Chinese Culture and Customs

(Lecture Notes)
By Weisen Li
Professor in Economics and Deputy Dean of School of Economics
Fudan University
1Introduction: Chinese Culture in General
(1), Chinese History Summary
China is one of the areas where civilization developed earliest. It has a recorded
history of nearly 5,000 years. China in Chinese the character of which
literally translates as the Middle Kingdom, because the Chinese have always view
their culture and nation as lying in the center of human civilization.
More than a million years ago, primitive human beings lived on the land now called
China. About 400,000 to 500,000 years ago, the Peking Man, a primitive man that
lived in Zhoukoudian southwest of Beijing, was able to walk with the body erect, to
make and use simple tools, and use fire. Six to seven thousand years ago, the
people living in the Yellow River valley supported themselves primarily with
agriculture, while also raising livestock. More than 3,000 years ago these people
began smelting bronze and using ironware.

In China, slave society began around the 21st century B.C. Over the next 1,700
years, agriculture and animal husbandry developed greatly and the skills of
silkworm-raising, raw-silk reeling and silk-weaving spread widely. Bronze smelting
and casting skills reached a relatively high level, and iron smelting became
increasingly sophisticated. The Chinese culture flourished, as a great number of
thinkers and philosophers emerged, most famously Confucius.

In 221 B.C., Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty, established a
centralized, unified, multi-national feudal state. This period of feudal society
continued until after the Opium War in 1840. During these 2,000 years, China's
economy and culture continued to develop, bequeathing a rich heritage of science
and technology, literature and the arts. The four great inventions of ancient China -
paper-making, printing, the compass and gunpowder - have proved an enormous
contribution to world civilization.

Chinese civilization peaked at Tang Dynasty (618-907) when Tang people traded
with people all over the world. This is why Chinese residing overseas often call
themselves Tang Ren, or the People of Tang.

In 1840, anxious to continue its opium trade in China, Britain started the Opium War
against China. After the war, the big foreign powers forcibly occupied "concessions"
and divided China into "spheres of influence"; thus, China was transformed into a
semi-colonial, semi-feudal society.

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In 1911, the bourgeois democratic revolution (the Xinhai Revolution) led by Sun Yat-
sen abolished the feudal monarchy, and established the Republic of China, therefore
starting the modern history of China.

In 1949, Chinese Communist Party established the People's Republic of China,

driving Kumingtang Party to Taiwan Island.

In 1978, China adopted the Open Door policy, ending the 5000 thousand's history of
self seclusion.

(2), Three Streams in the Traditional Chinese Culture

Chinese culture has been molded by the three philosophical traditions:
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. Briefly, Confucianism deals with human
relationship, Taoism deals with life in harmony with nature, and Buddhism deal with
immortal world. For Chinese people, Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism are more
philosophies than religions. Most scholars believe that Chinese people have been
less concerned with religions than other people are. Therefore, for Chinese people,
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism are not religions but philosophical teachings
(a) Confucianism: Confucianism is based on the teachings and writings of
the philosopher Confucius. It is an ethical belief system rather than a religion, and is
based upon the concept of relationships. In Confucianism every relationship has the
dual aspect of responsibility and obligation. Therefore the relationship between
mother and child, husband and wife, brother and sister all have responsibilities and
obligations. However, Confucianism goes beyond the family, and encorporates the
relationship of individuals with the state, subject and ruler, bureaucrat and civilian. If
these responsibilities and obligations are observed, then society will be a just and
harmonious one.

Foundations of Confucianism
Three Principles:
The king is the master of the minister; the husband is the master of the wife; the
father is the master of the son. These three relationships represent all the
relationships in a highly hierarchical society.

Five Constant Virtues: ( ) Goodness, Rightness, Ritual, Wisdom,

Credibility ()

Goodnessliterally ,love of people

The Chinese character pronounced as Ren consists of two morphemes:
(person, human) andtwo ,hence the Ren actually means two persons
and Ren therefore includes everything that is good when peple get along with each
other and includes such connotations as tolerance, forgiveness, deference, filial

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obedience (to parents), faithfulness (to the master) wisdom, honesty, and so on. It
is the core of five norms of Confucianism.

Rightnessfriendship, fraternity.
Rightness pronounced as yi overlap with goodness but is above all other
relationships. Confucius says that a gentleman takes as much trouble to discover
what is rights as lesser men to discover what will pay. An often used compliment
when praising a man who is willing to give up his own interests to help a friend is
yiqi: personal loyalty. Friendship is to some degree a kind of blind obligation.

Ritual = ethical norms

In the Analects, Confucius says that one should regulated by ritual. He believes that
governing the people by political force, keep order among them by chastisements
and they will not do wrong things, but they will lose all self-respect. Governing people
by moral force, keep order among them b ritual, and they will keep their self-respect
and understand. Therefore, according to Confucian teaching, in the use of ritual,
harmony is prized. A harmonious relationship is most important element of
governance and therefore should be retained at any cost.

Wisdom cleverness and knowledge.

When you have knowledge, you have wisdom. Confucius says in the Analects that
the good are not worried, the wise are not confused, and the brave are not afraid.

Credibility= believabilityreliability, trustworthy

This involves doing what you say you will do.

(b) Taoism: Tao (pronounced "Dow") can be roughly translated into English
as path, or the way. It is basically indefinable. It has to be experienced. It "refers to a
power which envelops, surrounds and flows through all things, living and non-living.
The Tao regulates natural processes and nourishes balance in the Universe. It
embodies the harmony of opposites (i.e. there would be no love without hate, no light
without dark, no male without female.)"

The founder of Taoism is believed by many to be Lao-Tse (604-531 BCE), a

contemporary of Confucius. (Alternate spellings: Lao Tze, Lao Tsu, Lao Tzu, Laozi,
Laotze, etc.). He was searching for a way that would avoid the constant feudal
warfare and other conflicts that disrupted society during his lifetime. The result was
his book: Tao-te-Ching (a.k.a. Daodejing). Others believe that he is a mythical
character.

