INTRODUCTION

TO
SOLAR ENERGY

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR ENERGY:

1
 Energy is the primary and most universal measure of all kinds of work
in the nature. Every work what happens in the world is the flow of energy in one form or the
other. The total energy that we use in the present world can be broadly classified into two
categories. They are Non conventional energy sources or commercial sources and
conventional energy sources. The major sources conventional energy sources for electricity
generation includes coal, natural gas, crude oil, uranium etc. these form the major portion of
the consumption in the contemporary.

While the fossil fuels form the main fuel for generating power, there
is a fear that they will get exhausted eventually in the coming future. Therefore the need for
other systems based on non conventional or renewable sources is being increasing day by
day. The sources like solar, wind, sea, ocean, and biogas and geothermal became popular as
they have the whole range of technologies designed to tap the earths natural energy.

Solar energy is the energy that comes from sun to earth. Solar energy
has the greatest potential of all the sources of renewable energy and even if only a small
amount could be used, it would become one of the most important supplies of energy.

The total power obtained when sun hits the earth approximately is 10 17
watts and the total power that comes to the earths surface is around 10 16 watts. The total
energy demand for the all needs of the world is only 1013 watts. Therefore sun gives a
thousand times more power than the total world energy demand. If we use only a 5% of the
power what sun supplies it would meet our energy demand considerably.

The solar energy obtained can be used in many of the applications other
than generating electric power such as space heating, solar water heating, etc.

The solar energy that is obtained from sun can be converted into electrical energy in two
ways:

1. Photo thermal conversion technology and

2. Photo voltaic cells.

1.1 Photo thermal conversion technology:

The photo thermal conversion technology is called as concentrated
solar power which can be used for thermal electric power for grid systems.

The photo thermal conversion technology uses a solar collector which

absorbs solar radiation and converts into heat. A high efficiency solar collector is used to
collect the maximum incident solar radiation with a minimum thermal and optical loss. A
selective coating of a very precise thin layer of amorphous metal substratum having a low
emission for long wave radiation is used for the collector material. This collector material

2
generally a black body receives the solar energy in terms of heat and gives it to the heat
transfer fluids like water or air which then uses for the generation of electricity.

Another method of solar thermal conversion is the solar power plants

which use thousands of sun tracking mirrors called heliostats to reflect on to a central
receiver located on the top of a tower.

The power obtained from these techniques are sufficient for the grid
connections for transmitting power ranging from a few tens of kilowatts to some hundreds of
megawatts when compared with the low power photo voltaic systems.

Solar radiation:
The energy radiated by the sun is in the form of electromagnetic radiation of
which 99% of the radiation is in the range of 0.2 to 4.0 micro meters. The energy flux from
sun falling onto a surface of the earth in watts per Square meter of collector is called solar
insolation. Although the sun is large it subtends an angle of only 32 minutes at the earth
surface due the large distance between the earth and sun. Therefore the radiation received
from the sun on the earth is almost parallel. The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top
of the atmosphere is called solar constant Isc. And its value is 1353 watts per square meter.
But the suns radiation at the top of the atmosphere when it reaches the earth surface varies in
amount and character due to the presence of clouds and also various gaseous molecules
present in the atmosphere. Oxygen and ozone molecules absorb all the ultra violet radiation
and carbon dioxide and water vapor absorb some of the radiation in the infra red range. Apart
from this some of the radiation is scattered by the clouds and dust particles in the atmosphere.
Thus global radiation from the total solar insolation is basically divided into the diffused
radiation and the beam radiation. The solar radiation that that reaches the ground directly
without any scattering is called beam of direct radiation. The radiation that is scattered in the
atmosphere and shows a shadow when an opaque object is placed is called diffuse radiation.
Thus the insolation at point depends on different factors such as the altitude of the sun in the
sky, the latitude at which the observations are made, the time and day of the year and the
climatic conditions.

Altitude is the angle between the suns direction and the horizontal. The
smaller the altitude, greater the thickness of atmosphere through which the radiation must
pass through. As a result of absorption and scattering, the insolation is less when the sun is
low in the sky than when it is higher. The insolation also depends on latitude of the location
i.e. at equator the insolation is more and gradually decreases as one moves away from the
equator.

Insolation is also greatly affected by the climatic conditions. On a clear cloud

less day only about 10% to 20% of the total insolation is from diffused radiation and the
amount of diffused radiation increases up to 100% on the rainy day when the sun is
completely obscured by clouds. Insolation also depends on the humidity in the atmosphere.
Therefore the three basic sky conditions can be identified cloudless sky, partly cloudy and
overcast sky cloud cover is the basic variability of the solar radiation energy supply.
3
 The practical utilization of the solar energy normally depends on detailed
irradiation knowledge of the inclined planes. The choice of the favorable collector orientation
helps to reduce the cost by increasing the radiant flux per unit collector area, so enabling a
greater energy collection efficacy to be achieved per unit of investment. When exposure of
any site used for harnessing of solar energy photovoltaically allows the most favorable
orientations tend to be south facing in the northern hemisphere and north facing in the
southern hemisphere. However there are some climates where the afternoons are cloudier
than forenoons, in these cases the true north-south orientation rule may be inappropriate. The
appropriate choice of the collector tilt and collector orientation is always an important
decision which is influenced by the latitude.

Climate data needs for solar radiation data were historically met using ground
based observation records and more recently, ever increasing use is being made of satellite
data for generating ground level information.

4
 Photo voltaic cell
(Solar module)

2.1 Introduction to photo voltaic cell

The term photo voltaic refers to the creation of the voltage from sunlight and is
often abbreviated as just PV. A more common term for photovoltaic cells is solar cells. These
cells work on any kind of light and not only sunlight.

Photovoltaic cell thus converts the light energy into electricity. The term photo is
a Greek word which means light and the volt is a general term used in electricity. The
conversion process occurs instantaneously whenever there is light on the surface of the cell.
The more light the greater the electrical output. Thus the light energy which is converted into
the electricity will be stored in a battery and used when ever required.

Materials used for making of solar cells:

There are many materials that are used for making a solar cell such as
cadmium, cadmium sulphide, tellurium, copper chlorine etc. but the most Common type of

5
material used is silicon in its crystalline form in 90% of the photo voltaic cells manufactured
today. Silicon is the second largest available element on the earths crust. It is also cheap and
most reliable semiconductor used. Silicon is also non toxic and safe which is eco friendly in
nature. But the other materials such as thin film semiconductors like amorphous silicon (a-
silicon), copper indium gallium diselenide(Cu(InGa)Se2 or CIGS) and cadmium
telluride(CdTe) which are better suited to absorb solar energy spectrum are in the
development and are under the latest trend or in the initial commercialization today.

Solar cells may operate under concentrated sun light using mirrors or
lenses as concentrators allowing a small solar cell to be illuminated with the light from a
larger area. This saves the expensive semiconductors but increases the complexity to the
system, since it requires the tracking mechanisms to keep the light focused on the solar cells
when sun moves in the sky. Silicon and semiconductor made compounds such as gallium
arsenide (GaAs) gallium indium phosphides (GaInP) are the materials used in the
concentrator technology which is still under demonstration.

2.2 Types of photovoltaic cells

The silicon photovoltaic cells can be classified into four basic types:

1. Single-crystal silicon

2. Poly crystalline silicon

3. Ribbon silicon

4. Amorphous silicon

Single-crystal silicon:
Most photovoltaic cells are single crystal silicon cells. These cells have a
uniform color blue or black. The silicon rocks are melted and then slowly regrown into a
cylindrical structure with uniform atomic structure. The back of the crystal usually covered
with full grid of printed metal, usually silver paste.

The grid is thin enough to admit adequate amount of sun light and wide enough
to carry adequate amount of electrical energy.

Polycrystalline silicon:
Polycrystalline cells are manufactured and operated in similar manner as that of
a single crystal. The difference is that liquid silicon is allowed to cool into a block with
forming separate crystalline sections. It usually results in slightly lower efficiency.

Ribbon silicon:
6
 These cells are manufactured and operated in the same way as that of the single
and poly crystal silicon cells. Liquid silicon is slowly off and cools into a flat thin shape that
is scribed and broken into rectangular cells.

Amorphous or thin film silicon:

The previous three types have a distinct crystal structure. Amorphous silicon has no
such structure. It is sometimes abbreviated as asi and is also called thin film silicon. They
are produced in a variety of colors. Since they can be made into sizes up to several meters,
they are made up in long rectangular strip cells. These strips are connected in series to make
up the modules. Amorphous silicon has less efficiency than other types of cells but is very
inexpensive.

History of photovoltaic cells:

The physical effect underlying in the photovoltaics was first observed by
Becquerel in 1839 when he produced current in silver electrodes by exposing it to light in an
electrolyte. The effect was explained more in more detail by Adam and Day in 1877.

The effect was put hold until the development of transistors and the explanation
of p-n junction in 1949. In 1954 Chapin et al from bell laboratories in USA developed the
first solar crystalline cell which had an efficiency of 6%. This efficiency was increased to
10% percent in a few years. The main driving force for the use of viable solar cells for the
terrestrial supply was done in 1973 with the notorious oil shock. In 1980 the first thin film
solar cell was built with an efficiency greater than 10%. In 1982 the first 1MW solar plant
was built in USA with the two axis trackers. In 1995 the GaInP/GaAs cells were built with an
efficiency of more than 30%. In 1997 worldwide PV production reached more than 100MW
per year. In 1999 the worldwide installed PV reached 1000MW.

2.3 Principle and operation of photovoltaic cell

The direct transformation of the sunlight into electricity always requires a
semiconductor preferably silicon. As the name suggests, in a photovoltaic cells due to
absorption of light the photons in a semiconductor can create an electric current. If a
potential difference exists in a semiconductor device either due to the p-n junction or an
appropriate surface charge, then this charge carrier can be forced to travel in an electrical
circuit i.e. an electric current can be produced. In many cases, especially in the case of
crystalline silicon, the charge carriers that have been created can only reach the potential
barrier due to the thermal vibrations. No other force drives them in this direction. This means
the charge carriers have to exist until they reach the potential barrier. This life time or
diffusion length is one of the key factors for the efficiency of the photovoltaic generation.

Semi conductors in their pure form insulate at temperatures approaching to

absolute zero, but at higher temperatures they possess an absolutely demonstrable electronic
conductivity, become conductive due to disruption of ideal lattice structure, or in which

7
external effect of conductivity can at least be induced. Unlike opaque metals semiconductors
display their characteristic absorption behavior. The most important characteristic is called
absorption edge. For wavelengths at which the photon energy (E= hc/) is greater than the
energy of the forbidden band light, which is depending on the material, is almost completely
absorbed. In the case of higher wave lengths almost no absorption takes place due to low
energy. Thus, in the spectral region of higher wavelengths, semiconductors act transparently.
The intensity of light entering into the crystal is thus weakened. The absorption rate is thus,
as in many other cases of physical behavior, is proportional to the intensity of the radiation
that is still present. In case of silicon the band edge lies within the infrared at 1.11m
approximately. Therefore silicon is excellently suited for the base material for infrared optics.
The absorption in semiconductors is called basic lattice absorption.

Fig2.1: Basic structure of a silicon based solar cell

Electrons and holes in a semiconductor:

The bonding or arrangement of atoms in nature occurs in numerous different ways. The
deciding factor is the characteristics of the electrons in the outer shell of the atom, the so
called valence electrons, and the energy level which is so called valence band. Depending on
energy and symmetry conditions different arrangements can give different crystalline
structures. For the electrical conductivity to occur in this type of crystal, some of these types
of bonds must be broken. At a temperature of T=0K no bonds can be broken. Thus at T=0K
the semiconductor acts like an insulator. This energy band of the semiconductor is called
conduction band. At a specified distance between the atoms (d), there is an energy gap
between the two energy bands, the valence band and the conduction band in which there will
be no electrons. The energy gap is called a band gap Eg of a semi conductor. Thus the semi
conductors and the insulators differ in the band gap. In an insulator the band gap will be so
high that at normal state no electron can jump from the valence band to conduction band, thus

8
no flow of electric current where as in a semiconductor at normal temperature the electrons
can flow from valence band to conduction band which causes a flow of electric current.

In the normal range of temperatures the valence band is almost full with
electrons and the conduction band is almost empty. Almost empty in the conduction band
means that only a very few electrons are in the permitted energy states. There are still
numerous unoccupied states close to occupied levels. So these electrons are capable of
reaching a higher level by a continuous process. This means that when connected to an
electric circuit, energy can be continuously taken up. Analogous to this in the almost full
valence band, there will be some levels which are not filled by electrons and are close to the
conduction band. These empty states are surrounded by numerous occupied states. One such
empty state will wander around with in the valence band. This empty state is called hole or
defect electron. This hole can be considered as a charge carrier. This defect electron or hole
like the electron is a second type of charge carrier.

Photovoltaic operation:
As we know the photovoltaics are made of semiconductors, which have
weakly bonded electrons occupying a band of energy called valence band. When energy
exceeding a certain threshold, called band gap energy, is applied to a valence electron, the
bonds are broken and the electron is somewhat free to move around in a new energy band
called conduction band, where it can conduct electricity through the material. Thus, the free
electrons in the conduction band are separated from the valence band by the band gap
(measured in the units of electron volts or eV). This energy needed to free the electron is
supplied from the photons, which are particles of light.

The figure below shows the idealized relation between the energy (vertical
axis) and spatial boundaries (horizontal axis). When the solar cell is exposed to sunlight,
photons hit valence electrons, breaking the bonds and pumping them to conduction band.
There a specially made selective contact that collects conduction band electrons and drives
them to external electric circuit. The electrons lose their energy by doing work in the external
circuit in the form of a load. Then, the electrons are restored to the solar cell by return loop of
the circuit by the second selective contact, which returns to the valence band with the same
energy that they started with. The movement of these electrons in the external circuit and the
contacts is called electric current.

The potential at which the electrons are delivered to the external circuit is less
than the threshold energy that excited the electrons that is the band gap energy. Thus, the
electric power produced is the product of current times the voltage.

The figure below thus shows the schematic of an ideal semiconductor with
the valence and conduction band and the band gap shows the free electrons in the valence
band are excited by the photon from the solar radiation and the excited electrons are jumped
to the conduction band. The electrons from the conduction band flow from the negative CB
contact into the external electric circuit. The return path is again from the electric circuit to
the valence band through a second contact called as positive CB contact.
9
 The sun light is the spectrum of photons distributed over a range of
energy. Photons which have the energies greater than the threshold band gap energy can
excite the valence band electrons into the conduction band and produce an electric current
and generate electric power. Photons with energy less than the band gap fail to excite the free
electrons. Instead that energy goes through the solar cells and dissipated as heat at the back of
the cell. Thus, solar cells in direct sun light can be warmer than the ambient air temperature.
Thus, PV cells can produce electricity without operating at higher temperatures and without
any mobile parts. These are the salient characteristics of the photovoltaic cells that explain
safe, simple and reliable operation

At the heart of any solar cell is the p-n junction. Modeling and understanding of
any solar cell can be simplified by a p-n junction concept. This p-n junction results from the
doping that produces the conduction band and valence band selective contacts with one
side becoming n-side( with lots of negative charge) and other side with p-side(with lots of
positive charge).

Electrical characteristics of a solar cell:

An ideal solar cell can be represented by current source connected in
parallel with a rectifying diode, as shown in the equivalent circuit. The corresponding I-V
characteristics are described by the Shockley solar cell equation given below

I=Iph I0 (eqV/kbT 1)

where Kb is the Boltzmann constant. T is the absolute temperature, q is the electron charge
and V is the voltage at the terminals of the cell. I 0 is the well known diode saturation current
serving as a reminder that a solar cell in the dark is simply a semiconductor current rectifier
or a diode. The photo generated current Iph is closely related to the photon flux incident on the
cell and its dependence on the wavelength of light is frequently discussed in terms of
quantum efficiency and spectral response. The photo generated current is usually independent
of the applied voltage with possible exceptions in case of a-silicon and some other thin film
materials. The figure below shows the ideal equivalent circuit of a solar cell with I ph as the
current source and a rectifying diode in parallel with it.

In the ideal case the short circuited current is equal to the photo generated
current Iph . And the open circuit voltage Voc is given by

Voc = Kb T/q * ln (1+ Iph /I0 )

The current voltage characteristics of a solar cell:

The equivalent circuit of a practical solar cell differs slightly from
the ideal case and is as shown in the figure below.

