Gadj ah MadaIn

t erna
ti ona
l J ourna i ness May-August
l f o Bus , l. , Vo. ,17 No 2 2015

Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business

Vol. 17, No. 2 (May-August 2015): 107-124

Determinants of Investment Opportunity Set

(Degree of Internationalization and
Macroeconomic Variables)

Cynthia A. Utama* and Meiti Sulistika

Faculty of Economics, University of Indonesia,
Indonesia

Abstract: The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of internal factors (i.e. the degree of
internationalization, profitability, firm size, and financial leverage) and external factors (i.e. GNP
growth and the inflation rate) on firms growth opportunities or their Investment Opportunity Set
(IOS). The IOS is measured by the market-to-book assets ratio. The result shows that profitability
and firms size have a positive impact on the IOS whereas the degree of internationalization and
financial leverage has a negative influence on the IOS. Finally, the IOS is positively affected by GNP
growth while the inflation rate has a negative impact on IOS.

Abstrak: Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui pengaruh faktor internal (yaitu tingkat
internasionalisasi, profitabilitas, ukuran perusahaan, dan leverage keuangan) dan faktor eksternal
(yaitu pertumbuhan GNP dan tingkat inflasi) pada peluang pertumbuhan perusahaan atau set peluang
investasi (IOS). IOS diukur dengan rasio aset market-to-book. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa
profitabilitas dan ukuran perusahaan memiliki dampak positif pada IOS sedangkan tingkat
internasionalisasi dan le- verage keuangan memiliki pengaruh negatif pada IOS. Akhirnya, IOS positif
dipengaruhi oleh pertumbuhan GNP sementara tingkat inflasi memiliki dampak negatif pada IOS.

Keywords: degree of internationalization; firm size; gross national product; inflation

rate;
investment opportunity set; leverage; market to book ratio; profitability

JEL classification: E43; E44; G31; G32

*httCor
p ://responding
jou rn al.ugm.a cauthors e-mail: cynthiautama@gmail.com, cynthiautama@yahoo.com,
.id /gam aijb
 cynthia.afriani@ui.ac.id
107
ISSN: 1141-1128

108
 Gadjah MadaInternational Journal of Business May-August,Vol.
17,No.2, 2015
Introduction empirical studies focused

A firms value is a function of its

exist- ing assets (assets-in-place) and growth
oppor- tunities (Myers 1977; AlNajjar and
Riahi- Belkaoui 2001; Kallapur and
Trombley 2001). Kester (1984) corroborated
that a firms in- vestment choices include
firm growth oppor- tunities that deter mine
the firms real value and pro fit pote ntial.
M ason and Mer ton (1985) mentioned
that a high growth com- pany is a company
which has the capacity to carry out
investment activities in the form of the
purchase of assets, such as machines, that
support the production, the introduction of
new products, the acquisition of other
companies, and other capital expenditure as-
sociated with the maintenance and replace-
ment of the assets of the company. Vogt
(1997) mentioned that markets wil l react
positively to firms which have a positive net
present value of growth opportunities.
As mentioned above, the Investment
Opportunity Set (henceforth, IOS)
represents investment options held by
companies today, thus the IOS is very
important in determin- ing how the
company grows in the future. Therefore,
deter minants of IOS will affect h o w i n
ve st o r s ap p r ai se t h e c o mp an y
(Kallapur and Trombley 2001).
Al Najj ar and R iahi -Bel kaoui
(2001) found that a firms internal factors
(i.e. the deg ree of inter nationalization,
profitability, leverage, and firm size)
determine the IOS, while Riahi-Belkaoui
(2002) stated that in- ternal factors and
external factors (i.e. GNP and inflation)
affect the IOS.
Xiao et al. (2013) stated that previous
studies investigating the influence of inter-
n at i o n al i zat i o n o n f i r ms p e r f o
r man c e showed contradictory and
inconsistent re- sults. Further, those

http ://jou rn al.ugm.a c.id /gam aijb

 Utama and
on multinational corporations in developed significant scope to Sulistikaboost
fur- ther
countries. investment.
On the other hand, Indonesian firms
operating in emerging economies tend to
lack experience, have fewer resources, and
are newly internationalized, relative to
multina- tional corporations in developed
countries. Further, international trade in
Indonesia is a significant proportion of the
Gross Domes- tic Product (GDP) as shown
below.
Indonesias GDP per capita has risen al-
most 5 fold in the past forty years (Figure
1). Trade has played an important role in
this remarkable achievement. In the past 25
years, i.e. until 2010 trade, as a share of
GDP, increased significantly in Indonesia,
in part due to the countrys outward
oriented devel- opment strategy. And while
the deep global trade contraction in 2009 is
apparent, more recent data sug gests that
trade has increased to levels closer to trend
(OECD 2012).
As trade increases in proportion to
GDP, then this also brings an increase in
foreign direct investments. OECD (2012)
stated that:
Inward stocks of Foreign Direct Investment
(FDI ) in Indonesia h ave bee n
increasing steadily since 2003 and stood
at 17% of GDP in 2010. This upward
trend persisted in spite of the global economic
crisis of 2008-
09; in fact, inward FDI stocks as a share of
GDP reached their highest point (20%) in
the last 7 years in 2009, the worst year of
the g lo bal e c ono m ic c ri s i s. Thi s re
flec ts Indonesias attractiveness as an
investment destination both in terms of its
large domes- tic market as well as its location
as a produc- tion platform to serve other
Asian markets. However, Indonesias FDI
performance lags most of the other ASEAN
economies, sug- gesting that there is