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Taoism started as a combination of psychology and philosophy but evolved into a
religious faith in 440 CE when it was adopted as a state religion. At that time Lao-Tse
became popularly venerated as a deity. Taoism, along with Buddhism and
Confucianism, became one of the three great religions of China. With the end of the
Ch'ing Dynasty in 1911, state support for Taoism ended. Much of the Taoist heritage
was destroyed during the next period of warlordism. After the Communist victory in
1949, religious freedom was severely restricted. "The new government put monks to
manual labor, confiscated temples, and plundered treasures. Several million monks
were reduced to fewer than 50,000" by 1960. During the cultural revolution in China
from 1966 to 1976, much of the remaining Taoist heritage was destroyed. Some
religious tolerance has been restored under Deng Xiao-ping from 1982 to the
present time.
(c) Buddhism: The origins of Buddhism are to be found in India, and entered
China in the reign of Emperor Han Ming Ti in about 65 AD, which is roughly about
the time that the book of Revelation in the Christian New Testament was written.
Despite this early entry into China, it did not gain any mass following until the around
290 AD. Its popularity came during a time of social disorder and barbarian invasion.
Buddhism's promise of personal salvation, although very much against the norms of
Chinese collectivism and emphasis on family and society, attracted many during a
time of great uncertainty.
Buddhism was established by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha or 'enlightened one'.
Siddhartha Gautama was a prince of the Sakya kingdom on the borders of what are
now India and Nepal and was a contemporary of Confucius. Although living in luxury,
Siddhartha Gautama was exposed one day to the sufferings of the masses. This
greatly affected the prince and he began a search to find relief for human suffering.
This he found when he received a moment of enlightenment while meditating under
a Bo tree.
From this moment the prince became the Buddha - the enlightened one. The
Buddha taught that desires are the source of pain, and that by overcoming our
desires we can overcome pain. To achieve this he advocated meditation and
pursuing the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path is a set of rules similar to the Ten
Commandments of Judaism and Christianity. The objective was to reach Nirvana -
the condition of spiritual peace, where all cravings, strife, and pain have been
overcome and the spirit merges with eternal harmony.
Buddhism split into two major trends quite early on in its development: Greater
Vehicle (Mahayana) and Lesser Vehicle (Hinayana). Hinayana remained closer to
the original Buddhism and is the variation of Buddhism practised in the countries of
South East Asia. The Buddhism of China, Korea, Japan, Nepal, Tibet, and Vietnam,
however, stems largely from Mahayana Buddhism which incorporated some more
traditional religious practices such as the belief in repetitive prayers, heaven and
deities (bodhisattvas) who would help people gain salvation. It also readily adapted
to the land and people it converted. In China, it split into several schools, including
Ch'an (Zen in Japan), T'ien-t'ai (Tendai in Japan), and Pure Land.
Actually since Song Dynasty, Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism have mixed
and combined into to Chinese culture and Chinese mainstream Philosophy as well.
The Chinese language:
although not unique, is one of a very small group of languages in which the written
form does not vary with different spoken forms. Therefore, although a Cantonese
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speaker listening to a Mandarin speaker may not understand anything that is said,
he or she could read the most complex and technical of speeches and understand
everything.
To illustrate this, take the following phrase: 'one hundred and twenty three'. To a
Mexico speaker who understands no English, the above sentence could mean
anything. However, replace that sentence with '123' and suddenly the Mexico
speaker reads 'sto dwadeczia cze' while an English speaker reads ' one hundred and
twenty three', a French speaker 'cent vingt-trois' and so on. In Chinese, it is not
simply numbers which can be represented without spelling, but the entire language.
In total there are over 45,000 Chinese characters; however, a vocabulary of 4,000
would be good, and a vocabulary of 9,000 unlikely in anyone without a university
degree. In a bid to increase literacy in China, the government has simplified many
elements of Chinese characters, making them far easier to memorise. Literacy in
China is now at 80% of the adult population, compared to say India at 50% or South
Africa at 81%. This is not a small achievement given the complexity of the written
form of the language, and the low base level of literacy in 1949 at the end of the civil
war.
If the written form of the language is complex, the spoken variations are just as
staggering. There are eight major language groups with some 600 dialects - all
sharing the same written form. There are a further 136 non-Chinese languages
spoken in China. All Chinese languaages use tones to distinguish different words.
Mandarin, which is spoken in the Beijing region and in northern China generally, has
four common tones. Cantonese, spoken in southeastern China, has nine tones and
is quite different from Mandarin. A simple word such as 'ma' can have a variety of
meaning depending on which tone is used - meaning anything from mother to horse.
The closest English speakers get to varying the meaning of a word using tones is
interogative words such as 'what?' which can mean anything form the literally 'what'
to an expression of disblelief 'What!' or a dimissive word reach really means 'go
away'. The concept is far more complex in Chinese, and the difference in meaning
can be extreme - and tones are used for every single word. 'Mai' can mean buy or
sell depending on the tone!
For all its complexity, the Chinese language has one saving grace - its grammar is
fairly straight forward. Word order for English speakers is not unusual. All verbs are
regular, and there are no tenses in the sense of English verbs changing from the
present (going) to the past (went) and the future (will go). There is no definite or
indefinite article ('the' or 'a') no plurals or irregular adjectives. In English big bigger
biggest does not correspond to good better best, but in Chinese, such words are
always regular.
Learning Chinese is a challenge, but learn Mandarin and you will be able to
communicate with over 20% of the world's population. Today a standardised
Mandarin known as Putonghua (literally 'the common language'), is the official
language of government and education, and everyone in China is taught to speak it.
It is essentially the same dialect that is spoken in Taiwan.

Literature
China has a very old and rich tradition in literature as well as art and the performing
arts. The earliest writing are generally based on philosophical or religious thought,

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including the writings of Confucius (551-479 BC) and Lao-tzu (about 4th century BC).
These works concentrated on ethical and social relationships as well as concepts on
government and military matters. A strong tradition of historical writing exists in
Chinese culture. After the fall of a dynasty, for example, a grand history of the late
dynasty was commissioned and written by scholars in the next dynasty.
In addition to philosophical, religious, and historical writings, China also produced
poetry, novels, and dramatic writings from an early date. Poetry became well
established as a literary form during the Tang Dynasty, from AD 618 to 907.
Early Chinese novelists often chose central themes of relationships, personal
development and character building and the actions of individuals when confronted
with unusual of supernatural events. Probbaly the most famous such novel in the
West is the classic Ming version of 'Shui-hu chuan' (The Water Margin). The
adventures of the 'Monkey King' are also well known through the popular television
adaptation.
China's literary tradition continues today, though much 20th-century writing has
concentrated on efforts to reform or modernize China. Probably the most famous
20th-century writer is Lu Xun, a poet, essayist, and novelist whose work focused on
the need to modernize through revolution. Under socialism, writers have been
expected to uphold the values of the socialist state, though the degree of control
over their output has varied. Certainly the writings of Lu Xun make for excellent
reading.

(3) Nature of the Chinese Culture and its Main Difference from
Western Cultures
(a) Family-centered communitarianism vs individualism.
In most western countries, in particular Anglo-Saxon countries, people emphasizes
personal freedom, personal rights, and privacy etc.. In contrast, in Chinese societies,
no matter in mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macao, Singapore as well as
overseas Chinese communities, people more emphasize relationship, and we-
ness and community. This leads to the following 4 key words in understand the
Chinese culture which is different from western cultures.

(b) 5 key words in understanding the contemporary Chinese Culture:

1. Guanxi
The Chinese term for relationship is guanxi, one of the most important cultural traits
of Chinese people. The term guanxi may be better translated as personal contacts
or personal connections. guanxi can also be understood as reciprocal obligation,
i.e. a special relationship individual have with each other in which eachcan make
unlimited demand on the other, friendship with implications of a continual exchange
of favors, or the establishment of a connection between two independent
individuals to enable a bilateral flow of personal or social transactions.
guanxi derives essentially from the Chinese family system. In the traditional
Chinese family, whenever small immediate or extended, members are mutually
obligated to help one another. guanxi is strongly colored by Confucian reciprocal
obligation toward family members. Through the establishment of the guanxi, people

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bond with each other with respected obligation toward each other. guanxi is
essentially a network.
guanxi is usually established among people who share a commonality of
certain identies for example, tongxue (schoolmates), laoxiang (fellow viligers) and
laopengyou (old friends). China is not a full-fledged market economy yet, which
makes it difficult to allocate resources through market mechanisms alone, therefore,
guanxi is a major means of resources aalocation. Without guanxi, one simply
cannot get anything done. In recent years, making intensive use of guanxi, or
getting through the backdoor to get things done, has been legitimately criticized by
the Chinese government. However, in china hardly any aspect of social life is not
touched by guanxi.
guanxi pervades the whole Chinese business process. Many sholars find that
guanxi stratey is helpful for seeking background information about potential
Chinese partners, negotiating prices and terms of payment, and implementing
contract. Many western business men believe that doing business in china is not just
a matter of price and product. To succeed in the Chinese market, foreign
businesspeople must rely on friendship or good personal relationships (guanxi),
which often take time and patience to build. At least most people believe that a fine
guanxi with high level officials in Chinese bureaucracy can facilitate market
penetration and smooth negociation and generate good business.

2Reqing ()
Closely intertwined with guanxi is renqing an important vehicle in Chinese
social exchanges. renqing which literally translates as human feelings is defines
by one western scholar as covers not only sentiment but also its social expressions
such as the offering of congratulations, or condolences or the making of gifts on
appropriate occasions. The rule of renqing in Chinese society as fellows: if you
have received a drop of beneficence from other people, you should return to them a
fountain of beneficence. A Chinese who has done a favor for you automatically feels
that he or she is owned a favor from you in return. Actually renqing follows
Confucian notion of reciprocity. There are many Chinese expressions that associated
with renqing, such as giving somebody a renqing (song renqin) owing somebody
a renqing ( qian renqing) ect..

3. Li ()
renqing is related to another Confucian concept li. We have already discussed
li in above when I talk about Confucius philosophy. Here I should add that li in
Chinese has many meanings in English expression such as etiquette, decorum,
protocol, rites, propriety, ceremony, rule of conduct, courtesy, politeness,
and so on. In Confuciuss time, however, the term li originally referred to the social
hierarchy and order of the salvery system of the Zhou Dynasty (dating back to 1100
B.C.), which regarded by Confucius as an ideal model of any society. It was not until
the publication of the book li ji ( On li ) 200 or 300 years after Confucius that the
current meanings of li came into use.
As we mentioned before, Confucianism stresses responsibility of individuals,
who must behave according to certain prescribed principles of li. li . li dictes the
manner in which Chinese position themselves in hierarchical society and perform

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their roles accordingly. Therefore, li can be understood as doing the proper things
with the right people in the appropriate relationships.
4, Keqi
li is closely related to another Chinese term: keqi, In Chinese, if someone is
aid to be particular bout li, then he or she is very keqi. In Chinese ke means
guest, qi means air or behavior; together the term keqi means behavior of
guest, or in a generalized sense, it means polite, courteous, modest, humble,
understanding, considerate and well-manned. Politeness, or keqi, is basic
principle observed by the Chinese in their everyday communication.