10

Fig 2.3 Equivalent circuit of an ideal solar cell

 Fig2.2 The valence and the conduction band energy diagram of a
semiconductor

The I-V characteristic of a practical solar cell complies with the

superposition principle. The functional dependence is obtained from the corresponding
characteristic of a diode in the dark by shifting the diode characteristics along the current axis
by Iph . The I-V characteristic in practice usually differs to some extent from the practical
characteristics. A two diode model is used to fit an observed curve with a second diode
containing an ideality factor of 2 in the denominator of argument of exponential term. The
solar cell may also contain the series resistance Rs and a parallel resistance Rp leading to a
characteristics of the form as shown below

11
 Fig 2.3 ideal solar cell equivalent diagram

I= Iph I01 {exp (V+IRs /Kb T) 1} I02 {exp (V+IRs /2Kb T) -1} V+IRs /Rp}

Fig2.4: Equivalent circuit of a practical solar cell (two diode model).

The light generated current, Iph may depend on voltage in some instances. The
effect of the series and shunt resistances are show in the figures below.

12
. Fig 2.5

We can see that the I-V characteristics of the illuminated solar cell lies
in the fourth quadrant in electro technical standardization as seen in the figure below. For the
purpose of comparison with these I-V characteristics, the current voltage characteristics of an
unilluminated solar cell are also drawn in the figure. The voltages are same in both cases,
where as current in the illuminated solar cell is negative, i.e. the solar current flows against
the conventional direction of a forward biased diode.

The base, the starting material of the solar cell is always p-doped. The
n-doped region is called emitter, a designation which has been adapted from transistor
physics. It is more highly doped than base by some order of magnitude. The p-n junction is
always therefore unsymmetrical doped. The space charge region, with width W therefore
extends mainly into the p-region. The point xj marks the penetration depth of the p-n junction.
In practice it accounts only to a few tens of micrometers.

To calculate the photo currents, we assume that the light enters on the
emitter side. The calculation is first made for monochromatic light. In the case of illumination
by spectrum we must integrate over all the

wavelength regions of this spectrum. The integration limits for this are Imin , the smallest
occurring wavelength and Imax , the wave length corresponding to the energy of the
semiconductor band gap, as longer wavelengths are not absorbed. For sunlight min is around

13
0.3m as at shorter wavelengths there is almost no wavelength, and in case of silicon the
value of max is approximately 1.11m. therefore the equation for photo current can be written
as

Il () = IE () + ISCR () + IB ().

Because in general base is homogeneously doped, and low level of

injection is present with normal solar radiation, a precise solution is found for photo current
in the base ( in the short circuit case). If the emitter is homogeneously doped then the solution
for photo electric current from the emitter is found to be same as that in the base. However,
homogeneous doping hardly ever occurs in practical case. For a diffused emitter high dopant
effects such as band gap narrowing and the dead layer must be taken into account.

The dopant effect has also the consequence that the lifetime and the
diffusion constant depend upon doping. The photo currents from the space charge region can
be very easily determined, since the charge carriers generated in this region are drawn out of
this area very quickly due to the electric field. They virtually cannot recombine and therefore
contribute entirely to the current.

Two diode model of the equivalent solar cell:

The simple exponential relation between voltage and current is almost
never observed at low voltages in forward direction in real solar cell p-n junctions. For
conventional diode this is of very little significance. But for the solar cells the functional
dependency in this voltage range is very significant. The values of efficiency and fill factor
are dependent on this low voltage. Therefore, we also take into account some resistances in
the current voltage equation.

These characteristics can also be treated as the I-V characteristics of the

practical two diode analogy of the solar cell. Thus, in the two diode analogy the
characteristics can be obtained by applying superposition theorem of an ideal diode and the
ideal solar cell so that there will be another diode added along with some shunt and series
resistance in the ideal equivalent circuit to obtain the equivalent circuit of the practical solar
cell.

14
15
 Fig 2.6

Series resistance:
This resistance has the following components

A contact resistance metal semiconductor

Ohmic resistance in the metal contacts

Ohmic resistance in the metal semiconductor

These Ohmic resistances also affect the efficiency of the solar cell.

Shunt resistance:
The magnitude of this resistance is determined by the leaking currents along
the edges of the solar cell. Point defect in the p-n junction also leads to small parallel
resistances. Such defects can be interruptions of the p-n junction which originate during the
diffusion of n emitter. Impurity particles

Have hindered diffusion at certain points. The base material can also be in electrical contact
with the finger system at some points, thus creating a short circuit.

Fig 2.7

16
 The I-V characteristics of the practical equivalent circuit of the solar cell
depends on the ratio of the currents flowing through the two diodes I 02 /I01 and also depends
on the series and shunt resistances leading to a slight deviation from the actual circuit. The
characteristics of the solar cell for three values of I02 /I01 are shown in the figure below.

Fig 2.8

Parameters of the solar cell:

Short circuit current:
As, the name suggests this current is obtained if the solar cell is short
circuited, i.e. there is no voltage at the cell. This current is designated as I sc. From the
equations we got Isc=Iph for the ideal solar cell. The magnitude of the short circuit current,
disregarding all the losses in the cell with an air mass of 1.5 can reach a peak of 44mA/cm2.

Open circuit voltage:

The open voltage is obtained when no current is drawn from the solar
cell. This voltage is found to be

Voc = Kb T/q * ln (Iph /I0 +1)

17
 Since even at very low current densities we can neglect the value of 1 when
compared with the Iph /I0 and Iph =Isc the above equation becomes

Voc =Kb T/q * ln (Isc /I0)

I.e. the open circuit voltage is proportional to the logarithm of the ratio of the short
circuit current to the diode saturation current. Since in good solar cells the short circuit
currents very quickly nears the saturation value, the increase in the open circuit voltage value
and thus the efficiency of a solar cell is basically a question of reducing the saturation current.
For this the following three conditions must be satisfied.

1. Diffusion length of minority charge carriers must be as high as possible.

2. Doping concentration must be as high as possible

3. Crystal volume as low as possible (making thin wafers).

Fill factor:
Since always optimal power output requires a suitable load resistor R a which
corresponds to the ratio Vm /Im where Vm and Im are the optimal operating points to the get the
Pm, the maximum achievable power output. Thus, the fill factor of a solar cell can be called as
the ratio of the peak output to the variable and can be given as.

Fill factor (FF) =Vm Im /Voc Isc

The fill factor is so named because when graphically represented it indicates how
much area underneath the I-V characteristics is filled by the rectangle Vm Im in relation to the
rectangle Voc Isc . This is also called as maximum power rectangle. The fill factor normally
lies in the range of 0.75 to 0.85.

Efficiency:
The efficiency of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of photovoltaically
generated electric output of the cell to the luminous power input falling on it.

= Im Vm /Plight = FF.Isc Voc /Plight

The current record of efficiency of solar cell is held by solar cell made of
monocrystalline technology using very complex technology at approximately 23-24% (area
2x2 cm2, radiation AM 1.5). Commercially produced solar cells have efficiency between
14% and 16%. It can be raised up to 17% to 19%.

In general, the efficiency of the photovoltaic conversion is very limited.

Around 24% of the wavelengths of the solar radiation are such long that it is not absorbed. A
further 33% is lost as heat. The other losses in the cell such as loss due to energy gap also
accounts.

18
Quantum efficiency and spectral response of the solar cell:
The quantum efficiency of the solar cell is defined as the ratio of the number
of electrons in the external circuit produced by an incident photon of a given wavelength.
Thus, one can define external and internal quantum efficiencies (denoted by EQE () and
IQE (respectively). They differ in the treatment of photons reflected from the cell. All the
photons that are impinging on the cell surface are taken into account in the value of EQE but
only photons which are not reflected are considered in the value of IQE. The internal and
external quantum efficiency is routinely measured to access the performance of solar cell by
using interference filters or monochromators.

The spectral response denoted by SR (, with units A/W is defined as the ratio of
photocurrent generated by solar cell under monochromatic illumination of a given wave
length, to the value of spectral irradiance at the same wave length. Since the number of
photons and irradiance are related spectral response can be represented as quantum efficiency.
Spectral response can be either internal or external depending upon which value is used for
quantum efficiency.

Optical properties of a solar cell:

Anti reflection coating:
Most solar cells rely on a thin layer of a dielectric (an anti reflection coating) to reduce the
reflection of light from the front surface of the cell. Reflection for bare silicon for light
incident from air is given by

R= (n-1)2 + k2/ (n+1)2 +k2

Where n and k are the refractive index and the extinction coefficient of the
semiconductor, both in general functions of wavelength of light in vacuum the extinction
coefficient is related to absorption coefficient by

K=
n

Reflection from top surface can be reduced by use of a multilayer coating.

Light trapping:
In solar cells with a simple geometry, light rays enter the cells through the
front surface and if not absorbed leaves through the rear surface of the cell. Most
sophisticated arrangements exists which extends the path of inside the cell and usually
referred to as optical confinement of light trapping. In crystalline or amorphous silicon cells

19
light trapping is used to reduce the thickness of the cell without lowering the light absorption
within the cell. Light trapping can also used to enhance the open circuit voltage of the cell.

The most common light trapping features include a textured top surface
combined with an optically reflecting back surface. In the ideal case yablonovich has shown
that a randomly textured (so called lambertian) top surface in combination with a perfect back
surface reflector produces a light trapping scheme which enhances the light intensity inside
the cell by a factor of nsc2 where nsc is the refractive index of the solar cell material. This
arrangement also increases the average path length of the light rays inside the cell from 2W,
in the case of a single pass through the cell, to 4nsc2 W in the case of complete light trapping,
where W is the cell thickness. Schemes have been developed to enhance the operation of
practical devices including crystalline, poly crystalline and amorphous silicon cells. With the
applications to the latter cells schropp and zeman consider the trapping and scattering of light
at rough interfaces in some detail. In gallium arsenide cells, multilayer Bragg reflectors have
been used in success.

Crystalline silicon- characteristics and properties:

The majority of the silicon wafers used for solar cells are for solar
czochralski (CZ) single crystalline and directional solidifications or, cast,
multicrystalline(mc) materials. The split between the two types of silicon wafers is presently
about 55% si-mc and 45% si-CZ. The non wafer and ribbon silicon sheets are also gaining
significance in the recent years.

Characteristics of silicon wafer for use in PV

manufacturing:
Geometrical specifications:
Most of the wafer substrates used in production facilities has dimensions
relating to the diameters of monocrystalline silicon cylinders for semiconductor industry that
in turn have influenced the standards of wafer carriers, automation, packaging etc. however in
order to maximize the power density of the modules, the wafers must be square and pseudo
square in the case of monocrystalline silicon, i.e. cylinders are shaped as squares with
rounded off corners. This reduces the surface area of the wafers by between 2% and 5%
compared with the full squares of same dimensions.

In case of si-mc ingot sizes are designated to be compatible with multiple

numbers of each of the standard wafer dimensions, in order to maximize the geometrical
yield. Yield considerations limit the possible wafer sizes achievable for any given ingot
dimensions, as much as expensive wafer cassettes, automation and packing do later in the
process. A SEMI (semiconductors material and materials international) standard m61000 was
developed with the purpose of covering the requirements for silicon wafers for use in the
solar cell manufacturing including dimensional specifications, defects and electronic
properties.

20
 The usual thickness of the wafer specified by the m61000 is 100mm. however
for smaller sized wafers it is usually around 103mm instead of 100mm.Some manufacturers
also use rectangular wafers also for the manufacturing. But the absolute value of the wafer
thickness dropped to about 100m in the last decade. The other requirements such as
thickness uniformity reduced levels of cracks and saw marks also could adversely affect the
later processing.

Physical specifications:
Wafers are generally classified in terms of resistivity type and oxygen and
carbon content. These data are generally present in all commercial specifications related to
single and multicrystalline wafers according to the standards. But, still in strict terms
standards related to the resistivity of the multicrystalline wafers do not exist. Minority
carriers life time characterization is one of the most complicated parameter to measure and to
effectively relate to subsequent processing quality and yield. It is also most influenced by the
in homogeneity of the multicrystalline silicon, as well as by thermal treatment. The most
successful commercial methods for testing the si-mc are the micro wave photo conductance
decay method performed directly on the silicon blocks and photo conductance decay or quasi
steady state method developed by Ron Sinton.

The decay method is a measurement technique which is commercially

available and is widely used. The measurement is based on the detection of amplitude of the
microwave field reflected by the sample surface. This amplitude variation depends on the
conductivity and thus also on the number of minority carriers generated by the short laser
pulse. The time in which the system regains its initial state is associated with the quality of
the material and with the recombination mechanisms in the bulk and at the surface. It is rather
complicated different contributions and PV silicon has peculiar characteristics which enhance
the difficulties such as relatively high doping, rough surfaces and also the short diffusion
length of the minority carriers. The main problems with the block scanners, besides
separation of bulk and surface components, lie in the fact that the measurement is performed
on a very thin portion of the block. This is due to absorption of laser pulse in silicon (usually
near infra red range) and due to high reflectivity of micro waves which only allow the field to
penetrate a skin depth of sample under examination. The other difficulties lie in the
unpredictable behavior of the material in three dimensions, lateral distribution of carriers,
trapping effect, unknown injection levels etc. with the experience of crystal growers and the
feedback from the cell processing lines however, led to the establishment of a better method
for the analysis of silicon blocks which is able to reject low quality material at the block level
and which allows the identifications of correct cropping positions for the rejection of tops and
tails.

Industrial processing of low cost crystalline silicon cells:

21
 Although, the efficiency is important, the principal requirement for the industrial
manufacturing is low cost. The processing techniques and the materials are selected for the
maximal cost reduction with the possible better efficiency. Finally its a compromise between
the cost and efficiency for the manufacturing. Industrial solar cells are fabricated in large
volume mainly on large areas. Thus the tendency is to develop a cheap, good quality solar
grade poly silicon feed stock material, to increase the substrate size, to reduce the kerf loss in
slicing and to decrease the thickness of the substrate to under 200m.

Typical efficiency of the commercially produced crystalline silicon solar

cells lies in the range of 13% to 16%. Because the efficiency influences the production costs
efforts are directed towards the improvement of efficiency. Based on the laboratory scale
achievements to full fill the efficiency goal solar cells should possess most of the following
features

Front surface texturing

Optimized emitter surface concentration and doping profile

Effective front surface passivation

Fine line front electrode

Point contact

Deep and highly doped emitter under contact

Thin base, i.e. much smaller than the minority carrier diffusion length

Back surface passivation

Oxide or nitride passivation

Floating junction structure

Back electrode passivation

Point contact

Deep back surface diffusion under contact

Back reflector

Back surface texture

Anti reflection coating optimized for encapsulation

Etching, texturing and optical confinement:

22
 Silicon substrates used in commercial cell processes contains a near surface saw
damaged layer, which has to be removed at the beginning of the process. Thickness of the
damage depends on the techniques used in wafering of the ingot. A layer of thickness of
20m to 30m has to be etched both sides of the wafer, cut by an inner diameter blade saw
while only a 10 to 20m is enough when a wire saw is used. The damage removal etch is
based on 20-30wt % aqueous solution of NaOH or KOH heated up to 80 to 90 0c. The etching
process has to be slightly modified when it is multicrystalline silicon cell substrates. Too fast
and prolonged etching produces steps at grain boundaries. This can lead to problems of
interconnections in the metal contacts. This problem can be avoided by an isotropic etching
based on a mixture of nitric, acetic and hydrochloric acids. The silicon surface after saw
damage etching has shinier and reflects more than 35% of the incident light.

The reflection losses in the commercial solar cells are reduced by random
chemical texturing. Surface texturing reduces the optical reflection from the single crystalline
surface to less than 10% by allowing the reflected ray to recouple in to the cell. Mono
crystalline silicon cells with a surface orientation <100> can be textured by the anisotropic
etching of a temperature of 70 to 800c for a week. This etch produces a randomly distributed
upside pyramids. However this method brings often the problem of repeatability. The solution
to this problem requires the use of appropriate additives which enhance the pyramid
nucleation process. The random texturisation process is not effective on multicrystalline
substrates due to its anisotropic nature. Isotropic texturing based on photolithography and wet
etching are not cost effective. Best results from the optical point of view have been obtained
by mechanical texturing and by reactive ion etching. Mechanical grooving is the method of
forming the V- grooves in silicon wafer by mechanical abrasion; using conventional dicing
saw and beveled blades. The optical quality of the mechanical textured surface depends upon
the blade tip angle, groove depth and damage layer etching.

