects quickly. It uses a rank order procedure and the
objects are sorted into piles based on similarity with respect to some criteria. The number of objects to
be sorted should be between 60-140 approximately. For example, here we are taking nine brands. On
the basis of taste we classify the brands into tasty, moderate and non tasty.
We can classify on the basis of price also-Low, medium, high. Then we can attain the perception of
people that whether they prefer low priced brand, high or moderate. We can classify sixty brands or pile
it into three piles. So the number of objects is to be placed in three piles-low, medium or high.
Thus, the Q-sort technique is an attempt to classify subjects in terms of their similarity to attribute under
study.
Projective Techniques
Projective Techniques are based on the theory that the description of vague objects requires interpretation and this
interpretation can only be based on the individuals own background, attitudes, and values. The more vague or
ambiguous the object to be described the move one must reveal of oneself in order to complete the description.
The following general categories of projective techniques are described: association, completion, construction and
expression.
1. Association Techniques
Association techniques require the subject to respond to the presentation of a stimulus with the first things that come to
mind.
a. Word association: An individual is given a clue or hint and asked to respond to the first thing that comes to
mind. The association can take the shape of a picture or a word. There can be many interpretations of the same
thing. A list of words is given and you dont know in which word they are most interested. The interviewer
records the responses which reveal the inner feeling of the respondents. The frequency with which any word is
given a response and the amount of time that elapses before the response is given are important for the
researcher. For eg: Out of 50 respondents 20 people associate the word Fair with Complexion.
One of the oldest and simplest projection techniques.
Respondents are presented with a number of different words, one at a time. After each word, they are asked to
give the first word that comes to mind.
The assumption here is that through free words, the respondents will indicate their inner feelings about the
subject.
Responses are timed so that those responses that respondents reason out are identified and taken into account
in the analysis. The time limit is usually 5 seconds.
The usual way of constructing such a test is to choose many stimulating and neutral words. The words are
read out to the respondent one at a time, and the interviewer essentially records the first word association by
the respondent.
Respondents should not be asked to write their responses because then the interviewer will not know if the
responses were spontaneous or whether the respondent took time to think out the responses.
An example of such a test is: who would eat a lot of oatmeal? The first response is athletes. This means that
the respondent feels that the product is more suited for sportspersons. More words on the same topic will reveal
more about the respondents attitude about the product.
While analyzing the results of word-association tests, responses are arranged along such lines as favorable unfavorable and pleasant unpleasant.
b. Successive word association: In successive word association, the respondent is asked to give a series of words
or thoughts that occur after hearing a given word. The respondent is generally read a number of relatively
neutral terms to establish the technique. Then the words of interest to the researcher are presented, each
separated by several neutral terms. The order of presentation of the key words is randomized to prevent any
position or order bias from affecting the results. The most common approach to analyzing the resulting data is
to analyze the frequency with a particular word or category or word is given in response to the word of interest
to the researcher. Word association techniques are used in testing potential brand names and occasionally for
measuring attitudes about particular products, product attributes, brands, packages or advertisements.
2. Completion Techniques
In this the respondents are asked to complete an incomplete sentence or story. The completion will reflect their attitude
and state of mind. Two types of completion are of interest to marketing researchers- sentence completion and story
completion.
a. Sentence completion, as the name implies, involves requiring the respondent to complete a sentence. In most
sentence completion tests the respondents are asked to complete the sentence with a phrase. Generally they are told to
use the first thought that comes to their mind or anything that makes sense. Because the individual is not required
directly to associate himself or herself with the answer conscious or subconscious defences are more likely to be relaxed
and allow a more revealing answer.
The respondent is given a number of incomplete sentences and asked to complete them.
The rule here too, is that respondent must fill in the first thought that comes to mind.
Responses are timed.
Here the interviewer gets more information than the word association technique.
However, it is difficult to disguise the motive of the study from the respondent, who is usually able to diagnose
the investigators purpose of study.
For example, a man who reads Sportstar is ------------------------------------------.
The sentences can be worded in either first or third person. No evidence suggests that one of these approaches
could be better than the other.
b. Story completion is an expanded version of sentence completion. As the name suggests part of a story is told and the
respondent is asked to complete it.
Respondents are given a half-completed story. This is enough to draw their attention to a particular issue, but
the ending is left vague, so that responses can be varied.
This technique is very versatile and has numerous applications to marketing problems.
The findings about products/ services give companies inputs to determine advertising and promotional themes
and product characteristics.
3. Construction Techniques
This technique requires the respondent to produce or construct something generally a story, dialogue, or description.
They are similar to completion techniques except that less initial structure is provided. This is more or less like
completion test. They can give you a picture and you are asked to write a story about it. The initial structure is limited
and not detailed like the completion test. For eg: 2 cartoons are given and a dialogue is to written.
a. Picture response, another useful construction technique, involves using pictures to elicit stories. These pictures are
usually relatively vague, so that the respondent must use his or her imagination to describe what is occurring.
These are similar to story completion method, except that here pictures are used as the stimuli. The two main
methods used here are
i.
Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT)
ii.
Cartoon method
i. TAT
A thematic apperception test (TAT), sometimes called the picture interpretation technique, presents subjects
with an ambiguous picture(s) and asks the subject to tell what is happening in the picture(s) now and what
might happen next. Hence, themes (thematic) are elicited on the basis of the perceptual-interpretive
(apperception) use of the pictures. The researcher then analyzes the contents of the stories that the subjects
relate. A TAT represents a projective research technique. Frequently, the TAT consists of a series of pictures
with some continuity so that stories may be constructed in a variety of settings.
Each subject in the pictures is a medium through which the respondent projects his feelings, ideas, emotions
and attitudes. The respondent attributes these feelings to the characters because he sees in the picture something
related to himself.
Responses differ widely and analysis depends upon the ambiguity of the picture, the extent to which the
respondent is able to guess the conclusions and the vagueness of the support questions asked by the interviewer.
ii. Cartoon Tests

They are a version or modification of the TAT, but they are simpler to administer and analyze. Cartoon Characters are
shown in a specific situation pertinent to a problem. One or more balloons indicating the conversation of the
characters is left open. The respondent has to then fill these balloons and then analyzed.
Instead of having the bubble show replies or comments, it can be drawn to indicate the unspoken thoughts of one or
more of the characters. This device allows the respondent to avoid any restraints that might be felt against having even a
carton character speak as opposed to think certain thoughts.
b. Fantasy scenario requires the respondent to make up a fantasy about the product or brand.
c. Personification asks the respondent to create a personally for the products or brands. With the pictures and words
technique, the subjects are given a number of words and pictures and are asked to choose those they associate with a
brand or product and to explain their choice.
This allows the researcher to discover the more emotional responses to brands and imagery.
The product or brand becomes a person (or vice versa)
x Helps bring brands to life
x Feeling, thought, character etc (like brand values)
x Or respondents can project themselves into the roles of user and non-users
x Making up eulogies or obituaries can help
Expressive Techniques
In this the people are asked to express the feeling or attitude of other people.
a. Role-playing is the only expressive technique utilized to any extent by marketing researchers. In role playing the
consumer is asked to assume the role or behavior of an object or another person, such as a sales representative for a
particular department store. The role-playing customer can then be asked to try to sell a given product to a number of
different consumers who raise varying objections. The means by which the role player attempts to overcome these
objections can reveal a great deal about his or her attitudes. Another version of the technique involves studying the
role-players attitudes on what type of people should shop at the store in question.
b. Third-person technique:
The respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent is asked to relate the beliefs and
attitudes of a third person rather than directly expressing personal beliefs and attitudes. This third person may be a
friend, neighbor, colleague, or a typical person
Advantages of Projective Techniques

1. They may elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purpose of the
study.
2. Helpful when the issues to be addressed are personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social norms.
3. Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and attitudes are operating at a subconscious level.
4. Disadvantages of Projective Techniques
5. Suffer from many of the disadvantages of unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater extent.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Require highly trained interviewers.

Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the responses.
There is a serious risk of interpretation bias.
They tend to be expensive.
May require respondents to engage in unusual behavior.
Guidelines for Using Projective Techniques
Projective techniques should be used because the required information cannot be accurately obtained by direct
methods.
13. Projective techniques should be used for exploratory research to gain initial insights and understanding.
14. Given their complexity, projective techniques should not be used naively.
Disadvantages of Projective Techniques

1. Suffer from many of the disadvantages of unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater extent.
2. Require highly trained interviewers.
3. Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the responses.
4. There is a serious risk of interpretation bias.
5. They tend to be expensive.
6. May require respondents to engage in unusual behavior.
Guidelines for Using Projective Techniques
1. Projective techniques should be used because the required information cannot be accurately obtained by direct
methods.
2. Projective techniques should be used for exploratory research to gain initial insights and understanding.
3. Given their complexity, projective techniques should not be used naively.
MODULE: VI
REPORT WRITING
1. Essential of a good report,
2. Content of report,
3. Steps in writing a report,
4. Footnotes and Bibliography
Essential of a good report
1. Information collected in the report must be relevant and focused to derive desired results. Pictorial and
graphical presentation of data and related information help to understand the details easily. There is a possibility
that the collected data in the report needs to be represented at many places in different formats to fulfil the
report goals. The ultimate goal is to determine all the issue and make suitable strategies to cope up with these
issue or problems.
2. Report should follow the exact predefined goals and objectives. If there is any sort of divergence of related
information which does not match the goals then the results are of no use. In fact there is a probability of
landing up in making negative or out of focus strategies, which will be very dangerous.
3. The report should always contain the executive summary of the work. This is generally kept before the actual
report starts as it shows the summary of the desired business plan.
4. Apart from the actual analysis the report should also depict the reasons of making this report and what
advantages and profit it can provide after successful implementation of business plans described inside the
report.
5. It should also contain the methodology of the research which shows the overall process adopted to create the
report.
6. It is important that the report contains the possibility of errors in any of the module or process so that immediate
measures could be taken to cope up with these errors.
7. The report should contain the description of the questionnaires used in analysis and the way it has been
prepared.
8. The methodology used in the interviews should also be elaborated and what was achieved in this should also be
described.
9. If the information show that some aspects needs to predict the future trends then the reports should depict that
prediction. This prediction should have scale of success so that the accuracy could be judged efficaciously. The
report should also define each and every variable and element used in creating these predictive analyses.
10. The report should be flexible enough to be changed accordingly. The analytical information described inside the
report should be maintained in such a way that there is no extra effort laboured if any strategy or process it to be
changed in future. It should necessarily mould the changes without changing the structure of the report.
Contents of Research Report

The researcher must keep in mind that his research report must contain following aspects:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Purpose of study
Significance of his study or statement of the problem
Review of literature
Methodology
Interpretation of data
Conclusions and suggestions
Bibliography
Appendices
1. Purpose of study: Research is one direction oriented study. He should discuss the problem of his study. He
must give background of the problem. He must lay down his hypothesis of the study. Hypothesis is the
statement indicating the nature of the problem. He should be able to collect data, analyze it and prove the
hypothesis. The importance of the problem for the advancement of knowledge or removed of some evil may
also be explained. He must use review of literature or the data from secondary source for explaining the
statement of the problems.
2. Significance of study: Research is re-search and hence the researcher may highlight the earlier research in
new manner or establish new theory. He must refer earlier research work and distinguish his own research
from earlier work. He must explain how his research is different and how his research topic is different and
how his research topic is important. In a statement of his problem, he must be able to explain in brief the
historical account of the topic and way in which he can make and attempt. In his study to conduct the
research on his topic.
3. Review of Literature: Research is a continuous process. He cannot avoid earlier research work. He must
start with earlier work. He should note down all such research work, published in books, journals or
unpublished thesis. He will get guidelines for his research from taking a review of literature. He should
collect information in respect of earlier research work. He should enlist them in the given below:
x Author/researcher
x Title of research /Name of book
x Publisher
x Year of publication
x Objectives of his study
x Conclusion/suggestions
Then he can compare this information with his study to show separate identity of his study. He must be
honest to point out similarities and differences of his study from earlier research work.
4.
Methodology: It is related to collection of data. There are two sources for collecting data; primary and
secondary. Primary data is original and collected in field work, either through questionnaire interviews.
The secondary data relied on library work. Such primary data are collected by sampling method. The
procedure for selecting the sample must be mentioned. The methodology must give various aspects of
the problem that are studied for valid generalization about the phenomena. The scales of measurement must
be explained along with different concepts used in the study. While conducting a research based on field
work, the procedural things like definition of universe, preparation of source list must be given. We
use case study method, historical research etc. He must make it clear as to which method is used in his
research work. When questionnaire is prepared, a copy of it must be given in appendix.
5. Interpretation of data: Mainly the data collected from primary source need to be interpreted in systematic
manner. The tabulation must be completed to draw conclusions. All the questions are not useful for report
writing. One has to select them or club them according to hypothesis or objectives of study.
6. Conclusions/suggestions: Data analysis forms the crux of the research problem. The information collected
in field work is useful to draw conclusions of study. In relation with the objectives of study the analysis of
data may lead the researcher to pin point his suggestions. This is the most important part of study. The
conclusions must be based on logical and statistical reasoning. The report should contain not only the
generalization of inference but also the basis on which the inferences are drawn. All sorts of proofs,
numerical and logical, must be given in support of any theory that has been advanced. He should point out
the limitations of his study.
7. Bibliography: The list of references must be arranged in alphabetical order and be presented in appendix.
The books should be given in first section and articles are in second section and research projects in the
third. The pattern of bibliography is considered convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of
reader.
8. Appendices: The general information in tabular form which is not directly used in the analysis of data but
which is useful to understand the background of study can be given in appendix.
Steps in writing a report