5, Lian (, face) and Mianzi ()

In mainland China, people often use lian, in Taiwan the people usually use
mianzi ,but actually they refer the same thing. Lian can be properly translate into
face in English. In here I directly use English word face to discuss the special
characteristics of Chinese culture. As many sinologists noticed, although a universal
human nature and a ubiquitous concept that occurs in all culture, face is particularly
salient for Chinese culture. Even some scholars believe that the concept of face is in
fact Chinese in origin. In Short Oxford Dictionary on Historical Princeples , to lose
face is rendered directly from the Chinese phrase diu lian: English explanation is
to lose ones credit, good name or reputation.
Face is evident in all aspects of Chinese life. The Chinese often avoid the word
No to save face for both parties. Words such as bu fangbian (inconvenient) , tai
kunnan (too difficult) or huoxu (maybe) are aften synonyms of No in Chinese
culture. The Chinese Yes (shi) can also be elusive a word that has little meaning
because it is used t repond to almost everything, such as Yes, but it is inconvenient
it actually means No.
Face is also evident in a Chinese business negotiation context. Many observers
find that the Chinese prefer to do business with large companies with world
reputations to gain face. Even in business negotiations, you can use the face to
explain the Chinese negotiation style for example, meeting in a group, proceeding
cautiously and slowly from the face perspective. Therefore, it would be difficult for
Chinese negotiator to make concessions because of his face consciousness. To deal
with Chinese face in negotiation, I advice that you must give face to the Chinese and
avoid actions that cause them to lose face. I will further discuss the matter in the last
part of this lecture when I talk about Chinese negotiation tactics.

2. Chinese Manners in Daily Life

(1), Getting used to Chinese customs in daily life in China

China is known as a state of etiquette and ceremonies. Many proverbs have been
passed down from generation to generation such as 'civility costs nothing' or
'courtesy demands reciprocity' and so on. For instance, there is an interesting short
story. Once upon a time, a man went on a long tour to visit his friend with a swan as

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a gift. But it escaped from the cage on the way and in his effort to catch it, he got
hold of nothing but a feather. Instead of returning home, he continued his journey
with the swan feather. When his friend received this unexpected gift, he was deeply
moved by the story as well as the sincerity. And the saying 'the gift is nothing much,
but it's the thought that counts.' was spread far and wide.

Chinese used to cup one hand in the other before the chest as a salute. This
tradition has a history of more than 2000 years and nowadays it is seldom used
except in the Spring Festival. And shaking hands is more popular and appropriate on
some formal occasions.

Bowing, as to convey respect to the higher level, is often used by the lower like
subordinates, students, and attendants. But at present Chinese youngsters tend to
simply nod as a greeting. To some extent this evolution reflects the ever-increasing
paces of modern life.

It is common social practice to introduce the junior to the senior, or the familiar to the
unfamiliar. When you start a talk with a stranger, the topics such as weather, food, or
hobbies may be good choices to break the ice. To a man, a chat about current
affairs, sports, stock market or his job can usually go on smoothly. Similar to Western
customs, you should be cautious to ask a woman private questions. However,
relaxing talks about her job or family life will never put you into danger. She is usually
glad to offer you some advice on how to cook Chinese food or get accustomed to
local life. Things will be quite different when you've made acquaintance with them.
Implicit as Chinese are said to be, they are actually humorous enough to appreciate
the exaggerated jokes of Americans.

As is said above, Chinese consider gifts as an important part to show courtesy. It is

appropriate to give gifts on occasions such as festival, birthday, wedding, or visiting a
patient. If you are invited to a family party, small gifts like wine, tea, cigarettes, or
candies are welcomed. Also fruit, pastries, and flowers are a safe choice. As to other
things, you should pay a little attention to the cultural differences. Contrary to
Westerners, odd numbers are thought to be unfortunate. So wedding gifts and
birthday gifts for the aged are always sent in pairs for the old saying goes that
blessings come in pairs.

Though four is an even number, it reads like death in Chinese thus is avoided. So is
pear for being a homophone of separation. And a gift of clock sounds like attending
other's funeral so it is a taboo, too. As connected with death and sorrow, black and
white are also the last in the choice. Gift giving is unsuitable in public except for
some souvenirs. Yourgood intentions or gratitude should be given priority to but not
the value of the gifts. Otherwise the receiver may mistake it for a bribe.

(2) Speech and greeting conventions

Many western visitors to China have had a rude shock: Chinese conversations in
public tend to be loud and highly audible - to western ears the conversationalists
appear to be arguing. Arguments usually result not in especially loud speech, but in
the use of curses and swear words, regardless of sex or age.

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However, Chinese etiquette states that the best way to speak is softly and with ones
head slightly bowed. Answering back to those older is considered ill-mannered: the
advice of elders should be accepted. Children who answer back or swear are
considered bad mannered and their parents are held responsible.
Chinese men speaking loud are not considered bad mannered: a woman speaking
loudly is, and may have abuse and ridicule heaped upon herself.
The correct way of greeting a person is very important in Chinese culture:
inappropriate greeting is considered very much undesirable. Among strangers,
acquaintances or at formal occasions the greeting (in Mandarin) Ni Hao (or Nin Hao
if much respect is meant) meaning, literally you good?' is used. The phrase Have
you eaten? is used as a more familiar greeting and testifies to the centrality of food
in Chinese culture. Chinese culture considers it impolite to meet someone and not
ask him/her to eat: he/she may be hungry!
The traditional Chinese handshake consists of interlocking the fingers of the hands
and waving them up and down several times. This is today rarely used (except
during festivals, weddings and birthdays of the elderly), and the western style
handshake is ubiquitous among all but the very old or traditional. When greeting, a
slight bow often accompanies the handshake, with the bow being deeper the more
respect is being proffered to the person, for example an elderly person or someone
of high social status.
The Chinese tend not to greet those close to them with greetings that may bear a
negative slant such as youre looking sad or youre looking tired: this is deemed
improper. In formal contexts, or when addressing an elder or person with high status
it is considered highly inappropriate and rude to address the person by their given
name. They should be addressed according to their designation, for example Mr
Tang, Doctor Liu, Chairman Lee etc.
Business/name cards are ubiquitous in Chinese business and will almost always be
exchanged upon meeting a stranger in such a context. The card should be held in
both hands when offered to the other person: offering it with one hand is considered
ill-mannered.
(3). Conversation

General Guidelines

Before your visit, it will be a good idea to prepare yourself by studying aspects of
Chinese culture, history, and geography. Your hosts will appreciate your initiative.

Negative replies are considered impolite. Instead of saying 'no', answer 'maybe', 'I'll
think about it', or 'We'll see' and get into specifics later. You'll find that the Chinese
will do the same. When your Chinese counterparts smilingly and politely or even
enthusiastically say 'No big problem' or 'The problem is not serious', they usually
mean 'There are still problems.'

You may be asked intrusive questions concerning your age, income, and marital
status. If you don't want to reveal this information, remain polite and give an
unspecific answer. Don't express irritation with the questioner, since 'losing face' has
such negative implications in this culture. On the other hand, unless you are a very
familiar personal friend, do not ask your Chinese hosts about their family although,

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typically, you can ask 'How old is your child?', 'How long have you been in the work
force?' or 'Where is your child studying?' as a means of determining their marital
status and age.

In Chinese culture, the question 'Have you eaten?' or or 'Where have you been?' is
the equivalent to 'How are you?' in North America; it's just a superficial inquiry that
does not require a literal-minded, detailed answer. Simply answer, 'yes', even if you
haven't actually eaten or simply smile and say 'thank you.'

Make an effort to learn and use at least a few words in Chinese; your initiative will be
noticed and appreciated. Make sure you know the meaning and appropriate
occasions for what you say.

You may make general inquiries about the health of another's family, such as 'are all
in your family well?'

