Theory Made Easy

MUSIC
for
THEORY hello!
this file is a collection of individual sheets

covering a bunch of lessons on music theory.
MUSICIANS
its not a book... yet. it might be someday!
but as of right now, its incomplete.
The truth is, they werent intended to

be a single volume when I started making them...
they were just review sheets for my own
theory students.
but the more I made,
and
the more I realized
NORMAL
they could be collected
into a textbook of sorts...
eventually!
by the way,
I still have a lot of work to do, this version is
but Ive collected the ones Ive made localised for
british and
so far into a single document to australian
make it easier for the folks musicians!
who wanted them all... but didnt want the original
american edition
to download every file individually! is available
at tobyrush.com.
big thanks to
so understand its a work in Matthew Hindson
PEOPLE
progress... the progress is slow for his help with
sometimes, because I teach music theory the localisation!
and aural skills during the day at the

university of dayton in dayton, ohio, so if youve been sent this file
and then head home to spend time with by someone, know that there
my wife and six kids! might be a newer version
or more pages
at tobyrush.com.
but if you like this,

or find it useful,
great! feel free to
share it, copy it, and use it.
My Dad
Sofia Rush, Age 5
Pen and crayon on printer paper
now lets
learn some
music theory!
just dont sell it, change it,
or tell others you made it!*
by Toby W. Rush
Rush
*for more info, see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

music theory for musicians and normal people by toby w. rush
Notation: Pitch music notation is the art of

recording music in written form.
##g#F#d#DD#SS#d#Mf#SSg#F
liz phair
what makes you happy [melody from chorus]
whitechocolatespaceegg (1998)
modern music notation is a product

of centuries of transformation... the system of musical notation
and it is neither efficient nor intuitive! we use is essentially a stylized

graph of pitch versus time.
pitch is the highness or

lowness of a sound.
&
for example, a flute has the five lines on which notes
pitch
pitch
a high pitch, while a tuba appear is called a staff.
has a low pitch.
time
a note is a
written representation
of a particular pitch.
notation is based on the piano keyboard;

lines and spaces on the staff represent F g a b c d e F g a b c d e
the white notes on the keyboard.
the white notes on the keyboard
are labeled with letters from A to G.
& w w
B B w w
to display notes
outside the
?
staff, we use
shortened
staff lines
called treble clef
ledger lines. alto clef
tenor clef
bass clef
the clef determines what notes each staff
line corresponds to. the four modern middle c is the c that is closest to
clefs are shown here; the note displayed the middle of the piano keyboard.

on each staff corresponds to middle c.
these symbols are placed to

To notate the The double sharp raises the
the left of the note that they
#
black notes note by two semitones.
affect, and they apply to all the
on the piano notes on that line or space
keyboard, we use for the rest of the measure.
& b n # n
accidentals, The sharp raises the
n
which alter the note by one semitone.
note by one or
two semitones.
The natural cancels out
b
a semitone is any previous accidental.
the distance
between two
adjacent keys The flat lowers the
on the piano note by one semitone.

keyboard, F g a b c d e F g a b c d e
regardless
of what color The double flat lowers two notes which have the same
the keys are. the note by two semitones. pitch (for example, f sharp and
g flat) are called enharmonics.
licensed under a creative commons BY-NC-ND license - british adaptation by matthew hindson - visit tobyrush.com for more
Notation: Rhythm
while pitch is pretty clearly notated on a
K K KK
vertical axis, note length is indicated using a
somewhat arcane system involving
noteheads, stems and flags.
W w
hemidemisemiquaver
h q e x x x x
demisemiquaver
semihemidemi-
semiquaver
semiquaver
semibreve
crotchet
quaver
breve
minim
in this chart, each successive type of note is half as long note lengths in a piece
as the note to its left. none of these notes has a standard are indicated by the tempo
length; a minim in one piece may be the same length as marking at the beginning
a quaver in a different piece. of a piece or section.
hemidemisemiquaver

semiquaver rest
semiquaver rest
demisemiquaver
semibreve rest
crotchet rest
semihemidemi-
quaver rest
breve rest
minim rest
rest
rest
a rest is a period of usually rests are
silence that a length placed on the staff at a
which corresponds to a particular vertical
particular note. position as shown here.
the augmentation dot is a dot placed to the

right of a notehead. though small, this dot multiple dots can also be added,
wields some serious power: it adds half each one adding half of the
of the original notes length! previously added value.
.
K
ack!
q. = q + e q.. = q + e + x q... q e x x
Get it off!
GEt it off!
= + + +
ties are curved marks which connect to tie more than two notes together,
two notes together to create draw ties between each note; do not
j j j
a single, extended sound. use a single, extended tie.
= = .
a tuplet is any non-standard division of a most tuplets are simple divisions, like
note. these are usually written as a group the triplets to the left. but anything is
of notes delinated with a bracket and possible! chopin, for example, would
a number showing the division being made. often go to town with these things.
3 for example, these arent

62, no. 1 (1846)
b major, op.

frederic chopin
nocturne in
exactly crotchets; wha... gah!

they are each a third as chopin, no!
long as a minim. down, boy!
Notation: Metre
a fundamental feature of
most pieces of music is a
consistent rhythmic pulse.
this pulse is called the beat,
and a single pulse
forgiven, not forgotten (1996)
heaven knows [drum intro]
the coors
is called a beat unit.
q q.
E E E EE
there are two types of beat units: ...and those containing
those containing two divisions, three divisions,
called simple beat units... called compound beat units.
in music, beats are organized into patterns of accented and unaccented beat units.
Q Q Q Q Q Q> Q Q Q Q> Q Q Q Q> Q Q Q Q> Q Q Q >Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q

in fact, if you listen to a sequence of repeated notes, your brain will probably start to
perceive the notes as groups of two, three, or four, even if no accents are present!
3
these groups are called bars, barline bar
and they are delineated with barlines.
4
3 QQQ QQQ
the organization simple TIME SIGNATURES are easy.
of beat units
4
and bars in
the top number
a piece is called indicates the number
metre. Metre is of beats in a bar.
described by two
is pretty easy: 4 refers to

numbers placed the bottom number the code for the bottom note
a crotchet, 8 to an quaver,
at the beginning indicates the type of
6 2
16 to a semiquaver,
note which serves as
of the piece:
the beat unit.
the time signature. and so on.
8
6 Q. Q. Q. Q.
compound TIME SIGNATURES are kind of lying to you.
8
the top number indicates the number
of divisions in a bar. to get the
number of beats, divide it by three.
the bottom number indicates the type of

note which serves as the division. in fact, wouldnt this be
to get the beat unit, use the note that an easier way to notate
is equal to three of these notes compound metres?
in a compound metre, the beat unit is
always a dotted note!
sorry... the man says
you have to do it
by looking at the top the other way.
number of the time signature,
you can tell two things about
the metre: whether its simple notes that have flags can
or compound, and how many be grouped together by using
beats are in a bar. beams in place of flags.
2 6
simple compound
3 9
2
beats per bar
however, beaming is only used to group notes within beats.
4 12
3 for the most part, you shouldnt beam notes between beats,
nor should you tie notes within beats.
Hey, its
kids! Sparky the music theory dog!
Dear Sparky:
Q: Ibeats
understand that were supposed to beam rhythms to show the organization of
in the measure, but is there an easy way to beam complex rhythms?
--A.Y., Minnesota, USA
A: WOOF!*
notes should be beamed in groups that illustrate the
*translation: meter. for simple rhythms, this is pretty easy to do;
simply group any notes that can be beamed (quavers and smaller) into
groups that are equal to the beat unit of the current meter.
& 43 J J J J J J & 43
for complex rhythms, however, things can get complicated... when a rhythm includes things
like syncopations or other off-beat figures, illustrating the meter may involve dividing
notes across beat units with ties. fortunately, there is a step-by-step system for correctly
beaming these complicated rhythms!
& 44 J .
for example, lets
J R R R J R R
take this rhythm,
which is written
without beaming.
find the smallest note value used, and fill a complete measure with this type of
step 1: note, beamed in groups that are equal to a beat unit in the current meter.
& 44
add ties between individual notes to recreate the original rhythm. make sure that
step 2: each tied group corresponds to a note in the rhythm you started with!
& 44
yes, i know it
looks weird...
but were not
done yet!
4 .
original rhythm: 4J J R R R J R R
find every group of two or more notes that are both tied together and
step 3: beamed together, and replace them with a single note of equivalent value.
& 44 . . .
if you have notes
that are tied or
beamed, but not
both, then leave

them alone!
J J
a correctly beamed rhythm may include ties, but it will
= very clearly show the beats in the measure... which, in
dont hands yes... turn, makes it easier for the performer to read!
touch! off! simplify it!
DOING STUFF THE SPARKY WAY IS ALWAYS FUN!

The Major Scale

one of the reasons that a particular piece of
music sounds the way it does has to do with the
# .
group of notes the composer decided to use.
3
&4
1722
bach,
a
magdalen
formajorbach
anna
notebook sebastian
G
in
johann
Minuet
take this melody, for example...
#
lets first remove all the duplicate notes, regardless of which octave theyre in.
& 43
# #
next, lets put the notes

in alphabetical order,
starting on the note
that the melody sounded
like it was centring on.
#
what we end up with

there are actually many

is the palette for different types of scales,
this particular piece... each with a different pattern
of tones and
semitones.
a semitone is the
distance between
like the board on which a painter holds two adjacent keys
the bits of paint being used in the painting on the piano keyboard,
being created. regardless of color.
in music, this palette is called

a scale. though we usually write
scales from low to high, the order is actually
unimportant; its the notes contained in the
scale that help make a piece sound
the way it does.
this particular
arrangement, where

semitones occur between
#
steps three and four and between steps seven and eight

(or between seven and one, since eight and one are the

same note), is called the major scale.
semi- a tone is the

tone tone
tone equivalent of
semitone
two semitones.
tone tone
tone
(this scale, by the way, is called the
g major scale, because it starts on g.)
knowing this formula, you can create a major scale on any note!

& b & b b b b b b
the f major scale the d flat major scale
but remember...
with
b b
great power
& # # & b b b b b
the b major scale the g flat major scale comes great
# # # responsibility!
Key Signatures Ab B E A D b
if you start writing major

scales and pay attention to A f c g #
the accidentals that occur,
you are going to start
noticing a pattern...
bb B E b
for example look at the flat

keys, starting with the key b f c g d a #
that has one flat, all the
way through the key with
cb b
seven flats: the flats accrue
B E A D G C F
in a specific order.
same with the sharp keys!
c n
so if you look for a key that
has only a d flat, you wont
find it: if a key has a d flat,
c# f c g d a e b #
it must also have a b flat,
an e flat and an a flat!
db B E A D G b
since writing an entire piece in
c sharp major would have
been a sure-fire way to get
d f c #
carpal tunnel syndrome with
all the sharps involved,
eb
composers pretty quickly came
up with a way to simplify things: B E A b
key signatures.
#
a key signature is a group of
accidentals placed at the e f c g d
beginning of every line of music,
just to the right of the clef,
b
that instructs the performer
to apply those accidentals to f B
every corresponding note in
the piece unless specified
f# #
otherwise.
f c g d a e
for example, this key
signature indicates that
every f, c, and g in the
gb b
piece should be sharped,
regardless of octave! B E A D G C
#
oh, and another thing: the
accidentals have to be placed g f
in the correct order, and
they need to follow a
particular pattern of
placement that varies slightly
depending on the clef being used!
if you deviate from this, you, as
a composer, will be mocked!
tenor clef sharps! whats
your problem? you need to
conform! ha ha... never!
licensed under a creative commons BY-NC-ND license - visit tobyrush.com for more
The Circle of Fifths theorists find it convenient to

organize all the possible key signatures
into a chart that shows their relationship
to one another.
this chart, called the circle of fifths,
displays each key as a spoke on the circle,
beginning with c major at the top and
adding accidentals, one at a time, to the
key signatures around the perimeter. well return to this chart
as we continue learning about
how composers use keys.
C
F1b 0
1#
G
b #
B b 2b
as you move clockwise around the
D
circle, you add sharps to the key signature.
2#
as you move counterclockwise around,
you add flats to the key signature.
to determine the key