A research report must be well drafted so that it is seriously taken by others and all that have to be said are well said.
Reader orientation, purpose orientation, time orientation, technology orientation, etc are all needed. The steps in writing
a research report are presented below.
1. Organization of Thought: Organization of thought as to how the report be presented is the most fundamental
starting point in the journey of preparation of a research report. Ideas come before the mind eye. These are
thought over again and a frame of presentation is planned. This plan does not in itself constitute style, but it is
the foundation.
2. Acquaintance with the Research: Full acquaintance with research is needed. This is facilitated by notes. It is
desirable to make notes on separate cards or slips called form-facet. Accuracy and Adequacy are required The
second facet of mastery over notes consists in the investigators complete control over the data, called study
facet, i.e., understanding each fact by itself and in terms of others and of the researchers own thoughts; the
notes to be compared; criticized and revalued in order to enable the investigator to direct and organize the data
in his own way and perhaps differently from what others have done.
3. First Draft: The first draft concentrates on substance, i.e., fullness of facts. All the facts of value are to be
brought together. In addition to fullness, accuracy of the facts incorporated into the text becomes necessary.
Another requirement is that there should be balance, proportion and development in facts. Importance is to be
given to the comprehensiveness of the report but not to the language and form. For writing the first draft the
researcher should have control over his notes and should think continuously over the problem. In a way, the first
draft is the most important of the different stages in reporting. This report may have to be re-written a number
of times and still it continues to remain only a working draft. There are three purposes in writing the first draft,
viz., to weave the material together for making clear connections, to assure the investigator himself of a
satisfactory organizations and fullness of the facts, and to avoid blank paper fright that may be present in every
young researcher.
4. Second Draft: After a lapse of some time from the completion of first draft, the revision is made for writing
the second draft. While drafting the second one, the researcher should concentrate largely on form and
language. The researcher should give the first draft, at this stage, a shape so that it can be readable, clear and
lucid. Considerable trimming or editing will have to be done to make the writing precise, concise and brief.
Finally, at the second draft stage, critical evaluation will have to be made of all that has been written-facts,
findings, conclusions and recommendations. To make the report readable and effective, the language plays
major part.
5. Third Draft: The final stage in drafting is the preparation of final report. It concentrates mainly on the finish
and final touches, i.e. on documentation and polish to make the report weighty, authoritative, convincing and
attractive. Documentation indicates the references to the sources, other previous and current work and view,
additional data and discussion and suggested further reading on the specific problem as handled by the
researcher. In other words, it indicates the thoroughness of the investigation and on the other a guide to further
work. A good research paper depends not only upon the amount of reading or notes taken or upon the form of
presentation but also upon the accurate and thorough recording of the investigation.
Footnotes and Bibliography

Footnotes and endnotes:
The biggest difference between footnotes and endnotes is where the

notes are placed. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page for any notes that apply to each specific
page; endnotes appear collectively at the end of a paper, starting on a separate page and labeled as Endnotes.
What is the purpose of a footnote or endnote? Footnotes and endnotes are both ways to add clarifying information
into a document. They provide important details with which the reader may be unfamiliar. They often save the reader
from looking up unfamiliar words, people, places or sources. The footnote takes the form of a superscripted number,
just after a paraphrased piece of information. Subsequently, a cross-reference to this number is inserted at the bottom of
the same page. In fact, for dissertations and theses, many writers use footnotes to keep track of their citations, adding a
short note of what exactly each one adds to the paper. The biggest difference between footnotes and endnotes is where
the notes are placed. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page for any notes that apply to each specific page; endnotes
appear collectively at the end of a paper, starting on a separate page and labeled as Endnotes.
Bibliography: a list of the books referred to in a scholarly work, typically printed as an appendix.
Bibliography as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is
also known as bibliology describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly disciplinethe organized listing of books
(enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography).
General Rules for Footnotes

Books should include:
x Authors full name (as it appears on the title page of the book)
x Complete title
x Editor, compiler, or translator (if any)
x Name of series, volume or series number (if any)
x Number of volumes (if more than one)
x City, publisher, and date of publication
x Volume number and page number
Articles should include:
x Author
x Title of article
x Periodical
x Date of periodical
x Page numbers of article
Unpublished material should include:
Author
Title (if any)
Type of material
Where it may be found
Date
Page number (if any)
General Rules for a Bibliography
x
x
x
x
x
x
Footnote style can be changed into bibliographic style by transposing the authors first and last names, removing
parentheses from facts of publication, omitting page references, and repunctuating with periods instead of commas.
Books should include:
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Name of author(s), editors, or responsible institutions

Full title, including subtitles if one exists
Series (if any)
Volume number
Edition (if not the original)
Publishers location and name
Date of publication
Articles should include:

x
x
x
x
x
Name of author
Title of article
Name of periodical
Date of issue
Pages
MODULE: VII
ADVERTISING RESEARCH
Introduction to Advertising Research

Advertising research is a specialized form of marketing esearch conducted to improve the efficiency of advertising.
Advertising research is the systematic gathering and analysis of information to help develop or
evaluate advertising strategies, ads and commercials, and media campaigns. Advertising research is as old as
advertising in India and key advertising decisions are made based on advertising research. Many major
marketing campaigns are launched in India and advertising research is used for many of these campaigns.
Why is Advertising Research Important?

The crafting of advertising: Advertising research can be implemented not only to measure the potential/effectiveness
of a specific advert, but to clarify the need for advertising in a specific audience. What kind of advertising is liked by the
consumers of our products and services? What values should be communicated? What type of humor should be used?
What kind of lifestyle should be reflected? Research into the crafting of advertising allows for the creation of adverts,
which provide a clearer and more attractive delivery of your desired message to your audience.
It defines which market to best target with your advertisements,
It conveys the identity of the ideal consumer base in which to advertise your product or service,
It determines which advertising medium will make the greatest impact on these consumers,
It identifies whether or not your targeted consumers are receiving your advertisements with the intended message.
There are four stages where Advertising Research can take place:
1. Beginning of creation process (Copy Research)
2. End of creation process (Copy Testing)
3. End of the production stage (Pretesting)
4. After the campaign has been launched (Post Testing)
Copy Research
a. Concept testing, b. Name testing, c. Slogan testing
Copy Research
It starts with the beginning of creation process. Account team wants assurance that the ad does what it is
supposed to do. The client wants to see how well a particular ad scores against the average commercial of
its type. Copy research is a good idea most of the time--it can yield important data that management can
use to determine the suitability of an ad concept and basic idea.
Purposes of Copy Research
1. Idea Generation. An agency is often called on to invent new, meaningful, ways of presenting a
brand to a target audience.
2. Concept Testing seeks feedback designed to screen the quality of new ideas or concepts.
3. Audience Definition. Once a target segment have been identified, advertising planning can
proceed with a developing a message that will be meaningful to the consumers.
4. Audience Profiling. Creative need to know as much as they can about the people to whom their
ads will speak.
Evaluative Criteria in Copy Research
a. Clarity : Do consumers understand the ad?
b. Knowledge: Tests of recall and recognition
c. Attitude change: Determine where a brand stands
d. Feelings and emotions
e. Physiological changes: Changes in eye movements or respiration
f. Behavioral intent: Do people say they will buy the product
Copy Research Methods
Copy Research Methods

1. Concept Testing
a. Card concept
b. Poster test
c. Layout test
2. Name testing
3. Slogan testing
1. Concept Testing
Concept testing
Concept testing involves testing the idea of something, rather than the actual thing itself. The concept is
communicated with a rough illustration or photograph, along with a written description. Think of a concept as a rough
print ad, although concepts can be presented in storyboard or video form.
Concept testing is widely used to evaluate new product ideas, so that potentially successful new products can be
identified early on. Then limited research and development resources (and limited marketing resources) can be focused
on the new product concepts with the greatest probability of consumer acceptance in the marketplace. Concept testing
can also be used to help evaluate advertising concepts, promotional concepts, packaging concepts, and strategy
concepts.
Concept testing is used to generate communication designed to alter consumer attitudes toward existing products. These
methods involve the evaluation by consumers of product concepts having certain rational benefits, such as "a detergent
that removes stains but is gentle on fabrics," or non-rational benefits, such as "a shampoo that lets you be yourself."
Such methods are commonly referred to as concept testing and have been performed using field surveys, personal
interviews and focus groups, in combination with various quantitative methods, to generate and evaluate product
concepts.
The concept generation portions of concept testing have been predominantly qualitative. Advertising professionals have
generally created concepts and communications of these concepts for evaluation by consumers, on the basis of
consumer surveys and other market research, or on the basis of their own experience as to which concepts they believe
represent product ideas that are worthwhile in the consumer market. The quantitative portions of concept testing
procedures have generally been placed in three categories:
(1) concept evaluations: where concepts representing product ideas are presented to consumers in verbal or visual form
and then quantitatively evaluated by consumers by indicating degrees of purchase intent, likelihood of trial, etc.,
(2) Positioning: which is concept evaluation wherein concepts positioned in the same functional product class are
evaluated together, and
(3) product/concept tests: where consumers first evaluate a concept, then the corresponding product, and the results are
compared.
Types of Concept Testing:

a. Card concept test Creative strategies are presented to respondents in the form of headline, followed by body copy
placed on a white card for review. Each concept is placed n the separate card.
b. Poster test: This is similar to card test but expands illustrations and copy and places them on a large poster instead
of a white card.
c. Layout test: Layout test involves showing a rough copy of a print ad or artwork for a TV ad. Layout tests are more
finished than a poster tests in that they use the total copy and illustration as they will appear in the finished ad.
Additionally, whereas a card or poster test measures the appeal of the basic concept, the purpose of the layout test may e
to measure more subtle effects such as communication, understanding and confusion.
2. Name testing
Starting with the right name (and logo) is the cornerstone of Ad campaign. A good name to identify a Ad campaign or
distinguish from others must be unique and original, yet capable of carrying a favorable message to motivate the
customer to have dealings with that company. Creating such a name is an art as well as a science with rules and
guidelines rooted in sociology, psychology, semantics, and the law. Simply put, a good Ad campaign name gives a good
first impression and evokes positive associations with the brand.
3. Slogan testing:
A slogan, a tagline etc. of a product or service is tested by a manufacturer or researcher. As the samples are informed
about the product or service, it enables them to form a connection between the proposed slogans and taglines and
products
or
services.
Rating
scales
ar e
us e d
to
choose
the
most
preferred
slogan.
Slogans are also tested in a similar fashion where the respondents are given details about the product or service and
chose the best fit.
The purpose of the slogan testing is to find out whether the slogan achieves the following:
1. Aid memory recall: It should be easy and pleasant to remember.
2. To describe the use of a product.
3. To suggest the products special advantage or unique benefit.
Copy testing measures and methods:

a. Free association, b. Direct questioning, c. Direct mail tests, d. Statement comparison tests, e. Qualitative
interviews, f. Focus groups
Copy testing start at the end of creation process and before the production start. Copy testing is a general class of tests
that evaluate and diagnose the communication power of an advertisement either broadcast (television, radio), print
(newspapers, magazines), or more recently, the Internet.
When Used
Copy tests are an integral part of the creative development process, and (of necessity) always follow the development of
one or more advertising alternatives. These alternatives attempt to embody an advertising strategy that has been
identified through previous phases of research.
Copy Testing definition: Research that measures responses to marketing communication copy in a test environment to
evaluate the copy's effectiveness in fulfilling the intended objectives. Copy testing is a method used by advertisers to see
whether or not an ad will work once it is produced. The premise is that exposure to an ad should affect the way a
consumer perceives a product or service.
By conducting copy testing, advertising campaigns can be revised and sometimes corrected. It is believed that by using
copy testing an advertising agency will be able to lower the chances that their advertising campaign will be
unsuccessful.
Copy tests are usually conducted
a. After a strategic/positioning study indicated an opportunity for the brand that, in turn, feed copy
development
b. After qualitative research (focus groups, in-depths) has been used in the creative development process;
or
c. After tracking research has indicated that the current campaign is no longer building awareness or
image. Practically speaking, copy tests can be conducted at any time there is new advertising that needs
to be evaluated.
Copy testing questions
x What message are we really communicating?
x Is anyone offended by our advertising?
x Is our advertising clear and easy to understand?
x Does our advertising project the right image?
x Are we saying the right things?
Techniques of Copy Testing:
a) ANIMATICS
This is art work in the form of either cartoons or realistic drawings showing limited movement.
b) PHOTOMATICS
These are photographs shot in sequence still images are worked into a sequence. Like a storyboard, it shows staccato
frames to show how the story goes. Various elements can be changed in this method and as you look at the image you
can decide what changes need to be made. This makes manipulation easier and involves lesser time and technology.
c) LIVEMATICS
This involves filming or taping live talent and is very close tote finished commercial. This method is useful because it
can showcase the entire range of emotions that the respondents display when shown the product. This can be used to
convey the mood of the final commercial when the real model will be used.
d) RIPOMATICS
The conversion is made from footage of other commercials taken from ad agency promotional reels. They are usually
used for experimentation on visual techniques.(e.g. Prints taken from foreign miniature samples and customized).
Copy Test Designs
There are two basic copy testing approaches for TV off-air, and on-air.
(a) Off-air: Off-air tests focus on whether the copy effectively communicated its intended strategy, and provides more
diagnostic information on specific copy elements than on-air tests. Off-air approaches are "forced exposure" tests
(usually in a mall or theater environment), in which respondents view a clutter reel of competitive ads, with the test ad
in the middle. Because a lower state-of-finish is acceptable, off-air stimuli are less costly, and these tests are more often
used at an earlier stage of the copy development process.
(b) On-air tests: On-air tests are executed on an unused cable TV channel among people who have been recruited to
view a fictitious -hour pilot TV show. Respondents see ads for other categories, but see only one test ad. On-air tests
excel at evaluating copy performance in a real-world setting, and whether the advertisement "broke through" (i.e., was
recalled).
Similar off-air approaches are used for radio testing (no "on-air" versions exist). Print testing usually involves
placement of the test ad in a mocked-up version of a national magazine, or can also involve eye-tracking to determine
which elements were seen while reading the ad.
Systems for copy testing
Many companies have specialized systems for copy testing. The advantage of using specialized companies is their
normative databases, often spanning years of tests in many categories.
Measures typically include:
x Recall of ad ('day after recall' or DAR)
x Main point communication
x Proven recall (correct playback of copy elements)
x Total copy and situational/visual playback
x Purchase intent, or a pre-post persuasion score
x Brand likes, dislikes
x Imagery/personality ratings
x Attribute/brand performance ratings
x Classification and demographics
Because of the high cost associated with the production of an ad or commercial, advertisers are increasingly spending
more monies testing a rendering of the final as at early stages. Slides of the artwork posted on a screen or animatic and
photomatic roughs may be used to test at this stage.
The test is of little value if it does not provide relevant, accurate information. Rough tests must indicate how the finished
commercial would perform.
Some studies have demonstrated that these testing methods are reliable and the results typically correlate well with the
finished ad.
Most of the tests conducted at the rough stage involve lab settings, although some on- air field tests are also available.
Popular tests include comprehension and reaction tests and consumer juries. Again, the Internet allows field settings to
be employed.
Various methods of Copy testing

1. Free Association tests: Free association utilizes the projective hypothesis by encouraging the respondent to
provide the first set of words or associations that comes to mind after their exposure to a stimulus - such as a
product category, brand name or brand symbol Then follow up with probes and amplifications. Initial reactions
tend to be pragmatic but later ones show paths to emotional ideas
Ask respondents to say what comes into their head when exposed to the copy
Then follow up with probes and amplifications
Initial reactions tend to be pragmatic but later ones show paths to emotional ideas
Verbal association tests help to obtain information about the attitude of a respondent to certain idea or
concepts named by the words of the respondent's native language. A typical procedure is as follows:
participants are asked to respond to a copy with the words that the stimulus evokes in their mind.
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Direct questioning: Direct questioning - elicits a full range of responses from which researchers can infer how
well test advertising messages convey key copy points. It is especially effective for testing alternative ads in the
early stages of development. The heart and soul of copy research is the depth interview, a lengthy (one to two
hours), one-on-one, personal interview, conducted directly by the copy researcher. Much of the power of the
depth interview is dependent upon the insight, sensitivity, and skill of the researcher. The interviewing task
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cannot be delegated to traditional marketing research interviewerswho have no training in motivational

techniques.
Direct Mail Tests: A group of prospects are selected from the mailing list randomly and are sent different test
ads. Then to measure the response, the orders against each lot are noted.
Statement-comparison tests: In Statement comparison, respondents are given different sentences related to the
various aspects of the test ads and asked to give their opinion.
Qualitative interviews: The heart and soul of copy research is the depth interview, a lengthy (one to two
hours), one-on-one, personal interview, conducted directly by the copy researcher. Much of the power of the
depth interview is dependent upon the insight, sensitivity, and skill of the researcher. The interviewing task
cannot be delegated to traditional marketing research interviewerswho have no training in motivational
techniques. Unlike conversations in daily life, which are usually reciprocal exchanges, qualitative interviews
involve an interviewer who is in charge of structuring and directing the questioning. In qualitative interviews,
open-ended responses to questions provide the evaluator with quotations, which are the main source of raw
data. It reveals the respondents' levels of emotion with respect to copy. Qualitative interviews also promote
understanding and change, the emphasis is on intellectual understanding of the test copy rather than on
producing personal views. The task for the qualitative evaluator is to provide a framework within which people
can respond in a way that represents accurately and thoroughly their point of view about the copy."
Focus Groups: Definition: limited to those situations where the assembled group is small enough to permit
genuine discussion among all its members. Interviewing more than one person at a time sometimes proves
very useful; some young people need company to be emboldened to talk, and some topics are better discussed
by a small group of people who know each other. Interviewer asks group members very specific questions about
the test ads after considerable research has already been completed. Focus group can be define as a "carefully
planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions about the test copy in a permissive, non-threatening
environment"
VALIDITY, CREDIBILITY, SENSITIVITY ANDRELIABILITY Copy testing involves accessing the
validity and reliability of various types of tests Measures that are taken to assess VALIDITY are:a) Advertisements to be targeted with respect to the communications objective and a copy test that content must
have a measurable and useful variable that represents the objective. Therefore, the validity of a particular copy
test will depend on the advertising response that is desired. Here, the company can see whether the right
connection is made or some other connection is made in the minds of a consumer.
b) Given that the target population can be sensibly defined the subjects in the test should be representative of
the target population.
c) It is important to know the reaction of the respondents to the test environment and the measuring instruments.
You have to check whether the respondents are comfortable with the measuring scales used as they would give
contradictory responses if uncomfortable) the frequency of response also validates the copy. Respondents asked
to see an advertisement multiple times to see if there inconsistency in reaction no matter what mood they are in.
CREDIBILITY / PREDICTABILITY: Copy test of an ad may be considered monotonous because of its
predictability in the sense that a product by its very nature lends itself to a copy that in unavoidable. Hence, the
predictability factoris very high for the ad to be credible efforts must be made to strikea balance between being
faithful to the product and beingindividualistic while creating ad copy. Respondents invariably findcopy lacking
individuality hence, the respondent and therefore thecustomer reaction----therefore advertising efforts should be
made tocreate a non-predictable copy. FMCGs such as soaps are so similarthat the ads seem similar as well as
therefore an ad is rememberedbut not the brand as very few actually stand out. Hence, theconcept, should try to
be non-predictable.RELIABILITY Reliability of a product or service is also tested by the success of thead; as
the ad must contain a USP of the brand of the product orservice. The reliability and therefore the success of
copy is testedwhen respondents accept/reject claims made by advertisements onbehalf of the manufacturer or
service provider. Reliability explores isthe ad in tandem with what the customer expects and what thecompany
claims (e.g. versa ad)
SENSITIVITY: It involves a test that should help differentiate betweencommercials between brand groups as
products have similarsounding USPS. Brands must therefore make special efforts tocreate distinction.
Similarly, these brands should try to create aseparate identity that is identifiable by the market; an identity thatis
represented by intangible values. Thus, brands individuality mustseem meaningful.
Pretesting
Pre-testing: This is the test of the copy before it is given to the media.
Pre-testing is a type of research that involves gathering reactions to messages and materials prior to release in Media.
Pre-testing is the stage of advertising research in which a complete ad is tested. It is important that the objectives of pretesting research relate back to the agreed advertising strategy. Pre-tests may occur at a number of points, from as early
on as idea generation to rough execution to testing the final version before implementing it. More than one type of pretest may be used. A number of variables can be evaluated in pre-testing, including the ability of the ad to attract
attention, comprehension by the reader/viewer, recall, persuasion, attitude toward the brand, credibility and irritation
level. Pre-tests should be used as guides and not as absolute predictors of winners or losers.
The purpose of pre-testing is as follows:
To spot errors in the copy
To make communication more effective
To design the ad better
To reduce wastage in advertising
To ensure that the money is spent prudently.
In pre-testing it is always best to use multiple measures to evaluate. In particular, the multiple measures
recommended are:
1. Impact: The ability of the advertising to be noticed and remembered.
2. Communication: The ability of the advertising to impart a message, which is clearly and uniformly understood by
the target market.
3. Relevancy: The ability of the advertising to persuade consumers that their needs will be met by the product.
4. Affinity Building: The ability of the advertising to generate consumer affinity (liking) for both the advertisement and
the brand being advertised.
5. Call to Action: The ability of the advertising to motivate consumers to try or re-buy the brand being advertised.
6. Brand Building Ability: The ability of the advertising to create, change or reinforce certain key predetermined brand
attributes (features, benefits, feelings) as encompassed in the brands positioning objectives and strategy.
7. Involvement: The ability of the advertising to involve the consumers, or keep him/her interested.
8. Brand fit: The ability of the advertising to demonstrate brand fit, or keep him/her interested.
9. Creative Diagnostics: The pre-test should elicit a host of creative diagnostics to help answer the whys? that always
emerge from behind the above measures.
A. Print Pretesting
a. Consumer Jury Test, b. Portfolio test, c. Paired comparison test, d. Order-of-merit test, e. Mock magazine test, f.
Direct mail test.
1. Consumer Jury test: Few consumers form a group and act as jury to show their preferences for one or two ads
out of several being considered. The jury members rank the ads and respond to the questions like which was the
most impressive ad or which ad provoked you most to go ahead and buy the product or which ad did you notice
first and so on.
2. Portfolio test: Along with the regular advertisements some dummy copies are kept in a folio. Then the
consumer-sample sees the folio. The consumer is then asked about what he has seen in each ads. The ad giving
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minimum playback is considered the best. But then it is necessary to observe whether the chosen advertisement
is dummy or regular. If found dummy the actual one is improved on the same lines.
Paired comparison test: In the paired comparison test at a time two ad copies are compared one-to-one. Every
single ad is compared with all others. Sources are recorded on cards. They are summed up. The winner gets the
highest score. This technique is easier than order of merit. Till ten copies, there is good accuracy; which later
decreases. The number of comparisons one is required to make with the help of the following formula:
n. (n-l) / 2. Where n= the number of ads to be rested.
Order-of-merit test: Here the ranking of the advertisements are done by a group of people called the jurors.
The point system is given to an average of 4-5 copies that they are given to rank. The order of merit is the one,
which determine which the best advertisement by the jurors is and which has been rated as the worst. The points
given by the jurors are then added together to determine which is the ad, which has got the maximum points.
This is the one that is the chosen one.
Mock (dummy) magazine test: Unlike the above method of keeping the advertisements in a folio, test ads
are introduced in a real magazine to an experimental group to read. The control group is also exposed to the
same magazine, but is without test ads. Later a recall test is conducted to assess the effectiveness I test ads
Readers are told the magazines publisher is interested in evolutions of editorial content and asked to read the
magazines as they normally a would. In an improvement on the portfolio test, ads are placed in dummy
magazines developed by an agency or research firm. The magazines combine regular editorial features of
interest to the reader, as well as the test ads, and are distributed to a random sample of homes in predetermined
geographic arrears. Then they are interview-generating capabilities of the ads are assessed. The advantage of
this method is that it provides a more natural setting than the portfolio tests. Readership occurs in the
participants own home, the test more closely approximates a natural reading situation, and the reader any go
back to the magazines, as people typically do.
Direct mail test: A group of prospects are selected from the mailing list randomly and are sent different test
ads. Then to measure the response, the orders against each lot are noted.
B. Broad casting Pretesting