108
Figure 1. Evolution of GDP per Capita and Trade as A Share of GDP in Indonesia

GDP per capita (constant 2000 USD) Trade as a percentage of GDP (right
1,800 axis) 180

1,600 160

1,400 140

1,200 120

1,000 100

800 80

600 60

400 40

200 20

Considering that trade has a significant currently many companies export their prod-
role in the economy, then a study examining ucts abroad. Delios and Henisz (2000) stated
whether internationalization has a significant that internationalization requires the devel-
impact on firms investment oppor tunities opment of knowledge and capabilities regard-
warrants further research. It is also ing international market conditions, and that
intriguing to investigate the influence of the companies also faced uncertainty and
international- ization of firms in constraints related to the environment at the
underdeveloped countries like Indonesia. international level. International trade regu-
As far as we know, the extant literature lations in the country where the company is
that investigates the influence of internal fac- expanding its market will limit the degree of
tors and external factors simultaneously on internationalization of the firm (Hill 2007).
IOS is very rare. In Indonesia, Hasibuan This condition may restrain the firms growth
(2007) and Tumpal and Natalia (2007) opportunities. AlNajjar and Riahi-Belkaoui
inves- tigated the influence of internal (2001), Riahi-Belkaoui (2002), and Hasibuan
factors on the company IOS without (2007) found a negative relationship between
considering the impact of external factors or the level of internationalization and IOS.
macroeconomic variables on IOS. Ratnawati Based on the previous explanations, the
(2007) examined the impact of inflation on objectives of this study were to investigate:
IOS but did not examine the influence of (1) the influence of profitability, firm size,
internal factors on IOS. degree of internationalization, and leverage
Further, the extant literature that con- on IOS; (2) the influence of external factors,
siders the impact of the degree of interna- i.e. GNP growth and inflation rate on IOS.
tionalization on IOS is quite rare, though

109
 The remainder of the paper is firms and good investments. A g ood
organized as follows. Section 2 reviews the firm may be
literature and hypotheses development.
Section 3 de- scribes the data and
methodology. Section 4 describes the
empirical results and section 5 concludes the
paper.

Hypotheses Development
Profitability shows a companys
ability to earn profit. A higher profitability
allows the firm to sustain its existence in
their cho- sen industry. The level of
profitability repre- sents how profitable a
business is (Keown et al. 2002). So, a firms
profitability reflects its perfor mance to
potential investors (Savitri
2009). Further, the greater the firms profit-
ability is, the bigger the possibility of retained
earnings for investment purposes. Firms In-
vestment Opportunity Sets are positively in-
fluenced by profitability. Bodie et al.
(2009) argued that projects with high
profitability (i.e. higher return on equity
or ROE) in- creased a firms growth
opportunities if the firm could invest its
earnings into projects where the ROE
exceeded the cost of capi- tal. Consequently,
firms with good investment opportunities
tend to increase their retained earnings or
plow back ratio (i.e. the ratio of retained
earnings-to-net income). Further, Bodie et
al. (2009) elaborated on the rela- t io nshi
p be twee n th e R et ur n on E quit y
(ROE), the Price to Earnings ratio (P/E ra-
tio), and the Price to Book Value (PBV or
P/ B) as proxies of the IOS or growth
opportu- nities as shown below
P P/B
=
E ROE