signature for a key, look to when adding flats to
Eb
see which spoke of the circle a key signature, add them
b
its on to determine how many in this order:
flats or sharps it has, and
3b 3# A
add accidentals to the key
signature appropriately.
beadgcf
#
for example, when adding sharps,
e flat major use the reverse
has three flats, of the order above.
so it should
Ab
look like this:
4b 4#
the keys down here line up
enharmonically... for example,
the key of d flat major will sound
E
just like the key of c sharp major.
7# 5#
C#
so could you
5b 7b
continue the
6#
enharmonic
Cb
B
Db
deal and have
F#
6b
the key of
f flat major?
notice how that
yes, if you want
Gb
beadgcf pattern
a double flat
pops up all over
in your
the circle of
key signature:
fifths?
weird!
nooooo!
Diatonic Intervals an interval is

the distance in pitch
between two notes. smaller

the most basic way which we

intervals
b
identify different intervals is
by counting the steps between
the two notes.
&
larger
intervals
specifically, we
count scale degrees,
but the easiest way to do it is
to count lines and spaces
when counting
on the staff.
the lines and
spaces, we
7 can safely
6 when counting, ignore any
begin with the accidentals.
5
4 bottom note as
one and count this interval
3
2 until you reach is also a
the top note. seventh...
1
well discuss
how its
this interval
different
is a seventh!
very soon!
e
th
nt
av
nd
ur
ct
ve
n
ft
xt
o
co
ir
o
se
fo
is
si
fi
th
se
un
two notes on the distance from

the same line or thats latin for a note to the next
and thats latin
space is called one sound! closest note with
for eight!
a unison. the same letter name
is called an octave.
and when you swap the two notes

when we are talking about (move the lower note up by an octave
intervals we sometimes discuss so it becomes the higher note),

harmonic intervals and that is called inverting the interval.
&
melodic intervals.
THE RULE
& 2nd 7th
its helpful to remember 3rd 6th

harmonic melodic that seconds always invert 4th 5th
interval interval to sevenths, thirds to
sixths, and so forth... 5th 4th
a harmonic interval is simply
6th 3rd
two notes played simultaneously; the fact that each of
a melodic interval is one note 7th 2nd
these pairs add up to nine
played after the other. is known to theorists as
the rule of nines. OF NINES
Perfect Intervals the distance of an interval is one part of its

name, but theres more: every interval has another
quality to it, which well call inflection.
inflection is a bit harder to understand, partly because some theorists use
it depends on the type of interval. so lets start by the term quality for

looking at unisons, fourths, fifths and octaves.

this... thats cool too.
&

unisons and octaves

are the easiest to label: if the
two notes are the same (for
fourths and fifths
example, b flat and b flat), require a little more explaining.
then the inflection is perfect:
if you look at all the fourths and fifths you
such an interval is called a
can create using only the white notes on the
perfect unison or a
piano keyboard (in other words, using only notes
perfect octave.
without accidentals):

&
each one is

perfect except

for those which
&
use f and b!

well, if you were to count the semitones that make up
wait...
each interval, youd notice that all the other ones are
why are the
equal in size, but the b to f intervals are not: f to b is
b to f intervals
a semitone larger than a perfect fourth, and b to f
different?
is a semitone smaller than a perfect fifth.
which raises the question: if the interval is not perfect, than what is it?
an interval that is a semitone

larger than perfect is called
an augmented interval.

& b &
#
A
augmented & #
d5
&
d4
b
&
d8
P
and theres
no such thing as a
A5 diminished unison...
& #
A4
perfect
& b just like two things
cant be negative two feet
A1
d
A8 away from each other!
you can go further,

to doubly augmented and an interval that is a semitone
doubly diminished intervals, diminished smaller than perfect is called
but... do you really want to? a diminished interval.
Imperfect Intervals Weve talked about unisons, fourths, fifths

and octaves, but what about the rest? are

these other intervals somehow imperfect?
&

well, yes, but not because they are somehow inferior to perfect intervals...
seconds, thirds, sixths and sevenths just work a little differently!
A
for one thing, the inflection for these intervals is never perfect;
it will be either major or minor. minor intervals are a semitone smaller
augmented than major intervals. like perfect intervals, though, they can also be
augmented or diminished; augmented intervals are a semitone larger
than major, and diminished intervals are a semitone smaller than minor.
M
how do we know if an interval is major or minor? we can actually
use the major scale to find out. notice that, in the major scale,
major intervals from the tonic up to another scale degree are major.
&

m minor
major
second
major
third
major major
likewise, intervals from the tonic down to another scale degree

are minor.
sixth seventh
&
d
diminished
minor
second
minor
third
knowing this, when you are confronted with a second, third, sixth or seventh, you can

minor
sixth

minor
seventh

find its inflection by thinking about the key signature of the top and/or bottom note.

& &
we know this is a major sixth and this is a minor seventh
because d, the top note, is in because b, bottom note, is in
the key of f major the key of a major
(the bottom note). (the top note).
if the top note is in the major key of the bottom note, the interval is major.
if the bottom note is in the major key of the top note, the interval is minor.
when the notes of the interval have accidentals, the associated key signatures can
be more complicated... so its easiest to temporarily ignore the accidentals,
determine the interval, and then add the accidentals back one at a time and
track how the interval changes!
b b b
adding back adding back
&# & & &#

e is in the
ack! what is the flat makes the sharp
key of g, so
poof!
that? lets the interval makes it even

we know
first hide the smaller, so smaller...
poo
this is a
f!
accidentals... its now a a diminished

major sixth.
minor sixth... sixth!
M6 m6 d6
Hey, its
Dear Sparky:
Q: Since we are supposed to use different approaches for identifying perfect and
imperfect intervals, can you summarize them all into one system?
--I.M., New York, USA
A: WOOF!*
the following chart shows an approach for identifying
*translation: any interval. a similar approach can be used when you
need to write a particular interval above or below a given note: first, add
a note above or below the given note at the correct distance, then follow
steps 2 through 4 of this chart to identify it. Then, if necessary, alter the
note you added with an accidental to create the interval called for.
STEP 1:
count the bottom
determine the distance of the interval 7
5
6
note as one, and
by counting lines and spaces.
4
3
1
2
continue until you
reach the top note.
b
STEP 2: &# &
poof!
cover up all accidentals.
poo
f!
STEP 3: if it is a
determine the inflection of the interval in front of you
(the one without accidentals!) as follows:
if it is a
if it is a
second, third,
unison or octave: fourth or fifth:
sixth or seventh:
if the top note is

if the interval uses
the interval shown in the major key of
the notes f and b,
is a the bottom note,
it is either an
perfect unison the interval is
augmented fourth major.
or or a
perfect octave. diminished fifth.
if the bottom note is
in the major key of
really. otherwise, the the top note,
it just is. interval is the interval is
perfect. minor.
STEP 4: ec
t
add the original accidentals back, one at a time, and track how
the interval changes inflection.
ec
t

&
b
&
b
&#
d P A d m M A
rf ls rf s
pe rva m pe rval
t e i te
in diminished perfect augmented in diminished minor major augmented
M6 m6 d6
remember: accidentals can never affect This method may seem complicated at first,
the distance of an interval... all they can but it becomes easier and faster with
ever do is change the inflection! practice... and it gives you the correct
answer every time!

The Minor Scales There are actually two things that define a key:
the key signature is the most obvious one, but
another important part of a key is the tonic...

the note around which the key centers.
&
this key is defined

by a key signature
of no sharps and
flats, but also by
the fact that it
centers around c.
but what if we change the tonic? what if we use the same notes for the key signature,
but change the note that the key is centered around?

if we center the key around the sixth scale degree of the major scale,

we get a new scale: the minor scale.
&
el
th
u ra
t r
na ino e
m cal
s the tone
the thing is, common practice period composers here didnt have
werent all that crazy about this scale, because the tension
it lacks something the major scale has: they liked going
a semitone from seven to one. into the tonic!
#
so heres what they did: they raised the leading note by a semitone with

an accidental. This gave them the tension they were looking for!
nic
&
e
th
o
rm r
ha inole semi-
m ca tone
!
s
this scale is great for building chords, so we refer to it as the harmonic minor scale.
however, composers didnt use it for writing melodies, because it had a problem:
an augmented second between the sixth and seventh scale degrees.
so, for melodies, they made another change: now we only
#
they added another accidental to raise have tones
#
the sixth scale degree by a semitone. and semitones!
&
N N
he c
t
di

r
me ino e
&
m cal
s
now, remember... the reason we raised the leading note in the first place was to create
tension from the seventh scale degree to tonic. but in a melody, if the seventh scale
degree is followed by the sixth scale degree, we dont need that tension, so we dont
need to raise the leading note at all.
the way we illustrate this is by differentiating between ascending melodic minor and
descending melodic minor; for descending melodic minor, we dont raise anything!
Triads although a chord is technically any combination of notes

played simultaneously, in music theory we usually define
chords as the combination of three or more notes.

secundal tertial quartal quintal
sextal harmony? septal harmony?

secundal harmony, respectively.

harmony harmony harmony harmony
as with quintal harmony, these

are the same as tertial and

chords built from chords built from chords built from chords built from
seconds form thirds (MORE perfect fourths perfect fifths
tone clusters, SPECifically, from create a different can be respelled as
which are not major thirds and sound, used in quartal chords,
harmonic so much minor thirds) compositions from and as such they
as timbral. form the basis of the early 1900s do not create a
most harmony in and onward. separate system of
the common harmony.
practice period.
well, diminished thirds sound

is the chord still tertial
just like major seconds, and

if it is built from diminished
augmented thirds sound just

thirds or augmented thirds?
like perfect fourths, so...
&
no.
&
the lowest note in the chord
lets get started when the chord is in simple
?
on tertial harmony form is called

with the smallest the root. the fifth
chord possible: names of the
when we stack other notes third
the triad.
the chord in are based on root
thirds within one octave, their interval
we get what is called the above the root.
simple form of the chord.
a triad is defined as a three-note chord, incidentally, four-note chords are technically

but in practice it is almost always used called tetrads, but we usually call them
to refer to tertial three-note chords. seventh chords, since they add a seventh.
there are four ways to create a triad using major and minor thirds:
e d e e e d
th she th or th or th nte
ni n
mi iad
j me ad
i mi riad ma riad g i
d t tr t au tr
two minor thirds a major third on top a minor third on top two major thirds
stacked together a minor third on bottom a major third on bottom stacked together
& b b min 3rd

min 3rd
& b maj 3rd
min 3rd
& min 3rd
maj 3rd
& # maj 3rd
maj 3rd
+
c c C
we label triads using their root (a c minor triad). the abbreviations shown above, which use
C
upper case, lower case, and symbols to show chord type, are called macro analysis.
Triads in Inversion ladies and gentlemen, its

and hes brought a
movement from his 1767
franz joseph haydn! sonata in g major.
thank you for having me.

in this piece I use quite a
few triads.
ooh! lets
haydn
see em!
# 3 j g. its ajc major . ..

& 8 c, e and
heres one: it has the notes
.
triad! very. nice.
. .
what are you snooping around here for?
he already told you what the piece was.
f .
? # 38 . . . see how .
. . .
spread
are and not just ..
J out,
thank you. the notes
J J stacked in thirds? itsJ still

J
a triad, though.
# . . j
& .J .

p
j F f
this one is g, b, and d...
f . somehow. j .
. the third
. . of. the
a g major triad! but it sounds
? # ..
different, because .

thats
we say. the
chord is chord
in the is in first
bass... inversion.
when that happens,
J J J J
# .