In an industrial high efficiency silicon cell process cleaning is done after

texturing and before surface passivation (oxide growth). Traditionally RCA cleaning is the
cleaning process adopted most widely. Recently a new cleaning technique called as IMEC
clean is been developed commercially which does a perfect removal of all the metallic
particles, usually consists of H2SO4/H2O2 step followed by a 1% diluted HF step. If removal
of metallic contamination is the only issue, a single cleaning step in1% diluted HCl yields
excellent results. This is especially important for the cleaning step performed after
texturisation. A further advantage is the low consumption of chemicals. This results not only
in important cost savings but also in a considerable reduction of chemical waste products.

Photo voltaic module:

The single solar cell manufactured will be only of a one half volt. For
almost all the applications, the one half volt produced by a Single cell is inadequate.
Therefore cells are connected together in series to increase the voltage. Several of these series
strings of cells may be connected together in parallel to increase the current as well.

23
 These interconnected cells and their electrical connections are then
sandwiched between a top layer of glass and clear plastic of low level of plastic metal. An
outer frame is attached to increase mechanical strength, and provide a way to mount the unit.
This package is called a module. The module is thus the basic building block of the solar
photovoltaic systems.

Usually 10 to 36 cells are interconnected together in a circuit forming a

module, to give a final voltage of about 15-17 volts which is enough to charge a 12 volt
battery. Charging batteries is the primary use for photovoltaic module, so most are designed
around doing that job.

There are also other situations where the voltage or current from one module
is not enough to power the load. In these cases, modules are connected together, just as the
cells were connected. Manufacturers usually build modules with convenient junction boxes
that allow interconnection in series or parallel.

Cell, Module, Panel and Array:

A Cell is a basic building block of a manufacturer of solar modules. The
fundamental physics of the materials used determines the voltage of the cell and the size
determines the current. The voltage of the basic individual cell is about half volt and is
interconnected with other cells to increase the voltage and current.

Module is the real building block of the cells for real world remote power
systems. It is interconnected by usually flat wire, and includes encapsulation to protect the
cells and interconnecting wires from corrosion and impact. It includes a frame to allow easy
mounting and a junction box to allow wiring to other modules or to the battery and loads. The
number of cells connected in series determines the final voltage of the module.

Panel is a collection of modules physically and electrically grouped together on

a structure. This would be the building block for the larger power systems. Usually the
modules are wired together on the panel to the final system voltage and the panels are wired
together to the Field junction boxes and then on to the system controls and batteries as per the
power and load requirements.

An Array is the full collection of all the photovoltaic generators. Sometimes the
arrays are too large that they are grouped into sub arrays, for easier installation and power
management. An array can be as small as a few modules to as large as 100,000 modules for
very large power utility connected systems.

3.Basic block diagram of the project:

24
 The different blocks of the basic block diagram of the project is as
shown in the figure below.

Fig3.1: Basic block diagram of the project

From the block diagram shown above it can be noticed that the power drawn
from the solar panel is utilized by charging the battery and can be used when ever required.
The power gained from the panel cannot be given directly to a battery for charging due to the
variations and reverse flow of current. Thus, a charge controller circuit is employed for
effective charging of the battery with the available current. The charge controller circuit is of
constant voltage type and of rating 12V and 20A.

The battery used here is of lead oxide battery and of 75AH. Which can be
charged and can be utilized when ever required. The battery used takes a constant voltage of
12V to charge. The battery is directly connected to the inverter circuit to invert the voltage
and a sinusoidal wave is produced with a frequency of 50Hz.

The inverter circuit used converts the DC voltage from the battery to 12V AC.
The waveform obtained here will be a square waveform. Filters are used to convert this
waveform to approximately sinusoidal. The inverter circuit can be used up to a load rating of
about 650VA which is sufficient for the domestic loads. The inverter circuit can be used for
any kind of load except for very sensitive loads.

A transformer is used for stepping up the output voltage of 12V obtained at

the inverter. The voltage is stepped up from 12V to 230V which can be utilized for domestic
loads. The transformer used is of 15A rating. The output of the transformer can be directly
connected to the load.

The voltage and current required for the tracking circuit is also taken from
the solar panel only. The tracking circuit is based on the output given from the photo sensors

25
given to the micro controllers. The microcontroller then produces the pulses for driving the
motor. The motor used here is a stepper motor which takes the input pulses to rotate required
number of turns.

The Dc motor is a Geared Dc motor. The motor contains 2 coils and one
wire is connected to the +12V supply and other to ground. Thus, the motor takes the input of
12V to run. The motor has the good torque and lifts the loads up to 12Kgs.

26
 Solar tracking system

3.1.1 Introduction to solar tracking system:

Although the photovoltaic systems are conventional and achieve a sustainable
way of converting solar energy into electricity the major drawback is the conversion
efficiency is small and more voltage fluctuations depending upon the climate. This can be
improved to an extent by using a solar tracking system.

A tracking system is a device for orienting a solar panel or concentrating a solar

reflector or lens towards the sun. Concentrators especially in solar cell applications, require a
high degree of accuracy to ensure that the sun light is directed precisely to the powered
device. Thus, the solar tracking in case of concentrators is called as Heliostat. Thus, the
solar panel is oriented towards the sun manually or automatically in a solar tracking system.

27
 The sun's position in the sky varies both with the seasons (elevation)
and time of day as the sun moves across the sky. Solar powered equipment works best
when pointed at or near the sun, so a solar tracker can increase the effectiveness of such
equipment over any fixed position, at the cost of additional system complexity.

To keep up with other green energies, the solar cell market has to be as
efficient as possible in order not to lose market shares on the global energy marketplace.
There are two main ways to make the solar cells more efficient, one is to develop the solar
cell material and make the panels even more efficient and another way is to optimize the
output by installing the solar panels on a tracking base that follows the sun.

The end-user will prefer the tracking solution rather than a fixed ground system to increase
their earnings because:

The efficiency increases by 30-40%

The space requirement for a solar park is reduced, and they keep the same output

The return of the investment timeline is reduced

The tracking system amortizes itself within 4 years (on average)

Tracking the sun from east in the morning to west in the evening will
increase the efficiency of the solar panel by 20-62% depending on whom you ask and
where you are in the world. Near to equator, you will have the highest benefit of tracking
the sun.

Tracking of sun can be done in either single axis or in two axis depending
upon the accuracy.

3.1.2 Methods used in tracking solar energy

Single axis tracking system:
As the name says, a single axis tracking system is a system that only moves
over one axis.

The panels can for instance be fixed in an angle towards south. As the sun rises from the east
and goes down in the west, the panels adjust accordingly to increase the efficiency of the
panels.

The single axis tracking system is the simplest solution and the most common one used.

28
 Fig 3.2 single axis tracking systems

Dual Axis Tracking Systems:

A dual axis tracking system is a system that follows the sun in multiple
angles ensuring that the sunbeam angle is 100% correct on the panel. By tracking the
sun, the efficiency of the solar panels can be increased by 30-40%.

The dual axis tracking system is also used for concentrating a solar reflector toward the
concentrator on heliostat systems.

29
 Fig 3.3 dual axis tracking system

Drive types for solar tracking system:

Active tracker:
Active trackers use motors and gear trains to direct the tracker as
commanded by a controller responding to the solar direction.

Active two-axis trackers are also used to orient heliostats movable mirrors
that reflect sunlight toward the absorber of a central power station. As each mirror in a large
field will have an individual orientation these are controlled programmatically through a
central computer system, which also allows the system to be shut down when necessary.
Light-sensing trackers typically have two photosensors, such as photodiodes, configured
differentially so that they output a null when receiving the same light flux. Mechanically, they
should be omnidirectional (i.e. flat) and are aimed 90 degrees apart. This will cause the
steepest part of their cosine transfer functions to balance at the steepest part, which translates
into maximum sensitivity.

Since the motors consume energy, one wants to use them only as necessary. So instead of a
continuous motion, the heliostat is moved in discrete steps. Also, if the light is below some
threshold there would not be enough power generated to warrant reorientation. This is also
true when there is not enough difference in Light level from one direction to another, such
as when clouds are passing overhead. Consideration must be made to keep the tracker from
wasting energy during cloudy periods.

Passive tracker:
30
 Fig 3.4 passive tracker

Zomeworks passive tracker head in Spring/Summer tilt position with panels on light
blue rack pivoted to morning position against stop. Dark blue objects are hydraulic dampers.

Passive trackers use a low boiling point compressed gas fluid that is driven to one
side or the other (by solar heat creating gas pressure) to cause the tracker to move in response
to an imbalance. As this is a non-precision orientation it is unsuitable for certain types of
concentrating photovoltaic collectors but works fine for common PV panel types. These will
have viscous dampers to prevent excessive motion in response to wind gusts.
Shader/reflectors are used to reflect early morning sunlight to "wake up" the panel and tilt it
toward the sun, which can take nearly an hour. The time to do this can be greatly reduced by
adding a self-releasing tie down that positions the panel slightly past the zenith (so that the
fluid does not have to overcome gravity) and using the tie down in the evening. (A slack-
pulling spring will prevent release in windy overnight conditions.)

The term "passive tracker" is also used for photovoltaic modules that include a
hologram behind stripes of photovoltaic cells. That way, sunlight passes through the
transparent part of the module and reflects on the hologram. This allows sunlight to hit the
cell from behind, thereby increasing the module's efficiency. Also, the module does not have
to move since the hologram always reflects sunlight from the correct angle towards the cell.

3.1.3 Working and operation of solar tracking circuit:

The tracking circuit mainly works taking the inputs from the sensor units
and giving signals to the microcontroller which in turn gives the pulses to drive the motor.
The sensing units in this circuit are light depending resistors (LDRs) whose resistance varies
proportional to the brightness of the light. The microcontroller generates pulses to run the
motor depending on the program. The motor used is a geared DC motor. This stepper motor
takes the input from the microcontroller and turns accordingly. The circuit diagram for the
tracking circuit is as shown below.

31
 Four LDRs are placed in a semicircular order so that the brightness is
detected at different points of time in a day. Fourth LDR always senses dark and will be high
for dark conditions. When tracking circuit is switched on the first LDR senses the brightness
and the tracking will be started. After some time when the sun changes its position the
brightness on the first LDR decreases gradually and the second LDR starts sensing more
brightness and is detected. After getting the signal from the second LDR the microcontroller
generates pulses to turn the motor to some required angle. The microcontroller is so
programmed that it gives the pulses to motor for an angle of 20 0 after detection of brightness
from each LDR. Later third LDR senses more brightness and the motor is again made to turn
another 200. By the time the fourth LDR is detected it will become dark and the fourth LDR
is set so that it detects darkness. When this LDR detects dark and sends the microcontroller
the controller generates pulses to rotate the stepper motor in reverse direction for an angle of
600 to make the panel ready for the next day. When again brightness falls on the first LDR the
tracking again starts and the process repeats. Thus, the panel is made to track the sun based
on the brightness of the sun detected by the LDRs.

555 timers are used for creating a delay and sending input to the micro
controller from the LDR. The delay is created in between the LDRs so that the there will not
be any overlap in the pulse given to the motor when there is a situation that two LDRs detects
the same brightness and gives input to the microcontroller.

In such case the 555 timer gives a delay to the LDRs and such conditions are avoided. A 10K
pot is used to adjust the sensitivity of the LDRs as the resistance of the pot is varies the LDR
is used to detect the intensity of the brightness. Depending upon the requirement the
sensitivity of the LDRs thus can be changed by just varying the resistance of 10K pot. The
resistance of this pot is initially set to required value and the tracking is started.

The microcontroller used is AT98C2051. This is a 20 pin controller. Program in

the controller is written and compiled using Kiel software. An input of +5V is given to the
twentieth pin and tenth pin is grounded. A crystal oscillator of 12MHz frequency is connected
between fourth and fifth pins of the controller for generating pulses. A switch is connected to
the ninth pin of the controller for starting and stopping tracking. The inputs from the 555
timers are given to 2nd, 3rd, 6th and 7th pins of the controllers and output is taken from 16 th,
17th, 18th and 19th pins of the controller.

The input given to the micro controller is only 5V and the microcontroller is
rated for 500mA. The controller program is such that the micro controller gives the input to
the motor for only 3seconds when a LDR is sensed and then turned off.

This time is sufficient for the motor to run and

complete the required angle. 4 relays are placed through a ULN 2003 which is a 16 pin IC to
give the input to the motor. Input of +12V is given to the ninth pin of the IC and 8 th pin is
grounded. The output pins of the microcontroller are connected to 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th pins of
ULN 2003. The output pins 13, 14, 15, and 16. are connected to the motor. All the positive
contacts of the relays are connected together and the negative contacts are grounded. The
ULN 2003 drives the motor without any problem to the micro controller. For the first three
32
LDRs which senses the brightness of the sun, the micro controller turns on the relays for 3
seconds to run the motor and for the fourth LDR which detects the darkness, the micro
controller turn on the relay for 9seconds and the motor terminals are connected reversed to
turn in reverse direction. The relays chosen are of 5V and have fast switching depending
upon the output of the micro controller.

The input to the tracking circuit is given from the solar panel only. So, a 7805
voltage regulator is used for giving input to the 555 timers and microcontroller. The 7805
voltage regulator takes +12V input at the input pin and gives a regulated voltage of +5V.

The connection of voltage regulator is shown in the figure below. 12V

input is taken from the solar panel and connected to the IN4005 diode.

33
Fig3.5: Circuit Diagram of solar tracking system

34
 This is a blocking diode and blocks the current flow in the reverse
direction from battery to solar panel. The output of the 7805 voltage regulator is 5V and is
given to 555 timers and microcontroller.

The 12V input from the panel through battery is directly given to the
DC motor. The motor in the tracking circuit will not be always in on state. The motor and
tracking circuit will be automatically turned off till there is no detection of brightness in the
LDR. Once there is brightness and 555 timers Sends input to the microcontroller the motor
will be turned on automatically and rotate the required number of turns

Fig 3.6 connection of solar panel

The main advantage of this circuit for tracking the sun is the power used for driving the
motor in this set up will be the least. When ever the LDR senses the light only the supply to
the motor will be given and the rest of the time the supply to the motor will be cut off saving
the power. Moreover, when the supply to the motor is given continuously the motor winding
may get overheated also the panel will be in the hot sun through out the day the motor will be
get over heated resulting in burning of the windings this drawback is also reduced. Thus,
though there is a loss in sensing the light to full extent and tracking the sun the power is
saved and the drawback can be overcome by this way.

35
3.1.4 DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS OF
TRACKING:
A brief description of different components used in the tracking
circuit and their operation in the circuit is given below.

RESISTORS:
These are current resisting devices. These are made of carbon, metallic wire wound
etc. These are read through this acronym BBROYGBVGW. This stands for ,Black ,Brown ,
Red, Orange, Yellow ,Green ,Blue , Violet, Gray and ,White respectively .These colors are
printed as lines on the resistor the first and second color lines indicate the number
corresponding to color .The number indicated by the color are shown in table below .The
third line indicate the number of zeros ,the fourth line indicate the percentage of tolerance
of the resistor

36
 Fig 3.7 colour coding for finding value of a resistor

Each color corresponds to a certain number, shown in the chart below. The tolerance for a 4-
band resistor will be 1%, 5%, or 10%.5-band axial resistors

E.g. Red, Red, Black Gold = 22 +/-5%;

Red, Red, Brown = 220 ; Red, Red, Red = 2200 ; Red, Red, Orange = 22K;Red, Red,
Yellow = 220 K; Red, Red, Green = 2.2M ;Red, Red, Yellow = 22 M

These are available in various wattages like 1/4W ,1/2 W,1

W,2W,5W,10W,20W,50W,100W,200W. In electronics most common use is up to 5Watt.
Higher the wattages bigger the sizes. The value and wattage of resisters are to be selected as
per the applications. The tolerance in variation of the rated value is also selected as per the
applications. The resistors are fabricated directly on the IC itself.

37
VARIABLE RESISTORS
These are variable current resisting devices. That means sometimes you need to
change the resistance, while the circuit is working. Then the variable resistor is useful. The
common type of variable resistor has 3 terminals. It is called as potentiometer or just a pot.

Fig 3.8

ADJUSTABLE PRESET WIRE WOUND RESISTORS

These are made from resistance wire wound on a screwed clamp. Rough handling
may damage the wire or loosen fixed end clamps.

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR

This is a special type of resistor which varies its resistance depending on the intensity
of light falling on it. Its a bidirectional device which on connecting in one direction acts as a
light dependent resistor (LDR) and when connected in other direction acts as a dark
dependent resistor. If the LDR is connected in light mode in series with the led, when there
is dark the LED doesnt glow, when a small amount of light falls on LDR then led glows
more is the intensity of light more the glow of LED.