a. Trailer tests, b. Theatre tests, c. Live telecast tests, d. Clutter tests
a. Trailer tests: Two groups of customers are considered. Both are given discount coupons to purchase the brand
under consideration and are invited to shop in a real life shopping environment, a departmental store, a
shopping centre etc. The prospects are invited to the display their products. Now one group is shown the test ads
whereas the other group is not. The redemption rate of coupons is measured for both groups which may give an
idea about the effectiveness of test ads.
b. Theatre test: During a regular show in a theatre, advertisements are shown in regular slots and are tested for
recall. The audiences in the theatre are unaware of the tests and are asked to recall the ad. Consumers in the
theatre are asked then to remember the ad (or maybe even all the ads) to check if the ad is clutter breaking.
c. Live telecast tests: Ads are put on air either by narrow casting or live telecasting. These ads are test ads, and
not the regular ads. Later, viewers are interviewed to know their reactions. Here the inaccuracies of artificial
testing environment are not encountered.
d. Clutter test: Advertising or marketing clutter refers to the large volume of advertising messages that the
average consumer is exposed to on a daily basis. This phenomenon results from a marketplace that is
overcrowded with products leading to huge competition for customers. It is the method of pre-testing in which
commercials are grouped with non-competitive control commercials and shown to prospective customers to
measure their effectiveness in gaining attention, increasing brand awareness and comprehension, and causing
attitude shifts. Commercials are shown with non competing control ads to determine attitude shifts and detect
weaknesses.
C. Challenges to pre-testing
Example: The Halo effect
a. HALO EFFECT: The tendency for an impression created in one area to influence opinion in another area
Halo effect is the greatest limitation of pretesting. When we like or dislike one aspect of the ad good, we are likely to
make a similar evaluation in other aspects of the ads. Factors other than advertising creatively and/or presentation may
affect recall during pre-testing. Interest in the product or product category, the fact that respondents know they are
participating in a test, or interviewer instructions (among others) may account for more differences than the ads itself.
In marketing, a halo effect is one where the perceived positive features of a particular item extend to a broader brand. It
has been used to describe how the iPod has had positive effects on perceptions of Apple Computer are other products.
Sometimes participants rate an ad good on all characteristics because they like a few and overlook specific weaknesses.
This tendency, called the halo effect, distorts the ratings and defeats the ability to control for specific components. Of
course, the reverse may also occur-rating an ad bad overall due to only a few bad attributes. The phrase was first coined
by Edward Thorndike, a psychologist who used it in a study published in 1920 to describe the way that commanding
officers rated their soldiers. He found that officers usually judged their men as being either good right across the board
or bad. There was little mixing of traits; few people were said to be good in one respect but bad in another.
Other challenges to pretesting:
b. Recall may not be the best. Some researchers argue that for certain types of products (those of low involvement)
ability to recognize the ads when shown may be better measures than recall.
c. Limitation of the juror: Jury selected may not be competent enough to evaluate the ad copy.
d. Limited concepts: Even the quantity of concepts exposed to the respondents is limited. Here creativity is
restricted.
e. Subjective reaction on the part of consumers noticed by researchers when attempting to analyze consumer
attitudes and their relationship to the market structure, particularly in the area of advertising or brand evaluation.
For example, in theory, an individual should be able to evaluate each feature of a given brand independently and
should have no difficulty giving a high rating to one feature while giving another a low rating. However, in
practice, researchers have noticed that respondents have a tendency to give a high rating to all the brand's
features if they like the brand, and a low rating to all the features if they do not like the brand. This is known as
a halo effect.
4. Post-testing
a. Recall tests, b. Recognition test, c. Triple association test, d. Sales effect tests ,e. Sales results tests, f. Enquires test
Post-Testing:
This is the testing, which is done after the ad copy has come out in the media and the audience has seen the
advertisement. Post-testing typically involves interviewing readers to determine how many remember seeing a particular
ad, if they read it, and what they remember about it. Post-testing or Ad tracking, as otherwise known, can be customised
or syndicated. Tracking studies provide either periodic or continuous in-market research monitoring a brands
performance, including brand awareness, brand preference, product usage and attitudes. Advertising tracking can be
done by telephone interviews or online interviewswith the two approaches producing fundamentally different
measures of consumer memories of advertising, recall versus recognition.
Purpose of Post Testing:
The purpose of ad tracking is generally to provide a measure of the combined effect of the media weight or spending
level, the effectiveness of the media buy or targeting, and the quality of the advertising executions or creative. Some
newer forms of online tracking, separate the issues of the quality of the creative component from the quality of the
media buy and instead focus on the relative performance of ads versus the competitive ads that are airing at the same
time. All forms of tracking data are used to provide inputs to Marketing Mix Models which marketing science
statisticians build to estimate advertising return on investment (ROI).
Some ad tracking studies are conducted by telephone while others are conducted on the Internet. The two approaches
produce very different measures of advertising awareness because the interviews tap into consumer memories of
advertising using fundamentally different measures, recall versus recognition.
Post-testing measures the following factors:
Has the advertisement campaign result in sales?
Has it created memorability for the brand name?
Has it created positive image and a favorable attitude towards the company and the brand?
How much advertising is necessary on a continued basis, to sustain the same level of consumers interest in the
brand?
Are the consumers convinced that the brand is superior of competitors
The purpose of post-testing is as below:
To find out the impact of an ad in terms of it being noticed, seen and read.
To find out its credibility.
To find out its comprehension
To measure its memorability.
To assess its effect on buyers.
To assess its fit with the promotion and marketing mix
To assess whether it has achieved its objectives.
To assess the relative effectiveness of different copies and media plans.
To improve future advertising efforts.
The post-testing methods.

This actually gives us an idea about the actual performance of the ad in terms of exposure, perception, communication
and sales effect. We can assess the credibility and comprehension of the ads.
Few of the methods of this type of tests are:
1. Recall tests: In this type of tests the individuals are asked to answer about the ads entirely on the basis of
their memory. It could be aided recall, where they are given few cues to help them recall and unaided recall,
which of course is based on memory alone.
Unaided Recall Tests: This is a kind of recall test where the respondents are not given any clue to recall
the ad. This proves to be more demanding than the aided recall, as respondents recalling the brands without
help shows a greater degree of penetration of the ad.
Types of Unaided Recall:
x Day-After- Recall (DAR): One day after the advertisement appears the readers or viewers are
questioned after that.
x Total Prime Time (TPT): Here the main item of research is viewers television viewing time.
2. Recognition test: It determines the readership of advertisements in the publications and is conducted by
personal interviews with readers and magazines or newspapers. The interviewers locate the readers of the
particular issue of the publication in questions. They then go through the publication, page by page, with the
respondent indicating those advertising elements which he or she recognizes as having read.
The scores developed by the recognition method indicate the proportion of qualified readers of a publication
who claim to have seen (noted), read some or read most of the individual advertisements. The above
describes the method used for post-test, In a pre-test, a portfolio of advertisements is used. The respondent
is asked to go through the portfolio, then it is taken away, and the respondent is asked; What advertisements
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do you remember seeing?' the recognition test may thus be combined with the recall or impact test which
has been described below.
Triple association test: This test measures how much a viewer or reader has learnt about the brand from
the advertisement. The respondent is told about some product feature or benefit and he is to find the brand
name for that. For example if a respondent is asked that which toothpaste ad shows that it has salt in it and
the respondent says Colgate active salt we understand that the learning objective of the advertisement is
successful. Here the respondent is given certain cues wherein he can relate to a certain brand. Another
example Thanda Matlab, if the answer is coca cola, then it is correct. And if the respondent is able to
connect the product with the company then it is a triple association.
Sales effect tests: They measure the various stages of buyer awareness, preference, buying intention and
actual purchase in relation to actual advertising effort.
Sales results tests: The additional sales generated by the ads are recorded. It is difficult however to
correlate an increase in sales to advertising alone. Following are some of sales results tests which measure
the additional sales generated by the ads. Past Sales before and after the ad are recorded and the difference
is accounted for as an impact of advertisement. An audit may be run on the dealers inventory before and
after the advertisement.
Enquires test: Some consumer durables companies issue coupons as a part of the advertisement copy and
when they are circulated to the customers, they are supposed to fill it up and send it back to the company.
So when the customers are filling in the coupons they are seeing the ad copy as well. So from the number of
coupons received estimation can be made as to the number of the readership of the advertisement.
Attitude test: The change in attitude of the customers after the advertisement campaign is measured and
marketers observe whether there has been any change in the customers attitude towards the brand under
investigation. Further they assume that a positive attitude towards their brand may lead to further purchases.
Generally the attitude is measured by rating it on a scales like Likert Scale, Thurstone scale, Differential
Scale, Guttman Scale etc. Thus like any other aspect of market research, advertising research also aims
towards the investigation of various real facts from the market. It attempts to measure and evaluate the
effectiveness of the communication efforts of the organisations. On these evaluations, many important
strategic communication decisions depend. Hence it proves to be a very important area as today the
organisations know that apart from the sales figures, brand image and goodwill are also very important
which depends a lot on the advertising efforts.
Neuroscience in Advertising Research