.
. .
U
.. n b b
& . J

first inversion? what is it
. . chord .
. . . . . n b
called when the root is in the
?#
we looked at? root .
position. J
the first

bass, like
. b
thats called
J J J
J
M M #M M this one with

d, f, and a n
b triad... in #
so
& b .. J J J J second
# J J
..
is a d minor
J
inversion!
p F p
n
? b b .. ? because
exactly!
the ..
& is in the bass.

fifth
so the thing that makes a

triad root position, first inversion
thats right!
or second inversion is simply
and each one
which note is in the bass?
has its own
character.
its hard to believe that the
sound of the chord can change so
much just because of the
bass note. I know, right?
its awesome. haydn
Figured Bass
musical works written in the baroque era would often
include a part called the basso continuo which would
consist of a single bass clef melodic line with various
numbers and accidentals printed beneath the notes.
no, no, no... there wasnt an actual instrument called
a basso continuo! the part was played by two
instruments: a bass clef instrument like cello or
bassoon, and a keyboard instrument like a harpsichord.
in performances, the bass clef instrument would simply play

the given notes, but the keyboard player would improvise a
part based on the notes and the symbols below the part!
? ## # #
#
j.S. Bach: brandenberg concerto no. 5, bwv 1050
so this...
6 6 #6 6 #6 6 6 #6 6 9 5 6 #
# 5 5 5
Figure 1. The Basso Continuo
# j
could be played as this!
& # #
#
#
#
the numbers and symbols
J J
printed below the basso
continuo part are called
? ## # #
the figured bass. So how
#
do you turn figured bass
into chords?
first of all, its important to know that the note given on the bass clef part is always
? # # www ? # # www
the bass note of the chord. and remember: the bass is not necessarily the root!
? # # ww
w
second, the numbers
represent intervals
above the bass, even
though some numbers (5) 6 6
are usually left out. (3) (3) 4
if there are a six by itself a six and a four
note that the intervals no numbers, indicates a sixth indicate a sixth
are always diatonic. add a third and and a third above and a fourth
dont worry about a fifth above the the bass, which above the bass,
inflection... just use bass... you get a creates a first giving you a second
the notes from the root position triad! inversion triad! inversion triad!
key signature!
? # # # www ? # # # www ? # # n www

lastly, accidentals are
applied to the interval
they appear with. if you
have an accidental by
itself, it applies to the
#6 # n6 third above the bass.
dont overthink these:

here, the sharp here, there is no note that there is if the composer wants
applies to the number next to the a natural, not a flat,
a note raised by a semi-
sixth above the sharp, so we apply next to the six...
bass, so we add a it to the third above if it were a flat, we tone and its flatted in
sharp to the g. the bass note. would write a c flat. the key signature, the
figured bass will have
a natural, not a sharp.
by the time the classical period got realizing figured bass (writing chords
going, composers stopped including a given a figured bass line) makes for an
basso continuo part, and so figured excellent exercise for students to learn
bass fell out of use... with only one how to write in the common practice
exception: music theory classes! period style!
wooo!
Triads Within Tonality now that were familiar with how

triads work, its time to put them
into the context of a key.
since writing music in a particular key means using the notes in that key signature,
it stands to reason that most of the chords will be built from those same notes!
chords which use notes from a particular key signature are said to be diatonic
to that key. diatonic means from the key. that means no accidentals!

we can quickly show all the diatonic triads in a particular key by writing a scale

in that key and building triads on each note, using only the notes in that key.
&

we refer to
these chords
I ii iii IV V vi vii
with roman
numerals as
shown here.
tonic
Supertonic
mediant
subdominant
dominant
submediant
leading note
notice how
chord type
is shown by
capitals or
lower case?
these chords are also

sometimes referred to by
their official names!
this pattern of
major, minor and diminished why is the sixth chord called the submediant?
triads is the same in every major key! well, just as the mediant chord is halfway
the subdominant triad is always major, between the tonic and dominant chords,
and the leading note triad is always the submediant chord is halfway between the
diminished, whether youre in tonic... and the subdominant a fifth below!
c major or f sharp major!
because the dominant and leading note triads both
have a strong tendency to resolve to tonic, we say they
have a dominant function. the subdominant and supertonic chords both tend to
resolve to the dominant, so we say they both have a subdominant function.
the diatonic triads in minor work the same way... since were dealing with chords, we
#
use the harmonic minor scale. however, its important to note that common practice
#
period composers raised the leading note only over dominant function harmony:
&
the dominant and leading note triads!

same names
and roman
numerals...

different
capitalization! i ii III iv V VI vii
Introduction to Part-Writing
as we look ahead, were
confronted with an ugly truth:
there is a lot of music

in the history of the world
that is worth studying...
much more than we can

hope to cover in the span
of a few semesters.
since we cant cover it all, we have to choose a specific musical language to study in depth.
lets start by narrowing things down to the common practice period.
2000
1800
1900
1600
1500
1700
early 20th
renaissance baroque classical romantic century
contemporary
the common practice period is the music of the baroque, its especially worth
classical and romantic eras in europe and america. studying because
the name comes from the fact that most composers used most of the pieces
a common musical language during this time. commonly performed
in concert are
from this period...
but there is a ton of
common practice period music... ...and the language
more than we can hope to cover. is there a forms the basis for
representative style we can sink our the most popular
academic teeth into? musical styles today.
ch
any
as chur
ig, germ
st. thom
leipz
four-voice chorale writing is a good style to study for several reasons:
chorales have a fast a large percentage of the cantatas of j.s. bach

harmonic rhythm, allowing common practice period music provide us with a tremendous
for a larger number of can be easily reduced to amount of consistently-written
chords per exercise. four-voice counterpoint. four-voice chorales.
one of the changes to the catholic church more than two hundred years later, j.s. bach
proposed by martin luther was appointed musical
was to allow members of director at the st. thomas
the congregation to church in leipzig, germany
participate in the singing and, in the spirit of luther,
of the liturgy. wrote five years worth
of liturgical music.
of course, luther was
branded a heretic for each of these works,
his proposals, and began called cantatas, were built
his own church in which around a hymn melody
to implement his ideas. harmonized in four parts
luther j.s. ba
for congregational singing. ch
by analyzing bachs cantatas, we can construct a set of rules for writing in

four-voice common practice period musical style, allowing us to study it in depth.
Part-Writing: The Vertical Rules

to best understand how its wrong to think these were
common practice period composers rules for the composers...
wrote music, we are going to they were just writing what
learn how to write music using sounded good to them.

their musical style.
nor should we treat these as rules
so the patterns we see in their music, for writing music in general...
&
the things they consistently did each style of writing has its
or didnt do, are going to become own set of patterns, and thus
rules for us in our writing. its own rulebook. as a composer,
you get to write your own
rules for your own style!
were going to start with the

vertical rules... that is, the rules
that pertain to building a single
soprano chord in four-voice harmony.
first, the distance between

soprano and alto and between
alto alto and tenor must be an
octave or less.
the tenor and bass can be as

far apart as you want!
?
second, the voices must be kept in
their proper order; for example,
the tenor shouldnt be higher
than the alto. (Bach did this now
and then, but it was only when he
wanted to incorporate some special
melodic shapes.)
tenor third, since we have four voices

and only three notes in a triad,
one of the notes should be
doubled. for triads in root
position, we typically double the
bass root of the chord unless forced
(by other rules) to do otherwise.

lastly, each voice should
&
stay in its range. these
are conservative ranges

for modern singers, but

tenor bass
remember that bachs
?
chorales were really soprano alto
written for amateurs:

the common people who
attended church in leipzig!
Part-Writing: The Horizontal Rules

the supreme goal of part-writing is good voice leading...
making each individual voice part easy to sing by avoiding
awkward intervals or large leaps!
before we get to the specific dos and donts, lets take a look
at some important characteristics of four-voice part-writing:
in some cases, the voice

note how each voice moves
can simply stay on the same
as little as possible, going
note. This is called
to the nearest chord note
keeping the common note,
in each subsequent chord!
and its always cool!
ich sundenknecht
mensch,
bwv 55
ich armer
J.S. Bach ..
cantata
its common for the bass to

move in the opposite direction the bass line, since it provides
of the upper three voices. the foundation of the harmony
this is called contrary motion in each chord, tends to include
and it helps maintain larger leaps than the other
voice independence. three voices, but thats okay.
voice independence?
there are also a few other

four-voice harmony is a form of counterpoint, rules that apply to this style:
which is the combination of more than one
*
melody played simultaneously. in counterpoint,
when you have the leading note
each voice is equally important; no voice is
in an outer voice (soprano or
given a role of accompaniment to another voice.
bass) it must resolve to the
in counterpoint, it is important for each voice to tonic in the next chord.
be independent; that is, no two voices should be
*
doing the exact same thing. if two (or more) you may not move any voice
voices were moving in parallel, the richness by an interval of an
of the texture would be reduced. augmented second
as a result, common practice composers were or an augmented fourth.
very consistent in avoiding two or more voices
that moved in parallel perfect octaves, parallel
perfect fifths, or parallel perfect unisons! the good news:
you can avoid all three of
these by doing the following
whenever possible:
1. keep the common note!

2. move to the
parallel parallel parallel
octaves! fifths! unisons! nearest chord note!
3. use contrary motion!
Part-Writing: Using Inversions

when common practice composers used inverted chords in
four-voice writing, they followed some general patterns
regarding which note of the chord should be doubled.
root position first inversion second inversion
the doubling of first inversion triads depends

on the type of the chord being written.
in root in second
position triads, in major first in minor first in diminished inversion triads,
composers usually inversion triads, inversion triads, first inversion composers usually
doubled the root, composers composers triads, they doubled the fifth,
which is in the doubled the doubled the doubled the which is in the
bass soprano bass bass bass

or
of the chord. of the chord. of the chord. of the chord.
soprano
of the chord.
heres another way to think of it: the only time you cant double the bass is
in first inversion major triads, where you should double the soprano instead.
okay, we know how to use inversions in four-part writing... but when can we use them?
the only rule regarding other than that, you can use
vii6 6
root position triads root position and first inversion
and first inversion triads essentially whenever you want!
ii
is that diminished triads are its second inversion triads that
always placed in first inversion. have the big restrictions.
6 6
the cadential 4 chord the passing 4 chord
is a tonic triad in is a chord placed in
second inversion second inversion
followed by a where the bass is
root-position treated like a
dominant chord passing note:
at a cadence. the middle note of
a stepwise line
F: I64 V I F: I6 V64 I moving up or down.
6
the pedal 4 chord if you write a
is a second inversion second inversion triad and
chord where the its not one of these three situations,
bass is treated like then you are not writing in the common
a pedal note: practice period style! the composers of
a note preceded and the style just didnt use these chords
followed by the willy-nilly.
same note.
F: I IV46 I
Part-Writing: Melodic Minor in the common
X
practice period,
composers used
so anyway, harmonic minor
after we got by default. but
B
him transposed attention! attention! when augmented
back to tonic, he we need assistance seconds occurred,
began to modulate with a new patient they turned to a
again, and... in emergency treatment hero for help:
room 3b... stat! melodic minor!
XB
what seems to be well, I thought Id transpose to
the problem, sir? minor, you know, to surprise the
family... so I did, and then I raised
all my leading notes, because
Im a common practice period
progression, right?
X
okay, sure. so whats wrong?
ive got
augmented
seconds!
X
*gasp*
paging... dr. melodic minor!

doctor, what
can we do? for this case of ascending augmented seconds,
B
I prescribe a raised sixth scale degree!
X B
ooh... it makes a major iv chord! IV6
and for these

descending
augmented seconds,
were going to use
an unraised seventh!
and that
makes a
X
minor v
B
chord! v
all in a days work,

my good man.
my now lets turn to
augmented the unpleasant matter
seconds... of the bill.
theyre
cured!
cure your augmented seconds with melodic minor today!