Fig 3.9 light dependant resistor

DIODES:

38
 This device allows flowing current in only one direction. These devices are also
called unidirectional devices .Earlier these devices were made of vacuum tubes, now a
days these are semi conductor solid state devices. These are PN junction devices .The
PN means doping of the semi conductor with positive and negative electronic valence
atoms . The silicon diodes have knee voltage drop of 0.7 volts i.e. Forward biased voltage
drop whereas germanium diodes have 0.3 voltage drop. The different diodes are used for
different purposes. The diodes work in forward biased condition or reverse biased
conditions.

These are available with different current rating, voltage rating, power rating and are used for
different applications. The diodes of higher wattages are of bigger sizes. The Symbol of
Diode and the ideal curves of diodes are shown below.

Fig 3.10 diodes of different ratings

Current

Voltage

Diode Symbol ideal curve

Diodes are of different types like Photodiode, Varactor diode, Schotkey Diode, PIN diode,
Zener Diode etc.

39
 Current

Forward Region

Break Down Voltage

Voltage

Reverse Region

Fig 3.11 Diode Characteristics

Zener Diode
Regulators; the symbol of a Zener diode is shown as shown in the figure below

Small signal and rectifier diodes are never operated in the break down region because this
may damage them. The Zener diode is made to operate in breakdown region, sometimes
called breakdown diode. The Zener diode is the back bone of voltage

Fig3.12 Symbol of a Zener diode

40
Circuits that hold almost constant load voltage, despite large changes in the line voltage and
load resistance.

Light Emitting Diode(LED):

In a forward biased diode, free electrons cross the junction and fall in to holes. As these
electrons fall from a higher to a lower energy level, they radiate energy .In ordinary diodes
this energy goes off in the form of heat .But in the light emitting diode (LED) the energy
radiates as light. LEDs that radiate red, green, yellow, blue, orange or infrared are
manufactured by using elements like gallium, arsenic, and phosphorous. LEDs that produce
visible radiations are useful with instruments, calculators etc. The infrared LED finds
application in burglar systems and other areas requiring invisible radiations. The seven
segment displays uses 7 LEDs in a particular format for displaying alpha-numeric characters
connected as either common cathode or common anode configuration.

Fig 3.13 The symbol of LED

CAPACITORS
These are the storage devices but has in built Resistance thats why the storage voltage does
not last for longer period. The use of capacitor is for tuning the circuit, filtering the noise to
ground, creating the timing pulse as in our case .The capacitors cannot be fabricated on ICs
because of the technical difficulty.

The different values of capacitor that are available are

1pf,2pf,2.2pf,100pf,200pf,1000pf,0.001uf, 0.01uf, 0.1uf, 2uf, 10uf, 22uf, 33uf, 47uf, 56uf,
68uf, 82uf,100uf,220uf,330uf etc The capacitors are selected based on capacitance and
voltage rating .Higher the voltage higher the size of the capacitor. These are available in
following types

Electrolytic Capacitor:

These capacitors have electrolyte as the dielectric medium between the two plates. These are
available with polarity + and -.These are available with vertical mount or horizontal mount
configuration.

41
Paper Capacitor:

These capacitors are available in low range of capacitance. The paper is used as dielectric
media between the two plates.

Mica Capacitor:

These capacitors are also available in low range of capacitance. The mica is
used as dielectric media between the two plates.

Disc Capacitor:

These are available from 1pF to 1ooooUF.

Tantalum Electronics:

Normal electrolytic rely on aluminum foil, separated by paper soaked in chemicals.

Tantalum electrolytic relies on different materials. They are smaller, but more expensive than
other type of capacitors.

Fig 3.14 design of a capacitor

IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS:
The LM7805 has series of three-terminal positive regulators. These regulators can
provide local on-card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with single
point regulation. This employs internal current limiting, thermal shut-down and safe area
protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can
deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these
devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

42
 Fig 3.15 LM7805

CRYSTAL:
These crystal units are intended for use as reference clocks in microprocessors.

Features
1. Meets the requirements for various applications with the availability of abundant standard
frequencies.

2. Surface mounts type.

3. Taping type and gull-wing type are available for automatic mounting

Fig 3.16 CRYSTAL

MICRO CONTROLLER:
AT89C2051 Micro Controller Description:
The AT89C2051 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer
with 2K Bytes of Flash erasable and programmable read only memory (EPROM). The device
is manufactured using Atmels high density nonvolatile memory technology and is
compatible with the industry standard MCS-51 instruction set. By combining a versatile 8-
bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C2051 is a powerful microcomputer
which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded control
applications. The AT89C2051 provides the following standard features: 2K Bytes of Flash,

43
128 bytes of RAM, 15 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt
architecture, a full duplex serial port, a precision analog comparator, on-chip oscillator and
clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C2051 is designed with static logic for operation down
to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode
stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to
continue functioning. The Power down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the
oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.

Features

Compatible with MCS-51 Products

2K Bytes of Reprogrammable Flash Memory Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase

Cycles

2.7V to 6V Operating Range

Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz

Two-Level Program Memory Lock

128 x 8-Bit Internal RAM

15 Programmable I/O Lines

Two 16-Bit Timer/Counters

Six Interrupt Sources

Programmable Serial UART Channel

Direct LED Drive Outputs

On-Chip Analog Comparator

Low Power Idle and Power Down Mode

Block Diagram
The block diagram of the 2051 microcontroller with different ports and registers is
shown below.

44
 Fig 3.17 Block diagram of 2051 micro controller

Pin Configuration

45
 Fig 3.18 pin configuration of micro controller
VCC
Supply voltage.

GND
Ground.

Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port. Port pins P1.2 to P1.7 provide internal
pull-ups. P1.0 and P1.1 require external pull-ups. P1.0 and P1.1 also serve as the positive
input (AIN0) and the negative input (AIN1), respectively, of the on-chip precision analog
comparator. The Port 1 output buffers can sink 20 mA and can drive LED displays directly.
When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they can be used as inputs. When pins P1.2 to P1.7 are
used as inputs and are externally pulled low, they will source current (I IL) because of the
internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives code data during Flash programming and verification.

Port 3
Port 3 pins P3.0 to P3.5, P3.7 are seven bidirectional I/O pins with internal pull
ups. P3.6 is hard-wired as an input to the output of the on-chip comparator and is not
accessible as a general purpose I/O pin. The Port 3 output buffers can sink 20 mA. When 1s
are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as
inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL)
because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features Of the
AT89C2051 as listed below:

Port Pin Alternate Functions

P3.0 RXD (serial input port)

P3.1 TXD (serial output port)

46
 P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0)

P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1)

P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input)

P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input)

Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.
RST
Reset input. All I/O pins are reset to 1s as soon as RST goes high. Holding the RST pin high
for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. Each machine cycle
takes 12 oscillator or clock cycles.

XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.
XTAL2
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
Oscillator Characteristics
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting
amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 1.
Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an
external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in
Figure 2. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the
input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and
maximum voltage, high and low time specifications must be observed.
Note: C1, C2 = 30 pF 10 pF for Crystals

= 40 pF 10 pF for Ceramic Resonators

47
Figure 3.19 Oscillator Connections

MICRO CONTROLLER VERSUS MICRO PROCESSOR:

By microprocessor is meant the general purpose Microprocessors such as

Intel's X86 family (8086, 80286, 80386, 80486, and the Pentium) or Motorola's 680X0 family
(68000, 68010, 68020, 68030, 68040, etc). These microprocessors contain no RAM, no
ROM, and no I/O ports on the chip itself. For this reason, they are commonly referred to as
general-purpose Microprocessors.

A system designer using a general-purpose microprocessor such as the

Pentium or the 68040 must add RAM, ROM, I/O ports, and timers externally to make them
functional. Although the addition of external RAM, ROM, and I/O ports makes these systems
bulkier and much more expensive, they have the advantage of versatility such that the
designer can decide on the amount of RAM, ROM and I/O ports needed to fit the task at
hand. This is not the case with Microcontrollers.

A Microcontroller has a CPU (a microprocessor) in addition to a fixed

amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports, and a timer all on a single chip. In other words, the
processor, the RAM, ROM, I/O ports and the timer are all embedded together on one chip;
therefore, the designer cannot add any external memory, I/O ports, or timer to it. The fixed
amount of on-chip ROM, RAM, and number of I/O ports in Microcontrollers makes them
ideal for many applications in which cost and space are critical.

In many applications, for example a TV remote control, there is no need for

the computing power of a 486 or even an 8086 microprocessor. These applications most often
require some I/O operations to read signals and turn on and off certain bits.

SERIAL PORTS:

Each 8051 microcomputer contains a high speed full duplex

(means you can simultaneously use the same port for both transmitting and receiving
purposes) serial port which is software configurable in 4 basic modes: 8 bit USART;
9 bit USART; inter processor Communications link or as shift register I/O expander.

48
 For the standard serial communication facility, 8051 can be programmed
for USART operations and can be connected with regular personal computers,
teletype writers, modem at data rates between 122 bauds and 31 kilo bauds. Getting
this facility is made very simple using simple routines with option to elect even or
odd parity. You can also establish a kind of Inter processor communication facility
among many microcomputers in a distributed environment with automatic recognition
of address/data. Apart from all above, you can also get super fast I/O lines using low
cost simple TTL or CMOS shift registers.

555 TIMER IC:

NE 555 Single Timer Descriptions
The LM555/NE555/SA555 is a highly stable controller capable of producing
accurate timing pulses. With Monostable operation, the time delay is controlled by one
external resistor and one capacitor. With Astable operation, the frequency and duty cycle are
accurately controlled with two external resistors and one capacitor.
Features

High Current Drive Capability (200mA)

Adjustable Duty Cycle

Temperature Stability of 0.005%/C

Timing from Sec to Hours

Turn off Time less than 2Sec

Figure 3.20 : NE 555

Applications

Precision Timing

49
 Pulse Generation

Time Delay Generation

Sequential Timing

Internal Block Diagram

Fig 3.21 internal block diagram of 555 timer

Application Information

Table 1 below is the basic operating table of 555 timers

Monostable Operation:

50
 Figure 3.22. Monostable Circuit
As shown below Figure 1 illustrates a monostable circuit. In this mode, the timer
generates a fixed pulse whenever the trigger voltage falls below Vcc/3. When the trigger
pulse voltage applied to the #2 pin falls below Vcc/3 while the timer output is low, the timer's
internal flip-flop turns the discharging Tr. off and causes the timer output to become high by
charging the external capacitor C1and setting the flip-flop output at the same time. The
voltage across the external capacitor C1, VC1 increases exponentially with the time constant
t=RA*C and reaches 2Vcc/3 at td=1.1RA*C. Hence, capacitor C1 is charged through resistor
RA. The greater the time constant RAC, the longer it takes for the VC1 to reach 2Vcc/3. In
other words, the time constant RAC controls the output pulse width.

Figure3.23 Waveforms of Monostable Operation

When the applied voltage to the capacitor C1 reaches 2Vcc/3, the

comparator on the trigger terminal resets the flip-flop, turning the discharging Tr. on. At this

51
time, C1 begins to discharge and the timer output converts to low. In this way, the timer
operating in monostable repeats the above process. Figure 2 shows the general waveforms
during monostable operation. It must be noted that, for normal operation, the trigger pulse
voltage needs to maintain a minimum of Vcc/3 before the timer output turns low. That is,
although the output remains unaffected even if a different trigger pulse is applied while the
output is high, it may be affected and the waveform not operate properly if the trigger pulse
voltage at the end of the output pulse remains at below Vcc/3.

Astable Operation:
An astable timer operation is achieved by adding resistor RB to Figure 1 and configuring as
shown on Figure 3. In astable operation, the trigger terminal and the threshold terminal are
connected so that a self-trigger is formed, operating as a multivibrator. When the timer output
is high, its internal discharging Tr, turns off and the VC1 increases by exponential function
with the time constant (RA+RB)*C. When the VC1, or the threshold voltage, reaches 2Vcc/3,
the comparator output on the trigger terminal becomes high, resetting the F/F and causing the
timer output to become low. This in turn turns on the discharging Tr, and the C1 discharges
through the discharging channel formed by RB and the discharging Tr.

Figure 3.24 Astable Circuit

Figure 3.25 Waveforms of Astable Operation

52
 When the VC1 falls below Vcc/3, the comparator output on the trigger
terminal becomes high and the timer output becomes high again. The discharging Tr. turns off
and the VC1 rises again. In the above process, the section where the timer output is high is
the time it takes for the VC1 to rise from Vcc/3 to 2Vcc/3, and the section where the timer
output is low is the time it takes for the VC1 to drop from 2Vcc/3 to Vcc/3.

Since the timer operates in astable, the time period T is T=0.693(RA+2RB) C1 because the
period is the sum of the charge time and discharge time. And since frequency is the reciprocal
of the period, the following applies.

Frequency, F =1/T* 1.44/ (RA + 2RB) C1

ULN 2003A IC:

Description of ULN 2003A

The ULN2003A is a high-voltage, high-current Darlington transistor array. Each

consists of seven NPN Darlington pairs that feature high-voltage outputs with common-
cathode clamp diodes for switching inductive loads. The collector-current rating of a single
Darlington pair is 500 mA. The Darlington pairs can be paralleled for higher current
capability. Applications include relay drivers, hammer drivers, lamp drivers, display drivers
(LED and gas discharge), line drivers, and logic buffers.
Features
500-mA-Rated Collector Current (Single Output)

High-Voltage Outputs . . . 50 V

Output Clamp Diodes

Inputs Compatible with Various Types of Logic

Relay-Driver Applications

Pin Configuration:

53
 Fig 3.26 pin configuration of ULN 2003A
The ULN2003A and ULQ2003A have a 2.7-k series base resistor for
each Darlington pair for operation directly with TTL or 5-V CMOS devices.

Schematics (Darlington pair)

Logic Diagram
Fig 3.27 schematics of ULN 2003A
Applications of ULN 2003A:
Transistor Transistor logic to load

54
 Fig 3.28 TTL logic
Use of Pull up Resistors to Increase Drive Current

SWITCHES:
Toggle switch:
The simple Toggle switch you may get in various configurations, depending on the
number of poles (for example SPDT indicate a single pole double throw switch). Toggle
switch is also available with center OFF positions and with up to 4 poles switched
simultaneously. Toggle switches are always break before make e.g., the moving contact
never connects to both terminals in an SPDT switch (as in figure 1).

55
Basically there are 3 types of toggle switches they are:

Single Pole Single Throw (SPST)

Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT)

Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT)

Figure 3.29 types of switches

Rotary Switches
You will come across the rotary switches with many poles and many positions, often
as kits with individual wafers and shaft hardware. Both shorting (make before break) and
non- shorting (break before make) types are available, and they can be mixed on the same
switch. In many applications the shorting type is useful to prevent an open circuit between
switch positions, because circuits can give problems with unconnected inputs. Non-shorting
types are necessary if the separate lines being switched to one common line must never be
connected to each other.

Push-Button Switches:
Push-Button switches are useful for momentary contact applications, they are drawn
schematically as shown in figure 2 (NO and NC mean normally open and normally closed).
For SPDT momentary contact switches, the terminals must be labeled NO and NC, where as
for SPST types, the symbol is self explanatory. Momentary-contact switches are always
break before make.

Figure 3.30 push button switches

Other Type Switches

56
 In addition to these basic switch types, there are available various exotic switches
such as hall-effect switches, reed switches, proximity switches etc. All switches carry
maximum current and voltage ratings; a small toggle switch might be rated at 150volts and 5
amps. Operation with inductive loads drastically reduces switch life because of arcing during
turn-off.

Fig 3.31 on-off switch

Storage of solar energy

(battery)

57
 3.2.1 Introduction to storage system
The solar energy though is an unlimited source it cannot be obtained always.
Particularly during nights and during bad weather conditions the solar energy obtained is very
low and almost nothing. Though the energy can be utilized continuously during day time,
there is still a major part of the energy obtained is being wasted and cannot be utilized. The
only way to utilize the solar energy most efficiently and overcome the drawback that the
energy cannot be obtained during nights is to store the energy obtained from the sun. The best
method for storage of any DC energy obtained is a battery. Solar energy obtained can also be
stored by charging a battery and can be used when ever required. There are different kinds of
batteries and can be charged in a different number of ways for efficient charging .
BATTERY:
The term battery indicates that its a storage cell of electrical energy. In generally
batteries are classified into two types they are:-

Primary Batteries

Secondary storage batteries

Primary Batteries:
The primary battery can store and deliver electrical energy, but cannot be recharged.
Typically carbon-zinc and lithium batteries commonly used in your consumer electronics
devices are primarily batteries. Primary batteries are not used in photovoltaic systems
because they cannot be recharged.