1. Neuroscience: A New Perspective
2. When to Use Neuroscience
According to the old scientific paradigm in neuroscience, the human brain is much like the hardware of a computer. It is
viewed as a material system hardwired with biologically predetermined neural circuitry or pathways that produce our
behavior. This old thinking in neuroscience also asserts that whatever one might call the immaterial consciousness or
mindand all its manifestations, such as awareness and choiceis produced by, and ultimately reduced to the
physical brain. The critics of this kind of older neuroscience have labeled such a conception as monism,
reductionism and materialism.
A new approach
In traditional research, youd show a commercial to someone and ask, What did you like or not like about it? and
youd get some diagnostics. But by applying neuroscience, we can tell on a second-by-second basis what sections of
that commercial people were paying attention to and which werent they, he explains. Were there portions of the
commercial where there was absolutely no memory activation? What parts made them lean in or lean back emotionally?
Its a level of granularity that just hasnt been available to marketers before and provides a lot of rich diagnostics on
how commercials are working. And if there are parts that arent working, it helps to determine why they arent and how
to fix and optimise the communication.
Some of the biggest global multi-national companies are actually starting to replace traditional research techniques with
these newer techniques. Theyre still the early adopters, but they have moved past the experimentation stage and are
actually moving to full-scale use of these techniques globally. And as these techniques are used on a more global scale,
some interesting points have emerged across different audiences.
From neuroscience and behavioural economics, it is learning that people are not aware of many of their responses, such
as what makes them decide which brand to buy. By using neuroscience to go beyond the stated information and into
understanding the full range of responseboth implicit and explicitthey are able to obtain much richer data and much
greater insight into what really makes effective advertising. As a result, the company expects dramatic improvements
over what has been measured in the past.
Martin Lindstroms 2008 book Buyology makes a similarly strong claim: that neuroscience will play a revolutionary
role in research and marketing in the future. As a result, many marketers are challenging accepted modes of advertising
development and research on the grounds that neuroscience says that what weve done before is wrong. However, we
dont believe that marketers need to turn their backs on tried-and-true research techniques in favor of the apparent
objectivity of neuroscience. Rather, marketers should use neuroscience-based research in conjunction with established
techniques when (and only when) it adds value. If used in isolation, such methods can be hard to interpret, but when
combined with qualitative or survey-based research, they can add a powerful new dimension of insight.
Neuroscience can be use to evaluate marketing communicationswhether its a television commercial, print ad, or
store circular and that is what ultimately creates a commercial. The agency recruit people to come in for a test and
expose them to the commercial. While theyre watching it, researcher record their brain response and pair that with eye
tracking so that they can understand where theyre looking and pair that with the brain response.
Through those things, the researcher can diagnose which portions of the commercials are working well, as well as
which ones have problems and what the problems were; the traditional way is just to ask people, but there is a limit to
what people can tell you. Neuroscience shows that at least half of what goes on in our brains is below the level of
consciousness, yet its proven that it strongly affects your behaviour. Thats why this research is so valuable; people
want to be able to see the other half of the picture.
Proven success: By measuring both conscious and subconscious reactions of consumers, Research agency are able to
provide services to clients that help them gain a more holistic picture of their audience, resulting in actionable
recommendations to improve response to their marketing communications. This enables marketing to optimise their
various consumer touch points and improve a brands resonance with consumers, and their clients are already reaping
the benefits.
When to Use Neuroscience

Clearly, these three neuroscience-based research techniques have value to offer. We believe that they tend to add the
most value when dealing with needs and situations such as the following:
Sensitive material: Qualitative and survey methods are most vulnerable to distortion when sensitive material
is involved. Methods that dont rely on explicit questions can reveal unstated attitudes more effectively.
Abstract or higher order ideas: Consumers may find it difficult to express some of the abstract ideas at the
heart of some brands positionings. Implicit association methods are useful to probe for ideas that participants
might be too self-conscious to verbalize, or simply unable to articulate.
A need to probe for transient responses to ads or brand experiences: Consumers are great at talking about
the gist of an ad or brand, but they may not be able to explain how they got there. Eye-tracking and EEG can
help researchers fill in the blanks by identifying the focus of attention and illustrating the highs and lows of
emotional and cognitive response to a piece of creative.
A need to understand consumers feelings : When questions are framed correctly, consumers can talk about
their feelings in response to surveys and qualitative research. But neuroscience-based methods can add an
additional level of detail about the timing of these responses and their origins.
Advertising and emotion: Studies of emotion are crucial to advertising research as it has been shown that
emotion plays a significant role in ad memorization. Classically in advertising research, the theory has been that
emotion and ratio are represented in different regions of the brain, but neuroscience may be able to disprove this
theory by showing that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the striatum play a role in bilateral emotion
processing. The attractiveness of the advertisements correlates with specific changes in brain activity in various
brain regions including the medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate, nucleus accumbens and higher-order
visual cortices. This may represent an interaction between the perceived attractiveness of the ad by the
consumer and the emotions expressed by the people pictured in the advertisement. It has been suggested that
ads that use people with positive emotions are perceived as attractive while ads using exclusively text or
depicting people with neutral expressions may generally be viewed as unattractive. Unattractive ads activate the
anterior insula, which plays a role in the processing of negative emotions. Both attractive and unattractive ads
have been shown to be more memorable than ads described as ambiguously attractive, but more research is
needed to determine how this translates to the overall brand perception in the eyes of the consumer and how this
may impact future purchasing behavior.
Mental processing of advertisements: There are various studies that have been conducted to research the
question of how consumers process and store the information presented in advertisements. Television
commercials with scene durations lasting longer than 1.5 seconds have been shown to be more memorable one
week later than scenes that last less than 1.5 seconds, and scenes that produce the quickest electrical response in
the left frontal hemisphere have been shown to be more memorable as well. It has been suggested that the
transfer of visual advertising inputs from short term memory to long term memory may take place in the left
hemisphere, and highly memorable ads can be created by producing the fastest responses in the left hemisphere.
However, these theories have been renounced by some who believe that the research findings may be attributed
to extraneous and unmeasured factors. There is also evidence to suggest that a front to back difference in
processing speed may be more influential on ad memorization than left to right differences. Research has shown
that there are certain periods of commercials that are far more significant for the consumer in terms of
establishing advertising effects. These short segments are referred to as branding moments and are thought to
be the most engaging parts of the commercial. These moments can be identified using an EEG and analyzing
alpha waves (813 Hz), beta waves (1330 Hz) and theta waves (47 Hz). These results may suggest that the
strength of a commercial with regard to its effect on the consumer can be evaluated by the strength of its unique
branding moments.
Affective vs. cognitive ads: Affective advertising (using comedy, drama, suspense, etc.) activates the
amygdala, the orbitofrontal cortices, and the brainstem whereas cognitive advertising (strict facts) mainly
activates the posterior parietal cortex and the superior prefrontal cortices. Ambler and Burne in 1999 created the
Memory-Affect-Cognition (MAC) theory to explain the processes involved in decision making. According to
the theory, the majority of decisions are habitual and do not require affect or cognition; they require memory
only. Most of the remaining decisions only require memory and affect; they do not require cognition. The main
use for cognition is in the form of rationalization following a particular action, however, there are occasional
instances in which memory, affect and cognition are all used in conjunction, such as during a debate about a
particular choice. The above findings suggest a correlation exists between ad memorization and the degree of
affective content within the advertisement, but it is still unclear how this translates to brand memory.
Physiological rating scales

1. Pupil metric devices,
2. Eye-movement camera,
3. Galvanometer,
4. Voice pitch analysis,
5. Brain pattern analysis

Advertisers also have access to a variety of physiological testing methods that measure involuntary responses to a
specific element of an advertisement. In this test, rather than what respondents say, what is considered more important is
the physiological reaction of the respondents. Physiological measures detect how consumers react to messages, based on
physical Reponses.
1. Pupil metric testing: Perceptoscope or Pupilometric Devices Record changes in pupils dilatation. Dilatation
indicates reading and attention. Contraction shows his dislike to what is being read. It evaluates interesting
appealing visual stimuli. It is developed by Eekhard Hess and James Polk. Left eye is photographed o record
dilatation.
Physiological Test Measures.
2. Eye-movement camera: It is used in advertising research; this equipment tracks the movement of the eye over
press advertisements, showing the path which the eye takes and indicating the sequence of interest that the
features arouse. It measures the eye movement over the layout of test ads. The route taken by the eye is noted.
T he
pauses
are
noted.
The
areas
of
interest
and
attention
can
be
judged.
Eye Movement Research

Objective:
To t rack eye movements t o det ermi ne . . .

What readers rea d on pr int ads
Where at t ent ion is f oc used in T V c ommerc ials
Method:
Eye movement s are t racked usi ng . . .

F iber opt ic s
Dig it al dat a proc essing
Advanc ed elect ronic s
Scan pat hs on
Pri nt ads and mat er ial

Bi ll boar ds
Co mme rc ials
Output:
Rel ati ons hi ps among what i s . . .

Se e n
Rec alle d
Co mpre hende d
Using EyeTracking to test ads
3. Galvanometric Response: It measures skin responses to ad stimuli like perspiration by gland activity through
palm. More perspiration decreases the resistance and faster current passes. The tension is generated. The greater it
is, the more effective the ad is. The technique is of limited use for ads of a very sensitive nature.
Galvanic skin response (GSR), [aka Electodermal response (EDR)]
Sensitive to affective stimulation
May present a picture of attention
May measure long-term recall
Useful in measuring effectiveness
4. Voice pitch analysis
A type of analysis that examines changes in the relative frequency of the human voice that accompany emotional
arousal. Greater the deviation from the persons normal (baseline) voice, the greater the emotional intensity of the
persons reaction to a stimulus, such as a question. Used in packaged research, to predict brand preference, and to
determine predisposition to buy a product. It is also now used to measure consumers emotional responses to
advertising. How ever, the validity of Voice Pitch studies is questionable.
5. Brain Wave Research:
Brain pattern analysis or Brain wave analysis equipment are non-invasive and resembles a pair of headphones. It
takes brain wave measurement continuously from the surface of the head and converts them into an Engagement
Index (EI) five times per second through a proprietary algorithm NASA. It helps in evaluating winners from alsorans, which ads do a better job of engaging the viewers. Brain waves measure the amount of energy being produced
by the brain moment-by-moment in real time, as a consumer watches an ad. The first Picture Sort is called the Flow
of Attention because it is a measure of selective attention and is, in fact, most predictive of the attention score of an
ad. But because visual recognition is collected after the fact, some minutes after images have been sorted out by the
brain and encoded into long-term memory, the Flow of Attention graph can also be interpreted as a map of
remembering and forgetting. The higher a picture is plotted on a Flow of Attention graph the more a consumer
audience remembers that image.
MODULE: VIII
MARKETING RESEARCH
1. Introduction to Marketing Research
2. New product research,
3. Branding Research,
4. Pricing research,
5. Packaging research,
6. Product testing
Introduction to Marketing Research

Marketing Research is the systematic and objective search for and analysis of information relevant to the identification
and solution of any problem in the field of marketing.
Marketing Research is the function which links the consumer, customer and public to the marketer through
information-information used to identify and define marketing opportunities and problems;generate,refine and evaluate
marketing actions; monitor marketing performance and improve understanding of marketing as a process.
(AMA-American Marketing Association).
Market research gives companies insight into how their market may react to these changes without the risk and expense
of implementing them. Oftentimes market research reveals serious flaws in a business plan that must be corrected before
launch; other times it confirms existing assumptions. Market research is about listening to people, analysing the
information to help organisations make better decisions and reducing the risk. It is about analysing and interpreting data
to build information and knowledge that can be used to predict, for example, future events, actions or behaviours. This
is where the real skill and value of market research lies.
Nature/Features of Marketing Research:
1. Continuous process: Marketing research is not only continuous but also a scientific and systematic process. It
is scientific and systematic because it has well-defined procedures. It is a process of generating and evaluating
data, and then refining it. It is professionally organized. It is a continuous process because every firm is faced
with problems and opportunities.
2. Wide scope: Marketing is a specialized activity. It encompasses several functions. Thus, marketing research
has a wide scope. It includes product research, market research, consumer research, promotion research,
international market research, price research and distribution research.
3. Aid to decision-making: It helps the managers take practical decisions. Decisions based on experience and
research is better than decisions based on intuition. Functions such as description, evaluation, explanation and
prediction by the marketing researcher help in practical decision-making. Thus, it an essential tool not only for
marketing managers but also for other functional managers.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Uncertainty of conclusions: Consumer is the focal point of marketing research. However, consumer behaviour
is difficult to judge precisely. It is not a physical science, but social science. Due to this inherent nature, it
suffers from certain levels of inaccuracy.
Applied research: Marketing research is not a fundamental research because it does not reveal conceptual
aspects. It is an applied research, as it begins with defining or identifying a problem or opportunity, and ends
with a follow-up of recommendations made from research. Moreover, it is related to the commercial aspects.
Commercial intelligence: Marketing research is equivalent of military intelligence. It provides vital insights
and information of product, price, place and promotional aspects. It is the soul of modem marketing
management.
Statistical tools: Various mathematical and statistical tools are used for data analysis and interpretation.
Percentages, ratios, averages, z-test, t-test, chi-square tests, etc. are used for presentation and interpretation of
findings. The use of computer software has made it more convenient for in-depth analysis, cross-sectional
studies, detection of errors in sampling and questionnaires.
Research approaches: A researcher has several options of research methodology. Methods include the field
survey method, the observation method and the experimental research. The choice depends on factors such as
time availability, funds, number of respondents to be covered, location of respondents and literacy levels.
Links a company to the consumers and public: Marketing research is a function that links a company to the
consumers, customers and public, through information. It evaluates marketing actions, marketing performances
and marketing processes. This evaluation results in collection of information that brings company closer to its
customer and society.
New product research