The Harmonic Cadences A cadence is generally considered to be the

last two chords of a phrase, section or piece.
there are four types of cadences, each with
their own specific requirements and variations.
a perfect cadence consists of a a plagal cadence consists of a

dominant function chord (v or vii) subdominant function chord
moving to tonic. (iv or ii) moving to tonic.
ct al
fe g
r la
pe p
G: V I G: IV I
an imperfect cadence is any cadence that ends on the dominant chord (v).
a specific type of imperfect cadence

is the phrygian cadence, which
must meet the following criteria:
ct n n
im
pe
r
fe
**
it occurs only in minor
it uses a iv chord moving to v
ph
r
yg
ia
ph
r
yg
ia
*
the soprano and bass move
by step in contrary motion
* iv6
G: I V the soprano and bass both e: V e: iv V
end on the fifth scale degree
an interrupted cadence is a cadence where the dominant chord (V) resolves to something
other than tonic... almost always the submediant chord (vi).
really, its the psych-out cadence, in that

d you expect it to resolve to tonic, but it doesnt.
te
up
r
r
te
in and, in fact, its more common to see this in
the middle of the phrase rather than the end...
where you might call it a cadence-like structure!
G: V vi
its worth mentioning that American theorists call perfect cadences

authentic cadences, and call imperfect cadences Half cadences.
they use the terms perfect and imperfect to refer if the cadence
doesnt meet
to two different types of authentic cadences:
all of those
criteria, they
to be considered a perfect authentic cadence, ct consider it to
f e ic
a cadence must meet all of these criteria:
r nt be an
e e )
it must use a v chord the soprano must p th SA imperfect
U
au (
authentic
(not a vii) end on the tonic
cadence!
& both chords must be the soprano must
in root position move by step
G: V I
Harmonic Progression how did composers of the common

practice period decide which order
to put chords in? did they just throw
them down on paper haphazardly?
as a matter of fact, there are certain chord progressions that appear more
frequently, and there are others that are avoided pretty consistently. while
the choices were always based on what sounded good to the composer,
theorists can find a pattern in their choices that we can use to easily remember
which chord progressions work and which ones dont.
one way to understand this pattern is to think in terms of root movements. a root movement
is the basic interval between the root of one chord and the root of the next chord. you

dont have to worry about the intervals inflection, just its distance and direction.
&

for example, to determine the root movement A to B is down a seventh,
here, we look at the root (not bass) of each but since octaves dont matter,
chord and figure the interval between them. we invert it to up a second.
so heres the pattern: common practice

period composers generally used root
movements of up a second, down a
thats not say that they
third, and down a fifth!
2
never used other root
movements, but it didnt
happen very often.
sequences of chords that
3
remember... since dont follow this pattern
inflection doesnt are called retrogressions,
matter, we can and they are considered
ignore accidentals unstylistic.
when we figure the
root movements.
5
Unstylistic is a
polite way of saying
The composers didnt
do it so you shouldnt
so, for example, a g chord to an do it either!
e chord is down a third, but so is
g to e flat, and g sharp to e flat!
there are also four simple exceptions to this pattern:
I
any chord can
I
tonic can move any chord can
V vii I
and the leading-note
move to tonic, to any chord, move to dominant, triad must move to tonic.

&
go to a tonic chord!

a dominant chord...
or you can use the

first exception and
a mediant chord...

down a third to
down a fifth to

up a second to
a leading-note

lets try it...
you can move
you can move
you can move
say you have

chord...
a supertonic
?
chord and

you are trying
to decide what
chord to use
to follow it.
C: ii iii vii6 V I
Diatonic Common Chord Modulation

modulation is the process of changing to a different key within a piece of music.
there are several different

ways to modulate; perhaps the common practice period composers,
simplest is the unprepared however, preferred a particular type
modulation, where the music of modulation that required a little
pauses and suddenly changes more planning: the diatonic common
key, often up a half-step. chord modulation. as the name
suggests, this uses a chord which
is diatonic in both the outgoing key
hey... what is this
and the new key.
portrait doing here?
manilo
w
lets say were starting off in c major... here is a list of all the keys which
have chords in common with c major (the specific chords are highlighted):
for instance,
the I chord
in G major G: I ii iii IV V vi vii
is G-B-D... a: i ii III iv V VI vii
...which is
the V chord
in C major!
F: I ii iii IV V vi vii
e: i ii III iv V VI vii
notice how these keys

are all close to one
keys which have another on the
chords in common circle of fifths.
like this are
called related keys.
D: I ii iii IV V vi vii
d: i ii III iv V VI vii
b: i ii III iv V VI vii
B b: I ii iii IV V vi vii
to use this type of note that the pivot

modulation, a composer chord is always the
would pivot the harmony last chord that can
around the chord that be analyzed in the
fit into both keys. old key... the first
As theorists, we show accidentals will always
this pivot chord by occur in the chord
analyzing the chord in C: I ii V I vi immediately following
both keys.
e: iv V VI iv V i the pivot chord!
Non-Harmonic Notes a non-harmonic note is a note that

doesnt fit into a chord. we classify
non-harmonic ntoes by how they are
approached and resolved!
n n
tio h io
evia ac l ut s pl
e
e o o
br pr te am
nam ab ap res no ex
passing resolves by continuing in

pN step step the same direction as the
note approach.
neighbour resolves by returning to

Nn step step the note preceding the
note non-harmonic note.
resolves in opposite
appoggiatura app leap step direction from approach.
resolves in opposite
Escape note esc step leap direction from approach.
changing two non-harmonic notes

cn any step on either side of the
notes note of resolution.
common a chord note played

anticipation ant any before the rest of
tone the chord arrives.
common a note held over from

suspension sus step a previous chord and
note resolved down.
common a note held over from

retardation ret step a previous chord and
note resolved up.
common common a chord note which

pedal note ped temporarily becomes
note note a non-harmonic note.
suspensions are typically further identified

by number. The first number represents the
interval between the note of suspension and
the bass. The second number represents the
interval between the note of resolution and
the bass.
the exception to this rule is the 2-3 or

bass suspension, where the numbers 7-6 2-3
represent the intervals between the bass sus (bass)
(where the suspension occurs) and sus
whichever voice has the note which is a
second (not counting octaves) above
4-3 9-8
the bass.
sus sus
Hey, its
Dear Sparky:
Q: Can you elaborate on why suspensions are identified by numbers? Also, what
should one watch out for when writing suspensions in four-part harmony?
--S.S., Michigan, USA
A: WOOF!*
when analyzing suspensions, it is important to identify
*translation: both the note of suspension (the non-harmonic tone
itself) and the note of resolution (the note that comes right after the
non-harmonic tone in the same voice).
this a is the in almost every case,

note of suspension... the suspension is
it doesnt belong in then labeled using
this g major triad. two intervals: the
interval between the
note of suspension this is
it resolves to and the bass, and the a 7th!
this g, which does interval between the this is
fit in the chord. note of resolution a 6th!
its the note of and the bass. C: IV V6
resolution! ...so its a
C: IV V6 7-6 suspension!
when writing an example which the only exception to this

includes a suspension, it is very this is is the 2-3 suspension, where
often useful to begin by writing this is a 3rd! the suspension occurs in the
the chord that is going to contain a 2nd! bass. for this one, we look
the suspension, then adding the at the interval between the
suspension, and finishing by writing notes of suspension and
the chord of approach. resolution and the nearest
chord note, whichever voice
C: vi V it may be in.
...so its a
2-3 suspension!
the real trick, though, is to plan ahead... if you are planning to write a particular type
of suspension, you need to think about the interval that needs to be present in the
chord that includes your suspension.
for the 7-6 suspension,

the suspension resolves
I I46
for the 4-3 suspension

for the 9-8 suspension, to an sixth above the
I46
and 2-3 suspension, you

I6
I6
the suspension resolves bass. that means you

need a chord with a
I6
to an octave above the cant use a chord in

third above the bass...
bass... thats easy, since root position, because
which means you can
I
any chord can include they have a fifth and a

use anything except a
an octave. third above the bass.
second inversion triad.
you need a first or
second inversion triad!

Diatonic Seventh Chords

What are they?
Remember, diatonic
means from the key.
so a diatonic chord is one
that only uses notes in
diatonic seventh chords are the the key signature.
seventh chords you can create using No accidentals!
only the notes in a particular key.
www www www www www

www
there are eight possible types of
www w
Here they are
& w w w w
in major and seventh chords in tertial harmony,
minor.
w w but the composers of the common
practice period only used five:
ww
remember: C: I7 ii7 iii7 IV7 V7 vi7 vii7
ww
we only
www www
e major 7th
th or
www # www
raise the
www
above root
th
www
j
& www w #w
ma ven
w w
leading-note
w w
se major triad
w
over
dominant-
function r
b www
w
e o minor 7th
harmony! a: i7 ii7 III7 iv7 V7 VI7 vii7 th min
- h above root
r nt
jo ve
ma se major triad
in harmonic progressions, diatonic sevenths can
bw
be used anywhere you can use a diatonic triad with the
b www
same root.

e

minor 7th
th or

the add-a-seventh-inator
&
n th above root

mi en

v
pat. pending
se minor triad
b b b wwww
V I IV vii iii 7 vi7 ii7 V7 I7 h ed
e
th inis minor 7th
i m t h above root
-d en
a lf ev diminished triad
h s
2
b b wwww
in fact, these chords can ed
be approached and resolved e h
3 th inis diminished 7th
using any of the same three m h
di nt
above root
root movements ly eve
5 as triads use. fu
l s diminished triad
we use 07 for
With the diatonic seventh chords, we add a half-diminished sevenths
fourth root movement: the common root. 1 and 07 for
fully diminished sevenths.
However, this root movement can only be
used to increase tension, so going from
a seventh chord to a triad is avoided.
w ww w
seventh chords have four notes, so doubling in four-part
V7 V V V7 harmony is not an issue... but if you need to use irregular

doubling, double the root and omit the fifth.
ww
when using these chords in four-part writing in The seventh of the chord
fact, when you use any seventh chord in four-part is always resolved down
writing, you must always, always remember to... by step. always!
the seventh of the chord

is most often approached
respect the seventh! no, im serious. dont ever
resolve the seventh of a
by the common note. seventh chord any other
way.
however, it is okay to
approach the seventh doing so will cause you
from below by a step certain death!
or a leap, or from above
by a step.
You must never approach

the seventh by a leap from
above!
7
The Dominant Seventh
V
The dominant seventh is the diatonic seventh
chord built on the fifth scale degree. we
already discussed diatonic seventh chords...
why give this one all this special attention?
for one thing, the but another reason
dominant seventh is, for spending a little extra
by far, the most common time with it is the fact that
seventh chord used by there are a few things
the composers of the that apply to it that dont
common practice period. apply to the other diatonic
seventh chords.
b ww
first, a note on terminology: its just a major-minor seventh... the reason these are often
& ww
confused is that in popular
the terms major-minor seventh and jazz theory, the term
and dominant seventh are not dominant is used to label
interchangeable! Major-minor the chord type instead of
b ww
until its placed in a particular key!
&b
seventh is the chords type, and the chords role.
dominant seventh is the role
the chord plays in the context ww
of a particular key.
V7
the other important thing to know about the dominant seventh chord is that common practice
period composers would sometimes use some non-standard ways of resolving the seventh!
the
ornamental resolution the
transferred resolution
in this resolution, the seventh is still this is the hot potato resolution: instead of
resolved down by step, but it takes an being resolved down by step in the same voice,
ornamental detour before getting there.
#
the seventh is passed to another voice in
& another dominant seventh chord.

#
&
the ornament
can be any
the seventh still

shape or

seventh resolution needs to resolve transferred

length, but it
?#
ornament to tenor
?#
must resolve down by step by
to the note whatever voice is
down a step the last to have it.
from the
V7 I seventh of the
V7 V56 I
seventh chord. If the bass voice gets it, he resolves it
immediately, ending the fun for everyone.
the the
delayed resolution bass resolution
Here, the resolution of the seventh is in this resolution, the seventh of the chord
delayed by moving to some other chord is still resolved down by step, but the note
(usually the subdominant) and having the it resolves to appears in the bass voice.
#
&
seventh of the chord hold out until the

dominant seventh returns.
#
the voice that
&
had the seventh
after the V7

resolves up,

returns, the seventh
resolution usually by step.
?#
seventh voice that has

resolution
?#
the seventh
should still
resolve it
appropriately! V7 I6
V7 IV V7 I
Extended Harmonies so far, weve talked about two

types of tertial chords: triads and
seventh chords. remember, tertial
chords are chords constructed
b b www b www www # ww