During a meal, expressing enthusiasm about the food you are eating is a welcome,
and usually expected, topic of conversation.

There is no need to avoid mentioning Taiwan. If the subject comes up, never refer to
this island as 'The Republic of China' or 'Nationalist China.' The correct term is
'Taiwan Province', or just 'Taiwan.'

'Small talk' is considered especially important at the beginning of a meeting; any of

the topics suggested in the next set of points will be appropriate for this occasion.

Welcome Topics of Conversation

Chinese scenery, landmarks

weather, climate, and geography in China

your travels in other countries

your positive experiences traveling in China

Chinese art

Topics to Avoid

Refrain from using the terms such as 'Red China', 'Mainland China,' and 'Communist
China.' Just say 'China.'

(4). Public Behaviour: Acceptable public conduct

The Chinese will sometimes nod as an initial greeting. Bowing is seldom used except
in ceremonies. Handshakes are also popular; wait, however, for your Chinese
counterpart to initiate the gesture.

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If you visit a school, theater, or other workplace, it is likely that you will be greeted
with applause as a sign of welcome. In turn, you should respond by applauding back.

Avoid making expansive gestures and using unusual facial expressions.

The Chinese do not use their hands when speaking, and will only become annoyed
with a speaker who does.

Some hand gestures, however, are necessary. They are outlined in the next two
points.

To summon attention, turn your palm down, waving your fingers toward yourself.

Use your whole hand rather than your index finger to point.

The Chinese, especially those who are older and in positions of authority, dislike
being touched by strangers.

Acknowledge the most senior person in a group first.

Smiling is not as noticeable in China, since there is a heavy emphasis on repressing

emotion.

Members of the same sex may hold hands in public in order to show friendliness.

Public displays of affection between the sexes are frowned upon.

Do not put your hands in your mouth, as it is considered vulgar. Consequently, when
in public, avoid biting your nails, removing food from your teeth, and similar
practices.

Pushing and cutting ahead is common in lineups among Chinese, but they do not
appreciate being cut in front of themselves.

Spitting in public is no longer acceptable. It is subject to a heavy fine now.

Blowing your nose with a handkerchief is also acceptable, but it is advisable to turn
away from people while doing so.

(5) First Name or Title?

Addressing others with respect

Chinese names appear in a different order than Western names. Each person has, in
this order, a family, generational, and first name. Generational and given names can

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be separated by a space or a hyphen, but are frequently written as one word. The
generational designation is usually the first word of a two-worded first name. This is
still popular in some families, especially among the southerners and the overseas
Chinese from the south. Most modern Chinese first names are single worded. The
first names of those born during the cultural revolution era usually carries political
meaning showing support toward Chairman Mao and his wife, Jiang Qing.

Most people should be addressed with a title and their last name. If a person does
not have a professional title, use Mr., Madam, Miss, plus the last name.

A married Chinese woman usually retains her maiden name; she will use her
husband's last name on occasions for formal addressing only.

Many Chinese adopt an English first name to make it easier for North Americans and
other Westerners to address them. You can expect to hear some rather odd and rare
English names as they try hard to be different from others.

Address people using official titles such as General Committee Member, or

Bureau Chief whenever possible. It is customary to address the deputies by
skipping the word 'deputy,' such as, 'Chief' for 'Deputy Chief,' 'Chairman' for 'Vice
Chairman' 'General Manager' for 'Assistant General Manager.'

Unless you're a Communist, never refer to someone as Comrade.

(6) Official Chinese Holidays

New Year's Day (January 1)
Not as much celebrated as it is in other parts of the world because it is
overshadowed by the upcoming Chinese New Year somewhere a month
away. However, employees will enjoy a paid day-off. And there will be parties
everywhere, in parks, dancing halls and universities where students will leave
for the winter vacation.
International Women's Day (March 8)
Interestingly, women employees will get a whole or an half paid day-off on the
day while the men are at the mercy of their employers.
Tree-Planting Day (April 1)
Highly promoted since the late 70's by the reformist government and yet to
become established. It marks the begining of a greening campaign all over
the country during the month each year.
International Labor Day (May 1)
No less celebrated than the New Year's Day. Employees will enjoy a paid day-
off. Celebration parties in parks took the place of parades today.
Youth Day (May 4)
A day in memory of the first mass student movement in 1919, a movement
touched off by the then Chinese government that gave in to the Japanese
government's attempt to colonize Shandong Province. It is also an anti-
Confucius movement as well as one that promoted the western scientific and
democratic ideas. Government organized youth ralleys everywhere in the
country today characterizes the celebration of this day.
Children's Day (June 1)

13
 It is the most momerable day of Chinese kids all over the country. Almost all
entertainment places such as cinimas, parks and children museums and
palaces are open free to them. Elementary schools throw celebration parties
while parents shower them with presents.
The CCP's Birthday (July 1)
It marked the founnding of the Chinese Communist Party in 1921 in Shanghai.
It is usually characterized by front page editorials from major government
newspagers.
Army's Day (August 1)
A communist-led nationalist army staged the first armed uprising in Chinese
communist history against the Nationalists on August 1, 1927. It was regarded
as the beginning of the Red Army (later the People's Liberation Army). Now
the anniversary is often used to promote better relationships between the
army and civilians, a tradition believed to have helped it beat the Nationalists
during the civil war in 1949.
Teacher's Day (September 1)
It was started in the early eighties as an effort to reverse the anti-intellectual
sentiment nurtured by the "Cultural Revolution". It is yet to become an
established holiday.
National Day (October 1)
It is the anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949
in the wake of routing the Nationalists who have since taken refuge in Taiwan.
There used to be grand parades squares of major cities of the country. Now
celebrations usually take the form of parties in amusement parks by day and
fire-works and grand TV ensembles during the evening. Employees enjoy two
paid days-off. It is also a good occasion for many people to take a short
excursion to enjoy the beauty of the golden Fall.

( 7) Chinese Traditional Festivals

If you would like to take a broad view of the traditional Chinese festivals, please refer
to the article "A Brief Account of Traditional Chinese Festival Customs" by Mr. Zhang
Zhiyuan. The calendar the Chinese traditional holidays follow is of a unique lunar-
solar system. Therefore, 1st of the 1st month referred here does not necessarily
mean January 1.

Spring Festival (The Chinese New Year) (1st of the 1st month)
The biggest and most celebrated festival in China and part of East and South
East Asia.
Lantern Festival (15th of the 1st month)
Lantern exhibits, lion and dragon dances, and eating Tang Yuan (ball-shaped
boiled sweet rice dumplings with delicious stuffings.) feature this day. It is very
much celebrated in the rural areas by farmers. The Lantern Festival also
marks the end of the Chinese New Year season.
Qing Ming (Pure & Brignt in Chinese) (Fifth of the 24 Solar Terms)
Originally it was a celebration of spring. People used to customarily go out on
an excursion to "tread grass". Later it became day dedicated to the dear
departed. Tidying up ancestors' tombs is its major big event.
Duan Wu (Dragon Boat) Festival (5th of the 5th month)

14
 Said to be in memory of a great patiot poet of the then State of Chu during the
Warring States period (475-221 B.C.), Qu Yuan (Ch'u Yuan), who drowned
himself to protest his emperor who gave in to the bully State of Chin. For fear
that fish may comsume his body, people of Chu threw launched their boats
and started throwing rice dumplings wrapped in bamboo leaves into the river
where he was drowned to feed the fish. Now the big event of dragon boat
contest may be a legacy of such activity. People today still eat the bamboo-
leave rice dumplings on the occasion today.
The Seventh Eve (7th of the seventh month)
It is a traditional holiday almost lost to the younger generations today. It
originates from a beautiful legend about a cowboy and a fairy who were
crually separated and renunited once each year on this happy sad occasion.
A more detailed story is forthcoming.
Mid-Autumn Festival (15th of the eighth month)
It is second only to the Chinese New Year in significance. The moon on this
day is the fullest and largest to the eye. Viewing it by the whole family while
feasting on good wine, fruits and moon-cakes features the night event. There
is also a beautiful story behind it. Children are told that there's fairy on the
moon living in a spacious but cold crystal palace with her sole companion, a
jade rabbit. A heavenly general and friend would occasionally pay her a visit,
bringing along his fragrant wine. She would then dance a beautiful dance. The
shadows on the moon made the story all the more credible and fascinating to
the young imaginative minds.

