Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 1988;51:745-752

Occasional review

The relevance of the Lewy body to the pathogenesis of

idiopathic Parkinson's disease
W R G GIBB, A J LEES
From the Department of Neuropathology, National Hospitals for Nervous Diseases, Maida Vale, London, UK

SUMMARY The Lewy body is a distinctive neuronal inclusion that is always found in the substantia
nigra and other specific brain regions in Parkinson's disease. It is mainly composed of structurally
altered neurofilament, and occurs wherever there is excessive loss of neurons. It occurs in some
elderly individuals and rarely in other degenerative diseases of the central nervous system. In 273
brains of patients dying from disorders other than Parkinson's disease, the age-specific prevalence
of Lewy bodies increased from 3-8% to 12-8% between the sixth and ninth decades. Associated
pathological findings suggest that these cases of incidental Lewy body disease are presymptomatic
cases of Parkinson's disease, and confirm the importance of age (time) in the evolution of the
disease. In view of the common and widespread occurrence of this disorder we propose that endo-
genous mechanisms operating in early life may be more important than environmental agents in the
pathogenesis of Lewy bodies and Parkinson's disease.

Neuronal inclusions called Lewy bodies are present in rare disorders or rare variants of common disorders
many surviving cells of the substantia nigra in all are also sometimes associated with Lewy bodies in the
cases of Parkinson's disease fulfilling the UK Parkin- nervous system, usually in some of the same areas
son's Disease Society Brain Bank clinical diagnostic affected in idiopathic Lewy body disease (table 2).
criteria (table 1), if alternative Parkinsonian disorders These differ, however, because most are familial,
are identified and excluded by pathological exam- occur at a young age and are associated with addi-
ination. Lewy bodies therefore provide a diagnostic tional pathological lesions. In contrast to Parkinson's
marker and are as essential for the pathological disease Lewy bodies are not invariably present; for
diagnosis as the specific distribution of cell loss. The example they are reported in only 10-15% of cases of
absence of Lewy bodies in even one bilateral 7 pm Hallervorden-Spatz disease.
section of substantia nigra excludes Parkinson's dis-
ease.' Reports of Lewy bodies in individuals without IDIOPATHIC LEWY BODY DISEASE
Parkinsonian features suggest a presymptomatic Distribution of Lewy bodies
phase of the disease (incidental Lewy body disease).2 In Parkinson's disease the distribution of Lewy bod-
Less commonly dementia34 and autonomic failure,5 ies is fairly specific and only certain medium to large-
due to cell loss and Lewy body formation in extra- sized monoaminergic and cholinergic neurons are
nigral sites, complicate Parkinson's disease, or rarely involved. In addition, the entire autonomic nervous
occur alone. These other manifestations of the Lewy system is affected,'2-14 from the Edinger-Westphal
body-Parkinson's disease spectrum encourage the nucleus, to the salivatory nuclei, dorsal vagal nucleus,
inclusive pathological term of idiopathic Lewy body the intermediolateral nucleus, and sympathetic and
disease (table 2). parasympathetic ganglia. In Parkinson's disease the
In recent years it has emerged that a small group of distribution of Lewy bodies is generalised, they can
easily be found in neurons of the substantia nigra,
Address for reprint requests: Dr W R G Gibb, National Hospitals locus coeruleus, dorsal vagal nucleus, nucleus basalis
for Nervous Diseases, Maida Vale, London W9 ITL, UK. of Meynert and hypothalamus, and sometimes in
Received 25 September 1987 and in revised form 5 February 1988. other sites such as the cerebral cortex, thalamus and
Accepted 16 February 1988 autonomic ganglia. The selection of specific cell pop-
745
746 Gibb, Lees
Table 1 UK Parkinson's Disease Society Brain Bank clinical arranged in a radially orientated or haphazard for-
diagnostic criteria mation.16 The deep eosinophilia of the core and halo
is due to greater packing density and apparent
STEP 1. Diagnosis of PARKINSONIAN SYNDROME. structural degradation of filaments. Polyclonal anti-
BRADYKINESIA (slowness of initiation of voluntary movement bodies reacting with neurofilament proteins produce
with progressive reduction in speed and amplitude of repetitive homogeneous or peripheral ring-like staining
actions).