by stacking major and minor thirds!
w now, there are four types of triads

and eight types of seventh chords,
diminished triad minor triad major triad augmented triad
even though common practice period
composers only used five of them.
b b wwww b b b wwww b
b ww
ww b wwww b ww
ww www # wwww # # wwww
w
diminished diminished diminished minor minor minor minor major major minor major major augmented major augmented augmented
seventh chord seventh chord seventh chord seventh chord seventh chord seventh chord seventh chord seventh chord
so that makes for twelve chord types so far... but what if we keep going? what other chord
types can we make by stacking major and minor thirds? tertial chords with five, six and seven
notes are called ninth chords, eleventh chords and thirteenth chords respectively.
suddenly the possibilities increase from twelve...
#
...to 124!
www
b bb wwww
w
b b bb wwww
w w b bb wwww ww ww # www b b wwww b wwww www # www w
# # wwww
b b b wwww w # # # wwww ##
ww b b www b www b ww ww ww # wwww
&
the good news: common w w w w
# b # www
minished diminished diminished diminished minor minor diminished minor major minor minor minor minor minor major minor major major minor major major minor minor major minor major major major major major major augmented augmented major augmented augmented augmented
hed minor ninth chord ninth chord ninth chord ninth chord ninth chord augmented ninth chord ninth chord ninth chord augmented major major augmented augmented doubly-a
ord
practice period composers
ninth chord ninth chord ninth chord ninth chord ninth chord ninth chord ninth
& b www
only used these extended
www
bb bb wwww on bthe
w w diatonic
b bb bb wwww
w w ww # www
b b bb wwww
www b www w w ww # ww # # www #
harmonies bb wwww dominant. b bb wwww b bb wwww b b www
#
chords b b b wwww b b b www w w
as
b www b b www b b www b www 13 b www b
w w w w w w
& # wwww
minished
hed
nished
diminished diminished
eleventh chord
minor diminished
eleventh chord
minor perfect
eleventh chord
diminished minor
minor diminished
eleventh chord
diminished minor
minor perfect
eleventh chord
diminished minor
major perfect
eleventh chord
diminished minor
major augmented
eleventh chord
minor minor minor
diminished
eleventh chord
minor minor minor
perfect
eleventh chord
minor minor major
perfect
eleventh chord
minor minor major
augmented
eleventh chord
minor major major
perfect
eleventh chord
G: V
minor major major
augmented
eleventh chord
minor major
augmented augmented
eleventh chord
minor
augm
doubly-a
chord elevent
www w w
b # wwww
w www # www # # wwww # wwww # www # ## wwwwG: V11# # wwww # # ## wwww
w
# # # wwww
w
# # wwww
b b wwww b wwww w #
ww w
w w
w ww ww ww # www ww ww #
w w w
seriously: w
these w
are the w only w w w
r minor
extended harmonies used by
major minor minor major minor major major minor major major major major major major major major major major major augmented major augmented major augmented major augmented major
what about a fifteenth chord?

augmented augmented augmented augmented augmented augmented augmented
G: V9
hed perfect perfect augmented perfect augmented augmented augmented augmented major perfect major augmented augmented augmented augmented augmented augmented augmented doubly-augmented doubly-a
chord eleventh chord eleventh chord eleventh chord eleventh chord eleventh chord eleventh chord doubly-augmented eleventh chord eleventh chord eleventh chord doubly-augmented eleventh chord doubly-augmented doubly-augmented triply-au
eleventh chord eleventh chord eleventh chord eleventh chord elevent
common practice period composers. try it: if you add another third
ww www
much
www bbefore b b the
www b b wwww b b b wwww era.
b b wwww ww b bb b wwww b bb bb wwww
in fact, the v 11 and v 13 werent used
b ww areb wwjust doublingb www www root. ww # #b
b #b wwww13!
on top of a thirteenth, you
www w w w b bb wwwww
b w b b www
b b b wwww so btertial b b b www
b b www b b www b b www b b www b b www b b www b www b www w www
b b bstops bb
romantic the
ww ww harmony w bat w
minished diminished diminished diminished diminished diminished diminished diminished diminished diminished diminished diminished diminished diminished diminished diminished MINOR MINOR diminished MINOR MINOR diminished MINOR MINOR diminished MINOR MINOR diminished MINOR MAJOR diminished MINOR MAJOR diminished MINOR MAJOR diminished
ed diminished diminished diminished diminished diminished minor diminished minor diminished minor minor perfect minor minor perfect MAJOR DIMINISHED DIMINISHED DIMINISHED MINOR PERFECT MINOR PERFECT MAJOR PERFECT MINOR PERFECT MAJOR AUGMENTED MAJOR AUGMENTED
nished doubly-diminished diminished minor diminished thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteen
nished diminished thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteenth chord
www b b bbnow,
www b bb wwww web w b ww w # www # # www b www www # wwww # # wwww ninth, w
# # # wwww
w
# #or
www #
chord thirteenth chord
www www b b wwwwput these

b www b wwww binto w w w # # wwww eleventh
b b wwww
w b www b www thirteenth
b www b www of the w
w got bawww b www
when chords finally, the
w b four-part
w b w
w w
w
harmony, b w b
w weve w b ww chord b ww is what b
R MINOR
MINISHED
chord
problem: they all have more than
MINOR MINOR MINOR
DIMINISHED MINOR
thirteenth chord
MINOR MINOR MINOR
PERFECT MINOR
thirteenth chord
MINOR MINOR MINOR
PERFECT MAJOR
thirteenth chord
MINOR MINOR MAJOR
PERFECT MINOR
thirteenth chord
MINOR MINOR MAJOR
PERFECT MAJOR
thirteenth chord
MINOR MINOR MAJOR
AUGMENTED MAJOR
thirteenth chord
MINOR MINOR MAJOR
AUGMENTED AUGMENTED
thirteenth chord
MINOR MAJOR MINOR
PERFECT MINOR
thirteenth chord
MINOR MAJOR MAJOR
PERFECT MAJOR
THIRTEENTH CHORD
defines it as a ninth, eleventh
MINOR MAJOR MAJOR
AUGMENTED MAJOR
thirteenth chord
MINOR MAJOR MAJOR
AUGMENTED AUGMENTED
thirteenth chord
MINOR MAJOR AUGMENTED
AUGMENTED MAJOR
thirteenth chord
AUGMENTED AUGMENTED
thirteenth chord
DOUBLY-AUGMENTED
AUGMENTED
thirteenth chord
MINOR MAJO
DOUBLY-A
DOUBLY-A
thirteen
www b b bbthe b bb wwww

www tough w b www oneswww do # www # #b wwww bw www # wwww # # wwww # wwww # # # wwww # # wwww #
&
four notes. So we have to make or thirteenth chord.
b b wwww which www
ww do# you
thirteenth
www www w
w
call:
w b www b www b www ww ww www ww so how w w wwin
w w w w w w w w w w w w w
w w
w w
ww
we cut from the team? put these
R MINOR
MINISHED
chord
MAJOR MINOR MINOR
DIMINISHED MINOR
THIRTEENTH CHORD
MAJOR MINOR MINOR
PERFECT MINOR
thirteenth chord
MAJOR MINOR MINOR
PERFECT MAJOR
thirteenth chord
MAJOR MINOR MAJOR
PERFECT MINOR
thirteenth chord
MAJOR MINOR MAJOR
PERFECT MAJOR
thirteenth chord
MAJOR MINOR MAJOR
AUGMENTED MAJOR
thirteenth chord
MAJOR MINOR MAJOR
AUGMENTED AUGMENTED
thirteenth chord
MAJOR MAJOR MAJOR
PERFECT MINOR
thirteenth chord
MAJOR MAJOR MAJOR
PERFECT MAJOR
THIRTEENTH CHORD
MAJOR MAJOR MAJOR
AUGMENTED MAJOR
thirteenth chord
four-part harmony?
MAJOR MAJOR MAJOR
AUGMENTED AUGMENTED
thirteenth chord
MAJOR MAJOR AUGMENTED
AUGMENTED MAJOR
thirteenth chord
AUGMENTED AUGMENTED
thirteenth chord
DOUBLY-AUGMENTED
AUGMENTED
MAJOR MAJO
DOUBLY-A
DOUBLY-A
third# # w
# ## wwww
w
# # wwww ninth,
www # # www the
# www to keep w
# ## wwww eleventh
w
# # wwww
w www
omit the fifth and use only
thirteenth chord thirteen
w
# # # wwww
w
# # wwww
w
# www
w
# # # ww
# # wwwwroot w # # www # #or #
#weww need
# ww # ww # # # ww # www # www # ww # ww thirteenth
the
# ww # www #
w
w w
w it defines w
w w
w chord. ww ww as necessary. ww w
?
because the
similarly, the third is what
OR MAJOR AUGMENTED MAJOR MAJOR AUGMENTED MAJOR MAJOR AUGMENTED MAJOR MAJOR AUGMENTED MAJOR AUGMENTED MAJOR MAJOR AUGMENTED MAJOR AUGMENTED MAJOR AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED
INOR PERFECT MAJOR AUGMENTED MAJOR AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED AUGMENTED DOUBLY-AUGMENTED DOUBLY-AUGMENTED DOUBLY-AUGMENTED DOUBLY-A
chord THIRTEENTH CHORD thirteenth chord thirteenth chord MAJOR AUGMENTED DOUBLY-AUGMENTED DOUBLY-AUGMENTED MAJOR AUGMENTED DOUBLY-AUGMENTED DOUBLY-AUGMENTED DOUBLY-AUGMENTED DOUBLY-AUGMENTED TRIPLY-AUGMENTED TRIPLY-A

thirteenth chord thirteenth chord AUGMENTED DOUBLY-AUGMENTED thirteenth chord THIRTEENTH CHORD AUGMENTED DOUBLY-AUGMENTED AUGMENTED DOUBLY-AUGMENTED DOUBLY-AUGMENTED TRIPLY-A
seventh
thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteenth chord thirteen
makes the chord tertial.

oh, and if youre worried
about inversions: stop.
the seventh acts as a bridge in the common practice
root
to the extended harmony, period, extended harmonies
are almost always found
preventing the chord from
coming across as two separate C: V13 in root position.
harmonies played at the same time.
Motivic Development
were going to take a little break
Ill tell you whats
going on: Im grumpy!
I bet archduke rudolph
20 gulden that I
from the usual stuff and... hey, could write
its ludwig van beethoven! 500 measures
of music this week and
so far Ive only
whats going on, maestro?
come up with
beetho four stinkin notes!
ven
& b
hey, its cool, mr. b...
original motive we can use these notes
as a motive, and create
a ton more music based
on them. watch!
b
&bb J J
the simplest form of motivic
development: repeating a phrase
repetition immediately gives you twice as
much music!

motive repetition
bb b n #
J
repeating a motive at a higher
& J J
or lower level pitch. as with
sequence all of these, the intervals
dont have to match exactly.
motive sequence sequence
b
&b b
flipping the motive upside-down:
if the original motive leaps
inversion downward, an inversion will
leap upward. inversion of original motive
b bb
interval contraction
&
making the intervals within the
motive smaller (contraction) or
interval expansion larger (expansion).
motive int. expansion
b .
diminution
augmentation
changing the speed of the motive
so it is played faster (diminution) &bb
.
or slower (augmentation).
bb . . n . . . .
augmentation of original motive
rhythmic
& b
any change of the motives rhythm
(other than just changing the
metamorphosis tempo, as described above)
metamorphosis of original motive
an echo effect between different voices

b
&bb j
imitation b imitation
&bb
(between instruments in an ensemble, for
example, or between registers on the piano) .
motive
so, heh heh.... aw, dang!

that gets us to 253 lets go
measures... double or
nothing!
you sly fox...
wait... we are in 506 measures!
4/4 time, right?
woooot!
uh, yeah... read it and
weep, rudy!
so lets use
2/4 time instead! beetho
ven
Binary Form when we talk about the form of a piece,

we are referring to the large-scale layout
of the piece... specifically, the arrangement
of sections of music, how and when they
are repeated, and what keys are being used.
010101110110111101110111001000010010000001011001011011110111010100100000011
A B
One of the simplest forms is
binary form, which consists of
two contrasting sections. we
refer to these two sections as
a and b.
the sections might be contrasting

in mood, tempo, key, or even in a
combination of these characteristics. binary form
000010111001001100101001000000111001001100101011000010110110001101100011110
A B
binary form is used in baroque dance
suites in a very specific way. In these
pieces, both sections are repeated.
the A section begins in the primary key
and modulates to the key of the
dominant, and the B section begins in
that key and modulates back to the
I V V I original key. performers of the time

would typically improvise ornamentation
when repeating each section.
baroque dance form
010010000001101001011011100110001101110010011001010110010001101001011000100
baroque dance suites were written for varying instrumentation; many were written
for keyboard (usually harpsichord or clavichord), others were written for chamber
groups, and some were even written for full orchestra.
each movement of these suites would be written in the style of a particular baroque dance:
allemande, gavotte, bouree, courante, sarabande, louree, gigue, and others,
each of which had a specific character.
because baroque dance form is so common in baroque instrumental music, when

theorists and musicologists are talking about baroque music and say binary form,
they are actually referring to baroque dance form.
11011000111100100100000011001110110010101100101011010110111100100101110
AB
another somewhat rare variation of
A
binary form is rounded binary form,
where the A section returns after the
end of the b section. this reprise of
the a section, however, is shortened,
so we refer to it as a prime.
rounded binary form
Ternary Form ternary form is a three-part form.