New product research helps you to understand what customers really want. Thus, allowing you to customize the
products according to the customers needs and offers you a competitive edge. New product research help companies
refine their product designs and strategies and also drive innovation, keeping them one step ahead in competition.
Product definition is a critical starting point in the development of any new product. New ideas for products and
services are conceived every day yet many of them fail because they werent properly introduced to the market. New
Product research helps ensure both that the product launch will hit the right buttons in the consumer, and ensures that
the product idea itself addresses the (often unspoken) desires of the customer. In general, we can speak of seven
different steps in the New Product research process: understanding the market and the competition, targeting the
customer, devising a unique value proposition, determining marketing strategy, testing the product and overall
approach, rolling out the campaign, and keeping track of the overall lifecycle.
Types of New product Research
1. New Markets/ Existing Products research: Every company has a product that can travel. It can travel to new
geographical markets or to new industry segments that have not been tapped before. New markets wherever
they are - new countries or new segments - carry risk. New Markets/ Existing Products research help collect
information on potential customers and markets wherever they are in the world. With this knowledge a
company can build growth and value more quickly and more securely than by working from guesswork.
2. Existing Markets/Existing Products research: For many companies, the first place to look for more sales is
amongst existing customers. Current customers have already made the ultimate gesture of approval and paid
money to buy your products. A bit more persuasion and they may buy more. However, how many companies
know their customer so well that they know if they have every available piece of business? Ask yourself the
following questions:
a. How much is each customer buying of the products (or services) I sell to them?
b. What share do my competitors and I have of each customer's account?
c. What does the customer think of me against the other suppliers it could or does use?
d. What would make each customer buy more
Existing Markets/Existing Products research answer these questions. This can be achieved by relatively
straightforward research. All that require is a customer list and a good briefing. An appropriate questionnaire is
designed; interviews are carrying out and report on how to win more business.
3. New Markets/New Products research: The most dangerous territory of all is that of new markets and new
products. Here market research is a must.
4. Existing Markets/New Products research: The assets of every company are its customers. Existing
customers know and trust the company sufficiently well to do business. So much so, they may give serious
consideration to buying a new product or service from the company. In the research researcher find the
opportunities for new products or services with existing customers as part of its new markets programme. In this
method researcher take a brief during which he would discuss the products company want to sell and learn
about their current customer. Researcher would then design a programme of interviews that could include face
to face and telephone contacts to determine how much business company could win and at what price.
4. Product specification:
x Organizing Customer Needs: Once customer needs are gathered, they then have to be organized. The
mass of interview notes, requirements documents, market research, and customer data needs to be
distilled into a handful of statements that express key customer needs. Affinity diagramming is a useful
tool to assist with this effort. Brief statements which capture key customer needs are transcribed onto
cards. A data dictionary which describes these statements of need are prepared to avoid any
misinterpretation. These cards are organized into logical groupings or related needs. This will make it
easier to identify any redundancy and serves as a basis for organizing the customer needs. In addition to
"stated" or "spoken" customer needs, "unstated" or "unspoken" needs or opportunities should be
identified. Needs that are assumed by customers and, therefore not verbalized, can be identified through
preparation of a function tree. Excitement opportunities (new capabilities or unspoken needs that will
cause customer excitement) are identified through the voice of the engineer, marketing, or customer
support representative. These can also be identified by observing customers use or maintain products
and recognizing opportunities for improvement.
x Comprehensive Specification: These customers needs then have to be translated into a set of product
requirements (more technical expressions of customer needs) that can be acted upon by Engineering.
Quality function deployment (QFD) is an excellent methodology to support this objective while
considering the competitive situation. QFD is a structured planning and decision-making methodology
for capturing customer needs and translating those requirements into product requirements, part
characteristics, process plans and quality/production plans through a series of matrices. These product
requirements are often expressed in the form of a product specification, functional specification, or
marketing requirements specification.
Seven steps of New Product research

1. Know your market and your competitors New Product research often reveals counter intuitive facts
about your market, even if you think you are already well acquainted with it. For example, research has
shown that snacks are often used as a meal substitute, and that therefore successful confectionery-type snack
products tend to be more foody than one might expect: ingredients like cereal, peanuts, biscuits, and fruit
which help break up the overall chocolate are very well received by customers. Similarly, the beginning of a
product launch also means understanding your competitors, and what products and services they have on offer.
Though you might believe theres currently no competition for your new product, put yourself in the shoes of
your customers and consider what they could buy instead of what youre planning to offer. Review
those competitors marketing materials, and evaluate how your new offering will stand up against whats
available. Where will you excel? Which companies or products are the greatest threats to a successful launch?
2. Target your customer: In order to get maximum results from your marketing with minimal cost, its crucial to
focus on those prospects most likely to buy from you. Perhaps they are currently buying a similar product and
will appreciate your new offerings added features. The best customers perceive they have a need for your
product, have the ability to buy it, and have already demonstrated a willingness to make the purchase (perhaps
by buying from the competition). In general, its much easier to fill an existing need than it is to create a new
one.
3. Devise your Unique Value Proposition: Why will customers want to purchase from you, compared with the
competition? What are you offering that makes you stand out? Not only does your new product or service have
to be unique and meet your customers desires and needs, but you must be able to communicate why and how
it does so. This is your Unique Value Proposition, and an excellent way to come up with one is by speaking
with customers to see what they value.
4. Determine your marketing strategy: At this point you will have enough information on your market to
understand how to best market and sell your product. What channels should you use via retailers?
Catalogues? Online? Using multiple channels is, as most marketers are aware, an excellent idea.
Also remember to consider direct response marketing, whi1ch can offer extreme levels of ROI.
5. Test your product and overall approach: How will your product fly when your customers have it in their
hands? Ultimately the customers response will determine which features to emphasise and which
marketing approach to use, so product testing is crucial. Product testing can be as simple as having a research
participant test a single product (monadic testing) and fill out a suvey on the key performance indicators like
likelihood of purchase. Or, it can go into the various sensory qualities (appearance, flavour, etc) and make use
of sophisticated video recording and observational techniques. You should also test your marketing message
and marketing materials. With all the money youll be spending on advertising, its worth making sure your ads
and graphics and packaging will be well-received by the customers. Testing here might range from
traditional focus groups to mall intercept studies and online research. Whatever methods you use, you should
not finalise your marketing materials until testing is complete.
6. Roll out your marketing campaign: Once it comes time to launch, youll want to employ both advertising
and public relations to maximize the impact of your new product launch. Media relations, for example, can
help you get articles and press coverage on the new product, or build buzz that drives interest in the new item.
Whichever you choose, of course, be sure the product is completely available for purchase if the product is
not yet in stock when the coverage hits, consumers may be disappointed. Market research plays a role here too,
of course: especially in the first few weeks, youll want to monitor the results of your campaign and adjust your
techniques to focus on those that work best.
7. Monitor your product lifecycle: Finally, as your product matures youll start to see points of diminishing
return that mean its time to alter your marketing message, revise the packaging, alter the product itself, or
even start to phase it out to make room for your next big idea.
3. Branding Research
Manufacturers, traders and consumers support branding practice as it is useful to them in different ways. Large number
of products is sold in the market by brand name as consumers develop affinity to such brands and refer to them when
they visit retail shops. In order to secure these advantages, brand selected should be promising. An ideal brand needs
certain qualities. For example, it should be brief, simple and easy to remember and pronounce. Similarly, it should be
suggestive, decent, attractive and as per the current tests and fashions accepted by consumers. Research department
suggests appropriate brand names to the products of the company. For this, surveys are conducted and information is
collected through interviews, etc.
Such studies offer suitable guidance to management for the introduction of appropriate brand name for the product.
The research team will provide necessary information on the basis of which the management will have to take final
decision regarding brand name. This decision is critical as the results (good or bad) will be available only when the
brand is actually introduced in the market.
Various Branding research Methods

Branding Research can be done at every stage of Brand building process, the various researches related to Brands
are:
1. Brand Character Research: A brand research tool is introduced called Ethography. Ethography is the study of a
brands ethos, its underlying character and influence. Ethography is the intimate study of a brands values, beliefs and
character. These things reveal a companys internal culture and they spring from leadership vision and values. They set
the tone for how key relationships are nourished. Knowing that all markets evolve, that consumer tastes evolve, and that
important values and meanings in society also evolve, tells us that successful brands must evolve as well. Its simply not
reasonable to expect that a brand field defined twenty, ten, or even three years ago will resonate as strongly with the
customers of today. Hence, a formal study of brand meaning is essential, and brand ethography is an important tool for
doing this work.
The brand character research can be done using both qualitative and quantitative techniques.
Qualitative research involves the understanding of:
x Personality of each option
x Fit with the name of each option
x Fit with the brand association of each option
x Fit on the pack
x Fit with the proposed role in advertising of each option
x Comparison among the character options
x Fit with specific brand extension options
x Quantitative research focuses on ascertaining the following information:
x Thoughts evoked by each options, and grouping of these thoughts as positive and negative
x Likeability of each option
x Specific likes and dislikes of each option
x Uniqueness of each option
x Comparison of each option with the symbols of the competition
x Rating of each options fit with the pack
x Preference amongst symbol options
x Preference amongst name options
2. Brand Logo Research: When a new logo is to be chosen it is always advisable to evaluate it among two independent
sets of people one to evaluate the logo in isolation and the other to evaluate the logo on the pack. Evaluation of logo in
isolation looks at its likeability, distinctiveness, comprehension of message conveyed, by logo options, preference
among logo options, and preference of logo among key competition. Evaluation of logo on the pack also looks at the
same alternatives along with the speed with which the respondent would identify the test logo pack among a clutter of
other similar packs. This helps to evaluate how the logo would stand out in the shelf.
3. Brand Name Research: A Brand name research is important for any brand throughout its lifecycle. It involves
personal interviews in which some basic concept statements may be exposed to respondents along with the name. then
the respondent are asked to recall the name after having read the same. This indicates the names notice ability and ease
of recall. Then spontaneous responses are ascertained to name in terms of:
Latent Association
x What thoughts come to mind upon hearing this name?
x What negative and positive associations exist with new corporate name, product name or service name?
What barriers have to be overcome with negative latent associations? How does sound symbolism or
phonosemantics (the meaning of sounds) affect the evaluation of a name's latent association?
x What does the name mean to you?
x How would you pronounce this name?