And at least one of the following: of Lewy bodies in the substantia nigra and locus
a. muscular rigidity coeruleus.17 Similar results are obtained with mono-
b. 4-6 Hz rest tremor
c. postural instability not caused by primary visual, vestibular, clonal antibodies to neurofilament polypeptidest8 -21
cerebellar or proprioceptive dysfunction. demonstrating that at least some amino acid
STEP 2. Exclusion criteria for Parkinson's disease. sequences are common to neurofilaments and Lewy
history of repeated strokes with stepwise progression of Parkin- bodies. The pattern of immunostaining appears to be
sonian features determined by the structural arrangement of the
history of repeated head injury
history of definite encephalitis Lewy body, the better preserved filaments showing
oculogyric crises preferential staining. This explains why cortical and
neuroleptic treatment at onset of symptoms some brainstem Lewy bodies stain centrally,22 while
more than one affected relative
sustained remission most brainstem Lewy bodies showing a central den-
strictly unilateral features after three years sity (core) stain peripherally (fig 1, b & c). The outer
supranuclear gaze palsy
cerebellar signs part of the halo contains few filaments, mixed with
early severe autonomic involvement other organelles, and does not stain. The potential
early severe dementia with disturbances of memory, language and
praxis contribution of other cytoskeletal elements to the
Babinski sign Lewy body is under investigation.
presence of a cerebral tumour or communicating hydrocephalus on There are other morphological changes in Parkin-
CT scan.
negative response to large doses of levodopa (if malabsorption son's disease that mirror the distribution of Lewy
excluded) bodies. One of these is the granular pale body which,
MPTP exposure
in contrast to the Lewy body, is round or irregularly
STEP 3. Supportive prospective positive criteria for PARKINSON'S shaped, finely granular in texture and up to 30 pm in
DISEASE. Three or more required for diagnosis of definite Parkin-
son's disease. diameter. It fails to react with conventional histo-
unilateral onset logical stains including silver (fig Id). It should be
rest tremor present distinguished from the Lewy body, because its
progressive disorder
persistent asymmetry affecting the side of onset most appearance is less specific and is mimicked by neu-
excellent response (70-100%) to levodopa ronal changes in a variety of disorders including
severe levodopa-induced chorea
levodopa response for 5 years or more
clinical course of 10 years or more Table 2 Classification of Lewy body diseases
Sporadic
ulations (pathoklisis)"5 and the apparent absence of specific, generalised distribution of Lewy bodies
transynaptic or retrograde degeneration is one of the idiopathic* (primary) Lewy body disease
main characteristics of the disease process. Cell loss is asymptomatic (presymptomatic)
Lewy body-Parkinson's disease
documented for most locations in which Lewy bodies cortical Lewy body dementia
occur and consequently the Lewy body is considered Lewy body-autonomic failure
a marker of neuronal degeneration. subacute sclerosing panencephalitis
Sporadic or familial mode of inheritance
Structure and composition of the Lewy body specific, generalised distribution of Lewy bodies
In pigmented cells of the substantia nigra and locus juvenile Parkinsonian syndrome6
autosomal dominant
coeruleus the Lewy body is usually eosinophilic, olivopontocerebellar atrophy7
intracytoplasmic, round and 5-25 pm in diameter. autosomal dominant
Joseph disease8
Most consist of a central body surrounded by a pale- autosomal dominant
staining halo. Classical, but less common forms also Hallervorden-Spatz disease9
have a darker centre (core) and/or darker rings (lami- utosomal recessive or "sporadic"
ataxia-telangiectasia'o
nae) (fig la). Lewy bodies also exist within nerve cell autosomal recessive
processes and free in the neuropil when released from Lewy bodies only in motor neurons
a dying cell. Inclusions in nerve cell processes are motor neuron disease"
common in the dorsal vagal nucleus and sympathetic autosomal dominant or "sporadic"
ganglia, where they are frequently elongated or com-
plex in shape. Ultrastructurally the body is formed *the term "idiopathic" is used here to denote that the disease is
not associated with familial inheritance or other pathological
from aggregated filament, 7-15 nm in diameter, lesions.
The relevance of the Lewy body to the pathogenesis of idiopathic Parkinson's disease 747
~~....
~ ~ -A..