(8). Numbers

Numbers play a role second only to food in Chinese custom and culture. It is
believed that numbers can determine a persons fate- for example in the naming of a
child.
Certain numbers are considered lucky, and others unlucky. The luckiest number in
Chinese culture is eight, as the Chinese for eight sounds like the word for lucky.
Four, conversely is a very unlucky number as in Chinese it sounds like the word for
death. Thus Chinese adhering to the customs try to avoid the number four in, for
example, car number plates, house addresses etc. Seven can also signify death,
and '1' loneliness.

3. Everyday Eating Customs in China

Here in the West, because of the popularity of Chinese restaurants, we have some
idea (to a greater or lesser degree authentic) of the sorts of food to be found in
China, and many people have mastered (to a greater or lesser degree) the use of

15
chopsticks. But the experience of eating at even the least Americanized Chinese
restaurant scarcely resembles the experience of sharing an everyday family meal.
Eating at a restaurant, both in the States and in China, has more in common with
attending a banquet, which involves deliberate reversals and amplifications of
everyday Chinese customs and habits.

(1) Family Meals

Though customs and the kinds of food eaten vary according to region, it is
most common for Chinese families to gather for three meals a day. In some
areas and at some times of the year, laborers may have only two full meals a
day, but when possible, they supplement these with up to three smaller ones,
often taken at tea houses. There is not, in general, the strong association we
have in the West between the type of food and the time of day it should be
served (say, eggs for breakfast, a sandwich for lunch, pot roast for dinner).
The sorts of dishes served at the two or three main meals are pretty much the
same. The goal in planning, however, is to provide a number of dishes at each
meal, so that, rather than experiencing difference by comparison between one
meal and the next, each meal includes, in itself, a satisfying array of elements.
The Stuff of the Meal
The center of the Chinese meal is fan, or grain. So much so, that the meal
itself is called hsia fan, "a period of grain." In the South and among urban
families in other areas, the fan may be rice or rice products, but rice is
expensive, as is the wheat eaten in the North in the form of cooked whole
grains, noodles, or bread. Depending on the region, then, less prosperous
families might make their meals of millet, sorghum, or corn. The meats and
vegetables we think of as the focus of the meal are known as ts'ai, which
means something like "side dishes" -- one could almost go so far as to call
them condiments for the fan.
Place Settings and Serving Etiquette
An individual place setting for an everyday meal includes a bowl of fan, a pair
of chopsticks, a flat-bottomed soupspoon, and a saucer. Instead of a napkin, a
hot towel is often provided at the end of the meal for the diner to wipe his
hands and mouth. The meat and vegetable dishes are laid out all at once in
the center of the table, and the diners eat directly from the communal plates
using their chopsticks. Soup is also eaten from the common bowl. Rather than
for serving oneself a separate portion, the saucer is used for bones and shells
or as a place to rest a bite taken from a communal plate when it is too large to
eat all at once. It is perfectly acceptable to reach across the table to take a
morsel from a far-away dish. To facilitate access to all the dishes, Chinese
dining tables are more likely to be square or round, rather than elongated like
their western counterparts.
Who Eats When and How
Eating begins in order of seniority, with each diner taking the cue to start from
his or her immediate superior. Children are taught to eat equally from each
ts'ai dish in turn, never betraying a preference for a particular item by eating
more of it, never seeming to pause to choose a specific bite from the plate. In
order to cool the soup a bit and to better diffuse the flavor in the mouth, soup
is eaten by sipping from the spoon while breathing in. This method, of course,
produces the slurping noise that is taboo in the West. To eat fan, a diner

16
 raises the bowl to her lips and pushes the grains into her mouth with
chopsticks. This is the easiest way to eat it and shows proper enjoyment --
eating fan from a bowl left sitting on the table suggests dissatisfaction with the
food. The diner must finish all the fan. To leave even a grain is considered bad
manners, a lack of respect for the labor required to produce it.
Accompaniments
Neither beverages nor dessert are commonly served with a meal. People
drink tea nearly all day, but at meals soup is usually the only liquid provided.
At special events there may be wine or liquor, but the water that westerners
drink with their meals is never present. Sweet foods are usually reserved for
special events, where they are served between courses, or for small meals at
tea houses.

(2) A Chinese Banquet

Banquets are held to celebrate the New Year, the Moon Festival, weddings, and
other special occasions. Each event is associated with particular treats -- filled moon
cakes for the Moon Festival or New Year's pudding, for example -- but there are also
many common characteristics and ceremonies involved. A banquet acquires much of
its festive character through 2 elements: the release from some everyday eating
customs (usually those that impose restraint) and the exaggeration of others. At a
banquet, for example, rice doesn't need to be treated as the center of the meal, but
the respectful interaction between guest and host, a commonplace, must be
performed with extra gusto.

Getting In
The meal begins with the entry of the revelers into the banqueting room. An
elaborate ceremony of deference may take place at the door, where the most
honored guest is supposed to enter first. Two or more guests may hold up this
entry for some time, each insisting that the other is more worthy of this honor.
The ensuing debate can, among good friends, lead to a bit of pushing, as the
struggle escalates. Once through the door, the process may begin again, this
time over the issue of precedence at the table. Usually, the guest of honor sits
directly across from the host, who takes the least honorable seat near the
serving door.

Serving the Meal

Regular Chinese meals are served all at once, but a banquet is about
bounteousness, a host's generosity and prosperity, and the joy of celebration,
so the food is brought in many successive courses. In a further display of
exaggerated courtesy, the host apologizes in advance for the meager and ill-
prepared meal about to be served. Hot towels are distributed at the beginning
and end of the meal.
What is Served, or Beyond the Grain
In a dramatic reversal of everyday habit, banquets consist solely of special
dishes. The meat and vegetables that serve as side dishes at regular meals
become the focus, and fan, or grain, which is normally so important that every
last grain must be consumed, is relegated to the very end of the meal and
guests need only to pick at the fan, indicating their supreme satisfaction. To

17
 eat one's rice at a banquet might hint that the host failed to provide enough
food.
What is Drunk
Alcohol is very rarely served at everyday meals, but it plays an important role
at banquets. In the West, the type of alcohol must match the meal according
to set customs, and often the guests' special preferences must be
accommodated. This is not the case in China, where the host often decides
on one sort of alcoholic beverage, either a wine or liquor, which will be served
throughout. Wine glasses are traditionally filled at the start of each course.
The banquet will probably be marked by guests challenging each other to
drinking games throughout the evening.
Commencement of the Meal
The meal begins with a toast by the host, after which there is a long moment
while the guests engage in the ceremony of beginning -- the degree of
politeness exhibited by a guest at this stage increases with every moment he
waits to start eating. Throughout the meal, the host displays great
solicitousness for the guests. Guests may refuse offers of food or drink two
times or more without being taken at their word - or, of course, without really
meaning their polite refusals.
The Courses
The first course is an even-numbered selection of cold dishes, eight or ten are
traditionally served. After the cold course comes a showy soup such as
shark's fin soup or bird's nest soup. The guests help themselves to the dishes
at a banquet, but the soup is served by the host, and much drinking and
toasting accompanies. Following the soup comes a decorative meat dish.
More courses follow -- lobster, pork, scallops, chicken. Between the courses,
a variety of sweets are brought out. Peking duck with scallion brushes, hoisin
sauce, and thin pancakes is often served in the middle of the festivities.
Traditionally, the final course is a whole fish, which is placed on the table with
its head is pointed toward the guest of honor. Throughout the meal, the guests
pay elaborate compliments to the food. Enjoyment of the food offered is much
more important than sparkling dinner table conversation. At a banquet, the
food itself is the medium communicating the host's good wishes and the joy of
the celebration.

(3), Chinese Dining: Beliefs and Etiquette

"A Chinese dinner host will not expect a visitor to know all the traditions associated
with a Chinese meal. But the visitor who knows some of them will gain 'face' and
give 'face' to his host!"