rather than using three completely
different sections, most pieces in
ternary form consist of two sections,
the first of which is reprised.
ABA
in ternary form, the a section appears
both at the beginning and at the end;
like binary form, the b section is
contrasting in character.
the reprised a section may be an exact

repeat of the first A, or it may be
slightly different, but the length of
the a sections should be similar. ternary form
this is different from rounded binary, where the reprised a section (which we
called a prime) is significantly shorter than the first a section.
A B
Fine Da capo the minuet and trio is a variation on
al Fine ternary form used for instrumental
music. instead of writing out the reprised
a section, the score will place the
minuet instruction da capo al fine after the
trio b section, which means to return to the
beginning, play through the a section,
minuet & trio form and end the piece.
this same form is commonly used in baroque and classical opera, where it is called
a da capo aria. In both minuet & trio and da capo aria, any repeats are ignored
when playing through the reprised a section.
A B
its worth mentioning that
there is a common form
(dogfight)
that is descended from
fanfare
minuet and trio form:

the military march form
favored by john philip trio
sousa and other american
march composers. 1st & 2nd
strains
I IV
military march form
in the military march form, the a section is split into two

subsections, called the first strain and second strain.
the trio adds a flat (or removes a sharp) from the key
signature, modulating to the key of the subdominant.
most marches begin with a short fanfare, and repeat the
sousa trio, placing a short, intensely dramatic passage between
repetitions called the dogfight or breakstrain.
Sonata Allegro Form

the form itself is based from
sonata allegro form is a specific form
first used by early classical composers in
opening movements of multi-movement
works for solo, chamber or large groups.
ternary form, in that the
first large section is reprised it was eventually adopted by other composers
at the end of the form. of the classical and early romantic eras.
A BA
rst
theme
major
keys:I
exposition
second
theme
V
development
development
of main themes
recapitulation
rst
theme
I
second
theme
I
keys: i III i i
minor
sonata allegro form
one of the most important features of sonata allegro form is the two primary themes
that make up the exposition. THese two themes will be constrasting in character and, at
least in the exposition, will be in different keys. in a major work, the second theme will
be in the key of the dominant; in a minor piece, the second theme will be in the relative
major. in the recapitulation, however, both themes are played in the tonic!
the diagram above shows the required elements of sonata form; in the diagram below,
several other elements, which are optionally included, are also shown.
A BA
introduction
exposition development recapitulation

coda
rst second rst second

theme theme theme theme
transition
development
codetta
of main themes
major
keys:I V addition of
I I
others
keys: i III i i
minor
sonata allegro form (with optional elements)

bear in mind that composers did what they wanted to... some of the greatest pieces written
in sonata allegro form feature places where the composer artfully broke these rules!
Altered Chords
up to this point, all the chords weve
)
ic
been talking about have been built using
only the notes in the current key.
t
essentially, this means n ic ma
no accidentals, with the
to ro
a ch
di
exception of the raised sixth
and seventh scale degrees
in minor, which we (
B1
consider to be
e d now that weve covered all
38 part of the key.
e r tertial
the possible diatonic chords in
a lt harmony, its time to open

the door to notes outside the key...
8
these altered chords add a

s 15
triad
tonic nths
dia
seve 88
tonic onies
dia
harm
nded
exte
certain richness to the harmony

by using one or more notes #b
that are not in the key signature n
80ex
km
t
well be covering and thus require accidentals.

several categories
of altered chords,
each of which have
their own unique
NEAPOLITAN Leipzig
rules for use.
6
however, there are Secondary
a few things that Aug.6 Subdominants
Secondary
they all have in Borrowed Dominants
common! Chords A 442
first, every altered chord has to

have at least one accidental...
second, altered chords can be easily used in place of their
if it doesnt have any accidentals,
diatonic counterparts. in other words, you can add some pizazz
then by definition its a
to a composition by replacing a diatonic chord with an
&c
diatonic chord!

altered chord

b b
that has the
& b n & b
same root.
?c
b b
V/ ii b VI
V I IV6 IV V7 vi

altered diatonic
& b in general, avoid cross relations.
n
a cross relation occurs when a note
?b
appears with two different accidentals
in two consecutive chords, in two
different voices.
3
2 with few exceptions,
altered chords can use
lastly, when you use these chords
in part-writing, you should,
& b
the same basic root
1
b
whenever possible, resolve the
movements that weve
?b
altered notes in the direction

been using. of their alteration.
5
like the diatonic sevenths, so if a note has a flat, try to
however, the common root resolve it down by step or by leap.
should only increase tension... ii65 V
dont move from an altered chord
and we generally avoid doubling altered notes,
to its diatonic counterpart.
since doing so would tend to cause parallel octaves.
Borrowed Chords
altered chords use notes outside
how does a composer decide which
altered notes to use? in a major key,
one possibility is using notes and chords
the scale as a means of adding a
from the parallel minor.
different color to the chord.
www
bbb www
for example, the following chords are diatonic chords in c minor:
& www www www www nw

borrowed?
why call them
that when major
w
never brings
them back?
c: ii ii7 III iv VI vii7
hey, minor!
but if we use them in a major key, they require accidentals and are
Ill have them therefore altered chords. we call these borrowed chords because they
b www
back by tuesday
are borrowed from the parallel minor.
b b www
this time, I
b wwww b www
promise!
b b www
& b www Nw
some theorists C: ii ii7 bIII iv bVI vii7
refer to the use
of these chords as
mode mixture. two of these chords,
and, in fact, these six chords the flat three and flat six,
have altered ntoes as roots.
are the six most commonly used
we place a full-sized flat symbol
borrowed chords in the common before the roman numeral itself
practice period. (One of them, the to indicate this altered root.
major triad on the lowered mediant,
or flat three, was not used much
& b
by composers before

wait... why? since we
the romantic era.)
double the root,
moving both roots
? b
all the usual part-writing rules apply to these the same direction 5
b
chords. for example: can often result in
parallel octaves. 8
bVI

V
6 the borrowed supertonic is a
& b
ii diminished triad, and is therefore
always used in first inversion.
its more important to
avoid parallelism than
? b
to resolve the notes
a certain way, so this
b use of contrary
ii7 7
the borrowed seventh chords motion is better.
can be used in any inversion, but the bVI V
seventh must be approached
and resolved properly. vii
b III
the tierce de picardie is a major
tonic chord at the end of a minor
piece, so many theorists consider it a
bVI
its usually best to resolve altered borrowed chord. really, though, its not
notes in the direction of their adding chromatic variety... its a last-
# U
alteration, but doing so in the two minute modulation!
altered root chords wont work.
b w
b
& # w
named for
j j
24th-century
U
7 ? b b n w
the leading-tone fully diminished explorer
seventh is the king of dominant
function. dont even think of
resolving it to anything but tonic!
vii jean-luc
picard!*
g: i V7
w
i VI ii6 V I
*Nope.
The Neapolitan Six

in addition to the altered root borrowed chords,
*****
there is another altered root chord that fits well since its not a borrowed
with the borrowed chords, even though it is not chord, this chord can be used
actually borrowed from the parallel minor. in both major and minor.
that chord is a
b w
major triad there are a couple of interesting
built on the things about this chord. one is
lowered second the fact that it is almost
& b ww
scale degree. exclusively used in first inversion.
seriously! although this

chord is extremely common
in the common practice
period, there are very few
examples of it used in
root position.
second inversion is
even rarer.
the second interesting thing about

6
C: N the chord is its name: you might expect
it to be called a flat two, in keeping
with the other altered root chords.
The Neapolitan six chord, since it is but, in fact, this is the first of a few chords
built on a form of the supertonic, that have special names. This particular one
has some characteristics of a is called the neapolitan chord.
subdominant function chord
in that it often resolves toward a neapolitan means from naples,
dominant function. in fact, it is very referring to the city of naples,
common to see the neapolitan chord italy. the chord isnt actually
resolve to a dominant seventh in from naples, though; it was
third inversion, or to a cadential just associated with the operas
six-four chord. written by neapolitan composers
& b b
like alessandro scarlatti.
b
scarla

Naples
?
tti

funny thing is, this chord was used pretty
commonly before scarlattis time, in
compositions far from the courts of italy.
C: N6 V24 N6 I46
(even though the neapolitan chord its also worth noting that although nearly
has a lot in common with other every theorist and theory textbook calls the
subdominant function chords, it is chord a neapolitan sixth chord, it is more
most often referred to as part of properly called a neapolitan six chord. thats
a larger group of chords called because in the rare situations where it is used
predominants, and the label of in root position, it is simply called the neapolitan
subdominant function is generally chord, and when it is found in second inversion,
limited to the subdominant and its called the neapolitan six-four.
supertonic chords and their
variants.) since we dont pronounce I6 as one sixth,
we shouldnt say Neapolitan sixth for N6!
Secondary Dominants
there is a duality at the heart of common that duality, of course, is the relationship
practice period harmonic progression. of dominant function and tonic.
like the ancient conflict of jedi and dominant harmony typifies tension
sith, it consists of forces that, in the common practice period, and
at one level, work against each
other... but at another, higher V the tonic represents release.
its simplest form, the authentic
level, work together, creating cadence, has been ubiquitous
energy that drives all else. in western music for centuries.
the progression of dominant but thats crazy talk, though,

moving to tonic is so strong, it isnt it? I mean, how could we
would be nice to be able to use
it to provide motion to chords
I control that magic and make it
obey our compositional whim?
other than tonic.
the answer, of course, is with secondary dominants.
lets say we wanted to what if we wanted to use

approach this vi chord. we could use one of the usual that dominant-tonic magic?
& &
diatonic chords, the tonic, the
? subdominant, the mediant... but
what if were looking for a bit
?
more tension and release?
vi vi
if we pretend for a moment that the chord were resolving to is a tonic chord, what would

the corresponding dominant chord be? altered, yes, but were not afraid of those anymore:
& # & # & #

a: V i V a C: V vi
a vi
while we might have once called this a now, were not just limited to the v chord:
short modulation, it is really more like there are five chords with a dominant function!
borrowing another keys dominant chord.
V V7 vii vii7 vii7

if we think of the V chord in the key
as the primary dominant, V chords of
related keys are secondary dominants.
dominant function chords
that gives us
7 7 7
V V vii vii vii a huge list of
possibilities!
x x x x x
the secondary dominants
these chords often resolve to the
in major keys, the x above can be any chord under the slash, but they can
diatonic chord other than tonic (obviously) actually be approached and resolved
or the leading-note triad. why? because using the basic root movements!
a diminished triad has a hard time acting
like a temporary tonic chord. 2 the basic
root movements
3 rock!
in minor keys, the composers generally 1
only used secondary dominants 5
of iv and of V. yes. yes they do.

Augmented Sixth Chords

like that moment of incredible tension just
before the hero finally kisses the leading
lady, the semitone is the go-to interval
for creating tension in music of the common
practice period. it drives the entire style!
if one semitone can create such strong tension, how

about two semitones sounding simultaneously? Lets
get creative here for a minute to find a cool new way
to approach a diatonic chord. in this case, well use them to approach the dominant triad.
...and approach that
#
first, well start with octave with a semitone
# & b
below the top note,

the doubled root of a
&
b
V chord...

& V
V ...and, finally, add the
V ...and a semitone above tonic as the third note.
the bottom note...
the result is a new chord, one we call the augmented sixth chord,
# www
after the interval created by the top and bottom notes.
& b w
augmented sixth chords are predominant chords,
meaning they are used to approach dominant chords.
if we just use they are usually used to approach dominant triads,
three notes not dominant sevenths, because of the doubled
and double the roots present in dominant triads.
tonic, we get the
& #
italian

however, they also often
augmented sixth.
It.6 approach tonic chords
in second inversion,
? b n
# www
b
which also contain a
doubled fifth scale degree.