Secondary storage Battery:

The secondary battery can store and deliver electrical energy, and can also be
recharged by passing a current through it in an opposite direction to that of discharge current.
Therefore, storage battery is the only option in solar photovoltaic systems.

58
 There are many factors that influence the choice and performance of a storage
battery in this application. Also battery technology keeps on charging with new
constructional features and enhanced performance levels.

BASIC TERMINOLOGY:
The working principles of batteries can be better explained with respect to the
following terms:-

Cell:
The cell is basically electrochemical unit in a battery, consisting of a set
positive and negative plates divided by separators, immersed in a electrolyte solution and
enclosed in a case. In a typical lead-acid battery, each cell has a nominal voltage of about 2.1
volts. So there are 6 series cells in a nominal 12v battery.

Active Materials in Battery:

The active materials used in a battery are the pasted composition materials
that form the positive and negative plates, and are reactants in the electrochemical cell. The
amount of active material in a battery in a battery is proportional to the capacity a battery can
deliver. In lead-acid batteries, the active materials are lead dioxide (PbO 2) in the positive
plates and metallic sponge lead (Pb) in the negative plates, which react with a sulphuric acid
(H2 SO4) solution during the battery operation.

Electrolyte:
The electrolyte is a conducting medium which allows the flow of current through
ionic transfer, or the transfer of electrons between the plates in a battery. In a lead acid
battery, the electrolyte is a diluted sulphuric acid solution, either in liquid (flooded) form,
gelled or absorbed in glass mats, the electrolyte is an alkaline solution of potassium
hydroxide and water.

Grid:
The Grid (in a battery) is typically a lead alloy framework that supports the active
material on a battery plate, and which also conducts current. Alloying elements such as
antimony and calcium are often used to strengthen the lead grids, and have characteristics
effects on battery performance such as cycle performance and gassing.

Plate:
A Plate is a grid wire, active material pasted onto it. It is sometimes called an
electrode. There are generally a number of positive and negative plates in each battery cell,

59
typically connected in parallel at a bus bar or plates. A pasted plate is manufactured by
applying a mixture of lead oxide, sulphuric acid, fibers and water on the grid.

Separator:
A Separator is a pours, insulating divider between the positive and negative plates in a
battery from coming into electrical contact and short circuiting, and which also allows the
flow of electrolyte and ions between the negative and possitive plates. They are made from
microporus rubber plastic or glass-wool mats.

Element:
An Element is defined as a stack of positive and negative plates group and
separators, assembled together with plate straps interconnecting the positive and negative
plates. In a lead acid battery, an element will generate nominal 2 volts.

Terminal Posts:
Terminal posts are the external positive and negative electrical connections to a
battery. A battery is connected in a PV system and to electrical loads at the terminal posts. In
a lead-acid battery, the posts are generally lead or a lead alloy, or possibly stainless steel or
copper plated steel for greater corrosion resistance. Battery terminals may require periodic
cleaning, particularly for flooded designs. It is also connections to battery terminals be re-
secured occasionally as they may loosen, over time.

Use of Cell Vent, Vent plug and case:

Cell vents:
During battery charging, gasses are produced with in a battery that may
be vented to the atmosphere. In flooded designs, gas escapes from the cell vents. In sealed or
valve-regulated batteries, the vents are designed with a pressure relief mechanism, remaining
closed under normal conditions, but opened during higher than normal battery pressure, often
as a result of overcharging or high temperature operation.

60
 Fig 3.32 battery cell composition

Aqua-Trap vent plugs:

Aqua-trap vent plug is a special vent plug made of inert material with controlled
micro porosity. These tiny pores of the dome shaped plug trap water vapors condense it thus
reducing the loss of water and electrolyte, thus only excessive gas produced in the cell is
allowed to escape. The inert material used for the vent plug also acts as flame retardant and
thus prevents possible explosion.

Case:
Commonly made from a hard rubber or plastic, the case contains the plates,
separators, and electrolyte in a battery. The case is typically enclosed with the exception of
inter-cell connectors which attach the plate assembly from one cell to the next, terminal posts,
and vents or caps which allow gassing products to escape and to permit water additions if
required. Clear battery cases or container allows for easy monitoring of condition. For very
large or tall batteries, plastic containers are often supported with an external metal or rigid
plastic.

Influence of Electrolyte Specific Gravity:

In very cold or tropical climates, the specific gravity of the sulphuric acid solution in
lead-acid batteries is often adjusted from the typical range of 1.250 to 1.280. In tropical
climates where freezing temperature do not occur, the electrolyte specific gravity may be
reduced to between 1.210 and 1.230 in some batteries. This lower concentration of electrolyte
will lessen the degradation of the separators and grids and prolong the batterys useful service
life. However the lower specific gravity decreases the storage capacity and high discharge

61
rate performance of the battery. Generally, these factors are offset by the fact that the battery
is generally operating at higher than the normal temperatures in tropical climates.

In very cold climates, the specific gravity of the electrolyte may be increased above
the typical range to values between 1.290 and 1.300. By increasing the electrolyte
concentration, the electrochemical activity in the battery is accelerated, improving the low
temperature capacity and lowers the potential for battery freezing. However, these higher
specific gravities generally reduce the useful service life of a battery.

Gassing:
Gassing is the process through which the water in the electrolyte is lost. In most
flooded battery types, periodic water additions are required to replenish the electrolyte. When
adding water to batteries, it is very important to use distilled or dematerialized water, as even
the impurities in normal tap water can poison the battery and result in premature failure.

Note: Use always distilled water. Dont poison the batteries.

BATTERY SPECIFICATIONS FOR SPV APPLICATION:

Note that, automobile batteries should not be used for SPV application, if there is any
alternative. Automobile batteries are meant for delivering high current for a short time. The
battery is then quickly recharged. On the other hand, PV batteries operate in a different way
and they should deliver power over a long period and to be recharged slowly. It is essential
that to know the various specifications of the battery for SPV applications.

Battery Capacity:
The battery capacity is a measure of a batterys ability to store or deliver electrical
energy, commonly expressed in units of ampere-hour. An ampere-hour is equal to the transfer
of one ampere over one hour. For example, a battery which delivers 3 amps for 25 hours its
said to deliver 75ampere-hour.

The capacity of a battery depends on several constructional factors like the quantity of
active material, the number and physical dimensions of the plates, and the electrolyte specific
gravity.

The battery capacity also depends on the operational factors like the discharge rate,
depth of discharge, cut-off voltage, and temperature and cycle history of the battery.

Sometimes a batterys capacity is also indicated as energy storage capacity. It is

expressed in kilowatt-hour (KWH), which can be approximated by multiplying the rated
capacity in ampere-hours by the nominal battery voltage and dividing the product by1000.
For example a nominal 12 volt, 100 ampere-hour battery has an energy storage capacity of
(12 X 100)/1000=1.2 Kilowatt-hour.

Battery Cycle:
62
 Battery Cycle, it refers to the process of charging and discharging of a battery. Battery
discharge is the process that occurs when a battery delivers current, Quantified by the
discharge current or rate. Charging is the process when a battery receives or accepts current
quantified by the charge current or rate. A discharge followed by a recharge is considered one
cycle.

The discharge can be very small or shallow, or it can be very severe or deep. Batteries
can be cycled, but the question is how deeply and how many times before a permanent loss of
capacity occurs.

One common use of battery is called float service. In float service applications (e.g.
UPS). The battery storage is not regularly used, and is available on a standby basis for
emergencies only (e.g. loss of main utility power). Batteries are trickle charged at a small
rate. When they are needed, they are discharged relatively quickly, but then gradually and
fully recharged from maximum utility power over many days. Then they float again for
weeks or months. Battery manufactures often claim 20 years of usable life for batteries in
float service. This however is not the way; the battery in PV applications will be used!

You should know that the batteries used in photo voltaic applications will definitely be
subjected to cycling on a daily basis, and perhaps also deeply cycled. So, the useful life
service in PV cycling service will be less (5-10) years.

Charge/Discharge rates:
The rate of charge or discharge of a battery is expressed as a ratio of the nominal
battery capacity to the charge or discharge time period in hours. For example, a 100Ah
battery is discharging at the rate of 2 amps. The time to completely discharge a fully charged
battery at this rate would be the capacity divided by the current or 100Ah /2amps = 50 hours.
So you can say that the battery is discharging at the 50 hours rate or at C/50.

The above notation is helpful, because it allows you to express relative rates of battery charge
and discharge without referring to the exact size of a battery. For example, most manufactures
recommend charging their batteries no faster than the C/5 rate to limit gassing and
overcharge. This means 20amps for a 100Ah battery, and 100 amps for a 500Ah battery.
Moderate charge rates are around C/20 or C/30, while trickle charging at C/100 will hardly
produce any gassing at all in most batteries.

Batteries used in typical PV system experience very low rates of charge and discharge
compared to industrial applications. For example, the maximum charge rates from the PV
array to battery are commonly about C/40 or C/45 and typical discharge rates supplied to the
loads may be as low as C/100 to C/200. Contrast to this, a typical industrial fork lift battery
might be discharged in one 8-hour shift.

Cold temperature reduces the capacity:

63
 Battery capacity goes down as temperature goes down. This is because the chemical
reactions go slower and less active materials can be accessed and converted when cold.

Fast Discharging reduces capacity:

As batteries are discharged and reaction products like water are produced. During fast
discharge, the reaction products get in the way of fresh electrolyte, so capacity is limited. In
contrast, if the battery is discharged slowly, the fresh electrolyte can more efficiently
penetrate into the plates and more capacity is made available for discharging.

Depth of discharge (DOD):

The depth of discharge (DOD) of a battery is defined as the percentage of capacity
that has been withdrawn from a battery compared to the total fully charged capacity. By
definition, the full depth of discharge and state of charge (SOC) of a battery add to 100
percent. In PV system it is usually mentioned either as the allowable or maximum DOD or
the average daily DOD.

Modes of battery charging:

There are basically three modes of charging the battery. These are

Bulk or normal charge:

Bulk or normal charging is the initial portion of a charging cycle, performed
at any charge rate which does not cause the cell voltage to exceed the gassing voltage. Bulk
charging generally occurs between 80% and 90% state of the charge.

Float or finishing charge:

Once a battery is nearly fully charged, most of the active material in the battery
has been converted to its original form and the voltage or current regulation are generally
required to limit the amount of overcharge supplied to the battery. Finish charging us usually
conducted at low to medium charge rates.

Equalizing charge:
An equalizing of refreshing charge is used periodically to maintain consistency
among individual cells. An equalizing charge generally consists of a current limited charge to
higher voltage limits than set for finishing or float charge. For batteries deep discharged on
daily basis, an equalizing charge is recommended every one or two weeks. For batteries less
severely discharged, equalizing charge may only be required every one or two months. An
equalizing charge is typically maintained until the cell voltages and specific gravities remain
consistent for a few hours.

64
SOLAR CHARGE
CONTROLLER

3.2.2 protection of battery from excess charge

65
 We know that the power obtained through the solar energy is stored in a battery and
utilized whenever required. But the battery cannot be directly connected and charged through
the solar panel. For any kind of source battery charging is done through an efficient and
reliable battery charging control circuit. Whenever batteries are included in the system,
additional facility must be built in that will protect against overuse and that will give
information back to the user regarding the state of charge of the battery. These protection
features are provided by the charge controller.

The SCC means a solar charge controller; its function is to regulate the
power flowing from a photovoltaic panel into a rechargeable battery. The charge controller is
the energy manager in a stand-alone SPV systems, which ensures that the battery is cycled
under conditions which does not reduce its ability to deliver its rated capacity over its
expected lifetime .It features easy setup with one potentiometer for the float voltage
adjustment, an equalize function for periodic overcharging, and automatic temperature
compensation for better battery charging over a wide range of temperatures. The SCC is able
to prevent reverse polarity connection of both the battery and photovoltaic panel.

The charge controller can act as the energy manager in a standalone

solar photovoltaic system, which ensures that the battery is cycled under conditions which do
not reduce its ability to deliver its rated capacity over its expected lifetime. The primary
function of the solar charge controller is to protect the battery from overcharge and over
discharge. Lack of the battery charge controller may result in shortened battery life time and
decreased load availability.

The design goals of this circuit were efficiency, simplicity, reliability and the use of field
replaceable parts. A medium power solar system can be built with the SCC, a 12V (nominal)
solar panel that is rated from 100 milliamps to 20 amps, and a lead acid or other rechargeable
battery that is rated from 500 milliamp hours to 400 amp hours of capacity.

It is important to match the solar panel's current rating to the battery's

amp-hour rating (C). A typical maximum battery charging current is C/20, so a 100 amp hour
battery should have a solar panel rating of no greater than 5 amps. It is advisable to check the
battery manufacturer's data sheets to find the maximum charge current. On the other hand, if
the solar panel output current is too low, the battery may take too long to charge.

Charge Controller:
Basic principle of operation:
The two basic principles exist for controlling or regulating the charging of a
battery from PV module or array-series and shunt control. While both of these methods can

66
be effectively used, each may incorporated a number of variations that after the basic
performance and applicability.

Following are the descriptions of the variations of the two basic methods.

Shunt-Linear Type:
This method maintains the battery at a fixed voltage by using a control
element turns on when the VR set point is reached, shunting power away from the battery in a
linear method (not on/off), maintaining a constant voltage at the battery. This is a relatively
simple controller and utilizes a power Zener diode which is the limiting factor in cost and
power ratings. This method requires blocking diode as shown below

Fig 3.33

Shunt-Switching Types:
This method terminates battery charging when the VR set point is reached by short
circuiting the PV array as shown in above figure.A blocking diode is always required in this
type of control to prevent any battery short circuit. This requirement reduces somewhat the
overall energy efficiency of this type of control.

Series Type:
Several variations of this type of controller exist, all of which use some type of
control element in series between the array and the battery.

Series-Interrupting, 1-step:
This method terminates battery charging at the VR set point by open-circulating the
PV array. A blocking diode may or may not be required, depending on the switching element
design. Some series controllers may divert the array power to an auxiliary load.

Series-Interrupting, 2-step, constant current:

67
 Similar to the 1-step series interrupting, however, when the VR set point is reached
instead of totally interrupting the array current, limited constant current remains applied to
the battery. It is expected that this will allow for an increased charging effectiveness over the
basic 1-step series interrupting method.

Series-Interrupting, 2-step, dual set-point:

Similar to the series interrupting, however there are two VR set points. A higher set
point is only used during the initial charge each morning. The controller then regulates at
lower VR set point for subsequent cycles for the rest of the day. This allows a daily gassing
period or equalization of the battery.

Series-Interrupting, sub-array switching:

Typically used in system with more than six SPV modules or current greater than
20Amperes. The array is sub-divided into sections or sub-arrays that are switched
individually. As the battery becomes charged the sub-arrays are switched off in a sequence of
small voltages steps to reduce current and gradually approach full battery voltage and not to
overcharge the system.

Series-linear, constant-voltage:
This method maintains the battery voltage at the regulation set point (VR). The series
control elements acts as a variable resistor to maintain the battery at the VR set point. The
current is controlled by the series element and the voltage drop across it. This method is
recommended for sealed valve-regulated batteries.

Temperature compensation - Charge Controllers:

All set point values are specified for batteries at 25 oC. The charging characteristics of
batteries change with their temperature. Hence, some charge controllers feature a temperature
probe to determine the battery temperature, and circuitry to adjust the voltage settings
accordingly.

Typical Charge Controllers:

Basically there are three types of charge controllers, they are:

Series interrupting type (RELAY version)

Series interrupting type (MOSFET version)

Shunt PWM type (MOSFET version)

With the following specifications the explanation of controller is given, they are:-

68
 System voltage -24V , system current -6A, VR -29 0.4V, VRH 3 0.8
V, LVD- 23 0.4 V. LVDH- 2 0.8 V, from this the controller disconnects the array at 29V
and reconnects at 26V, also controller disconnects the load when the battery reaches 23V and
reconnects the load at 25V.

Series interrupting type (RELAY version):

The block diagram as shown below, Power supply section is powered from the battery
and it provides the supply voltage Vcc for the operation of the unit (charge controller). Note
that the power supply also provides master reference from which the individual reference
voltages are derived for the operation of the respective sections.

Arrays disconnect/reconnect:
The PVA section (consisting of comparator 1, comparator 2, Flip Flop1 and the relay
driver 1) is used to disconnect / reconnect the array. Normally, relay-1 is energized and the
array output current charges the battery. If battery voltage reaches VR (29V), Comparator 2
outputs reset the Flip Flop 1 and in turn relay 1 is deenergised. This action disconnects the
array and prevents the battery from overcharging.