According to Bodie et al. (2009),

Wall Street distinguishes between good
highly profitable, with a correspondingly
high ROE. But if its stock price is bid up
to a level commensurate with this ROE, its
P/B ratio will also be high, and the stock
price may be a relatively large multiple of
earnings, thus reducing its attractiveness as
an invest- ment. The high ROE of the firm
does not by itself imply that the stock is a
good invest- ment. Conversely, troubled
firms with low ROEs can be good
investments if their prices are low enough.
Thus, we conclude that there is a positive
relationship between profitabil- ity and IOS
(Riahi-Belkaoui 2002).
H1 : Profitability has a positive influence on the
In- vestment Opportunity Set.
A larger firm size usually means it has
larger assets that can be used for investment,
and makes it easier for the firm to compete
and dominate the market. Gaver and Gaver
(1993) found that the greater the firms
size and the more established the company
was, it would have higher investment
opportuni- ties compared to those of a
smaller company. In addition, a larger size
firm has lower asym- metric information
and a higher reputation, so the company has
easier access to external financing. Large
and more established firms tend to be more
active in increasing the value of their
investments in various ways, such as product
differentiation to create barriers to entry,
economies of scale, and patents (Chung and
Charoenwong 1991). AlNajjar and Riahi- Bel
kaoui (2001) also corro borat ed that a
firms size has a positive impact on its
IOS. They argued that small companies
often face limitations or difficulties in
determining the choice and execution of
new projects, or dif- ficulties in restructuring
existing assets, while large companies tend
to dominate the mar- ket position in their
industry. In other words, a greater firm size
results in greater invest- ment opportunities.
 Dhan ar aj an d Bear ni sh ( 2003) and Riahi-Belkaoui (2001), Riahi-Belkaoui
also stated that larger firms have a larger (2002), and Hasibuan (2007) found a nega-
quan- tum of resources and availability of tive relationship between the level of inter-
manage- rial resources. Bloodgood et al. nationalization and IOS.
(1996) also showed that larger firms have H3: The level of internationalization negatively af-
the capability to hire more skilled
fects the IOS.
managers than smaller firms. Therefore,
larger firms have more ca- pacity to fund Higher financial leveraged firms will
their growth opportunities than smaller experience a higher risk of default due to
firms. their inability to pay the interest and
H2 : Firm size has a positive effect on IOS. principal of their debt (Angeline 2007).
Likewise, the in- terest payments and
Sapienza et al. (2006) argued that a com- principal of debt may increase the potential
pany that has entered the international mar- loss of investment be- cause the interest and
ket needs to adapt to the environment of the principal payments can be higher than the
country where the company is expanding its return on investment. In addition, using
market. Singla and George (2013) also sup- leverage in the firms capital structure also
port the fact that internationalization causes limits the investment decisions due to the
additional costs of learning about the foreign boundaries in the debt covenants (negative
culture and markets, and firms when they covenants), where the lender deter- mines
first start in a foreign market might suffer certain restrictions to ensure repayment of
from poor product image. Hope et al. the principal and interest. Francis et al.
(2011) also mentioned that: (2013) showed that financial leverage indi-
cates a firms riskiness and higher leverage
Other costs include those in manufac-
impacts on its access to external financing.
turing and selling abroad which are needed
Thus, fir ms with a higher leverage have a
to modify the production process and mar-
higher financial risk than those with a lower
keting strategy to adapt the product to local
leverage, and they tend to reduce their busi-
conditions. Further, a firm incurs costs asso-
ness risk through a lower Investment Oppor-
ciated with staffing, and setting up an inter-
tunity Set. Therefore, leverage has a negative
nal management system and an external
influence on IOS (Gaver and Gaver 1993;
busi- ness network.
Gul 1999; Al Naj j ar an d R i ah i -Be l
Delios and Henisz (2000) stated that in kao ui
addition to requiring the development of 2001) .
knowledge and capabilities regarding inter-
H4: Leverage has a negative effect on IOS.
national market conditions, the company also
faced uncertainty and constraints related to The Gross National Product (hence-
the environment at the international level. forth, GNP) measures the overall economic
International trade regulations in the country strength of a country and is an indicator of
where the company is expanding its market economic prosperity. Major changes in GNP
will limit the degree of internationalization (i .e. GNP gro wt h) pro vid e a sign al of
of the firm (Hill 2007). This condition will a co un tr y s ec ono mic stre ngt h and
hinder the firms investment growth oppor- co nse- quently, act as an indicator for
tunities. Consistent with this view, companies to make an investment decision.
AlNajjar A positive trend in GNP growth will create
111
111
 a favorable cli-