&b w

I46

if we add the Ger.6
&
second scale
degree instead rarely, augmented sixth chords
of doubling the are found transposed down
? b
tonic, we get the

a perfect fifth, analyzed as
french on flat two, and used to
augmented sixth.
Fr.6 Fr.6 I
approach a tonic chord in
root position.
on b2
b b # wwww & #

&
and if we and, finally, when resolving
replace the the german augmented sixth
second scale chord to a dominant triad,
?
b b
you might find yourself

degree with the
lowered third writing parallel fifths...
scale degree, but its perfectly okay!
we get the mozart did it all the time! 5
german
augmented sixth.
Ger.6
Ger.6 V
Altered

and

Enharmonic
w
ww
Modulation
& b n
Altered common chord modulation
is easy: remember diatonic common
F: I IV V chord modulation, where we used a
C: I V I chord that was diatonic in both
the old and new keys?

& b # n www
altered common chord modulation
# n #
is the same thing, only using the
pivot chord as an altered chord
in either the old key, the new key,
or both. F: I IV V
E: b VI V I
Now, in both diatonic modulation and altered modulation, we have one chord that plays two
different roles, one for each key. But the chord type doesnt change... if it was a major
chord in the old key, its still a major chord in the new key.
...but what if the chord type did change?
this technique is
in enharmonic modulation, we respell a chord
so well, odd that
enharmonically so the chord type itself
there are only
is different in the old and new keys.
two specific ways
to do it.
ever notice that the german
augmented sixth chord is just like fully diminished seventh chords are
a major-minor seventh chord cool for a lot of reasons, and one of
with the seventh respelled them is that they are equidistant chords:
b bb wwww
inverting a fully diminshed seventh
b b # wwww
enharmonically?
yields another root-position fully
&
dimished seventh chord.
b b wwww b b wwww b b wwww

beethoven
respell
& & &
did!
invert
C: Ger.6 D b : V7
7
a a56 c7
we can take advantage of this and use it meaning that a fully diminished
as a pivot chord... where it acts like a leading note seventh chord
german augmented sixth in one key can be a pivot chord into
but like a V7 (or a V7/x secondary dominant) three other possible keys:
bbbb
# b
in the other key!
#
& #
& b n
which can be
n
respelled as
G: I vii7 vii7
E: vii65 I
? bb b n n #
&
b
b
bb n
n b b
which can be
respelled as
G: I vii7 vii7
D b : IV 6
V 7 b
D : vii34 I
# b b n
b
C: Ger.6 V I
note that the pivot chord above is & which can be
respelled as
approached like a dominant seventh,
but resolved like an G: I vii7 vii7
augmented sixth chord! b
B : vii42 I
Secondary Subdominants
after learning about secondary dominants,
you might wonder if its possible to extend the
concept to other chords.
for example, if we can use a dominant function chord

from a related key, what about a subdominant function
chord from a related key, like IV of V?
well, the answer is yes, and the chords that result are called secondary subdominants.
but before we talk about them, you need to understand a few things.
first of all, the very existence of

these chords is debatable.
what one theorist might call second, the only place

a secondary subdominant: we find chords that
& b #
we can call secondary
n
subdominants is in the

music of thex
romantic era.x
7
C: C: ii V42 V6 I
V V
another might call a

short modulation. iv
& b # n
Lastly, since these chords are already
IV iv pushing the limits of tonality, composers

would only use secondary subdominants
from closely related keys. In
other words, secondary subdominants
G: ii7 V42 I6
C: V6 I
V should only be of IV and of V.
keeping these things in mind, lets look at the possibilities:

what are all the subdominant function chords weve encountered?
first, there are next, the diatonic and, lastly, a few
the diatonic triads: seventh chords: borrowed chords:
ii IV ii7 IV7 ii ii7 iv

7 7
ii ii
so a secondary subdominant can
have any subdominant function
chord above the slash, and
a IV or V below the slash.
IV V
however, the most commonly
found secondary subdominants
are those that use the half-
diminished supertonic seventh.
to approach these chords,

the most common way to resolve
use any of the basic root
movements. secondary subdominants is to ii7 V7
the corresponding secondary
which are awesome. dominant. V V
Romantic Era Techniques
2000
1800
1900
1600
1500
1700
early 20th
renaissance baroque classical romantic century
contemporary
however, the music of the romantic

the music of the baroque, classical era employed some interesting
and romantic eras share a consistent use techniques that set it apart from
of harmony and counterpoint, enough to cause the baroque and classical eras...
theorists and historians to group them together
as the Common Practice Period.
...and foreshadow some of
the big changes coming in
11 ii the twentieth century!
V weve already mentioned a few chords
IV
that were specific to the romantic era:
13 dominant eleventh and ii
V thirteenth chords, V
bIII & # n
the flat three borrowed chord,
and secondary subdominants. iv
IV
? b
b
another technique that is unique to the romantic era is
the resolution of an augmented sixth chord to a
dominant seventh chord rather than a dominant triad,
causing the interval of the augmented sixth to resolve
obliquely instead of moving outward to the octave. Ger.6 V7
finally, romantic era composers would sometimes use a particular type of chord
progression that had the effect of suspending tonality for a portion of the
piece. By temporarily removing the feeling of being in a certain key, the composer
could easily modulate to a distant key!
if you think of ...
t
tonality like ar hird
being in a of e l r
this technique is called f ike ela
room... in the tur tion
third relations because it t
fo he gra ning s
involves moving by root r r v
a oo ity
movements of a major or bit m
...
minor third without respect
to key signature.
for example...

here, were

...here, were just
& b
in F major...
#
moving down by thirds...
b n
F: I IV V I DM Bb M
...which obscures any
*whump*
& b # # # b b #
sense of key we had...
# #
...and then turning
# n
the gravity back
on ... but in a
different
F #M E bM
direction!
B: I IV V I
and then we land
in b major!
Introduction to Species Counterpoint

in 1725, an austrian composer and theorist named johann joseph fux its
wrote a theory textbook called gradus ad parnassum, in which he pronounced
outlined his method of teaching how to write good counterpoint. fooks!
* *
Gradus ad parnassum means
counterpoint is the combination
Steps to parnassus. Parnassus
of two or more melodies, each
referred to the highest peak in
one as important and interesting
greece, and was used as a
as the other.
metaphor for perfection.
Gradus ad parnassum was a big hit, used (or at least praised) by

composers like Mozart, beethoven, and haydn. the system that
fux used is referred to as species counterpoint, because it
involves going through increasing levels of rhythmic complexity
fux
which are labeled as species I, Species II, and so forth.
1660-1741
1800
1900
1600
1500
1700
1850
1950
1450
1650
1550
1750
1525-1594
interestingly enough, the language fux was advocating was not the
counterpoint of the common practice period to which he belonged,
but the more strict rules of counterpoint used by composers of
the renaissance more than a century earlier.
specifically, fux was a starry-eyed admirer of the italian

renaissance composer giovanni pierluigi da palestrina, who he
considered to represent the peak of compositional artistry...
something he felt was being lost or even squandered by his
baroque and classical contemporaries.
palest
rina
right. so the language fux is teaching is really

of course, an interesting ideal: based partly on his
its worth pointing out that perceptions of palestrinas musical language
fux didnt actually have access as delivered to him through italian theorists, and
to much of my music! partly on his own ideas of what he thought the
language should be.
but lets cut fux some slack here: as theorists, were all guilty of this to some degree.
anyway, lets get started! going through fuxs steps

for learning counterpoint gives us a glimpse of
how the masters learned their craft and a
feel for the environment in which they
developed their own musical languages.
hurray! Lets go, giovanni, and bring the

beautiful light of perfect composition
to these eager students!
yeah, Joe, about that... you do realize that

your idea of perfect composition is just a
blissfully awesome thing? palest
fux rina
yes, thats just what I was thinking!
no, I mean that its super fun? yayyyy!!!!!

Species Counterpoint: Melody

before we start combining melodies, we need
and really, to be
fair, these are
good guidelines
for any melody...
to understand what constitutes a good melody its just that fux
in the system of species counterpoint. is a little more
strict about it.
in general, melodies should be primarily stepwise, with a single,
definite high point or low point. effective melodies tend to progress slowly toward
the high or low point and then move back toward the starting pitch.
w w w
high point
&w w w w w w w w w
oh, and dont repeat notes like this. yeah, yeah, Palestrina, we know
BUT you repeated notes all the
contrapuntal melodies need to be
interesting, not boring. time. But fux was pursuing an
ideal. Maybe he felt you could
do... better?
as you can see above, occasional leaps are okay... why, I SHHHH. lets just move on.
but they come with a bunch of restrictions.
first, leaps should be no larger than a perfect pafifth,

lestri
na
with two exceptions: leaping by a
perfect octave, and leaping upward by a minor sixth. dont do these very often, though!
w w
second, for heavens sake, avoid the tritone! this interval (an augmented
fourth or diminished fifth) was actively avoided so consistently that
Fux and his pals called it the diabolus in musica... the devil in music!
&w w w w w w
leaping by a tritone is bad, but its also
important to avoid the tritone in other
ways... for example, this pattern, where
a tritone is outlined in the melodic line,
would be considered inappropriate. tritone
third, leaps of a perfect fourth need to be preceded or followed by stepwise motion

in the opposite direction, to counterbalance the leap. and if a leap is larger than a
perfect fourth, it needs to be counterbalanced both before and after!
&w w w &w w w
w w
m2 P4 m2 P5 M2
This perfect fourth is counterbalanced This perfect fifth is counterbalanced

by the step that occurs before the leap. by steps on both sides of the leap.
w w
&w w &w w w
P4 P5
w
This perfect fourth is surrounded by steps, This perfect fifth has steps on both sides,
but they arent in the opposite direction. but the first one isnt in the opposite direction.
lastly, dont write three or more leaps in a row. You can write
two leaps in a row, but they need to outline a major or minor
triad. no diminished triads... they have tritones in them!
evil!
Species Counterpoint: Species I

first species counterpoint is the most rhythmically simple type of counterpoint:
both voices have the exact same rhythm. as a result, its all about the intervals!
and that takes us to the first rule:
only use consonant intervals. see how the
and its
& & w & w

important number of the
w
to know interval is written
that to the in between the two
w w
voices? you should
w
sixteenth- 4
? ? ?
2 7 century do that too.
ear, the
perfect its how
fourth rock stars
was also do it!
no seconds! no sevenths! dissonant! no fourths!
next rule: voices cant cross or overlap. and then: thirds and sixths are fine, but
no more than three in a row.
& & w
voice crossing:
w
top note is lower
w
than bottom note
to much consonance, and
the natives get restless.
w w
3
& w w
? ? w
-3? voice overlap:
top note is lower
6 w w w
w w
6 6
w
6
?w w
than the previous 6 6
bottom note woooooo
the next rules have to do with perfect intervals (P1, P5, and P8... remember, P4 is
dissonant!), which play important roles and require some special treatment.
because they are such a strong sonority which can stop the counterpoint in its tracks,
unisons can only be used on the first or last notes of an exercise.
all perfect intervals must be approached with & w w w w w

w1 w w3 w1 w3
care in order to preserve voice independence.
3
?
first of all, never repeat a perfect interval!
& w w these are called first note:

no problem
in the middle:
no way
parallel fifths...
? w w
5 5 and theyre
just awful!
in fact, each exercise must begin
and end with a perfect interval
with the tonic in the lower voice.
in fact, approaching perfect intervals with both wait... why is that
voices moving in the same direction is bad, even last bit important?
if its from an imperfect interval.
plus, its also not okay to approach a perfect
for these exercises, youll be
interval with leaps in both voices!
writing a melody above or below
so its easiest to remember what you can do: an already-written melody, called
approach perfect intervals using contrary motion, a cantus firmus.
with at least one voice moving by step.
the cantus firmus will always start
& w w & w w
and end on the tonic note...
so if you are writing counterpoint
below the cantus firmus, you cant
? w w ? w w
8 5 6 8 start with a perfect fifth,
because youre lower voice wont
be the tonic. Youll have to start
with a unison or octave instead!
Species Counterpoint: Species II

second species
counterpoint adds a &C
touch more
?C w w w w
complexity:
there are two notes
against every one in
the cantus firmus.
fortunately, that doesnt make it twice as difficult: in fact, most of the previous rules
still apply without any changes.
there are only a few exceptions:

species i species ii
rule: rule:
leaps are still fine, but dont leap to a new high point on a downbeat.
&C
no leaps the a in the third measure is a
larger than new high point for the line,
a perfect so leaping to it on the
fifth*
?C w w w
downbeat puts a lot of weight
on that one note, making it
stick out of the texture.
*excepting, of course, ascending minor sixths and perfect octaves, but you already knew that.
still true... for downbeats. for the

unaccented beats, dissonant intervals &C
are fine, as long as they happen as
?C w
only use
w
6 7 10 8
consonant passing notes: notes that fill in a
intervals. third created by surrounding notes.
oh, and notice how dissonant intervals

have their numbers circled? nice, huh. You should do it too.
unisons
can only &C unisons can be used on unaccented
w3
be used
?C w
8 7 1 notes... just be careful about
on the crossing or overlapping voices!
first and
last notes.
this rule still applies: if you use a perfect interval on a downbeat,

you need to use contrary motion from the immediately preceding
approach notes, and at least one voice must move by step.
perfect
&C
intervals however, you must also be careful not
using to have the same perfect interval on
contrary two successive downbeats. This is
?C w w
motion 8 10 8 6 called parallel perfect intervals
with at least and its going to be a no-no for a
one voice good long time.
moving
by step. (in fact, its also not okay to have parallel perfect intervals from
the unaccented beat to the downbeat, but if you are approaching
with contrary motion, that wouldnt happen anyway.)
not too bad, is it? yeah! bring on third species!
Species Counterpoint: Species III

species, have guessed,
as you might
&C third
involves four notes against one.
?C w w
and, compared to the other
w
species, its easy peasy!
in fact, the differences can be
summed up into four rules.
first: dont leap more than once SECOND: all intervals larger than a third,
in the same direction. including perfect fourths, must be

counterbalanced by steps on
&
both sides.