4.

Fig 1 (a) Lewy body with core (C), body (B) and halo (H) in pigmented cell of the locus coeruleus. Haematoxylin and
eosin (H&E), x 2625. (b) Lewy body in the locus coerueus stained with H&E, x 3360. (c) Same Lewy body as in (b)
stained only with monoclonal antibody RT97, x 3360. (d) Pale body (P) in pigmented cell of the substantia nigra.
H&E stain, x 3360.
Pick's disease, corticobasal degeneration and even INCIDENTAL LEWY BODY DISEASE
Alzheimer's disease and Steele-Richardson-Olszewski Age-specific prevalence
syndrome. In Parkinson's disease loss of substantia nigra cells
In view of the high degree of specificity of Lewy probably starts long before symptoms develop; in fact
bodies their successful experimental induction could an estimated 80% depletion of striatal dopamine
lead to advances in understanding the cellular abnor- occurs before the onset of motor symptoms.26 27
malities of Parkinson's disease. However, they have Even elderly patients who die early in the course of
not been found in non-human primates and it has the disease from unrelated disorders show moderate
not been possible to induce them experimentally. degrees of cell loss. It might be anticipated therefore
Filamentous aggregations in proximal axons and that nigral cell loss and Lewy bodies could be found
perikarya are an age- or disease-related histological in healthy persons without signs of Parkinson's dis-
feature in man, but can be induced by ease.28 A few studies do confirm that Lewy bodies can
iminodiproprionitrile, aluminium, spindle poisons23 be found in the normal elderly population, but these
and l-methyl-4-phenyl- 1 ,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine differ in the source of the material and the methods
(MPTP).24 2 Accumulation of neurofilament employed. In one study of 400 patients from Califor-
appears to be an essential abnormality in Parkinson's nia Mental Hospitals, 172 were younger than 60 years
disease and could result from an abnormality in the at death, but Lewy bodies were restricted to those
structure of neurofilament, from other ingredients or aged over 60 years.2 Equal prevalence rates for Lewy
from changes in the intraneuronal environment. bodies of about 12% were identified in the seventh to
However, the subsequent formation of the distinctive ninth decades, but seven of the 27 (26%) Lewy body
morphology of the Lewy body may be a non-specific positive cases had Parkinsonian features. The Lewy
process. bodies occurred in the same locations as in Parkin-
748 Gibb, Lees
son's disease, including the substantia nigra, locus
coeruleus, dorsal vagal nucleus and Edinger-
Westphal nucleus. When these data are combined
with that from four other studies reporting age-
specific prevalence a surprisingly consistent increase
between the sixth and ninth decades is obtained (table
3; fig 2). Some variation in prevalence rates between
studies could result from selection of early Parkin-
sonian cases rather than reflecting real differences, but
it is notable that in the Japanese and American stud-
ies Lewy bodies occur with considerable frequency.
a)
Forno stated that the nigral degenerative changes
in incidental cases were accompanied by a reduced
population of cells intermediate between the number 0