112
112
mate for investment. Francis et al. (2013) also where P is the market price, while k and g
corroborate that higher GDP enhances the show the cost of capital and expected growth
growth of financial markets and consequently consecutively. Hence, unanticipated increases
provides better investment oppor tunities. in inflation produce higher costs of capital
Lakonishok et al. (1994) showed that eco- and given the ceteris paribus of other vari-
nomic growth (i.e. growth in real GDP) has a ables, market price and also price to book
positive influence on the IOS (i.e. price to value will be reduced. Thus, the inflation rate
book value). Countries with lower economic has a negative effect on the IOS (Ratnawati
growth are assumed to have a bad economic 2007) .
outlook and consequently, these countries H6 : Inflation rate negatively affects the Investment
firms trade at discount or have a lower price
Opportunity Set.
to book value. Therefore, the annual change
in GNP is expected to have a positive im- A firms age indicates its ability to con-
pact on IOS (Riahi- Belkaoui 2002). tinue to carry out its business and shows a
H5 : The annual growth in GNP has a positive level of learning curve or firm experience
in- fluence on the Investment Opportunity Set. (Febriana 2004). The age of a firm also pre-
vents potential bias towards newly diversi-
Unanticipated increases in inflation will fied fir ms in the inter national market
affect companies wages and the Cost Of area (Kim et al. 1989). Previous studies
Goods Sold (COGS), total asset value, and showed that a firms growth or investment
the market price of the companys product. opportu- nities had a positive correlation
Unanticipated inflation creates uncertainty with the firms age (Das 1995; Heshmati
about the future economic situation (Sukirno 2001; Ermini 2008; Teruel-Carrizosa 2010).
2004). This situation decreases a Growth opportunity can be represented by
companys the R&D-to-assets ra- tio (Brown and
motivation to develop its economic activi- Peterson 2009) or innova- tional
ties. A firms investments are highly depen- performance (Yildiz et al. 2013). Be- sides,
dent on changes in the inflation rate, because an established company tends to in- crease
the inflation rate determines nominal inter- its public confidence in the company so that
est rates and consequently affects the costs it will increase its growth opportuni- ties.
of capital for the fir ms investments.
H7: The Investment Opportunity Set is positively
High rates of inflation will increase interest
influenced by a firms age.
rates, which in turn will reduce
investment. As mentioned above, In addition, the extant literature shows
Lakonishok et al. (1994) argued that lower that any negative influence of international-
economic growth, indicated by higher ization is affected by the firms size and age.
inflation, yields a lower IOS (i.e. price to Firms that are characterized by their small
book value). This argument is sup- ported size and young age are assumed to be of
by Bodie et al. (2002) who showed that the higher risk when conducting their
market value of a firm is affected by the expansion into foreign markets because
cost of capital in the constant dividend these firms tend to have a l ack of re sourc
growth model provided below: es and exper ien ce (Fer nandez and
Nieto 2006: Claver et al.
D1 2008; Shrader et al. 2000). Hence, Singla and
P=
k-g
George (2013) concluded that the degree of and Kallapur (2001) stated that proxies of
risk aversion to entering a foreign market the IOC can be classified into 4 types: price-
could be reduced by older and larger firms based proxies, investment based proxies,1
having more ability to impose patents and variance measures,2 and composite measures.
contracts in their international expansion. The price-based proxies are based on the as-
H7 : Firm size positively moderates the negative re- sumption that growth firms will have higher
lationship between the IOS and the level of market values relative to assets in place be-
inter nationalization. cause growth prospects are at least partially
impounded in the stock price. That is, a ma-
H8 : Firms age positively moderates the negative re-
terial portion of the market value of equity
lationship between the IOS and the level of
is accounted for by g rowth opportunities.
inter nationalization.
Accordingly, price-based proxies are formed
as a ratio incorporating a measure of the as-
Methods sets in place and the fir ms market
value. Kallapur and Trombley (1999) also
showed that among the commonly used
Definition of Operational
proxies, mar- ket-to-book value ratios were
Variables the most highly correlated with future
This study used 6 independent growth. While, Kole (1991) and Smith and
variables which were expected to determine Watts (1992) used the book to market value
the IOS, i.e. profitability, firm size, degree of asset or the inver- sion of price to book.
of interna- tionalization, leverage, GNP In other words, price to book value reflects
growth, and in- flation rate. the mix of assets in place and growth
opportunities, because the book value of
Investment Opportunity Set (IOS) assets is a proxy for assets in place, and the
One variable that is used as a proxy of market value of assets is a proxy for both
IOS is the ratio of market-to-book assets the assets in place and growth opportunities.
(henceforth, PBV) which is the most com- Therefore, this study used the ratio of
monly used proxy measure of investment market-to-book assets as a proxy rep-
opportunities in a company. This proxy is resenting the IOS, and it was measured as
used to measure a companys growth follows:
prospects. PBV is the ratio of the market Market to Book Assets=
value of as- sets to the book value of (Total Assets - Total Common Equity) +
assets. Generally, the PBV is greater than 1 (Shares Outstanding x Share Closing Price)
(one), showing that a company has good Total Asstes
investment opportuni- ties (Smith and
Watts 1992; Ho et al. 2004; AlNajjar and Profitability
Riahi-Belkaouli 2001; Adam and Goyal Profitability is measured by the ROA,
2007). Kallapur and Trombley (1999) i.e. the amount of net income earned by the

1
Investment-based proxies include R&D, sales, ratio of capital expenditure to value and are based on
the assumption that a high level of investment activity is positively related to the IOS.
Variance measures include variance of returns, asset b and are based on the assumption that options
2