Now the battery supplies the load current. In the process when the battery voltage
reaches below the value of (VR-VHR), Comparator 1 output sets Flip Flop 1, thus
reenergizing the relay 1. This action reconnects the array back and allows the battery to
resume its charging process.

The circuit, consisting of comparator 1, Comparator 2 and Flip Flop1 functions; similar to a
window comparator, whose output (Q of Flip Flop) is high, when the battery voltage lies
between VR and (VR-VRH).

Load Disconnect / Reconnect:

The load section, (consisting of Comparator 3, Comparator 4, Flip Flop2 and the
relay driver 2) is used to disconnect / reconnect the load. Normally, relay 2 is energized and
the battery is connected to load, allowing the supply of load current. If battery voltage goes
down and reaches the value of LVD (low voltage Disconnected), Comparator 4 output resets
Flip Flop 2 and in turn deenergised the relay 2. This action disconnects the load from the
battery, preventing the battery from over discharging. Now the battery continues to receive its
charge from the array. In the process, when the battery voltage crosses the value of (LVD +
LVDH), comparator 2 output sets Flip Flop 2. This action reconnects the load back to the
battery and allows the load to draw its current from the battery. The circuit consisting of
comparator 3, comparator 4 and Flip Flop 2 functions similar to a window comparator, whose
output (Q of Flip Flop) is high, when the battery voltage lies between LVD and (LVD +
LVDH).

69
fig 3.34 Series Interrupting type (RELAY version)

Shunt PWM type (MOSFET version):

In this type, Load disconnect / reconnect operation is the same as that of series type
described earlier excepting that, a MOSFET (load MOSFET) is used as switching element.
Load disconnect takes place at 22.2V.

During charging of the battery by array current, second MOSFET connected across
the array (PVA MOSFET) does not conduct till battery voltage attains VR (28.2V). For the
voltage greater than 28.2V and less than 29V (upper limit), the pulses of variable time width
(time width increases as battery voltage increases) are applied to the MOSFET. As a result,
conduction period of the MOSFET increases as the battery voltage reduces increases, thus

reducing the charging current. At 29V the MOSFET conducts all the time, preventing the
charging of the battery. After the battery voltage comes down due to load current, the
charging behavior is restored accordingly.

Series Interrupting type (MOSFET version):

70
 Fig3.35: Series Interrupting type (MOSFET version)

As shown in fig above, the operation of this type of controller is same as the
series interrupting type (relay version), accepting that the relay and relay driver are replaced
be MOSFET and corresponding driver circuit.

3.2.3 PRACTICAL SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER

(MOSFET TYPE):
The basic circuit for the practical solar charge controller used is explained below.

Theory and operation of the solar charge controller circuit:

The solar charge controller used here is of MOSFET type. The battery is charged
using the constant 12V supply from the solar panel and varying current as obtained from the
panel. The circuit is designed and used up to a current rating of 20A. The circuit diagram of
the solar charge controller circuit is as shown below.

The power control circuitry of the SCC3 routes the operating current from the solar
panel input through Q3 and IC3. When the solar panel voltage exceeds 12V, Zener diode ZD1
conducts and turns on Q3, providing power to IC3. IC3 produces a regulated 5 Volt power
source. The 5V is used to power the circuit's logic and as a reference voltage for comparing to
the battery float voltage.

71
The float voltage comparator IC1a compares the battery voltage (divided by R1/VR1 and R3)
to a reference voltage (divided by R5 and R6). The comparison point is offset by the
thermostat TM1 for temperature compensation. The comparison point is also modified by the
Equalize switch, S1 and R2. The output of IC1a goes high (+5V) when the battery voltage is
below the float voltage setting. The output goes low when the battery voltage is above the
float voltage setting. This provides the charge/idle signal that controls the rest of the circuit.

The charge/idle signal is sent to IC2a and b, a pair of D-type flip-

flops. The flip-flops are clocked by the IC1b phase-shift clock oscillator

Fig 3.36 circuit diagram of solar charge controller

. The clocking causes the flip-flop output to produce a square wave charge/idle
signal that is synchronized with the frequency of the clock oscillator. The two halves of IC2
operate in synchronization, IC2 is used to drive the current switching circuitry, and IC2b is
used to drive the charging state indicator LED either red (charging) or green (floating). The
clocked charge/idle signal switches bipolar transistor Q1 on and off. The Q1 signal is used to
switch power MOSFET Q2, which switches the solar current on and off through the battery.
The solar charging current flows through the heavy lines on the schematic. Diode D1
prevents the battery from discharging through the solar panel at night. Fuse F1 prevents

72
excessive battery current from flowing in the event of a short circuit. Transzorb TZ1 absorbs
transient voltage spikes that may be caused by lightning.

CAUTION:
Large batteries can produce dangerous currents that can cause burns and fire
hazards. Remove loose metal jewelry when working with lead acid batteries. The circuit
should be mounted on a panel or in a box using threaded standoffs. Wiring should be
securely clamped and there should be no externally exposed bare wiring.

Features

Efficient design is suitable for use with low to medium power solar panels and solar
arrays.

Will work with all rechargeable battery types: Lead Acid (wet or gel), NiCad and Ni
MH.

Common Negative Ground for Solar Panel and Battery.

Reliable all solid-state circuitry, no power hungry relay with limited-life contacts.

Built in fuse for short circuit protection, load circuitry requires its own fused
disconnect.

Designed to withstand reverse battery and reverse PV connection.

Charging method: Analog Pulse Width Modulation (APWM).

Temperature compensated float voltage set point for optimal charging at different
temperatures.

Radio quiet, designed to work with radio systems.

High voltage transient protection on solar panel input for limited lightning protection.

A simple 4 screw connector will work for attaching a battery and PV panel.

Multiple SCC units can be used to connect several (<20 Amp@12Vnom) solar arrays
to one battery.

Controls and Indicators of SCC:

Red/Green LED for Charge/Float state indication.

Equalize switch for periodic maintenance overcharging.

Float voltage adjustment trimmer pot.

73
12V Solar Charge Controller Specifications
Nominal Battery Voltage: 12V.

Solar Charging Current: 0 to 20 Amps continuous.

Recommended Battery Capacity: 0.5 to 400 Amp Hours.

Photovoltaic Panel Voltage Ratings: 12V Nominal (17-24VOC, 36-44 cells).

Absolute maximum PV input voltage: 25VDC

Photovoltaic Panel Power Ratings: 1W to 240W (90ma - 20A ISC).

Voltage Drop during Charging: 0.5V @ 10A, 1V @ 20A.

Float Voltage Adjustment Range: 13V-15V (range can be altered).

Float Voltage Variation during charging: +/- 0.03V

Equalize Mode Voltage Increase: 1.5 Volts.

Charge Controller Temperature Compensation: -7.5mV/Degree C.

Night Time Battery Current Drain: 0.5-1.9ma, 1.3ma typical.

Fuse Type: 20 Amp standard ATO automotive fuses.

Board Dimensions: 3.5" wide by 3.0" deep by 0.95" tall.

Fits into a standard 4" X 4" electrical utility box, can be mounted on the cover plate.

Board Mounts: 3X 4-40 screws on 1/4" spacers.

Assembled Weight: approximately 60 grams (2oz).

PROCEDURE FOR OPERATING:

Connect the board's BATTERY - terminal to the battery terminal.

Connect the board's BATTERY + terminal to the battery + terminal.

Connect the board's PV - terminal to the solar panel - terminal.

Connect the board's PV + terminal to the solar panel + terminal.

Where BATTERY indicated the battery terminals. The connections

mentioned above are as shown below.

74
 Fig 3.37 : Block Diagram of SCC
Point the solar panel toward the sun. The bicolor LED should light up as
the sun shines on the solar panel. The LED can be red, green, or alternating red and green.
The LED must be shaded from direct sunlight to be visible. Measure the connected solar
panel's voltage with the meter. Measure the battery voltage with the meter. The solar panel
must be at a higher voltage than the battery for the circuit to charge the battery. Turn the
equalize switch off (closest to the board edge). Turn the potentiometer, VR1 25 turns
clockwise, The LED should be red. Turn VR1 counter clockwise until the LED starts blinking
red and green. The battery voltage is now at the float voltage setting.

While measuring the battery voltage, adjust VR1 clockwise to align the float
voltage set point. If the LED turns red before it reaches the desired float voltage, the battery
will need to charge for a while. When the battery is fully charged, it should be at the float
voltage and the led should show alternating colors. The float voltage should be set when the
board and battery are at room temperature. Typical 12V set points are 13.8V for a gel cell and
14.5V for a wet cell. Adjust the float voltage again, after the battery has become fully charged
and the LED is green with occasional red flashes.

Use

Connect the solar panel to the SCC PV terminals; connect the battery to the SCC
battery terminals.

Put the solar panel in the sun, the battery will charge up. In systems where the battery
is frequently deep-discharged, the equalize switch should be occasionally turned on
for a period of several hours to a full day.

75
 When the battery is low and the sun is shining, the LED will be red. As the battery
reaches the float voltage, the LED will alternate red/green. When the sun goes down,
the LED will shut off.

IRF4905 (HEXFET Power MOSFET):

IRF stands for international rectifier.

Features:
Advanced Process Technology

Ultra Low On-Resistance

Dynamic dv/dt Rating

175C Operating Temperature

Fast Switching

P-Channel

Fully Avalanche Rated

Description:
Fifth Generation HEXFETs from International Rectifier utilize advanced processing
techniques to achieve extremely low on-resistance per silicon area. This benefit, combined
with the fast switching speed and ruggedized device design that HEXFET Power MOSFETs
are well known for, provides the designer with an extremely efficient and reliable device for
use in a wide variety of applications.

The TO-220 package is universally preferred for all commercial-industrial

applications at power dissipation levels to approximately 50 watts. The low thermal

resistance and low package cost of the TO-220 contribute to its wide acceptance throughout
the industry.

76
 Fig 3.38 mosfet IRF 4095(top), mosfet symbol(bottom left), characteristic
ratings of IRF 4095(bottom right)

Figures above shows Mosfet IRF 4905, mosfet symbol showing the integral reverse P-N
jnction diode, 3 important characteristics of mosfet. Where V DSS = voltage across drain to
source

RDS(ON) = Static Drain-to-Source On-Resistance

ID = Continuous Drain Current

77
Table3.2: Typical output parameters of IRF 4905

Fig 3.38. Typical Output Characteristics

TLC2272 Advanced Lin CMOS RAIL-TO-RAIL

DUAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER:
Features:
Output Swing Includes Both Supply Rails

78
 Low Noise . . . 9 nV//Hz Typ at f = 1 kHz

Low Input Bias Current . . . 1 pA Typ

Fully Specified for Both Single-Supply and

Split-Supply Operation

Common-Mode Input Voltage Range

Includes Negative Rail

High-Gain Bandwidth . . . 2.2 MHz Typ

High Slew Rate . . . 3.6 V/ms Typ

Low Input Offset Voltage

950 mV Max at TA = 25C

Macro model Included

Description:
The TLC2272 is the dual operational amplifier from Texas Instruments. This
device exhibit rail-to-rail output performance for increased dynamic range in single- or split-
supply applications. The TLC227x family offers 2 MHz of bandwidth and 3 V/ms of slew
rate for higher speed applications. This device offer comparable ac performance while having
better noise input offset voltage, and power dissipation than existing CMOS operational
amplifiers. The TLC227x has a noise voltage of 9 nV//Hz; two times lower than competitive
solutions. The TLC227x, exhibiting high input impedance and low noise, is excellent for
small-signal conditioning for high-impedance sources, such as piezoelectric transducers.
Because of the micro power dissipation levels, these devices work well in hand-held
monitoring and remote-sensing applications. In addition, the rail-to-rail output feature, with
single or split-supplies, makes this family a great choice when interfacing with analog-to-
digital converters (ADCs). For precision applications, the TLC227xA family is available and
has a maximum input offset voltage of 950 mV. This family is fully characterized at 5 V and
5 V. The TLC2272/4 also makes great upgrades to the TLC2272/4 in standard designs. They
offer increased output dynamic range, lower noise voltage, and lower input offset voltage.
This enhanced feature set allows them to be used in a wider range of applications. Their small
size and low power consumption make them ideal for high density, battery-powered
equipment.

79
 (TOP VIEW)

Figure 3.40: TLC2272

D, P, OR PW PACKAGE

Equivalent Schematic (each amplifier)

Table 3.3

Fig 3.41 distrubution of TLC2272 input offset voltage

80
 Fig 3.42 schematic diagram TLC2272
2N3904 (NPN General Purpose Amplifier):

Features
Through Hole Package

Capable of 600mWatts of Power Dissipation

Silicon Planar Epitaxial NPN Transistor

CECC Screening options

High Speed Saturated Switching

Pin Configuration Bottom View

81
 Table 3.4
2N3906 (PNP switching transistor):

FEATURES
Low current (max. 200 mA)

Low voltage (max. 40 V).

APPLICATIONS
High-speed switching in industrial applications.

DESCRIPTION
PNP switching transistor is a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package. NPN complement:
2N3904.

Fig 3.43 description 2N3904

82
CD4013BC CMOS (Dual D-Type Flip-Flop):
Description:
The CD4013B dual D-type flip-flop is a monolithic complementary MOS (CMOS) integrated
circuit constructed with N- and P-channel enhancement mode transistors. Each flip-flop has
independent data, set, reset, and clock inputs and Q and Q outputs. These devices can be
used for shift register applications, and by connecting Q output to the data input, for
counter and toggle applications. The logic level present at the D input is transferred to the
Q output during the positive-going transition of the clock pulse. Setting or resetting is
independent of the clock and is accomplished by a high level on the set or reset line
respectively.

Features
Wide supply voltage range: 3.0V to 15V

High noise immunity: 0.45 VDD (typ.)

Low power TTL: fan out of 2 driving 74L compatibility: or 1 driving 74LS

Applications
Automotive

Data terminals

Instrumentation

Medical electronics

Alarm system

Industrial electronics

Remote metering

Computers

Table 3.5: Truth table

X = Don't Care Case

83
Note 1: Level Change

Fig 3.44: Connection Diagram cd 4013bc cmos

Logic Diagram

Fig 3.45 logic diagram CD 4013 BC CMOS

Absolute Maximum Ratings:
DC Supply Voltage (VDD) -0.5 VDC to +18 VDC

Input Voltage (VIN) -0.5 VDC to VDD +0.5 VDC

Storage Temperature Range (TS) -65C to +150C

Power Dissipation (PD)

Dual-In-Line 700 mW

Small Outline 500 mW

Lead Temperature (TL), (Soldering, 10 seconds) 260C

84
INVERTER

3.3.1 Introduction to inverter

85
 Although the most efficient system is one using nothing but DC loads, often you will
come across situations where AC loads must be applied with PV systems. The use of an
inverter makes this possible. The Ac waveform delivered by a utility grid or a diesel
generator comes from some form of rotational generator, and is therefore a sine wave. Often
AC waveforms can be created electronically by inverters.

Classification of Inverters:

Inverters are mainly classified into 2 types they are

Voltage source Inverters (VSI)

Current source Inverters (CSI)

1. Voltage source Inverter:

A Voltage source inverter or a voltage fed inverter (VFI), is one in which the Dc source has a
small or negligible impedance. In other words a voltage source inverter has stiff dc voltage
source at its input terminals because of low internal impedance, the terminal voltage of a VSI
remains subsequently constant with variation in load, on the other hand the CSI is supplied
with a controlled current from a Dc source of high impedance. In a CSI fed with a stiff
current source, output current waveform are not effected by the load, the terminal voltage of a
CSI changes substantially with change in load, the CSI are best suited for air craft power
supplies.

BASIC IDEA OF INVERTER

Fig 3.46 basic idea of an inverter

Let us now see how an inverter generates AC supply form a DC supply:

Above figure shows the basic circuits which can produce AC supply form the DC
supply of the battery. In this circuit, a battery power source, two switches and a
transformer being used.

86
 The transformer used in this circuit has a center tapping which divides the primary
into two equal sections. This center tapping is connected to the positive terminal of
the battery.

Two Ends of the primary are connected to the negative terminal of the battery
switches S1 and S2.

These switches S1 and S2 are turned on/off alternatively to generate voltages in the
primary coil.

When the switch S1 is closed and S2 is open the current flows in first part of primary
winding and the E.M.F is induced in the secondary winding.

When the switch S1 is closed and S1 is open the current flows in the second part of
the primary winding and the E.M.F of opposite polarity is induced in the secondary
winding.

Thus if the switches S1 and S2 are alternatively opened and closed at constant rate
then the output from the secondary winding is a square wave of the frequency at
which the switches S1 and S2 are opened and closed.