z
found in the normal substantia nigra and in Parkin-
son's disease,3' indicating that cells were being lost at
a faster rate than normal. Indeed, if all persons with 100-
Lewy bodies in the substantia nigra lose nigral cells
faster than normal they would be at potential risk of
developing Parkinson's disease. The size of the Lewy
body disease population might then help to indicate
the size of the population exposed to the cause of
Parkinson's disease.
50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99
Methods
Age (years)
In an attempt to clarify the size and characteristics of the Fig 2 Age-specific prevalence rates (percent) of incidental
population with incidental Lewy body disease we have Lewy body disease (-O-), obtained by combining data in
examined 273 brains obtained from two sources. Two hun- reported series (table 3). Bars show the number of Lewy
dred were collected from hospital and community sources body cases (shaded area) in relation to the total cases
for standard neuropathological examination and were examined in each decade.
stored in two neuropathology laboratories. The remaining examined by drawing around the substantia nigra and by
73 cases were collected for the purpose of the study by one moving in successive parallel sweeps using an eyepiece grat-
hospital necropsy service. After fixation in formol-saline icule. Sections were also examined from the locus coeruleus,
part of the substantia nigra was blocked by horizontal cuts dorsal vagal nucleus, nucleus basalis of Meynert and tempo-
perpendicular to the axis of the brainstem passing ventrally ral cortex. The Lewy body was defined as an intra-
between the oculomotor nerve and decussation of the supe- cytoplasmic eosinophilic body with a halo.
rior cerebellar peduncle. After routine processing and
embedding in paraffin wax one unilateral section, cut at 7 jm
thickness, was prepared and stained with haematoxylin and Results
eosin (H&E). Nerve cells in the sections were methodically
The 200 brains from neuropathology laboratories
Table 3 Age specific prevalence rates of incidental Lewy showed a variety of abnormalities, for example Hunt-
body disease in reported series. Lewy bodies usually located in ington's chorea, Wernicke's encephalopathy, multiple
the substantia nigra, locus coeruleus or both (see fig 2). sclerosis, cerebrovascular disease and trauma. Nine of
age in years Table 4 Age-specific prevalence rates of incidental Lewy
Study 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 body disease in this study (see fig. 3).
Woodard, 1962 (2) 0/62 9/75 13/108 5/43 0/2 age group retrospective prospective
Hamada and 1/18 4/28 5/13 0/2 0/0 years series series total
Ishii, 1963 (29)
Hirai, 1968 (30) 0/3 1/8 3/19 2/10 0/1 10-19 0/5 - 0/5
Forno and 1/45 7/77 7/99 6/29 1/6 20-29 0/16 0/1 0/17
Alvord, 1971 (31) 30-39 0/15 0/2 0/17
Tomonaga, 1983 (32) 1/39 8/82 10/65 5/15 1/3 40-49 0/26 0/1 0/27
Totals 3/167 29/270 38/304 18/99 2/12 50-59 2/48 (4.2%) 0/5 2/53 (3 8%)
1-8% 10-7% 12-5% 18 2% 16-7% 60-69 3/51 (5 9%) 0/13 3/64 (4 7%)
percentage prevalence 70-79 2/23 (8-7%) 2/20 (10-0%) 4/43 (9-3%)
80-89 2/14 (14 3%) 3/25 (12 0%) 5/39 (12 8%)
A total of 425 brains from persons younger than age 60 years 90-99 0/1 0/6 0/7
were examined. Causes of death included a wide range of 100-109 0/1 - 0/1
neuropsychiatric and systemic diseases.
The relevance of the Lewy body to the pathogenesis of idiopathic Parkinson's disease 749
20- Table 5 Evidence that incidental Lewy body disease
corresponds to presymptomatic Parkinson's disease.
16* -biochemical evidence for presymptomatic phasewith temporary
This
Thisstudy
study -cases of drug-induced Parkinsonian syndrome
11-00 remission on drug withdrawal, and post-mortem finding of
c 12 Lewy bodies"
-progressive cell degeneration occurring at a faster rate than
a 01.0 normal
8 -cell loss intermediate between "controls" and Parkinson's
disease
-identical neuronal morphology
4. 6-- Parkinsorn's disease -earliest damagetotothat
corresponding parttomost
middle lateral part ofinsubstantia
damaged nigra,
Parkinson's
disease35-
--same extranigral distribution of Lewy bodies
,
50-54 I 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89
v