Investigating those traditions is part of the fun of a Hong Kong visit, where English-
speaking friends or business associates will happily tell you the whys and
wherefores of seemingly arcane rituals. You may even hear different versions of how
a particular dining tradition originated!
Foreign visitors will be forgiven for not knowing dining etiquette, just as they will be
good-naturedly offered a knife and fork if their chopstick prowess is not up to par.
Just as Chinese food, however, seems to taste better when it is eaten with

18
chopsticks, so the whole meal will be more enjoyable if one knows a little of the
ancient traditions and beliefs that place the meal in a 5,000-year-old culinary
heritage.
Why is a fish never turned over? Why do tea-drinkers surreptitiously tap tables? Why
will there be a place laid for a guest who will never come? Why is it not improper to
slurp you soup but improper to eat a fish head? Why are Chinese dinner tables
round and how will you know who is the guest of honor? How and why will you say
"Cheers!"?
Although Western customs have influenced dining habits in Hong Kong, the majority
of old traditions still live on. The guest of honor will usually be seated facing the door
of entry, directly opposite the host. The next most honored guest will be seated to the
left of the guest of honor. If the host has any doubts about the correct order of
precedence for his guests, he will seat them on the basis of age.
The host sits near the door, as in Western practice, so that he is nearest to the
kitchen. If the meal is held in the host's home, he can then bring each dish to the
table more quickly. He will himself serve his guests portions of food, on the tacit
understanding that they are far too polite to help themselves.
But for some dishes, especially fish, the host would never do so - for the good
reason that the dish would be inedibly cool by the end of the service. Instead, each
guest is expected to help himself.

(4) The Guest Gets the Best

The guest of honor naturally receives the choicest morsels, and is expected to lead
the way when necessary. With a fish course, the fish head would be left for the guest
of honor - and it is the most nutritious part (the eyes and lips are the valued
delicacies offered to the senior lady present). The platter holding the fish will always
be laid on the table in such a way that the fish head points towards the guest of
honor (at family meals, the head faces the head of the family). If visitors find that
they are the guest of honor and are unwilling to accept the duties involved, they
should always delegate the honor to the person on their left, or politely turn the
platter so that the fish head faces the host.
At the end of the meal, when the guest of honor feels that everyone appears to have
had their fill of post-prandial brandy or ceremonial final cups of tea, he should rise. In
theory, no other diner can rise until the guest of honor has, and such a social nicety
has often resulted in a meal being very lengthy! Nowadays, however, the host will
usually give an appropriate, discreet hint to the guest of honor.
In a restaurant, the signs that a meal is ending are more obvious. A bowl of fruit will
be presented, fresh towels will be provided for wiping mouths and hands, and the
final pot of tea - a ceremonial farewell greeting - will not be refilled.
(5) Seating & Dining Customs in Restaurant
If a Chinese dinner has been arranged in a restaurant, the host will usually sit
nearest the kitchen or service door. Then he will be in the least-favored position -
sitting where the waiter will stand while serving individual portions of food (the
waiter's "mark" being his serving utensils laid on the table). Some hosts, however,
seat their most junior guests or family members at this slightly awkward spot so that

19
the host can talk more easily to guests on either side of him. It is also becoming
more common for hosts to sit next to foreign guests of honor.
Should you find yourself in one of the "junior" seats on either side of the server's
position, take comfort from the fact that your fellow diners are either even more
"important" or older than you and you are honored to be sitting with them, or your
host has flattered you by deciding you are one of the least status-conscious guests!
Whatever your table position is, you may be expected to make at least one toast
during the meal - to the course which is about to commence, if necessary, when
everyone else has used up all socially-acceptable topics of mutual esteem! Every
person stands up for a moment, raises his or her glass, and finds out who has the
strongest constitution!
Taking one's turn is also expected for tea-pouring at smaller gatherings where each
guest leans over or rises to fill fellow-diners' tea cups. The almost surreptitious
finger-tapping on the table that greets the pouring service is said to date back to a
ploy invented by a Qing Dynasty emperor. While making an incognito tour of South
China, the emperor visited a teahouse. In order to maintain his cover as an ordinary
member of a party of travelers, the emperor took his turn at pouring tea for his
companions. They started to acknowledge this astonishing honor by bowing in the
usual fashion but the emperor told them they could simply tap the table with three
fingers - two of which would represent their prostrate limbs, while the third finger
would symbolize their bowed heads. The custom survives in Hong Kong and South
China as a silent token of thanks for the gesture.
Other, older habits have been known to make some visitors a little uncomfortable
when not used to fellow diners slurping their soup, laying discarded bones on the
tablecloth, and audibly making a meal of a meal.
The second habit is dying out now that most restaurants provide side-plates for
bones but it is still possible to see waiters clearing a table by sweeping everything
into the middle of a tablecloth - rice bowls, chopsticks, bones and all - in order to
have a vacant table as quickly as possible.
As for meal-time noises, they are considered sounds of culinary appreciation, the
slurping of soup also being an acceptable way of cooling it down before it burns the
tongue.

20
 4. Business Practices, Values and Conduct in China

(1) Prosperous Entertaining

Business lunches are growing in popularity here. Business breakfasts, however, are
not a part of Chinese business culture, except in Guangdong, Hangzhou and Fujian
province where the 'Morning Tea' is very popular.

Evening banquets are the most popular occasions for business entertaining.
Generally, these events start between 5:30 p.m.-6:00 p.m. and last for two hours. If
you are the guest, you should arrive on time.

If you wish, arrive around 15 minutes early to a banquet; your Chinese hosts and
counterparts will probably be present before the proceedings officially begin.

Banquets are hosted with varying degrees of extravagance, usually in a restaurant.

Wait to be seated, as there is a seating etiquette based on hierarchy in Chinese

business culture.

Generally, the seat in the middle of the table, facing the door, is reserved for the
host. The most senior guest of honour sits directly to the left. Everyone else is
seated in descending order of status. The most senior member sits in the center
seat. Follow this seating pattern if you are hosting a banquet or a meal in your
residence, whether for business or purely social reasons.

The host is the first person at the table allowed to begin eating by suggesting the first
drink. Then, the rest of the company can proceed with the meal. If you are the host,
take the first piece of the most valued food and put it on your guest of honour's plate
after leading the first drink. This will signify the beginning of the eating and is
consider a friendly gesture.

Business is not discussed during the meal.

It is not uncommon for a host to order enough food for ten people at a table of five.
He or she loses face if there are not plenty of left-overs at the end of a meal. Rice,

21
considered by many Chinese to be filler, is generally not served until the end of a
meal. So, if you want to eat rice with your meal be sure to ask the waitress [or 'shou
jie'] to serve it early, particularly if the food is spicy.

During a meal, as many as 20-30 courses can be served, so try not to eat too much
at once. The best policy is to lightly sample each dish.

Leaving a 'clean plate' is perceived to mean that you were not given enough food--a
terrible insult here. On the other hand, leaving a food offering untouched will also
give offense; even if you find a dish unappealing, try a small portion for the sake of
politeness.

One important part of Chinese business entertaining is a tea drinking ritual known as
'yum cha.' It is used to establish rapport before a meeting or during meals.

If you do not want a 'refill' of tea, leave some in your cup.

If you are served food that does not require utensils, you may be given a bowl of tea
for the purpose of dipping and cleaning your fingers.

It's perfectly acceptable to reach in front of others for dishes and other items.

Seeds and bones are placed on the table or in a specially reserved dish; never place
these objects in your bowl.

It will be appreciated if you use chopsticks. When you are finished eating, place your
chopsticks on the table or a chopstick rest.

Placing your chopsticks parallel on top of your bowl is believed to bring bad luck.

Sticking your chopsticks straight up in your rice bowl is considered rude because in
this position, they resemble the joss sticks that are used in Chinese religious rituals.

Do not put the end of the chopstick in your mouth.

Try not to drop your chopsticks, as this is considered a sign of bad luck.

When eating rice, follow Chinese custom by holding the bowl close to your mouth.

Slurping and belching at the table can be perfectly acceptable: they are perceived as
signs that you are appreciating the meal.

Scorpions, locusts, snake skin, bile, dog meat, soft-shell tortoise and blood are
considered delicacies.

Toothpicks are usually offered between courses and at the conclusion of a meal.
When using a toothpick, cover your mouth with your free hand for concealment.

Forming a personal relationship ['guanxi' in Chinese] in your business dealings is

22
very important. Part of this involves participating in the strong drinking culture that
exists here. Generally, the Chinese regard with suspicion anyone who does not
participate in the inevitable drinking that takes place during almost all business
dinners. And it is at these kinds of social occasions that most negotiating
breakthroughs are made. Prepare some medical excuses for yourself to avoid
drinking heavily; if you really wish to avoid alcohol, they will accept medical excuses.