become more valuable as the variability of returns on the underlying assets increases.
company each year divided by the total as- Sample
sets of the company in the same year (Riahi-
Belkaoui 2002). The equation is as follows: The financial data used in this study
were hand-collected from the annual finan-
ROA = Net Income cial statements of companies listed on the
Total Assets Indonesian Stock Exchange from 2000-
2008. The financial statements included
Firm Size
balance sh e e t s, i n c o me st ate me n t s,
In line with previous empirical studies, c ash f l o ws, changes in capital and this
this study employed the logarithm of total data came from the Indonesian Stock
assets as a proxy of the firms size to adjust Exchange. It can be do wn lo ad ed fr om
for the large differences in size amongst com- t he I nd one si an S to ck Exchanges web
panies ( Ferry and Jones 1979; AlNajjar and site (i.e. www. id x .c o.id) or from the CD
Riahi-Belkaoui 2001; Wibowo and Andriyani Room of the Faculty of Eco- nomi cs,
2008) University o f Indone sia Libr ar y. Other
. data used in this study were the clos- ing
Degree of Internasionalization stock prices, which can be obtained from the
Level Ind onesian Capit al Market Di rectory
(ICMD) provided by the Faculty of Econom-
The degree of internationalization level ics, University of Indonesia Library.
i s c al c ul at e d b y t h e t o t al amo un
t o f a companys export sales expressed as Inflation data was gathered from the
a per- centage of the total sales of that Indonesian Financial Statistics records (IFS)
company ( S ul l i van 1994; R i ah i - Be l which are available in the library of Bank
kao ui 2002; Filatotchev and Piesse 2009): Indonesia. Further, GNP data was provided
by the Indonesian Central Bureau of Statis-
Exports Sales tics library. The economic growth was com-
ESTS =
Total Sales puted from real GNP growth from products
and services produced, thus to compute the
Leverage growth, we had to calculate the output of
A firms leverage is proxied by the ratio products and services at a fixed price, i.e. the
of its long-term debt to total assets price prevailing in any given year that can be
(AlNajjar and Riahi-Belkaoui 2001): used to assess products and services pro-
Longter m Debt duced in other years. The value of national
LEV=
Total Assets income earned in this calculation is called the
national income at a fixed price or real na-
Firm Age
tional income (Sukirno 2004).
A firms age in this study is shown by
To be included in the final sample, the
the total age of the assets held by the com-
obser vation had to meet the following cri-
pany.3 The firms age is measured by the
teria: (1) The companies were manufactur-
fol- lowing equation:
ing companies publicly listed on the Indo-
Accum ulated D epreci ati on nesian Stock Exchange; (2) The companies
AGE=
Depreciation Expense produced financial reports from 2000 until

http://www.investopedia.com/exam-g uide/c fa-level-1/assets/fixed-asset-disclosures.asp, June 25 2014,

3

pm. 4.05
Table 1. Summary of Sample Selection Procedure

No. Data N
Total non-financial listed companies on the Indonesian Stock 315
1.
Exchange
2. Complete availability of financial reports from 1999 until 2008 146
3. Financial reports denominated in Rupiah 138
Complete financial data according to research operational 72
4.
definition per year
Total final observations from 2000 until 2008 (i.e. 72 firms x 9
5. 648
years)
Total final observations based on firms age from 2003 until 432
6.
2008 (i.e. 72 firms x 6 years)
Source: Authors (2010)

2008; (3) Financial statements had to be de- the Indonesian Stock Exhange, we employed
nominated in Rupiah (Rp). The result of the 7 industry categories, i.e.: (1) miscellaneous
sample selection is shown in the table industries; (2) the trade, service, and invest-
below. The total observations comprise of ment industries; (3) basic industries and the
648 items, covering 73 firms over a 9 year chemical industry; (4) mining; (5) the con-
period, but given the availability of data of sumer products industry; (6) the agricultural
some firms ages, the total number industries; (7) the infrastructure, utilities and
observations were re- duced to 432, from 72 transportation, plus property and real estate
firms over 6 years. industries. Thus, we used 6 dummy
variables and we set the infrastr ucture,
Empirical Model utilities and transportation plus property
We employed 3 equations to test our and real estate industries as the base
hypotheses. The first model was used to test category. Finally, we also used years as
the model without the firms age variable, but dummy variables to see whether there was
using the moderating variables and industry an influence from the eco- nomic crisis on
categ ory as independent variables. The firms growth opportunities. Empirical
sec- ond equation added the firms age models in this study were formu- lated as
variable without the moderating variables follows:
and indus- try category. While in the third PBVit = + 1ROAit-1 +
equation, we 2SIZEit-1 +
simultaneously investigated the impact of the + + GNP
ESTS
3 it-1
LEV
4 it-1
+ 5 it
firms age, the moderating variables and the
6 INFit + ........ (1)
industry category. We used the industry cat-
it

egories as control variables because many PBV = + + SIZE +

it
ROA 1 it-1 2 it-1
previous studies showed that firms charac- 3 it-1 4 it-1 5 it
teristics are very sensitive to the industry
ESTS + LEV + AGE
+
cat- egory. Based on 9 industry sectorals
listed on 6 GNP
it
+ 7 INF
it
+it ......
(2)
PBVit = + 1ROAit-1 + DummyMI NE = dummy variable, coded as 1
2SIZEit-1 +
+ + AGE for the mining industry and
ESTS
3 it-1
LEV
4 it-1
+ 5 it
zero (0) otherwise
6 it
+ INFit +
"GNP 7
DummyCPI = dummy variable, coded as 1
8 + ESTSAGEit
9 it for the consumer products
ESTSSIZE +
10DummyMIit + 11DummyTSIit + industry and zero (0) other-
12 DummyBIC
+ DummyAGR + wise
13
DummyAG R = dummy variable, coded as 1
....... (3)
DummyYears +
11
it
vestment industries and zero
PBV = Price to Book Value (0) otherwise
= intercept DummyBC I = dummy variable, coded as 1
for the basic and chemical
= coefficient industries and zero (0) oth-
i = company indicator erwise
t = year
ROA = return on assets
SIZE = logarithm of total assets
ESTS = export sales per total assets
LEV = long term debt per total assets
GNP = annual growth of GNP
INF = inflation rate
AGE = firm age
ESTSSIZE = moderating variable, i.e. ex-
por t sal es per total
assets multiplied by firms
size
ESTSAGE = moderating variable, i.e. ex-
por t sal es per total
assets multiplied by firms
age
DummyM I = dummy variable, coded as
1 for miscellaneous
industries and zero (0)
otherwise
DummyTSI = dummy variable, coded as 1
for the trade, services and in-
 for the agricultural industries
and zero (0) otherwise
DummyYea rs = dummy variable, coded as
1 for the years before 2007
and zero (0) otherwise
=
error