Age (years) 50s may be an overestimate and a figure more in line

Fig 3 Graph combining pathological data on age-specific with that of 1 8% in reported studies (table 3) is sug-
prevalence of incidental Lewy body disease and clinical data gested. In these studies over 140 brains of persons in
on the prevalence of Parkinson's disease in the community their 40s were examined suggesting that the preva-
(percent). Data on Parkinson's disease from Mutch et al.33 lence for Lewy bodies in this decade is less than 07%.
These observations conform to the hypothesis that
the brains contained Lewy bodies in the substantia incidental Lewy body cases have the same progressive
nigra, none of which had moderate to severe cell loss pathology as that seen in Parkinson's disease (table 5).
compatible with Parkinsonian manifestations (table In Parkinson's disease the rate of cell destruction is
4). In six of the nine cases extraneuronal melanin remarkably constant between cases and occurs at a
deposits were increased and in four cases there was modest rate as suggested by the proportion of degen-
mild or mild to moderate cell loss. The following diag- erating cells, quantity of extraneuronal melanin and
noses were recorded in the Lewy body positive cases; severity of gliosis.12 Nevertheless, some incidental
tabes dorsalis, trauma, Guillain-Barre syndrome, Lewy body cases could represent preclinical cases of
spinal cord angioma, multiple sclerosis, leuco- Parkinson's disease with a substantially slower rate of
encephalitis and psychosis. In the 73 recently collected progression, although the indistinguishable morpho-
brains, five contained Lewy bodies, in all of which logical changes suggest that the basic pathogenetic
increased neuronal destruction and mild nigral cell mechanisms are similar.
loss were present. Causes of death were systemic car- A recent community survey of Parkinson's disease
cinoma, cerebrovascular disease or ischaemic heart in Aberdeen showed that the age-specific prevalence
disease. The age-specific prevalence of incidental rises to 19% in persons aged over 85 years.33 A com-
Lewy bodies progressively increased between the sixth parison of this clinical study and our pathological
and ninth decades (table 4, fig 3), without major data shows roughly parallel trends with incidental
differences between the two series. The site of earliest Lewy body disease occurring 5-20 times more com-
and most severe damage to the substantia nigra was monly than Parkinson's disease (fig 3). In view of
always identified as the middle to lateral (or ventro- histological evidence of comparable rates of disease
lateral) region (fig 4), which is most severely affected progression between cases, the latent phase of up to 30
in Parkinson's disease. Nine of the 14 incidental years between equivalent prevalence rates of inci-
cases also showed destruction and loss of nigral cells dental Lewy body disease and Parkinson's disease
of a severity intermediate between normal and (about 2% for incidental Lewy body disease in the
Parkinson's disease. Other nuclei such as the locus fifties and 2% for Parkinson's disease in the eighties),
coeruleus and nucleus basalis of Meynert were also suggests a long preclinical period. This is consistent
involved, indicating that both the intranigral and with biochemical data indicating loss of about 80%
regional distribution of lesions was identical to that in of striatal dopamine by the time of onset of symp-
Parkinson's disease, only the severity of nigral nerve toms.26 27 If the mean age of onset of Parkinson's
cell loss being less. disease is taken as 60 years then it would be possible
for histological changes to start as early as 25-35 years
Discussion of age. In Parkinson's disease presenting in the third
and fourth decades histological changes would start
The prevalence of Lewy bodies in this study confirms considerably before this.
the age-related rise identified by combining published These findings have important implications for the
data (table 3), although the rates were lower, on aetiology and prevention of Parkinson's disease. The
average by 3 2% per decade. The figure of 3-8% in the failure of rates of incidental Lewy body disease to
 .
750 Gibb, Lees

4MM

.. .. %S a X ..