Toasting, usually with beer, wine or Chinese white liquors, is an important part of
Chinese business etiquette.

You will often find three glasses on your table: a glass for your drink of choice [toast
with this glass], a wine glass, and a shot glass for a liquor called 'maotai' or 'wu liang
ye.'

The host of a banquet offers the first toast. If you prefer not to drink alcohol, it's
perfectly acceptable to toast with a soft drink, glass of juice, or mineral water.

Toasts will be proposed throughout the meal. Two popular toasts are 'ganbei'
['bottoms up!'] and 'kai wei' ['starting the appetite!'].

Sometimes, the Chinese enjoy testing the ability of a foreigner ['lou wai'] to handle
his or her alcohol, especially 'er gua toe', a potent clear alcohol that one might
compare to airline fuel. A good practice would be to eat something beforehand.

Before smoking, it's polite to offer cigarettes to those in your company.

The meal has reached a definite conclusion when fruit is served and hot towels are
presented. Shortly after these items are offered, guests should make preparations to
leave. In accordance with Chinese business etiquette, the host will not initiate the
guests' departure.

Tipping is generally considered an insult in China. Most government operated hotels

and restaurants prohibit acceptance of tips. It is sometimes expected, however, in
some of the bigger hotels and by younger service personnel, in the more opened
cities.

Follow Chinese business protocol and reciprocate with a banquet of the same value;
never surpass your host by arranging a more lavish gathering.

Generally, the Chinese are not great experimenters when it comes to their diet.
Unless he or she has traveled extensively, the typical Chinese businessperson
doesn't like Western food. Better to take your guests to a good Chinese restaurant
rather than, for example, the latest French restaurant opening in Beijing. They'll
appreciate it.

If you are hosting a banquet, you should arrive at least 30 minutes before your
guests.

Home entertaining is very popular in China. If you are invited to a Chinese home,
you will probably be asked to remove your shoes. Arrive on time, but not too early.

23
When inviting people to your home, avoid serving cheese: it is usually incompatible
with the national diet.

(2) Gift Giving: Selecting and presenting an appropriate business

gift

General Guidelines

Lavish gift giving was an important part of Chinese culture in the past. Today, official
policy in Chinese business culture forbids giving gifts; this gesture is considered
bribery, an illegal act in this country. Consequently, your gift may be declined.

In many organizations, however, attitudes surrounding gifts are beginning to relax. In

any case, you will have to approach giving gifts with discretion, as outlined in the
following points.

If you wish to give a gift to an individual, you must do it privately, in the context of
friendship, not business.

The Chinese will decline a gift three times before finally accepting, so as not to
appear greedy. You will have to continue to insist. Once the gift is accepted, express
gratitude. You will be expected to go through the same routine if you are offered a
gift.

In the presence of other people, never present a valuable gift to one person. This
gesture will cause only embarrassment, and possibly even problems for the
recipient, given the strict rules against bribery in Chinese business culture. Do not
take any photograph of any gift giving unless it is a symbolic gift presented to the
organization as a whole.

Giving a gift to the entire company, rather than an individual, can be acceptable in
Chinese business culture as long as you adhere to the following rules:

All business negotiations should be concluded before gifts are exchanged.

Specify that the gift is from the company you represent. If you can, explain the
meaning of the gift to the receiver.

Present the gift to the leader of the Chinese negotiating team.

Do not get anything that is obviously expensive, so that the company will not feel
obliged to reciprocate.

Valuable gifts should be given to an individual only in private and strictly as a gesture
of friendship.

Make sure that the gifts given to people of the same level of importance are

24
equitable or of similar grade. Somehow, they may find out later, and the difference
may lead to strains in your relationship.

Do not wrap a gift before arriving in China, as it may be unwrapped in Customs.

If possible, have your gifts wrapped in red paper, which is considered a lucky colour.
Plain red paper is one of the few safe choices since a variety of meanings, many of
which are negative, are attributed to colours in Chinese culture.

Pink and gold and silver are also acceptable colours for gift wrap. Wrapping in yellow
paper with black writing is a gift given only to the dead. Also, do check the variations
from region to region about colours.

Because colours have so many different meanings in this culture, your safest option
is to entrust the task of gift-wrapping to a store or hotel that offers this service.
(3) Appreciated Gifts
a good cognac, or other fine liqueur
a fine pen [not a pen with red ink--writing in red ink symbolizes severing ties]
solar calculators
kitchen gadgets
stamps, if the recipient is interested in them [stamp collecting is very popular here]
a cigarette lighter, assuming the recipient is a smoker
Often, gifts are not opened in the presence of the giver.
Acceptable gifts for a company include items from your country or city, such as
handicrafts, or an illustrated book. Be sure to bring a supply of these items with you,
so that you can reciprocate if it happens that you are presented with a gift.
A banquet is usually a welcome gift; since it's likely you will be invited to one, you will
have to follow Chinese business protocol and reciprocate. In some parts of China,
although senior local officials host the welcoming party, you might be expected to
pay for the cost of the banquet. Check this out and be prepared.
Gifts of food are acceptable, but not at dinner parties or other occasions where
appetizers and meals will be served. Candy and fruit baskets, however, are
acceptable as thank-you gifts sent after these events.
Eight is considered one of the luckiest numbers in Chinese culture. If you receive
eight of any item, consider it a gesture of good will. Six is considered a blessing for
smoothness and problem free advances. Four is a taboo because it means 'death.'
Other numbers such as '73' meaning 'the funeral' and '84' meaning 'having
accidents' are to be avoided.
(4) Gifts to Avoid
Scissors, knives, or other sharp objects can be interpreted as the severing of a
friendship or other bond. As a gesture of friendship, if you do want to give these
items as a gift, ask your friend to give you a very small amount of money, such as 10
cents or One RMB in return for this gift. By doing so, you would have 'sold' it to him
rather than given it to him.

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The following items are to be avoided as they are associated with funerals:
Straw sandals
clocks
handkerchiefs
gifts or wrapping paper in white, black, or blue
(5) Business Dress

Guidelines for business dress

In Chinese business culture, conservative suits and ties in subdued colours are the
norm. Bright colours of any kind are considered inappropriate.

Women should wear conservative suits or dresses; a blouse or other kind of top
should have a high neckline. Stick with subdued, neutral, colours such as beige and
brown.

Because of the emphasis on conservative, modest, dress in Chinese business

culture, flat shoes or very low heels are the main footwear options for women. This is
true especially if you are relatively much taller than your hosts. High heels are
acceptable only at a formal reception hosted by a foreign diplomat.

Men should wear suits and ties to formal events; tuxedoes are not a part of Chinese
business culture.

Jeans are acceptable casual wear for both men and women.

Shorts are reserved for exercise.

(6) Appointment Alert!

Making appointments

Being late for an appointment is considered a serious insult in Chinese business

culture.

The best times for scheduling appointments are April to June and September to
October.

Business and government hours are 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., Monday through
Saturday. There is, however, a five-day work week in larger cities. Do avoid plans to
visit government offices on Tuesday afternoon, because this is sometimes reserved
for 'political studying' of the officials.

Store hours are 9:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m., daily. Most stores in Shanghai, however,
remain open until 10:00 p.m.

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Most Chinese workers take a break between 12:00 p.m.- 2:00 p.m. Practically
everything "shuts down" during this period, including elevator and phone services.

When scheduling your appointments, be sensitive to holidays such as Chinese New

Year. During May Day, or the National Day, many businesses will be closed for up to
a week during this period. The date of this occasion varies from year to year due to
an official advisory to allow the long holidays.

5. Chinese Business Negotiation Style and Its Implications for

Foreign Companies

(1). Six Dimensions of Chinese Business Negotiation Style

In this section, I will talk about six dimensions of Chinese business negotiation style
which represent six primary patterns of Chinese business negotiating behaviors:
political, legal, technical, commercial, social, and strategic dimensions. Political
behavior concerns how Chinese business decision- making process is influenced by
Chinese politics; legal behavior deals with the Chinese attitude toward contracting
and other legal arrangement; technical behavior concerns the Chinese attitude
toward technology, technical specification, quality and so on; commercial behavior
refers to how the Chinese bargain about price and other economic arrangements;
social behavior refers to how the Chinese establish trust toward the other part

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through personal contacts and other forms of social interactions both verbal and non
verbal during the negotiation process; and finally, strategic behavior shows how the
Chinese manipulate various negotiating stratagems.