Empirical Result

Descriptive Statistics
Table 2 provides descriptive statistics
of the variables based on the Equation 1. The
Normality Test showed that the PBV data
does not have a normal distribution because
Jarque-Bera was larger than 3, but consider-
ing that our total observations are 648
(n>30) then the data fulfills the Central
Limit Theo- rem and the data can be
assumed to have a normal distribution.
Based on the descriptive statistics out-
put, we found that the average of the PBV
was 1.1891, meaning that on average fir
ms had good investment opportunities. The
av- erage for the ROA was 0.0469 or 4.69
per- cent, showing that it was quite
lowsuggesting that firms had a lack of
efficiency when us- ing their assets to yield
profits. The ESTS had an average value of
0.2805, which meant that the average of
export sales to total sales was
28.05 percent. Thus, on average firms de-
pended on domestic sales for their revenue.
Furt her, t he ave rage le verage (LEV)
was
 Utama and
Sulistika
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics

PBV ROA SIZE ESTS LEV GNP INF

Mean 1.1891 0.0469 11.9502 0.2805 0.2070 0.0533 0.0942

Median 1.0815 0.0449 11.8626 0.1807 0.1267 0.0543 0.0935
Maximum 2.6036 0.9705 13.3762 0.75989 0.6997 0.0773 0.1710
Minimum 0.0029 -0.9722 10.6785 0.0000 0.0000 0.0325 0.0510
Jarque-Bera 46.7812 7151.472 18.1332 70.3711 85.0522 7.2565 71.7154
Probability 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0266 0.0000

20.70 percent, meaning that the major source Before we test the hypothesis, we have
of external financing came from equity. to test the best model from the 3 models
The annual change in GNP shown above.4 The Chow Test is a statistical
(GNP) had an average value of 0.0533 or test that determines whether the Common/
5.33 per- cent and the average of the Pooled Least Square method is used, or al-
inflation rate (INF) was 0.0942 or 9.42 ternatively the Fixed Effect Model is em-
percent. Generally, the Indonesian ployed. The Chow Test result concluded that
government maintains the in- flation rate at the most suitable method used for this regres-
under 10 percent, thus creat- ing a sion was the Fixed Effect Model. Further, to
favorable environment for economic ac- check if the Random Effects Model was a
tivities. more appropriate model to use than the Fixed
Effect Model, we ran the Hausman Test.
Statistical Result The result from this test concluded that the
Ran- dom Effects Model was the better
This study used a panel data, conse- statistical model because the p-value was
quently we deployed 3 statistical models, i.e. not signifi- cant. Further observations from
the Common/Pooled Least Square (PLS), this study- i.e. that N (cross section) was
the Fixed Effect Model (FEM) and the greater than the sum of T (time series),
Random Effects Model (REM). Table 3 showed that gen- erally, the Random Effects
below shows a summary of the results of Model was more appropriate for this study.
the estimation coefficients and p-value of
the first model.

4
We used the Chow Test and Hausman Test to decide the best prediction model. The Chow Test is a test
to determine whether PLS or FEM is better. The hypothesis is stated as follow:
H0: Use Common / pooled model Least Square
(PLS) H1: Use the Fixed Effect Model (FEM)
The Hausman Test was used to determine whether the REM or FEM model was better. The hypothesis is stated
as follow:
H0: Use Random Effect Model
(REM) H1: Use the Fixed Effect
Gadjah MadaInternational Journal of Business May-August,Vol.
17,No.2, Model
2015 (MET)
Table 3. Summary of Statistical Output of First Model
Variabel Dependent: PBV