In this circuit the transformer is said to be connected in push-pull mode.

The AC output generated at the secondary winding of the transformer is shown in the
figure.

In an inverter usually transistors are used as switching devices. To control the on/off
timing of these switching devices oscillators are used in the inverters.

VOLTAGE DRIVEN INVERTER

A voltage driven inverter is defined as any inverter in which the circuit connects a DC voltage
source (Thevenin impedance is ideally zero) through semi conductor switches, directly to the
primary of a transformer. This is illustrated in the below figure. S1 and S2 are two semi
conductor switches which open and close alternatively at regular intervals of time. These
switches are generally driven by astable multivibrators operating at a desired frequency, when
S1is closed the entire source voltage appears across the transformer primary between X and
Y. the saturation voltage drop of the device is small and generally neglected, S1 remains
closed for certain period after which it is cut off and S2 closes, it also remains closed for the
same impressed across the transformer primary between the points Y and Z, S2 then

opens out then S1 closes. Thus an alternating voltage is developed across the primary of the
transformer T and delivers power to the load through the secondary.

Since DC supply source is impressed directly on the primary of the transformer, the output
wave form of the inverter is always a square wave irrespective of the type of load and load
power factor. The transformer primary current however is not a square wave it depends on the

87
type of load. And the wave form varies with the load power factor the reactive load presents a
lot of problems to the designers and endangers the safety of the device.

Inverter Types (50Hz):

Square wave inverters:

First, have a look at these inverters, as those are simple. Most inverters operate by sending
the direct current through a step-up transformer first in one direction, then in the other. The
switching devices which change the direction of the current must operate very rapidly. Solid
state devices such as power transistor, or Silicon Controlled rectifiers (SCRs) or Power
MOSFETs are used to perform the switching.

As current moves through the primary side of the transformer, the polarity is reversed
100 times each second. As a result, the current emerging from the secondary. The simplest
inverters do little else beyond this operation. As a consequence, the AC output is also very
simple. The direction of current flow through the primary side of the transformer is changed
very abruptly, so the waveform of the secondary side is square.

Refer the block diagram of square wave inverter shown in fig below. The output of a square
waveform generator at a frequency of about 50Hz is given to zero cross detector. The output
of zero cross detector. The output of zero cross detector which is a square wave is given to
controller and driver, section to obtain the pulses for driving output transistors Q1 and Q2
accordingly. Note that Q1 and Q2 act as switches, which switches the upper/lower part of the
primary winding ON and OFF alternately. This action and a suitably fixed turns ratio of the
transformer results in the generation of square wave of 220V amplitude at the output. Note
that, through this method is simple, output contains all odd harmonics.

Quasi-Sine Wave Inverters:

These are named as Quasi Sine Wave as the output is not a true sine wave; but it
only resembles or gets closer to sine wave. By adjusting the off time it is possible to eliminate
third harmonics completely. Many variations exist in this type of inverter. Block diagram of
simple configuration is shown below. Signal source for this type of inverter uses single pulse
whose width fixed for each half of (positive half / negative half), the waveform.

88
 Fig 3.47 : Schematic block diagram of square wave inverter

This single pulse is generated by the section of circuitry consisting of triangular wave
generator, comparator and controller. Triangular waveform generated produces triangular
wave at a frequency of 50Hz and the output of which is given to one input of window
comparator. Reference voltage, applied to the second input of the comparator determines the
width of the pulses. The comparator and the controller circuitry generate one pulse for each
positive half cycle of 50Hz waveform. The pulses, so generated are given to the drivers,
which drives the power transistors Q1 and Q2. Switching of either half of the primary of the
output transformer causes the generation of the 50Hz waveform on the primary side. Turns
ratio of the output transformer is so fixed, such that quasi sine wave of 220V RMS is
generated on the secondary side.

Fig 3.48: Quasi-Sine Wave Inverter- Single pulse type

Modulated Pulse-Width Waveform Inverters:

89
 Another way to approximate a sine wave uses high switching speeds (20 KHz). Both
directions of DC input to the transformer are turned on and off rapidly in a particular pattern.
The resulting waveform looks like a picket fence. The width of the ON pickets is narrow
during those times when the height of a sine wave is low. As the picket fence gets closer to
the peak of a sine wave, the pickets get wider and wider. Output filtering is used to
reconstruct the sinusoidal wave shape. Block diagram is shown below.

The same pattern is repeated in a negative direction, through the second half of cycle, The
end results is actually a complete Square wave, but it is perceived by loads as closely
equivalent to a sine wave. Switching of this type is normally done by MOSFETs.

Fig 3.49: PWM type inverter

Sine Wave Inverters:

With a sine wave oscillator and a power amplifier, true sine wave inverter can be
built. However, these inverters are large and expensive. They can be very inefficient,
sometimes operating at only 30-40%. This will of course mean that the PV array and battery
must be oversized by this much to compensate! A poor choice!!

Newer solid state sine wave inverters are available which operate at efficiencies of about 90%
or better depending on the size of the load. Cost of these types is much above the costs of less
sophisticated inverters.

Another method is to use a DC motor to run an AC generator. The efficiency of this method is
also low, but it may be appropriate for critical AC applications. These inverters typically have
a fairly small capacity. They have good sinusoidal waveform but have poor voltage
regulation.

90
 Fig 3.50: Sine Wave Inverter

Synchronous Inverters:

Photo voltaic systems connected to the utility grid can use synchronous inverters.
These are sometimes called line-commutated. These inverters use the waveform from
utility AC lines as pattern to convert photovoltaic DC into AC.

Since this manual is devoted exclusively to stand-alone photovoltaic systems, these

grid-connected systems will not be converted further.

High Frequency (HF) Inverters:

High Frequency inverters are at low power level (5 to 10W) and they find wide use in driving
fluorescent lamps. The inverter uses LC oscillator, which operates at about 20 KHz. The
output Power stage is built by using either BPT or MOSFET. Note these types of inverters
find wider uses in solar Lantern applications.

Input Voltage:

This is determined by the total power required by the AC loads and the voltage of any
DC loads. Generally, the operating voltages of the inverter should go up as the load demand
increases. This will keep the current at manageable levels. The input voltage must be
specified e.g.., 6V, 12V, 24V, or 48V.

Surge Capacity: Most inverters can exceed their rated power for limited periods of time
(seconds). Surge requirements of specific loads should be determined or measured. Some
transformers and AC motors require several times their operating current when starting. This
starting current may be required for several seconds. Power surges can occur while motors
are in the starting mode.

91
 3.3.2 300-WATT DC-AC INVERTER
Goal:

Produce a 220V, 50Hz Square or sine wave output across any given load
Must be Capable of Supplying Power Up to 500W

92
 Given DC Input of Approximately 12VDC
Features
This DC-AC inverter is a lot more frequency-stable than the other types of DC-AC
inverters and it can be built to operate with battery voltages from 12 Volts to 24 Volts. The
basic advantages of this unit are:
Low control-board idle current - around 10mA

Operate from 12v or 24v

Very high efficiency - minimal heat sinking

Stable frequency on load

Wide component tolerances

One board for 10 Watts to 1000 Watts

The advantage of the circuit is the same board will work with a small 10 Watt
transformer, but also with a 1000 Watt transformer.

Circuit Description

The heart of the circuit is a simple multi-vibrator oscillator, TR1 and TR2 preferably
have chosen BC548, or any other silicon NPN transistors BC108, and 2N2222 will work
here. The frequency is determined by the 0.1uF and 120k resistors, R1 and R2. Use a 100K
resistor if a 60Hz (ish) operating frequency is required. To use the unit indoors in a
temperature-controlled environment then simple and cheap ceramic capacitors are adequate.
Otherwise "Polystyrene Film" (polyester or polypropylene dielectric), should be used which
have excellent temperature stability properties.

93
 Fig 3.51: Schematic circuit diagram of Inverter

The multi-vibrator output, in principle, could be fed directly to the driver of transistor BD
140, the emitter of the transistor BD 140 is used to drive the transistor 2N6107 the emitter
terminal of the 2N6107 is connected to the +12V Supply the both transistors are PNP
transistors. Both the collector of the transistors are shorted so that the heat dissipated by them
will be less. Now from the collector terminals of both the transistors the low resistance and
high wattage resistance should be connected to the base of the power transistor these power
transistors are connected on the heat sinks with the help of the mica sheets the collector of the
both transistors are connected to the 500W transformer and both the emitter terminals of the
transistors are shorted together and connected to ground the positive terminal of the battery
supply +12V is connected to the center tapped terminal of the transformer secondary. The
output across the primary will be 230V AC to the primary side the AC capacitor of value 1Uf,
400V is connected so that the spikes that could normally effect the sensitive equipment can
be protected.

94
 The transformer is any AC mains to low-voltage transformer with a split
secondary. A 12v-0-12v to 230v (115v) that will handle the current is perfect for 12 Volt, 250
Watt operation. A 24v-0-24v to 230v (115v) is about the best compromise for up to 500
Watts. A 0-24v + 0-24v to 230v can have the two secondarys wired in series to form a 24v-0-
24v to 230v transformer.

3.3.3 Component Description:

2N6107 (SILICON PNP SWITCHING TRANSISTOR):

SGS-THOMSON PREFERRED SALESTYPES

PNP TRANSISTORS
APPLICATIONS:
LINEAR AND SWITCHING INDUSTRIALEQUIPMENT

DESCRIPTION
The 2N6107 and 2N6111 are epitaxial-base PNP silicon transistors TO-220 plastic package.
They are intended for a wide variety of medium power switching and linear applications

Fig 3.52: 2N6107

BD 140 (plastic medium power silicon PNP transistor)

Description:
Designed for use as audio amplifiers and drivers utilizing complementary or quasi
Complementary circuits.
DC Current Gain hFE = 40 (Min) @ IC = 0.15 Adc
BD 136, 138, 140 are complementary with BD 135, 137, 139
Specifications:

95
 1.5 AMPERE POWER TRANSISTORS PNP SILICON 45, 60, 80 VOLTS 10
WATTS.

Fig 3.53: BD 140

BC 548 (NPN transistor)

Description
Switching and Amplifier

Fig 3.54: BC 548

Features:
High Voltage: BC546, VCEO=65V
Low Noise: BC549, BC550
Complement to BC556 ... BC560
Typical Characteristics

Fig 3.55

96
Different images of transistor

Fig 3.56

TRANSFORMERS:
This are the devices which converts the primary ac voltage to different secondary ac
voltages .If the secondary voltage is higher than primary voltage then the transformer is
called step up transformer , if the secondary is less then primary voltage then it is called
step down transformer , if secondary is same as primary voltage then it is called unity
transformer .This unity transformer is also used as isolation transformer . This device is
highly efficient up to 99.9%. I.e. very low power loss. The transformers are required for
making dc supply, tuning circuit etc. The current rating of primary and secondary winding
determines the SWG gauge of the copper wire.

Fig 3.57

Inverter Construction:
All the components, except for the transformer, are mounted on a single-sided printed circuit
board. The power transistors are also fitted to the board, but they are mounted on a heat-sink
and provide the support for the board. The board is not to be bolted down to anything.

97
Pay particular attention to the components, especially the orientation of the transistors. The
power transistors are to be mounted on single, insulated heat sinks. These are also the
connections to the transistors, so they must NOT come into contact with each-other, or the
unit chassis. You only need approximately 20 square-centimeters of area, but even that is
much more than is really needed. The heat sink is more fore safety than necessity as the
prototype will deliver 250 Watts continuous without any heat sinking at all. In operation you
need to have a fuse in the battery lead. If you intend to load the inverter to 500 Watts, then
you will have a current of 45 Amperes at 12 Volts, or only 22 Amperes at 24 Volts.

There are different transistors that can be used in place of power transistor
they are as fallows they are indicated with maximum voltage and current they can handle.

Vds
Device Power (max) Id (max)
(max)

IRF710 36 Watts 400 Volts 2 Amperes

IRF510 40 Watts 100 Volts 5 Amperes
BUZ80A 75 Watts 800 Volts 3 Amperes
IRF540 150 Watts 100 Volts 30 Amperes
IRFP260N 300 Watts 200 Volts 50 Amperes
STE180NE1
360 Watts 100 Volts 180 Amperes
0

Table 3.6

NOTE: -

One thing to remember when playing with power is that when things go wrong there
is usually a violent pyrotechnic display, so select devices with a good margin. In case you did
not know, power transistors contain a little silicon and a lot of smoke. The smoke is heavily
pressurized, which is why these devices are so expensive. If you let out the smoke then they
will stop working.

Testing

When testing, do NOT be tempted to use aligator-aligator leads for battery connections, or
you could suffer burns to your hand in the event of a wiring fault. Lead-acid batteries can
deliver a dangerously high current.

98
To observe the waveform on oscilloscope, by apply power to the board, before the
transformer is connected. Looking at the gate terminal of each power transistor. There should
be a nice clean 0 - 12 Volt square-wave. If you have analogue or digital Multimeter, then
check that there is about 6 Volts DC present at the same terminals, with respect to the battery
negative terminal. If you measure the AC voltage across the power transistor between the
collector terminals you should see 12 Volts.

Bolt the transformer wires to the heat sinks and connect the battery positive to the
transformer. The battery wires must be rated at least 5 Amperes, minimum. This means at
least 1.5mm Diameter conductor (1.8mm cross-sectional-area) (14-AWG, 16-SWG). You can
now load the inverter to 100 Watts at 24 Volts (50 Watts at 12 Volts). Here is a simple table to
give you an idea as to the minimum wire sizes needed:

Table 3.7

12 Volt Power 24 Volt Power 48 Volt Power

AW SW AW SW AW SW
Power Amps Dia. Amps Dia. Amps Dia.
G G G G G G

50 Watt 5A 1.6 14 16 2.5 A 1.1 18 18 1.3 A 0.8 21 21

100 Watt 10 A 2.1 12 14 5 A 1.6 14 16 2.5 A 1.1 17 18
150 Watt 15 A 2.5 10 13 7.5 A 1.8 13 15 4A 1.3 16 17
250 Watt 25 A 3.3 8 10 12.5 A 2.4 11 13 6A 1.7 14 16
350 Watt 35 A 4.1 6 9 18 A 2.9 9 11 9A 2.0 12 14
500 Watt 50 A 4.7 5 8 25 A 3.3 8 10 12 A 2.4 11 13
750 Watt - - - - 40 A 4.3 6 9 20 A 3.0 9 11
1000
- - - - - - - - 25 A 3.3 8 10
Watt

NOTES:

1. These figures are for copper wire that is NOT coiled or thermally insulated.
2. Figures apply to short-lengths only (circuit "hook-up" wires).

3. "-" indicates a power level that is not practical.

99
 4. AWG (B&S) and SWG (metric) wire sizes are all approximate. Choose the next
largest you have to hand.

5. Wire Diameter (Dia.) columns are all given millimeters.

Restrictions

The unit described here will provide a reliable AC power source. Bear in mind that this unit
does NOT deliver a sinusoidal (sine) waveform, which means that power controllers using
"phase angle" control, such as drill-speed regulators, dimmers, and heating element
controllers, will not function. The unit will remain 100&percnt; ON or OFF.

Many "synchronous" motors require a clean sine wave if they are to operate without burning
out. The old "squirrel-cage" motor may overheat. This includes desk and ceiling fans, and
those old-fashioned record-players and reel-to-reel tape recorders. Most central heating
pumps also need a clean sine wave.

This DC-AC unit is also based upon a free-running oscillator. This means that the frequency
is close, but not accurate, which is the price you pay for a simple unit. Your digital bedside
clock may gain or loose a couple of hours a day, but the radio will work. You can forget about
your video tape recorder timer, but you can use the VCR for normal recording and playback.

You can, however, use most items domestic items, such as your cell phone charger, computer,
modem, lamps, TV, in fact 90&percnt; of your electrical apparatus will work. In general, if
the unit has a transformer input, or one of those external little units you plug into the wall to
get 12 Volts, then it should work fine. But here is a short list of some items that will and will
not work: If you are unsure, then do not risk using it. If you do want to "give it a go", then
observe it when you try it. If it fails to operate then unplug immediately. If it does work, then
keep an eye on it for a while, making sure there is no overheating. Most transformer-input
equipment will usually run more efficient with a square-wave

Table 3.8

Ok to use Do NOT use

Cellular telephone charger Ceiling fans (brushless)
Electronic test equipment Phase/synchronous motors

100
 Computer, Printer, Modem
Computer monitors
Tungsten lamps
Fluorescent lamps
"Economy" lamps
Radio, TV, VCR Phase-angle control units
Satellite/Terrestrial receiver Clocks, 50/60Hz dependant units
Locks, security, CCTV Lamp dimmers
AC/DC motors, drills, saws Drill speed controllers
Chargers, starters, heaters Synchronous central-heating pumps
Transformer input equipment Older record turntables
Oil-fired boilers/heaters
Fire/intruder alarm
"Battery Eliminator" units
Toys, Train-sets, etc
All valve (tube) equipment.