x What do you particularly like/dislike about this name?
x Which product the name suit? Or not suit?
x Which name you like the most and why?
After the ascertaining the responses to these, a preference ranking is done of the names and the best among them is
chosen. This methood also helps in ascertaining the names ability to communicate to the respondent, the barriers to
comprehension, descriptiveness of the name etc.
4. Brand Association Research: For existing brands or existing competition of new brands, respondents mind would
already have brand associations. In such cases, the evaluation should include the following questions:
x Ascertain the current state of affairs, without exposing the respondents to the new concepts
x Expose new concepts
x Ascertain the response to new concepts
x Compare the responses generated before and after exposure of new concepts to understand their effects.
5. Brand Loyalty Research: Brand Loyalty research explore the relationship among brand trust, brand affect, and
brand performance outcomes (market share and relative price) with an emphasis on understanding the linking role
played by brand loyalty. Brand Loyalty research generate both statistical and qualitative data benchmarked,
comparative and evaluative measures. These, combined with specific diagnostic data, provide the tools to effect
improvements:
Overall satisfaction
Ratings of performance on specific aspects of the product/service
Reasons for lack of satisfaction/poor ratings
Salience and hierarchy of needs/preferences/expectations
Gap Analysis/Strategic Priority Analysis
Loyalty and propensity to recommend/re-purchase
Drivers of satisfaction and loyalty
Reputation/image of the brand
Value for money
Customer Segmentation
and include, where feasible, lapsed and potential customers
6. Brand Health research: The health of a brand is measured by its brand equity. Brands with high equity can
command and sustain price premiums and are more successful with line extensions and new category entries.
Brand Health research allows companies to set competitive brand strategies and provides brand with a Brand Equity
Index. The BEI can be analysed in relation to the brands market share and will help determine whether the brands
share gain is at the expense of long-term brand equity or whether the brand has the potential to expand its market share.
7. Brand awareness research: Brand awareness studies are a relatively quick way to check on your brands position
with consumers in relation to your competition. Done right, these important questions allow you to adapt your
marketing strategy to changing market conditions quickly and accurately.
Four Vital Measurements in a Brand Awareness Study
Each brand faces unique challenges that they will need to address in their brand awareness studies new competition
or a product recall, for example but addressing these four pieces will give you an accurate picture of how your brand
stands.
a. General Brand Awareness: This is often tracked through measures of brand recall and recognition. A brand
that is easily recalled in certain situations is more likely to be considered for purchase than one that is only
recognized when the consumer is prompted.
b. Brand Usage: This can be measured through recency (how recently a consumer engaged with your product),
frequency of usage, and total spending in the brand and product categories. These brand tracking measures
reveal insights about consumer shopping behavior and preferences. They are also indicators of market share and
share of wallet.
c. Brand Attitudes and Perceptions: These are usually captured through questions related to brand image and
associations that consumers develop based on their experience with the brand and exposure to its message
through PR, advertising, and promotional programs. Brand associations include beliefs about product- and nonproduct related attributes and benefits, as well as perceptions related to price and value. Some brand
associations are stronger than others, are more easily recalled, and are appealing enough that they become a
driver in a consumers decision to buy a brand.
d. Purchase Intent: Measures of likelihood to buy a brand or switch to a competitor are also indicators of brand
health that should be part of brand awareness studies. These questions should be asked in the context of a
specific product or brand, reason for the purchase, time, channel, price, and other relevant factors in the
purchasing decision.
4. Pricing Research
Pricing research involves first a pricing strategy assessment supported by strong pricing research capabilities. Sound
pricing market research requires a broad strategic perspective together with a focus on your pricing decision options.
Pricing research finds optimum price-product-feature configurations in the context of market positioning opportunities.
Pricing studies, we employ both qualitative research and quantitative research tools.Pricing research usually
concentrates on customers' sensitivity to pricing. This price sensitivity is driven by the nature of the market, the target
within that market, the differentiation level of product or service, and the value of brand.
Pricing is one of the more technical areas of market research.
Pricing research involves pricing strategy assessment supported by strong pricing research capabilities. Sound pricing
market research requires a broad strategic perspective together with a focus on pricing decision options. Pricing research
usually concentrates on customers' sensitivity to pricing. This price sensitivity is driven by the nature of the market, the
target within that market, the differentiation level of product or service, and the value of brand. Pricing is one of the
more technical areas of market research.
There are Six main approaches:
Several different research methods are commonly used in pricing researcheach with their own strengths and
weaknesses. There are four techniques that are commonly used the four techniques are:
1. Gabor-Granger
2. Van Westendorp Price Sensitivity Meter
3. Concept Test
4. Conjoint Analysis
5. Brand Price Trade-Off (BPTO)
6. Discrete Choice Modeling
1. The GaborGranger method is a method to determine the price for a new product or service. It was developed
in the 1960s by Clive Granger and Andr Gabor. To use the Gabor Granger method in a survey, one must find
the highest price that respondents are willing to pay. There are many ways to do this but the most common is
usually done by choosing 5 price points for the survey and then asking the respondent a 5-point purchase intent
question for a random price from those 5 established price points. If the respondent answers in the top 2 for this
question, they are then asked the same question for a random price that is higher than was just asked. If it is not
top 2 then the respondent is asked the same question for a random lower price. This is done until you find the
highest price the respondent is top 2 on purchase intent. If they are not top 2 for the lowest of the 5 prices, the
respondent is usually coded as a zero or deleted from the analysis. For example, say the 5 prices chosen are $1,
$2, $3, $4 and $5. A first random chosen price might be $4. If the respondent is top 2 on purchase intent, then
there is only $5 left higher so the respondent is asked purchase intent at that price. If they are top 2 on $5 then
the respondent is coded $5 as this is the highest price they are top 2 to pay. If they are not top 2 on $5 then the
respondent is coded as $4 as this was the highest price they are willing to pay. If the respondent is not top 2 on
$4, then they are asked a random lower price. Continue until you have found the highest price the respondent is
top 2 box on purchase intent. This is your Gabor-Granger variable. Once you have this Gabor Granger variable,
the results can be used to produce a demand chart (where x-axis are the prices and y axis the percentage of
people willing to pay that price) and a revenue curve (where y-axis is the percentage of optimal revenue and xaxis is still price).
2. Van Westendorp Price Sensitivity Meter: The traditional PSM approach asks four price-related questions,
which are then evaluated as a series of four cumulative distributions, one distribution for each question. The
standard question formats can vary, but generally take the following form:
x At what price would you consider the product to be so expensive that you would not consider buying it?
(Too expensive)
x At what price would you consider the product to be priced so low that you would feel the quality couldnt
be very good? (Too cheap)
x At what price would you consider the product starting to get expensive, so that it is not out of the question,
but you would have to give some thought to buying it? (Expensive/High Side)
x At what price would you consider the product to be a bargaina great buy for the money? (Cheap/Good
Value)
The cumulative frequencies are plotted, and PSM advocates claim interpretive qualities exist for any
intersecting of the cumulative frequencies for each of the four price categories. Note that the standard method
requires that two of the four cumulative frequencies must be inverted in order to have the possibility of four
intersecting points. Conventional practice inverts the cumulative frequencies for "too cheap" and "cheap".
3. Concept Test/Concept Evaluation: The standard purchase intent question from a concept test is also
commonly used for pricing research. Respondents are presented with a product concept and asked how likely
they would be to purchase this product at a specific price. Typically the researcher will expose independent
samples of respondents to different prices. The standard purchase intent question is shown below.
(After introducing the product concept)

How likely, would you be to purchase this product in the next 12 months
if it costs Rs 9000?
Definitely would purchase
Probably would purchase
Might or might not purchase
Probably would not purchase
Definitely would not purchase
To evaluate price sensitivity using this example, a sample of respondents evaluates this concept at Rs 9000, a
different sample of respondents evaluates the same concept at Rs5000, and another sample of respondents
evaluates the concept at Rs 14000.
A demand curve is constructed by evaluating purchase intent at each price