This dimensional analysis also suggests that Chinese negotiating style involve
both rational and strategic patterns. Political, legal, technical, commercial and social
patterns or dimensions represent rational Chinese negotiating behavior, whereas the
strategic pattern or dimension constitutes strategic Chinese negotiating behavior or
say Chinese negotiating tactics.

1. political behavior:

- The Chinese government is the real negotiator, customer, and ultimate decision
maker; Chinese companies must follow the governments plan and policies to do
business.
- The frontline Chinese negotiators have a limited mandate and fear criticism;
inter-organizational communication within the Chinese negotiating organization is
usually poor, and the Chinese negotiating team tends to be large.
- Business in China, whether Chinese or foreign, is under the control of the
Chinese government; Chinese business is governed by the political book.
Chinese patterners are protected under the umbrella of Chinese bureaucracy.

2. Legal behavior:

- The Chinese view contracting as an intial intention and an onging problem-

solving framework rather than a one-off nicely wrapped legal package.
- The Chinese awareness of law is normally blunt, and its legal system is young.
Chinese lawyers seldom participate in face-to-face meetings, although recently
they have begun to increasingly appear.
- The Chinese tend to insist that arbitration, if any, is to be held in china.

3. Technical behavior:

- The Chinese want to cooperate with large, technologically strong companies.

- The Chinese want to buy the most advanced and research-and-
- development-oriented technology, apart from price, technology is other major
issue in Chinese business negotiation.
- The basic Chinese attitude toward foreign technology transfer to China is to
exchange the Chinese market for foreign technology. However, when talk about
the above three point, when must notice that the attitude of Chinese companies
toward technology is changing: most Chinese companies are the more and more
profit-oriented.

4. Commercial behavior:

- The Chinese tend to choose large and financially strong foreign companies with
which to cooperate.
- The Chinese are extremely price sensitive; Chinese business negotiation is
essentially a negotiation about price and technology.
- The Chinese companies insist on having the majority share of equity in a Sino-

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 foreign business joint venture.

5. Social behavior:

- There is a pre-negotiation phase in the Chinese business negotiation process in

which the Chinese try to establish trust and confidence in the other party through
information gathering, personal contacts and other social activities.
- The Chinese attach great importance to sincerity and reputation on the part of
foreign side.
- Chinese negotiating style is generally people-oriented and permeated with such
Confucian notions of guanxi, renqing, li, face, family, age, hierarchy, and harmony
etc.

6. Strategic behavior:

- ji or Chinese stratagems exists in the mentality of Chinese negotiation.

- The Chinese may employ negotiating tactics deliberately or inadvertently.
- Chinese business negotiating tactics empirically evident in the supplementary
materials I gave to you. But here I must mind you that we Chinese people are
clever, friendly but we have our own moral standard or behavioral code which
guided us what we can do and what we cannot do.

When comparing the six dimensions of Chinese business negotiating style with the
western theory of business negotiation, you may find that there are stark contrasts in
the political, legal and strategic dimensions of Chinese business negotiating
behaviors. Most remarkable is the strong political feature in Chinese business
negotiation. The decisive influence of the Chinese government and Chinese
bureaucracy on the behavior of Chinese negotiators constitutes a major difference
between Chinese and western business negotiating styles.

(2). Managerial Implications of Chinese Negotiating Style

On the basis of the above mentioned 6 dimensions of Chinese negotiating style, I

finally offers the following pieces of advice to you if you want to do business with
Chinese companies in future.

- Sending the right team to China: Pay attention to the status of your team
members.
- Show political support and government backing behind your China mission.
- Identifying real Chinese negotiators.
- Taking a people-oriented approach: never expecting one-off legal agreements to
bring about the planned outcome.
- Use local Chinese
- Maintain a consistent team: remember the Chinese do business with you as a
person and not as a company.
- Pad your price reasonably: The Chinese always believe that any price you quote
must have some water content
- Help your Chinese counterpart:

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- Invite the Chinese to negotiate abroad.
- Be patient
- Explode the myth of face: Experts on Chinese business negotiating universally
advice that you will gain much if you help a Chinese save face, and you will lose
more if you do not.

Reading 1 :
China to seek world heritage listing of "butterfly
lovers" story

NINGBO, June 13 (Xinhuanet) -- China will seek the listing of its centuries-old
folklore story "The Butterfly Lovers" as non-material world heritage, with a
formal application expected to be submitted to UNESCO in 2006.

; The plan was announced at a meeting of representatives from sixcities of

four east and central China provinces which concluded Saturday in Ningbo, a
booming port city in the coastal province of Zhejiang. All the six cities have
claimed to be the place of origin of the "Butterfly Lovers" story.

A Still of China's Yue Opera "Butterfly Lovers". (File Photo)

The most popular love story in China, the "Butterfly Lovers" tells the legend
of two 4th century Chinese lovers who could not get married in their lifetime
due to different family backgrounds and turned into a butterfly couple after
their death. The story was also called "China's Romeo and Juliet".

For centuries, the story has been adapted into traditional operas, movies
and TV plays. A modern concerto adapted from the story has now become a
music classic repeatedly played by world-class masters.

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 Chinese folklore experts say that the debate over the place of origin of the
story, which has heated up in recent years as several cities across the country
claim to possess historical records or cultural relics relating to the story, has
affected thestory's application for a world heritage listing.

As a result, the China Butterfly Lovers' Culture Research Society hosted the
meeting in Ningbo, where archaeologists claimed to have excavated a 1,600-
year-old tomb believed to belong to the male protagonist in the story, to help
all involved parties dispel contentions and seek common grounds.

"Participants of the meeting have reached consensus that the 'Butterfly

Lovers' story is a precious cultural legacy for the Chinese nation, and it's
necessary and imperative to seek the story's listing as non-material world
heritage for a better protection of this cultural legacy," said a spokesman with
the research society.

According to the spokesman, all the regions with records or relics relating
to the story have agreed to work together under the coordination of the
research society and jointly prepare the application materials in the next
couple of years.

Reading 2

Temple trying to save Shaolin Spirit

ZHENGZHOU, June 9 (Xinhuanet) -- The famous Shaolin Kongfu is actually a

comprehensive cultural and spiritual system rather than a mere boxing art.

Martial arts are only part of Shaolin Kongfu's abundant cultural heritage
accumulated over 1,500 years, said Shi Yongxin, master of the Shaolin Temple,
widely regarded as the cradle of Shaolin Boxing and Zen of the Chinese
Buddhism.

The Temple was built in 495 in the period of the Northern and Southern
Dynasties (420-581) and is now located in the Songshan Mountain area in
Dengfeng city of central China's Henan Province.

The ancient Shaolin transcripts documented 708 sets of the so-called

"Kongfu" including practices aiming to build the internal world and medication
methods.

Shaolin Boxing, as part of the Shaolin Kongfu heritage, basically serves

religious and cultural purposes and should not be separated from the
Buddhist spirit, said Shi Yongxin.

The Shaolin master told Xinhua the Temple has been trying to protect the

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authentic Shaolin Spirit from being violated and misused for commercial
purposes in recent years by popularizing the conception that Shaolin monks
practice Kongfu as a method of strengthening their inner self as demanded by
Buddhist doctrines.

The Temple even organized international seminars and created Shaolin

Kongfu plays and cartoons to more clearly position "Shaolin Kongfu" within
the Buddhist framework, according to the Master.

Wang Wenzhang, director of the China Arts Institute, said Shaolin Culture
incorporating Zen, martial arts, medical sciences and arts is the essence of the
Chinese culture and should be further popularized.

Protection of Shaolin heritage should be strengthened so as to prepare the

cultural and spiritual framework to be listed as a "world heritage", said Wang.

Being listed as a "world heritage" will help to better protect Shaolin Kongfu,
a traditional Chinese cultural system, said master Shi Yongxin.

Tests:
1, At the present, some archaeologists believe that the tomb of the male
protagonist in the Butterfly Lovers' story is
(a) in Beijing.
(b) in Hangzhou.
(c) in Nanjing.
(d) in Ningbo.

Correct answer: in Ningbo

2, The Shaolin Temple was built

(a) in 2000 years ago in Qufu in Shandong Province.

(b) in the Qing Dynasty by King Kangxi.
(c) in 495 ad in the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties.
(d) before the Cultural Revolution.

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