. A nice little trick for low power levels is to run equipment from this DC-AC unit
continuously, but "float-charge" the batteries with conventional battery charger. The charger must be
capable of delivering twice the current drawn by the DC-AC power unit. This will in effect give you
an un-interrupted power supply. If the main supply fails then you may never even know it has failed.

4. RESULTS
The readings of the open circuit voltage and currents of the solar panel before and after the
tracking of the panel is done are shown in the tables below.

Readings of the panel before tracking:

These readings are taken on the average sunny day without using tracking
system and on no load kept constantly throughout the day in the north south direction.

101
 Table 4.1

Time of the day Open circuit voltage(V) Current in amperes(A)

11.00 AM 20.3V 1.20A

11.15Am 20.3V 1.12A

11.45AM 18.3V 1.43A

12.20AM 18.3V 1.36A

1.00PM 18.1V 1.22A

1.20PM 18.17V 1.23A

1.50PM 17.98V (partly cloudy) 1.12A

2.15PM 19.08V 1.06A

2.45PM 18.9V 0.99A

3.15PM 18.9V 0.68A

3.40PM 18.9V 0.59A

4.00PM 18.75V 0.44A

4.20PM 18.55V 0.36A

4.40PM 18.02V 0.22A

Readings of solar panel after tracking:

These readings are also taken on average sunny day and the tracking circuit is
applied and the panel is made to face the sun throughout the day. Also a diode is connected
to the positive wire from panel to charge the battery.

Table 4.2

Time of the day Open circuit voltage(V) Current in amperes(A)

102
10.00AM 13.5V 1.55A

10.30AM 13.5V 1.60A

11.00AM 13.5V 0.36A

11.40AM 13.5V 0.56A

12.00AM 13.5V 1.43A

12.20AM 13.5V 1.49A

1.00PM 13.5V 1.52A

1.20PM 13.5V 1.47A

1.40PM 13.5V 1.49A

2.00PM 13.5V 1.36A

2.30PM 13.5V 1.33A

2.50PM 13.5V 1.20A

3.10PM 13.5V 0.99A

3.30PM 13.5V 0.25A

3.50PM 13.5 0.65A

4.10PM 13.5V 0.36A

4.30PM 13.5V 0.23A

From the above readings we can see that the readings of the currents have been constant
almost all the time with only slight variations due to clouds and thus the improvement in
current readings made to charge the battery easily.

103
104
 APPLICTIONS,
LIMITATIONS AND
FUTURE SCOPE OF
SOLAR ENERGY
CONVERSION

5. APPLICATIONS, LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE

SCOPE OF SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION:
The energy economy of nearly all and in particular industrialized countries is based on
the use of stored energy, mainly fossil fuel energy in the form of coal, oil, natural gas, as well
as nuclear energy in the form of uranium isotope U235. These fossil fuels will satisfy our

105
energy needs from reserves, but create two major problems. A source of energy can be
continued only till it is depleted after this we must have to search for alternatives.
Furthermore, unpleasant side effects will accompany with the usage of this fossil fuels. Thus,
the search of alternative energy sources showed solar energy as eco friendly and an
inexhaustible energy source. So the use of solar energy has been increasing day by day in
many folds.

The actual and proposed applications of solar energy may be considered in

three general categories. They are

Direct thermal application make direct use of heat, resulting from the absorption of solar
radiation to provide hot water service for buildings, and to supply heat for agricultural,
industrial, and other processes that requires moderate heat temperatures.

Solar electric applications are those in which solar energy is converted directly or indirectly
in to electrical energy. The general methods that convert solar energy into electrical energy
are photovoltaic and photo thermal methods. Photovoltaic methods make use of devices like
solar cells to convert solar energy directly into electrical energy without machinery. Whereas
the conversion of solar energy by using the heat from solar energy to produce electricity is
called as photo thermal conversion. In this method solar energy is collected and directed
towards a container which contains fluids and the fluids are heated and send to the turbine for
converting the thermal energy into electrical energy.

Energy from the biomass or bio gas refers to the conversion into clean fuels or other energy
related product of organic matter derived directly or indirectly from plants which use solar
energy to grow.

Thus, some of the direct energy applications of solar energy are given below

1. Solar water heating is used for heating buildings saving fuels.

2. Space heating in which solar radiation is collected by some element of structure itself
or admitted directly into building through large south facing windows.

3. Spacing cooling in the mechanical cooling systems that depend on solar heat for their
operation and are unaffected by atmospheric humidity.

4. Solar thermal electric conversion for generating electrical energy

106
 5. Solar photovoltaic conversion

6. Solar distillations

7. Solar water pumping systems for agricultural and industrial applications

8. Agricultural and industrial process heating for heating and drying of crops and
materials.

9. Solar furnaces which can create high temperatures for the industrial applications.

10. Solar cooking which saves the natural gas and fuels Which is best suitable for the cold
countries where fuel heating and cooking is a problem.

11. Industrial applications such as production of hydrogen.

12. Solar green houses.

Limitations of using solar energy:

1. Although utilization of solar energy is very useful and finds practical applications in
many ways, there are some limitations of the solar energy which are to be looked at.

2. Utilization of solar energy and conversion of solar energy into other forms is
expensive than the conventional techniques.

3. The conversion cost of solar photovoltaic systems is more than the conventional
sources for generating electricity.

4. The conversion efficiencies of the solar energy conversions are low compared with
the other forms of sources.

5. Although, solar energy is an inexhaustible source of energy, it cannot be usage of

solar energy is no reliable for the continuous operation.

6. Solar energy can be used effectively in only tropical and equatorial regions where sun
light is available throughout the year. For the polar and arctic regions the usage is very
low.

7. Solar energy depends on the time of the day, climatic conditions which are unreliable
all the times.

107
Future scope of the solar energy:
With the increasing demand of electricity day by day, also with the negative
effects caused by the conventional energy sources such as production of hazardous gases and
green house effect, search for usage of alternative energy sources became prevalent. Thus, the
solar energy being eco friendly and having inexhaustible resources, its use is being increasing
many folds day by day.

Also with the technology that increased the efficiency of the solar conversion
systems the cost also will decrease to the considerable extent. At least three new areas of
development are expected to greatly enhance the capabilities of the solar energy.

Building integrated PV collectors

Improving efficiency of combined solar PV and thermal collectors.

Reducing the cost of the energy conversion by bulk production and improving
technology.

6. conclusion
In the US during of 19731984, the sudden increase in energy costs triggered a
greater attention to energy management in buildings, from residential to commercial. As a
result of this consciousness, buildings greatly improved in energy efficiency in aspects such
as wall insulation, improved window design, improved heating and cooling systems, etc.
There were typically 40% improvements in the energy efficiency of commercial buildings
and a similar improvement in new or rebuilt residential buildings to an annual 25
kWh/m2.These statistics documenting the substantial improvement in energy efficiency of
buildings make it possible for solar houses to now become technically and economically
feasible.

108
 Thus, the usage of solar energy is increasing day by day. With the effect of
increased efficiency and reducing the cost of solar energy conversion makes the utilization of
solar energy simple and reliable at domestic and industrial level. This promotes the solar
energy to become one of the major sources of energy in future.

BIBLILOGRAPHY
1. Crystalline solar cells by Adolf Goetzberger, Joachim Knobloch and Bernhard Voss.

2. Hand book of photovoltaic science and engineering by Antonio Luque and Stevan
Hegedus.

3. Thin film crystalline solar cell by Rolf Brendel.

4. Physics of solar cells by Peter Wurfel.

5. Practical hand book of photovoltaics fundamentals and applications by Tom Markvart

and Luis Castaner.

6. Renewable and efficient power systems by Gilbert M. Masters.

7. www.wikipedia.com

109
8. www.heliotrack.com/paraboliccollectors

9. www.telia.com

10. www.solorb.com

11. www.8051projects.info

12. www.findsolar.com

13. www.mrsolarenergy.com

110
 APPENDIX

APPENDIX-1
CONNECTING SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS TO GRID:
Photovoltaic systems mounted on buildings are becoming increasingly
popular as prices decrease and the installation infrastructure becomes increasingly mature.
The principal components in a grid-connected, home size PV system consists of the array
itself with the two leads from each string sent to a combiner box that includes blocking
diodes, individual fuses for each string, and usually a lightning surge arrestor. Two heavy-
gauge wires from the combiner box deliver dc power to a fused array disconnect switch,
which allows the PVs to be completely isolated from the system. The inverter sends ac
power, usually at 240 V, through a breaker to the utility service panel. By tying each end of
the inverter output to opposite sides of the service panel, power is delivered to each
household circuit. Additional components include the maximum power point tracker (MPPT),
a ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) that shuts the system down if any currents flow to
ground, and circuitry to disconnect the PV system from the grid if the utility loses power. The
system may also include a small battery bank to provide back-up power in case the grid is

111
down. The inverter, some of the fuses and switches, the MPPT, GFCI, and other power
management devices are usually integrated into a single power conditioning unit (PCU).

An alternative approach to the single inverter system based on each PV

module having its own small inverter mounted directly onto the backside of the panel. These
ac modules allow simple expansion of the system, one module at a time, as the needs or
budget dictate. Another advantage is that the connections from modules to the house
distribution panel can all be done with relatively inexpensive, conventional 120- or 240-V ac
switches, breakers, and wiring. Currently available module-mounted inverters are designed to
work with individual 24-V modules, or with pairs of 12-V modules wired in series.

For large grid-connected systems, strings of PV modules may be tied into

inverters in a manner analogous to the individual inverter/module concept. By doing so, the
system is modularized, making it easier to service portions of the system without taking the
full array off line. Expensive dc cabling is also minimized making the installation potentially
cheaper than a large, central inverter. Large, central inverter systems providing three-phase
power to the grid are also an option.

The ac output of a grid-connected PV system is fed into the main electrical

distribution panel of the house, from which it can provide power to the house or put power
back onto the grid. In most cases, whenever the PV system delivers more power than the
home needs at that moment, the electric meter runs backwards, building up a credit with the
utility. At other times, when demand exceeds that supplied by the PVs, the grid provides
supplementary power. This arrangement, in which a single electric meter runs in both
directions, is called net metering since the customers monthly electric bill is only for that net
amount of energy that the PV system is unable to supply. It is also possible to use two
ratcheted meters, one to measure power you sell to the grid and the other to measure power
you buy back from the grid. The two-meter arrangement is not only more cumbersome, it
also can mean that the customer may have to sell electricity at a wholesale price and buy it
back at the utilitys more expensive retail price. From a PV owners perspective, the net
metering approach is usually preferred.

The power conditioning unit absolutely must be designed to quickly

and automatically drop the PV system from the grid in the event of a utility power outage.
When there is an outage, breakers automatically isolate a section of the utility lines in which
the fault has occurred, creating what is referred to as an island. A number of very serious

112
problems may occur if, during such an outage, a self-generator, such as a grid-connected PV
system, supplies power to that island. Most faults are transient in nature, such as a tree branch
brushing against the lines, and so utilities have automatic procedures that are designed to
limit the amount of time the outage lasts. When there is a fault, breakers trip to isolate the
affected lines, and then they are automatically reclosed a few tenths of a second later. It is
hoped that in the interim the fault clears and customers are without power for just a brief
moment. If that doesnt work, the procedure is repeated with somewhat longer intervals until
finally, if the fault doesnt clear, workers are dispatched to the site to take care of the
problem. If a self-generator is still on the line during such an incident, even for less than one
second, it may interfere with the automatic reclosing procedure, leading to a longer-than
necessary outage. And if a worker attempts to fix a line that has supposedly been
disconnected from all energy sources, but it is not, then a serious hazard has been created.

When a grid-connected system must provide power to its owners

during a power outage, a small battery back-up system may be included. If the users really
need uninterruptible power for longer periods of time, the battery system can be augmented
with a generator.

113
 APPENDIX-2
PROGRAM CODE

Org 0H

Ldr4 equ p3.0

Ldr3 equ p3.1

Ldr2 equ p3.2

Ldr1 equ p3.3

Switch equ p3.7

Motor equ P1

Main:

Clr p1.7

Clr p1.6

Clr p1.5

Clr p1.4

Setb switch

Jb switch,$

Lcall delay_01

Lcall delay_01

Jb switch,$

114
Back: Jb ldr1, $

Lcall delay_01

Lcall delay_01

Jb ldr1,$

Setb p1.7

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Clr p1.7

Jnb ldr1, $

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Jb ldr2,$

Lcall delay_01

Lcall delay_01

Jb ldr2, $

Setb p1.6

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Clr p1.6

Jnb ldr2, $

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Jb ldr3, $

115
Lcall delay_01

Lcall delay_01

Jb ldr3,$

Setb p1.5

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Clr p1.5

Jnb ldr3,$

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Jb ldr4,$

Lcall delay_01

Lcall delay_01

Jb ldr4,$

Setb p1.4

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Acall delay_01

Clr p1.4

116
 Jb ldr1, $

Sjmp back

delay_01: mov r3, #10

again1:mov r4, #200

back1: mov r5, #230

here1: djnz r5, here1

Djnz r4, back1

Djnz r3, again1

Ret

End

List of figures
Figure pg. no.

117
 2.1 basic structure of a silicon based solar cell 9

2.2 valence and conduction band energy diagram 12

2.3 ideal solar cell equivalent diagram 13

2.4 practical solar cell equivalent diagram 13

2.5 I-V characteristics of equivalent solar cell 14

2.6 effect of series resistance on I-V characteristics 16

2.7 effect of shunt resistance on I-V characteristics 17

2.8 I-V characteristics of practical solar cell 18

3.1 basic block diagram of the project 26

3.2 single axis tracking system 31

3.3 dual axis tracking system 31

3.4 passive tracker 32

3.5 circuit diagram of solar tracking system 35

3.6 connection diagram of solar panel 36

3.7 colour coding for finding the value of a resistor 37

3.8 symbol of a pottentiometre 38

3.9 symbol of light dependant resistor 39

3.10 diodes of different rating 39

3.11 diode characteristics 40

3.12 zener diode symbol 41

3.13 symbol of LED 41

3.14 design of a capacitor 42

3.15 LM 7805 43

3.16 12Mhz crystal oscillator 43

3.17 block diagram of 2051 micro controller 45

3.18 pin configuration of 2051 micro controller 46

3.19 oscillator connections 48

118
3.20 NE 555 timer 50

3.21 internal block diagram of 555 timer 50

3.22 circuit for monostable operation of 555 timer 51

3.23 waveforms of monostable operation 52

3.24 circuit for astable operation of 555 timer 53

3.25 wave forms for astable operation 53

3.26 pin configuration of ULN 2003A 54

3.27 schematics of ULN 2003 A 54

3.28 TTL logic 56

3.29 types of switches 56

3.30 push button switches 57

3.31 on-off switches 57

3.32 battery composition 61

3.33 shunt type charge controller 68

3.34 series type relay based charge controller 71

3.35 series type mosfet based charge controller 72

3.36 circuit diagram of solar charge controller 73

3.37 block diagram of solar charge controller 76

3.38 mosfet IRF 4095 with characteristics rating 78

3.39 typical output characteristics of IRF 4095 79

3.40 TLC 2272 81

3.41 TLC 2272- input offset voltage 81

3.42 schematic of TLC 2272 82

3.43 description of 2N3904 83

3.44 connection diagram of CD 4013BC CMOS 84

3.45 logic diagram of CMOS 84

3.46 basic idea of an inverter 87

119
3.47 schematic block diagram of square wave inverter 90

3.48 quasi sine wave inverter 90

3.49 PWM type inverter 91

3.50 sine wave inverter 92

3.51 circuit diagram of the 300W inverter 95

3.52 2N 6017 96

3.53 BD 140 97

3.54 BC 548 97

3.55 static characteristics of BC 548 97

3.56 transistors of different ratings 98

3.57 transformer 98

List of tables

Table pg.no.
3.1 basic operating table of 555 timers 51

3.2 typical output parametres of IRF 4095 79

120
3.3 device component count 81

3.4 absolute maximum rating of 3094 83

3.5 truth table of flipflops 84

3.6 power distrubution for different transistors 99

3.7 current and voltage ratings for different ratings 100

3.8 applications which can be used for inverter 102

4.1 readings of the solar panel before tracking 103

4.2 readings of the solar panel after tracking 104

121