Variables Hypotheses Common/Poole Fixed Effect Random Effect

d Least Square Model Model
ROA (+) 0.8288*** 0.3533*** 0.4290***
(0.0000) (0.0003) (0.0000)
SIZE (+) 0.2447*** 0.2299** 0.2188***
(0.0000) (0.0149) (0.0000)
ESTS (-) -0.3254*** -0.0483 -0.2017**
(0.0000) (0.6976) (0.0326)
LEV (-) -0.5059*** -0.1758** -0.2611***
(0.0000) (0.0451) (0.0016)
GNP (+) 2.4079* 2.6354*** 2.6246***
(0.0709) (0.0099) (0.0062)
INF (-) -0.4275 -0.6042* -0.5694*
(0.3433) (0.0558) 0.0713
R 0.2165 0.6605 0.0924
ADJUSTED R 0.2092 0.6146 0.0839
DURBIN-WATSON 0.64180 1.2614 1.1113
Prob (F-Stat) 0.0000*** 0.0000*** 0.0000***
** * significant at a level of 1 percent
** significant at a level of 5 percent
* significant at a level of 10 percent

Table 4. Chow Test and Hausman Test

Redundant Fixed Effects Tests

Pool: FEM1
Test cross-section fixed effects

Effects Test Statistic d.f. Prob.

Cross-section F 10.4959 (71,570) 0.0000
Cross-section Chi-square 541.8024 71 0.0000

Correlated Random Effects - Hausman Test

Pool: REM1
Test cross-section random effects
Cross-section random 0.000000 6 1.0000
 In general, the regression model output 2000). International trade regulation in the
with the Random Effects method can be country where the company is expanding its
con- sidered as good. This was indicated by
the significant value of Prob (F-statistic),
which meant that the model was able to
explain the relationship between the
Investment Oppor- tunity Set as the
dependent variable and the independent
variables, namely profitability (ROA),
firms size (SIZE), deg ree of inter-
nationalization (ESTS), leverage (LEV), the
annual GNP growth (GNP) and the rate of
inflation (INF).
We found that profitability (ROA) had
a positive effect on the IOS. Hence, a
greater fir m profitability also shows a
larger possi- bility of retained earnings for
investment purposes (Riahi- Belkaoui and
AlNajjar 2001; Riahi-Belkaoui 2002). We also
found that the IOS was positively affected
by a fir ms size (AlNajjar an d Riahi-
Belkaoui 2001). This finding supports that
small companies often face limitations or
difficulties in determining their choice and
execution of new projects, or difficulties in
restructuring existing assets. On the other
hand, large companies and more established
companies tend to be more ac- tive in
increasing the value of their invest- ment in
various ways, such as product differ-
entiation to create barriers to entry, econo-
mi e s of sc al e , an d p at e n t s ( C hun
g an d Charoenwong 1991). Thus, large
companies tend to dominate market
positions in their industr y.
Our result showed that the level of in-
ternationalization (ESTS) negatively affected
the IOS (Hasibuan 2007), so the level of in-
ternationalization hampers the investment
growth opportunities. This result
corroborates the argument that companies
face uncertainty and constraints relating to
the environment at the international level
(Delios and Henisz
market will constrain the degree of interna- percent level; (3) IOS was
tionalization of the firm (Hill 2007).
Firm leverage (LEV) negatively affected
the IOS (Smith and Watts 1992; Gaver and
Gaver 1993; Gul 1999; AlNajjar and Riahi-
Belkaoui 2001). The interest payments and
principal of debt may increase the potential
loss of investment because the interest and
principal payments can be higher than the
return on the investment. In addition, using
leverage in the firms capital structure
also limits the investment decisions due to
the boundaries in debt covenants (negative
cov- enants), where the lender imposes certain
re- strictions to ensure repayment of the
princi- pal and interest.
Finally, we found that macroeconomic
variables inf luenced the IOS. The annual
change of GNP (DGNP) had a positive in-
fluence on the IOS, so our result supports
the idea that a positive trend in GNP growth
will create a favorable climate for
investment (Riahi-Belkaoui 2002).
Meanwhile, the infla- tion rate (INF) had a
negative influence on the IOS. Therefore,
the rate of inflation tends to reduce a
companys motivation to develop its
economic activities. Investment by a firm is
highly dependent on changes in the infla-
tion rate because the inflation rate
determines the interest rates and
consequently affects the costs of capital for
investing firms. High in- flation rates will
increase interest rates, which in turn will
reduce investment (Ratnawati
2007) .
Table 5 shows the empirical result of
the second equation where the firms age is
ad ded . We obt ai ned th e Ran dom E
ffe ct Model as the best prediction model
and the result showed that: (1) profitability
had a posi- tive influence on IOS but was
only margin- ally significant at 10 percent;
(2) firms size and GNP growth had
significant effects on the IOS at the 1
 Utama and
Sulistika
Table 5. Summary of Statistical Output of Second Model

Variabel Hypotheses Coefficient t- Sig.