;. ...,

Fig 4 (a) Horizontal 7 wm-thick section of a healthy substantia nigra at the level of exit of the third
nerve (N) lying medially, and the cerebral peduncle (CP) lying antero-laterally. The ventrolateral part of
the substantia nigra zona compacta is shown with arrows. Kluver-Barrera, x 58. (b) Similar section from
a case of incidental Lewy body disease with fewer cells in the ventrolateral part. Kluver-Barrera, x 58.
The relevance of the Lewy body to the pathogenesis of idiopathic Parkinson's disease 751
decline in late age conflicts with many, but not all, 4 Kosaka K, Yoshimura M, Ikeda K, Budka H. Diffuse
epidemiological studies of Parkinson's disease.36 It type of Lewy body disease: progressive dementia with
also suggests that the size of the population exposed abundant cortical Lewy bodies and senile changes of
at an earlier age to the pathogenetic factors for Lewy varying degree-a new disease! Clin Neuropathol
body disease is unknown. A prevalence of Lewy body 1984;3: 185-92.
disease over 1 in 10 of the population in their ninth 5 Oppenheimer D. Neuropathology of progressive auto-
nomic failure. In: Bannister R, ed. Autonomic failure.
decade and a progressive increase with time (age) Oxford University Press, London, 1983:267-83.
implies that the size of this affected population may be 6 Yokochi M, Narabayashi H, lizuka R, Nagatsu T. Juve-
considerable. Much of the current epidemiological nile Parkinsonism-some clinical, pharmacological,
evidence on prevalence rates of Parkinson's disease and neuropathological aspects. Adv Neurol 1984;
show rates which are approximately stable in time and 40:407-13.
between many of the different geographical locations 7 Sigwald J, Lapresle J, Raverdy P, Recondo NJ. Atrophie
examined. The cause of a disease to which over 10% cerebelleuse familiale avec association de lesions
of the population are exposed worldwide may there- nigeriennes et spinales. Presse Med 1964;72:557-62.
8 Sachdev HS, Forno LS, Kane CA. Joseph disease:
fore not be a single, common environmental factor." a multisystem degenerative disorder of the nervous
In addition the probable exclusion of genetic38 factors system. Neurology 1982;32:192-5.
for the cause of Parkinson's disease suggests that 9 Dooling EC, Schoene WC, Richardson EP.
aetiological factors independent of simple environ- Hallervorden-Spatz syndrome. Arch Neurol 1974;
mental and genetic causes should be considered. 30:70-83.
These data do not however exclude the possibility that 10 Agamanolis DP, Greenstein JI. Ataxia-telangiectasia.
a common and universal environmental factor might Report of a case with Lewy bodies and vascular
contribute to the cause. The evidence linking normal abnormalities within cerebral tissue. J Neuropathol
ageing with Parkinson's disease is slim even if one Exp Neurol 1979;38:47589.
A, Kurland LT, Sayre GP. Familial amyotrophic
considers age-related cell loss in addition to a dimin- 11 Hirano
lateral sclerosis. A subgroup characterised by poste-
ished buffer reserve, which might be sustained in early rior and spinocerebellar tract involvement and hyaline
life or represent a developmental abnormality. The inclusions in the anterior horn cells. Arch Neurol
speed of age-related cell loss in the substantia nigra 1967;16:232-43.
(and other cell groups) has not been clearly estab- 12 Bethlem J, den Hartog Jager WA. The incidence and
lished, but is probably not substantial.39 An early life characteristics of Lewy bodies in idiopathic paralysis
origin has been proposed in order to explain lifelong agitans (Parkinson's disease). J Neurol Neurosurg
personality differences40 and onset of disease as early Psychiatry 1960;23:74-80.
as the third decade.26 Probable lines of research 13 Hunter S. The rostral mesencephalon in Parkinson's
should include a search for endogenous neurotoxins. disease and Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropathol
1985;68:53-58.
Growth factors may also be involved and the ante- 14 Qualman SJ, Haupt HM, Young P, Hamilton SR.
natal period has been suggested as a potentially Esophageal Lewy bodies associated with ganglion cell
vulnerable time.4' loss in achalasia. Similarity to Parkinson's disease.
Gastroenterology 1984;87:848-56.
We are grateful to Dr R 0 Barnard and Professor 15 Vogt C, Vogt 0. Erkrankungen der GroBhirnrinde
P L Lantos for pathological material for this study. im Lichte der Topistik, Pathoklise und Patho-
Seventy-three brains were collected through the UK architektonik. J Psychol Neurol 1922;28:1-17 1.
Parkinson's Disease Society Brain Bank. We thank 16 Duffy PE, Tennyson VM. Phase and electron micro-
Dr B H Anderton for kindly supplying a number of scopic observations of Lewy bodies and melanin
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cytoskeletal monoclonal antibodies. W R G G was in Parkinson's disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol
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17 Goldman JE, Yen S-H, Chiu F-C, Peress NS. Lewy
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