&
third: As usual, the first note in each measure must be consonant. The third note in
the measure is also usually consonant, but it can be dissonant... as long as its
the only dissonant note in the measure.
wait, dissonances
as for the second and fourth notes, they can be dissonant, as long on beat two?
&C
but i never
as they are passing notes or neighbor notes. quiet,
Palestrina.
?C w
a neighbor note is a note approached by step, 8 9 8 9
which resolves back to the note it came from.
fourth: there are two special figures which act as exceptions to the rules above.
Hey, that makes five rules! no fair! well, theyre kind of similar...
the double neighbor note the nota cambiata (or

involves an upper neighbor changing note) follows
and a lower neighbor played the pattern of a step down,
one after another, then a third down, then
returning to the note that two steps up. the middle note
approached it. of this five-note figure
&C
must be consonant.
can be
dissonant!
?C w &C
3 2 4 3
w8 w6
can be
?C
dissonant! 7 5 6
this figure can be inverted,

so the upper and lower must be
neighbors switch places. consonant!
Species Counterpoint: Species IV

with the fourth species, we stop using smaller note values and back up a bit to
species I. But instead of having the notes move at the same time, species IV involves
the voices being offset from one another.
&C The biggest difference

with species IV is the
w
fact that dissonances
?C w w w w w w
5 3 6 7 6 7 6 3 6 7 6 4 3 are permitted on the
downbeat. but as you
might expect, they have
to follow certain
specific rules.
dissonances in species IV must be in the form of suspensions.
A suspension is a dissonant note that is approached by being oh you
held over suspended from the previous note. dont say.
another important defining

characteristic is that the &C in this case, the suspension
is the F on the downbeat of
suspension resolves down the second measure. its
?C w w
by step. if it doesnt resolve 6 8 7 6 prepared by the F in the
previous measure, and resolves
7-6
down by step, its not a
suspension! down to the E.
suspensions are great, by the way,
we label suspensions by the intervals of the but dont use the same one more
suspension and resolution, so this one than three times in a row, or
would be called a 7-6 suspension. fux will release the hounds.
&C
the only suspension fux allows when writing

counterpoint below the cantus firmus is the
similarly, in 2-3 suspension, in which the suspended note
forms a second with the cantus firmus, then
w
this example,
?C w
the suspended 8 6 4 3 resolves down to a third. (when this suspension
note is the D, is written an octave lower, it is sometimes called
&C w
which forms a a 9-10 suspension.)
w
fourth with see how we resolve to
4-3 2-3
the A. it moves to a C, a third above the a larger interval, unlike
bass, making it a 4-3 suspension.

the 7-6 or 4-3? were
?C
below the cantus firmus, 5 3 2 3
the 7-6 and 4-3 suspensions
so we move away from it.
are the only ones fux allows
because suspensions
when writing counterpoint
always resolve down!
above the cantus firmus.
in species IV, youre dealing with a lot of limitations with melody and counterpoint, so
you will sometimes get trapped in a situation where nothing will work. when this happens,
you are allowed to break species: forget the tie and slip into species II for a couple
&C
of notes.

aker!
species bre
for example, here we
w
break species so we
w w w w
8 4 3
?C w w
can avoid writing a 4 3 4 3 6 5 6 8 6
fux-enraging four
4-3 suspensions
in a row!
dont go crazy with this, though... species IV counterpoint should embrace suspensions,
not avoid them. its best to break species only rarely. unfortunately, sometimes that means
backing way up and choosing a different starting pitch for your counterpoint!
Species Counterpoint: Species V
fifth species counterpoint is the culmination of all the other species,

and its the closest fux gets to palestrinas style of florid counterpoint
that fux thought was so amazingly awesome.
there arent a lot of

new rules for this
species, and they mainly and theyre all
deal with combining about rhythm!
the other species.
First, aim for a good when youre using a particular note value,
serole
mix of different follow the rules of the corresponding
species. dont stay Species V Cas ecies species. so when you are using minims,
spec ies cup first sp
too long with any 2 cups second sh or frozen) make sure youre obeying the rules of
ies 3 tsp ties (fre
2 cu ps third spec eig hth notes (optional)
particular note value species dash species II. If you tie two minims together,
1- cups fourth
well. keep the laws of fourth species.
before switching to nd staff and mix
redients in a gra sonances fro
m
something else, so Combine all ing un justified dis
to prevent d instruments
.
Heat through rve on pe rio
your counterpoint ol and se
forming. Let co
remains rhythmically
interesting. Leave the semibreves out, though, until
you get to the end of your exercise. if you
go all species I in the middle, things get
& C # w
real boring real fast.
w
Z
?C w w w w w w w
oh
yeah!
next, species III and IV can be combined lastly, you can include quavers to add
by using dotted minims, which always more rhythmic interest, as long as you
have to start on a strong beat. follow a few restrictions:
& C . &C &C

*
they have to occur
in pairs on weak
beats,
?C w
6 5
?C w w
6 8 7 6 5
?C w
*
both notes must
be approached and
resolved by step,
any dissonances involved with this kind of
figure have to follow the rules of fourth only one pair
*
species counterpoint: that is, they need quavers? should be used
to be suspensions prepared and executed I love those in any given
by the dotted minim and resolved guys! measure!
immediately afterward.
Species Counterpoint: Three Voices

Lets head back to species I
relax...
it actually helps us see
again, but add a third voice! uh... do we have to?
how this all relates to the woo!
four-voice chorale style
of our man Bach...
...and even with adding a whole new set of intervals to look at, its really not that bad!
in general, the rules for we still need to use but the interval
melodies and counterpoint only consonant between the upper
are the same for species I intervals between two voices can be
in two voices.
w
each upper voice dissonant... it can
& C ww w ww ww
and the bass... even be a tritone!
ww w a4 w
?C w w w w
10 12
w w
C (d) C6 a6 b6 (C)
THe chords created should be triads.

You can form incomplete triads
occasionally by having a doubled root
ooh!
and a third, but avoid having open fifths
because
except on the first or last chord.
second-
inversion
technically, the triads must be triads and
major and minor in root position but if you follow the rules above root-position
and first inversion, and diminished about consonant and dissonant diminished
triads in first inversion only. intervals, it prevents you from triads all
using the wrong inversion! have fourths
&C w
above the
ww
As with two-voice bass!
counterpoint,
w
Parallel perfect
intervals are forbidden 5 However, in three voices,
between any voices!
perfect intervals can also
?C w w
be approached with both
and perfect intervals voices moving in the same
still need to be direction if the top voice
approached with care: moves by step, and if the
you still cant go wrong third voice moves in
with contrary, contrary motion with
stepwise motion! the others.
avoiding parallel perfect intervals use them, Bach!

and second inversion triads? use them
keeping diminished triads in first inversion? like the wind!
these are all fantastic ideas!
palest
ri na
j.s. bach
The Modern Modes modern?

wait, isnt this stuff, like,
100 years old?
yes, but we only call them modern because we need to differentiate between a bunch of
unrelated things across music history that, ever so inconveniently, use the same names!
the modern which were, in and those

modes names turn, named in used the same
came from the honor of the names as scale
various keys lute ranges used tunings discussed
used in medieval in later ancient by plato in
church music greek music 380 bc!
v. willi hildeg aristox plato

ams ard enus
and, to make matters worse, each of these things use the names to represent different
concepts! fortunately, right now, were only worried about the modern modes.
these modes are used a lot... one of the primary characteristics of
especially in folk music. as for these english modalists is that they
standard western repertoire, tended to avoid the strong tensions
they are first prominently featured of the common practice period...
in the post-romantic music for example, they avoided chords
bri
of the early twentieth century that used a tritone... and avoided

tain
british isles. raising the leading note in minor keys!

!
so what are they?

well, remember when we created the natural minor scale by starting with a major scale,
but using the sixth note of the scale as the tonic? it gave us a new pattern of tones and
semitones... a new scale.

keeping the same key signature,

we use this note as our new tonic!
& major
&

minor
in fact, these are two of the seven modern modes:
major is the ionian mode, and natural minor is the aeolian mode.
by starting on the other notes of the major scale, we get the other five modes.
because it has B to B: the locrian mode

a diminished tonic,

locrian is a theoretical G to G: the mixolydian mode

mode... its not used
&
in actual practice. F to F: the lydian mode

the modes here all share
E to E: the phrygian mode the same key signature...
they are related, like

D to D: the dorian mode c major and a minor!
& &
c ionian a more effective
method of keeping
a aeolian

#
the modes straight
& b
minor + raised 6th

involves memorizing
&
c mixolydian each modes
color note:
a dorian

the scale degree

major + lowered 7th
& #
that makes it
& b
minor + lowered 2nd
c lydian unique from the
major or minor
scale with the a phrygian
major + raised 4th same tonic.

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MUSIC

this file is a collection of individual sheets

The truth is, they werent intended to

but the more I made,

and aural skills during the day at the

but if you like this,

*for more info, see http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

Notation: Pitch music notation is the art of

modern music notation is a product

pitch is the highness or

notation is based on the piano keyboard;

these symbols are placed to

while pitch is pretty clearly notated on a

the augmentation dot is a dot placed to the

3 for example, these arent

exactly crotchets; wha... gah!

is called a beat unit.

Q Q Q Q Q Q> Q Q Q Q> Q Q Q Q> Q Q Q Q> Q Q Q >Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q

is pretty easy: 4 refers to

the bottom number indicates the type of

however, beaming is only used to group notes within beats.

DOING STUFF THE SPARKY WAY IS ALWAYS FUN!

The Major Scale

take this melody, for example...

in music, this palette is called

semi- a tone is the

if you start writing major

for example look at the flat

The Circle of Fifths theorists find it convenient to

to determine the key

Diatonic Intervals an interval is

two notes on the distance from

and when you swap the two notes

its helpful to remember 3rd 6th

Perfect Intervals the distance of an interval is one part of its

unisons and octaves

an interval that is a semitone

you can go further,

Imperfect Intervals Weve talked about unisons, fourths, fifths

likewise, intervals from the tonic down to another scale degree

&# & & &#

that? lets the interval makes it even

accidentals... its now a a diminished

if the top note is

DOING STUFF THE SPARKY WAY IS ALWAYS FUN!

so, for melodies, they made another change: now we only

Triads although a chord is technically any combination of notes

sextal harmony? septal harmony?

secundal harmony, respectively.

as with quintal harmony, these

well, diminished thirds sound

a triad is defined as a three-note chord, incidentally, four-note chords are technically

& b b min 3rd

Triads in Inversion ladies and gentlemen, its

thank you for having me.

# 3 j g. its ajc major . ..

J J stacked in thirds? itsJ still

M M #M M this one with

so the thing that makes a

in performances, the bass clef instrument would simply play