4. Conjoint analysis: Conjoint (trade-off) analysis is one of the most widely-used quantitative methods in
Marketing Research. It is used to measure preferences for product features, to learn how changes to price affect
demand for products or service, and to forecast the likely acceptance of a product if brought to market. Like
concept tests, conjoint analysis presents concepts to respondents. However, instead of exposing each respondent
to a single concept, in conjoint analysis each respondent is exposed to many concepts. For each treatment,
respondents are asked to make hypothetical trade-offs between configured products. Like concept tests, conjoint
analysis presents concepts to respondents. However, instead of exposing each respondent to a single concept, in
conjoint analysis each respondent is exposed to many concepts. For each treatment, respondents are asked to
make hypothetical trade-offs between configured products. For example, a respondent might be asked to
express his preference between two VCR alternatives, as follows:
In conjoint analysis, respondents are forced to make trade-offs between products and product features, much as
buyers are forced to do when actually shopping. Each respondent answers a series of trade-off questions; in
each question the combination of features shown together changes. In this way, a large number of product
features can be evaluated. Each respondent provides enough information through his or her trade-offs that the
utility of each product characteristic (including price) can be estimated for each respondent. This individuallevel estimation allows for the identification of individual differences that can lead to a market segmentation
scheme and can be used to help predict acceptance of products by different individuals in a heterogeneous
market. These utilities also allow prediction of preference for any product that can be defined using the product
characteristics in the study. These preferences can be modeled in a market simulator. A market simulator allows
what-if analysis for any configuration of products in any competitive environment. A demand curve can be
produced from these simulations.
5. Brand Price Trade-Off (BPTO): Brand Price Trade-Off (BPTO) technique is a variation of the Conjoint
Analysis, where several brands are shown at once and the customer chooses the preferred option. This technique
is used to identify the impact of price increases and decreases on the sales of the brand. Unlike Gabor Granger
technique and Van Westendorp Price Sensitivity Monitor (PSM) techniques it is also capable of providing the
response to competitors changes in price and provides an analysis of gains and losses. This technique also
helps identify how much premium a brand can charge. In this case customers evaluate a range of products and
prices are adjusted until customers stop purchasing.
6. Discrete Choice: Choice-Based Conjoint (CBC) is used for discrete choice modeling, a research technique
that is now the most often used conjoint-related method in the world. The main characteristic distinguishing
choice-based from other types of conjoint analysis is that the respondent expresses preferences by choosing
from sets of concepts, rather than by rating or ranking them. The choice-based task is similar to what buyers
actually do in the marketplace. Choosing a preferred product from a group of products is a simple and natural
task that everyone can understand. CBC is often used to study the relationship between price and demand, and
is especially useful when the price-demand relationship differs from brand to brand, and when only a few
features need to be considered. One of the strengths of CBC is its ability to deal with interactions, such as when
different brands have different sensitivities to price changes. Most conjoint methods are based on "main effects
only" models that ignore the existence of such interactions. In contrast, CBC may be used to evaluate all two-
way interactions. The researcher must decide on attributes and their levels, and compose whatever explanatory
text is desired for the interview screens. Apart from that, everything can be done automatically. The CBC
System provides all the tools needed to conduct a choice-based conjoint study via Web, CAPI (PCs not
connected to the Web), or paper-based surveys. Our CBC system includes three analysis modules and a market
simulation module for testing "what if" scenarios. In discrete choice, the respondent is presented with a set of
products and the respondent is asked to pick one, as illustrated below
The results from discrete choice modeling are very similar to those from conjoint. For instance, both approaches
are able to produce utilities at the individual level, and both discrete choice and conjoint allow what-if
simulations. Discrete choice modeling has been used with great success in pricing research
5. Packaging Research
MEANING OF PACKAGING RESEARCH: Packaging research is one aspect of product research. It deals with the
needs and expectations of consumers about the package (size, shape,colour combination, durability, material used, etc.)
used. Packaging research is useful for making product packages secured, attractive and agreeable to consumers.
Packaging research plays a positive role in modem marketing.
It acts as a sales promotion technique.
It makes the product attractive and agreeable to consumers.
Packaging needs constant changes as per the expectations of consumers and also as per the current trends in
packaging designs.
For achieving these objectives, packaging research is useful.
Moreover, the advantages of packaging (as noted above) indicate the importance and need of packaging and packaging
research. For large-scale marketing, attractive packaging is a must. It should be used for established as well as for new
products. In addition, renovations should be made in the packages after some interval.
For this package research is useful. Manufacturers, in India, now take active interest in package research. As a result, we
observe new packages of varied sizes, shapes and colour combinations in the market for all types of products
particularly consumer items such as soaps, cosmetics and oils.
Packaging research has special significance in export marketing as packaging of export items needs to be safe, secured,
and also attractive to foreign buyers. Packaging needs to be as per the standard packaging norms used in different
countries. In addition, packaging of export items needs to be as per the legal provisions made in different countries.
Moreover, packaging rules and procedures are very strict in European countries.
WHY PACKAGING RESEARCH UNDERTAKEN?
Packaging research is undertaken in order to find out
reasonably correct and reliable answers to the following packaging problems/issues:
(1) Whether the existing package used for the specific product is attractive and agreeable to consumers and is also as per
the current trends in the field of packaging.
(2) Whether certain modifications/alterations are necessary in the existing packages (used by the company) so as to
make them attractive and as per the tastes and requirements of consumers.
(3) Whether the existing packages are eco-friendly (in regard to material used and colour-combination) and to
introduce suitable modifications in them so as to make them eco-friendly. (e.g., avoiding the use of thin plastic bag or
replacement of plastic containers through the use of thick paper, wood, etc.)
(4) Whether the packaging material used is safe, durable and gives full protection to the product against moisture, light,
high temperature and shock and whether any other material which is more economical and safe can be used/introduced.
(5) Whether the existing package gives clearly visible identity to the product and its brand.
(6) Whether the cost of packaging is high and how to bring down the packaging cost and thereby to make the product
competitive as well as attractive in the market.
(7)Whether the existing package facilitates proper disposal or reuse of the packaging material after the use of the
product.
(8) Whether there is scope for improvement in the packaging so as to make it attractive, eco-friendly and easily/quickly
saleable.
Package graphics and copy are critical marketing variables in many product categories, particularly for non advertised
or
under
advertised
brands
in
self-serve
shopping
environments.
The package on a retail shelf is the last opportunity to influence consumers before they decide to buy. Its the final sales
pitch at the moment of truth, when the brand-choice decision is made. The better the package design and copy, the
greater the likelihood that consumers will choose that brand. Any new package design, or significant change in an
existing package, should always be subjected to the scrutiny of objective consumer feedback.
Following are the packaging research methods:
1. Package Screen
2. Package Check
3. Package Test
4. Custom/Ad Hoc Packaging Research
1. Package Screen
Early-Stage Package Designs
the package design process typically begins with the creation of a large number of rough or early-stage designs. Ten
to twenty package designs, or more, are common at this beginning stage. The research objective is to identify the
package designs that resonate with consumers, so that creative efforts can be focused on further development of the
better designs. Package Screen is an Internet-based system to accomplish this winnowing task.
How Does Package Screen Work?
A representative sample of 200 to 300 target audience consumers are recruited from a panel. These participants are
invited to come to a location and view the early-stage package designs. Each respondent sees all of the package designs
one at a time (front panel only) on his/her computer monitor, in randomized order.
Then, each person views the package designs a second time and answers four questions about each design.
The answers to these four questions are fed into a mathematical model to calculate an overall score for each design. The
highest-rated designs are recommended for further development.
2. Package Check
Diagnostic Feedback
The next step in the design process is to learn more about the better designs so that further improvements can be made.
Package Check is, designed to provide this diagnostic feedback.
How Does Package Check Work?
A representative sample of target-audience consumers are recruited to as a panel and view each package design. The
respondents see only one package design (i.e., a monadic test) and then answer a series of questions about their
reactions, including a series of open-ended questions. The report includes answers to standard questions, compared to
the organizations action standards, as well as verbatim responses to open-ended questions. The verbatim detail is
valuable to creative teams as they strive to improve the graphic design, as well as the copy, on the package. A typical
PackageCheck study is based on 75 completed interviews
3. Package Test
Finished Or Near-Finished Package Designs
As packages near the end of the design process, a more complete evaluation is required, with comprehensive
measurements to assess all of the important elements of package design. Package Test is comprehensive, testing system
to evaluate finished (or near-finished) package designs. A representative sample is recruited from one of our worldwide
Internet the panels, and qualified respondents are invited to evaluate the package design. Respondents first see the
packages front panel, and later view the other panels. The research design is monadic. The report includes answers to
standard questions, as well as the coded responses to all open-ended questions, along with our analysis and
interpretation. A mathematical model, based on a number of key variables, calculates an overall score for the package
design and compares it to action standards. A typical Package Test project is based on 150 completes.
4. Custom/Ad Hoc Packaging Research
Package Communication
What is the package communicating? What is the package failing to communicate?
Depth interviews are typically used to explore package communication issues. Usually, the test package is shown at
different time exposures (1/500 of a second, 1/200 of a second, etc.) using a tachistoscope.
At each exposure level, package recognition and communication are examined.
Then the respondents are asked to examine and to read the package in detail, with no time limits.
The consumers reactions to every detail of package graphics and copy are explored in the interview. The purpose of
this research is to learn how to improve brand recognition and package communication.
5. Shelf Impact
Does the average consumer notice the package on the shelf?
To evaluate shelf impact, we typically build representative displays of the test package in a competitive environment.
These displays are photographed from angles representative of the consumers perspective. The test package is rotated
within the display.
The best photographs (with correct rotations) are shown to a representative sample of consumers, at various time
exposures (1/200 of a second, 1/100 of a second, and so on) with a tachistoscope. The respondents are questioned about
what they see and what they understand, as the length-of-time exposure increases. This methodology helps determine
the
visibility
(or
attention
value)
of
t es t
package,
relative
to
competitive
packages.
6. Simulated Display
The ultimate test of a package is whether it stimulates trial of a product.
To measure a packages trial potential, a representative display of a product category (with all major competitive
brands) is assembled. Matched samples of consumers are instructed to shop the display.
Their brand decisions, and the reason for those decisions, are explored in post-shopping interviews. Simulated display
allows us to measure a packages trial potential and helps us learn how to improve its trial potential.
5. PRODUCT TESTING
The purpose of product testing is to develop a product line which meets the needs of consumers in general.
Product research facilitates the process of making products more attractive, useful and agreeable to consumers.
Meaning of Product Testing:
Product testing is one major area of MR. It is concerned with different aspects of a product which include name,
features, uses, package used, brand name given, price, consumer support and so on.
The term product research covers all aspects relating to manufacturing and marketing of a product. Product planning
and development, product innovation and modification, product pricing, product life cycle studies branding, labelling,
packaging, etc. are the different areas aspects) of product research
Packaging and branding are treated as two components of product testing. This is because they are closely connected
with the product itself. Moreover, sale depends on the product as well as on its packaging and branding. In product
research, existing products of the company are made superior (in quality) and agreeable to consumers.
In addition, new products with promising market demand are developed. This is called new product research. Product
research is directly related to product-mix which is one component of basic marketing mix.
There are four components of product mix.
These are:
1. Product range
2. Brand,
3. Package and
4. Service after sale.
Product testing has two important aspects. These are:
a. Technical aspect of a product, and
b. Marketing aspect of a product.
Technical research of a product is conducted in the laboratory in order to develop a product with latest design and
features at the lowest possible cost. Products marketing research relates to the attitudes of consumers and their
preferences towards the specific product.
Product research is necessary at the product planning stage. This is because marketing will be easy and quick when the
produce manufactured is as per the needs and expectations of consumers. For this, product opportunities must be studied
and product must be adjusted accordingly. Marketing efforts will not be rewarded if the product to be sold is not as per
the needs and expectations of consumers.
This suggests that marketing research should start at the product promotion stage.
The researcher should suggest the details of product (nature, features, packaging, etc.) which can be marketed
effectively. This creates proper background for success in marketing efforts
NEED OF PRODUCT TESTING:
Product testing acts as an insurance against risk of obsolescence of existing products of the company.
In addition, product research is needed in order to develop new products which will have good demand over a long
period.
In short, the following points suggest/justify the need of product testing:
(1) To assist in the setting up of objectives towards which the research and development department will have to work
in order to develop and bring out a new product in the market.
(2) To pinpoint the needs and wants of consumers which the proposed product is expected to satisfy.
(3) To estimate the sales potential of the new product
(4) To verify the benefits of the new product to the consumers.
(5) To find out the possible impact of the new competitive products on the sales potential of the existing product of the
company.
(6) To test prototypes of the product.
(7) To predict the possible success or failure of the product once it is introduced in the market.
(8) To reduce the chances of product failure after its modification or after its entry in the new market and also to
increase the possibilities of product success.
(9) To introduce consumer friendly products as consumer preferences are dynamic.
PR is needed on continuous basis for adjusting the products as per the needs/expectations of consumers. to introduce
attractive package and brand name to the product for sales promotion.
WHEN PRODUCT TESTING IS NECESSARY?
(1) Introduction of new product/modifications in the existing product: Product testing is necessary when company
develops a new-product or desires to introduce an existing product with suitable modifications as per the requirements
of consumers.
Here, the objective is to raise the popularity of existing products and to reduce the new product failure rate through
extensive research and testing of a new product before its introduction in the market.
Product testing is a valuable tool in marketing research.
Such testing is before launching a new product in the market. Such product testing includes technical testing and
consumer testing.
(2) Introduction of new product by competitor: Product research is necessary when a competitor introduces a new
product or improved version of the existing one in the market.
IMPORTANCE/ADVANTAGES OF PRODUCT TESTING:
Product testing is important as it offers the following advantages:
1. Product testing helps to explain the features of the product.
2. It helps to simplify the product line.
3. It enables a manufacturer to develop new products with good market demand in the existing product line.
4. Product testing brings best sales returns.
5. It widens market for the product and also creates goodwill for the product and its manufacturer.
6. It facilitates appropriate price fixation of the product.
7. Product testing brings to the limelight the different uses of the product for effective publicity for sales
promotion.
8. It facilitates modification and renovation of existing products so as to make them highly competitive and
agreeable to consumers.
9. It enables a manufacturer to introduce attractive package and brand name to the product for sales promotion.
METHODS OF CONDUCTING PRODUCT TESTING:

There are three methods used for the conduct of product testing as explained below:
Product Testing
1) Paired Comparison Testing Consumers are not told about the brand being tested and are given a new and an old
product and are asked to choose. The samples know that they are testing and are therefore aware about a probable
difference.
FMCGs would often do this since there are so many products. This is like the Classic Coke Test Case. This kind of
testing tells us about branding the strength of branding are consumers aware of product variations? Do people really
understand the style that a fashion house stands for. Response rates for distinctions would be high because people know
that there is a test happening. Placebo Testing also has an effect here because the palette assumes that there are
differences and thus the palette expects change and there is a false perception of things being different.
2) Staggered Comparison Test Respondents Test 2 Brands with a time lag with the identities masked. One half of
the respondents receive Brand A and the other half receives Brand B. The respondents are then given the same products
in reverse and are asked to note any difference in the brands.
This kind of comparison tests the ideas of respondents with respect to their influence by peer pressure and their
association with a product with respect to how their choices are dictated.
3) Disguised Comparison Test: This duplicates the actual market where for different brands, the same packaging is
used and the respondents are told that they will be asked about their reactions later. In this case, the respondents are
studied in order to recognize if they have noticed any difference at all. Further, they are not aware of the test being taken
and believe the products to be free samples
This is the opposite of the 2 above. The sample does not know they are part of the test. They are just given free samples.
They just think that they are getting 2 free samples. They dont know that they are getting test. Sometimes they dont
realize that its different. They think its the same product.

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ADVERTSING AND MARKETING

ADVERTISING AND MARKETING RESEARCH

Meaning and objectives of Research

Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of

is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data

Relationship among Variables

Objectives of Literature Review

Steps for Conducting a Lit Review

Stages in Research process.

Stage 2: Method of Inquiry

Stage 3: Research Method

x Experimental research and

Stage 4: Research Design

Stage 5: Data Collection Techniques:

Stage 6: Sample Design

Stage 7: Data Collection

Stage 8: Analysis and Interpretation

Stage 9: Research Report

The following are the significance of hypothesis in the research

A GOOD HYPOTHESIS IS ONE WHICH:

Research Design: Meaning and Importance

Definitions of Research Design:

A statement of objectives of the study or the research output.

What is the study about?

Advantages of research design

Consumes less time.

Importance and scope of Research Design

Types of Research design:

Methods for Conducting Exploratory Research

Methods for Conducting Descriptive Research

i. Cross-Sectional Studies: Cross-sectional studies are one-time studies involving data

Different types of panels

Causal or Experimental Research

Differences Between descriptive and causal research design

Meaning of Sample and Sampling

Why Do Researchers Use Samples?

2. Specify sampling frame

units, c) extent and d) time.

Step 1: Define the population

Diagrammatic representation of the sampling techniques.

1. Types of data and sources- Primary and Secondary data sources

iii) in-depth interviews -

Types of data and sources- Primary and Secondary data sources

Profit and loss statements

Government sources, such as the U.S. Census Bureau

Methods of collection of primary data

Advantages of Observation Method

Types of observation research

Three types of Experimental research:

3. Focus group discussions (F.G.Ds):

There is no fixed pattern for eliciting information from the respondents.

The Survey method is the technique of gathering data by asking questions to

Advantages of Survey Method

Disadvantages of Survey Method

Survey instrument i) Questionnaire designing.

STRUCTURED Vs UNSTRUCTURED DATA COLLECTION

bias later questions?

14. Should the questions be numbered? Generally this is a good idea.

Principles of Developing Questions