statistics 1-tailed
C -1.6085 -2.1588 0.0157
ROA + 0.2267* 1.4791 0.0700
SIZE + 0.2336*** 3.7004 0.0001
ESTS - -0.2341** -1.9645 0.0251
LEV - -0.2448** -2.0071 0.0227
GNP + 2.9437*** 2.7068 0.0036
INF - -0.3530 -1.0667 0.1434
AGE + 0.0011 0.1576 0.4375
R-squared : 0.0856
Adj. R-squared : 0.0705
F : 5.6697
Sig. F : 0.0000***
Durbin Watson : 1.3465
*** significant at 1 percent level
** significant at 5 percent
level
* significant at 10 percent
level risk aversion to enter a foreign market can be
negatively affected by leverage and signifi- reduced by older firms (Singla and George
cant at 5 percent; (4) we failed to find the 2013) .
influences of inflation and firms age on the Next, Table 6 also shows that several
IOS. Therefore, the length of time a firm industries have a lower IOS than other in-
has existed in the industry does not increase dustries, i.e. (a) miscellaneous industries
its growth opportunities. (sig. at 1%); (b) trade, services and
investment (sig. at 1%); (c) basic and
Nevertheless, when we tested the mod-
chemical industries (sig. at 1%); (e) consumer
erating effect of firms size and firms age on
products industries (sig. at 5%); and (f) the
firms growth opportunities as shown in
agricultural industries (sig. at 10%). Thus, we
Table
concluded that firms IOS was highly
65, we found that only a firms age had a
determined by the industry categ or y.
mod- erating effect on the IOS. Thus, this
result supports previous studies that find the We also found that the IOS had a posi-
nega- tive influence of internationalization is tive relationship on firms profitability and
weak- ened by a firms age. Older fims are fir ms size, while leverage had a neg
assumed: (1) to have a lower risk when ative impact on IOS. Finally, our results
conducting for- eign expansion plans because failed to find the relationship between
these firms tend to have abundant resources economic con- ditions and IOS.
and experience (Fer nandez and Nieto
2006; Claver et al.
2008; Shrader et al. 2000); (2) the degree of
5
We already test OLS, FEM, and REM but FEM cannot be tested because we have a near singular
120
 Gadjah MadaInternational Journal of Business May-August,Vol.
matrix 17,No.2,
problem. 2015Further, based on OLS and REM, we conclude that OLS is the best prediction model because it
has greater R- squared.

121
Table 6. Summary of Statistical Output of Third Model
Variabel Dependent: PBV

Variables Common/ Random Variables Common/ Random

Pooled Effect Pooled Effect
Least Model Least Model
Square Square

ROA 0.7986*** Dummy MI -0.3462*** -0.3398*

0.2321* (0.0000) (0.0049) (0.0886)
(0.0635)
DummyTS I -0.4457*** -0.3422
SIZE 0.3228*** 0.2922*** (0.003) (0.1196)
(0.0000) (0.0007)
ESTS 0.1318 1.7910 DummyBCI -0.3592*** -0.3714*
(0.4725) (0.2340) (0.004) (0.0676)
MINE
LEV -0.5681*** -0.1793* Dummy -0.1148 -0.1393
CPI
(0.0000) (0.2234) (0.3130)
(0.0786) Dummy AGR
-0.2823** -0.2105
GNP -0.1198 -0.4129 (0.0238) (0.2076)
Dummy
(0.4803)
(0.4004) -0.2120* -0.1869
(0.0851) (0.2590)
INFL -0.1440 -0.2888
(0.3840) (0.1886) Dummyye ars -0.1102 -0.1233
(0.0652) (0.0.006
AGE -0.0340 -0.0207 )
(0.0000) (0.0168) R 0.3061 0.1383
ESTSSIZE -0.0930 -0.2315 ADJUSTED R 0.2794 0.1050
(0.2769) (0.1279)
ESTSAGE 0.0714** 0.0759**
(0.0013) DURBIN-WATSON 0.7150 1.3145
(0.0.003) Prob (F-Stat) 0.0000*** 0.0000***

*** significant at the 1 percent level

** significant at the 5 percent level
* significant at the 10 percent level

Conclusion internationaliza- tion had a negative

influence on IOS. Fur-
The aim of this study was to examine
the impact of internal and external factors
on firms Investment Opportunity Set. When
we tested without the industry category and
the moderating effects, the result showed that
internal factors, i.e. profitability and firm
size had a positive impact on the IOS, while
firms leverage and their degree of
ther, the IOS was determined by external fac-
tors, i.e. it was positively affected by GNP
growth. The implications of this study are:
first, as the globalization of business transac-
tions will continue, then a firm must consider
the impacts of their exports on their growth
opportunity. Second, regulators must create a
supporting business environment to provide
a higher IOS. Third, investors must carefully
select stocks with a high degree of interna-
tionalization because that will decrease the
firms IOS. Further, the IOS is also deter- vices and investment, basic and chemical in-
mined by favorable macroeconomic condi- dustries, consumer products industries; and
tions. Finally, when we investig ated the f) the agricultural industries. The implications
in- dustry category and the moderating from this result are: first, mature firms may
effects of firms size and age, we conduct higher levels of internalization com-
concluded that: (1) the negative relationship pared to newer fir ms because the
between the IOS and the degree of negative impacts on firms IOS can be
internationalization was weakened by the weakened. Sec- ond, several industries have a
fir ms age; (2) certain in- dustries have lower potential gain compared to other
lower growth than other indus- tries, i.e. industries.
miscellaneous industries, trade, ser-

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