Baroque Papacy E-Book

This work leads the reader into one of the most exciting chapters of
the history of the papacy. It delineates the behaviour and dilemmas of

Rome in the fights against the Turks, in the Thirty Years War, and in
Pter Tusor
THE BAROQUE PAPACY (16001700)

the struggles with the Protestants and the numerous conflicts with the
Catholic States. In addition, the book describes in detail the first real
example of globalisation, namely the worldwide spread of missions, in
addition to providing accounts of the formation of new religious move-
THE BAROQUE PAPACY

ments, Galileos trial and the ordeals of the Institute of the Blessed Virgin
Mary. Furthermore, the chapters offer insights into the nature of papal
nepotism, how the Roman inquisition worked, and how the contempor-
ary papal court, the Roman Curia and the Papal State were constructed.
(16001700)
Pter Tusor, PhD, DSc, was born in 1967. He is currently an Associate
Professor at the Institute of History at the Pter Pzmny Catholic Uni-
versity and a Research Group Leader at the Hungarian Academy of Sci-
ences.
Pter Tusor
ISBN 978-88-7853-715-6
9 788878 537156
10,00
Sette Citt
2016
Barokk ppasg.indb 2 2016.05.24. 9:52:59
Pter Tusor
THE BAROQUE PAPACY

(16001700)
Sette Citt
2016

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ISBN: 978-88-7853-715-6
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The project was conducted in the frame of the Impetus Church History Research Insti-
tute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and the Pter Pzmny Catholic University
and was sponsored by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA TKI).
This book was published by the Impetus Church History Research Institute in col-
laboration with the Centro Studi sullEt dei Sobieski e la Polonia Moderna (University
of Viterbo).

Table of Contents
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Prologue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
I. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
The Tridentine Papacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
The Baroque Papacy. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
National States, Churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
II. The Holy See and the European politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

From Vervins to Westphalia.
The Stages of the Papal Powers Fading . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
The Pope of the Long Turkish War: Clement VIII. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Paul V: the Slight Turn towards Italy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
The Last Military Reformist Pope: Gregory XV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
The Acceleration of the Loss of Power: Urban VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Innocent X: Romes Elimination from the New Power System. . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
The French Hegemony and the Squadron Volante. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Alexander VII: the Humiliating Struggle with France. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Clement IX and X: the Decade of Clementia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
The Provisional Return to the Role of Great Power:
.the Initiation of the Holy League. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
The Last Padre Commune: Innocent XI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Alexander VIII and Innocent XII:
Again on the Verge of Power Politics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
III. The Society, Economy and Finances of the Papal State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

General Economical and Social Tendencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
The Sacred College, the Papal Court and the Roman Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
The Papal Budget. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
The State Incomes of the Papacy:
Steady and Precarious Revenues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
The Church Revenues of the Papacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119

6 Table of Contents
The Expenditures of the Papal Budget. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

The Total Balance of the Papal Budget. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Buildings: City-planning and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
IV. The Papal Nepotism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Functions and Dysfunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
The Golden Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
The Borgheses and Ludovisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
The Barberinis and Pamphilis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
The Decline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
The Chigis, Rospigliosis and Altieris. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
The Odescalchis and Ottobonis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Innocent XII: Romanum decet Pontificem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
V. The Decision Making of the Holy See and its Main Institutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Offices and the Tribunals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
The System of the Congregations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Supreme Sacred Congregation of the
Roman and Universal Inquisition (Sanctum Officium). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
The Congregation of Rites, of the Council, the Consistorial
and Other Sistine Congregations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
The Newer Congregations.
The Sacra Congregazione de Propaganda Fide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
The Papal Secretariat of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
The Establishment of the Personal Administration of the Popes. . . . . . . . . . . 191
The Secretariat of State in the Borghese and Barberini Era. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
The Strengthening of
the Cardinal Secretary of States Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
The Official Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
The Relations with the Secretariats of Briefs
and Other Curial Offices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
The Apostolic Nunciatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
VI. The Roman Church Administration, Church Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

Some Theses and Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
The Inner Life of Papacy and the Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
The Relations with the National Churches, States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Crown-cardinals and the Royal Patronage and Supremacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
The Threads of Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Rome and the Spanish, French, German Catholicism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
VII. Other Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

Table of Contents 7
Appendix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
I. The Archontology of the Popes and Important
Curial Officials (cca 16001700). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
II. Currencies and Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Abbreviations. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
Register. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

Preface
In the third volume of the series Storia del cristianesimo edited by Emanuela Prin-
zivalli, Vincenzo Lavenia pointed out that the brief Modern Age ranging from the
Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century cannot be characterized by the debate between
Reformation and Counterreformation, but by the common endeavour of Protestants,
Catholics and Orthodox to impose the obedience to one single Church on any single
European territory and in this way to create a homogenous credo on territorial level, as
well as by the hope of the European Christian Churches to control the New World after
its discovery.1 Former works, while having shared this approach, suggested however a
more detailed chronology. For example, the same period is discussed in two separate vol-
umes of the Cambridge History of Christianity: in the sixth, the Reform and Expansion
15001660 edited by Ronnie Po-Chia, and in the seventh, the Enlightenment, Reawaken-
ing and Revolution 16601815 edited by Stewart J. Brown and Timothy Tackett.2
In the present book, Pter Tusor deals with the history of the Papacy even more in
details. In fact, the Hungarian scholar proposes the return to an older historiographical
model, according to which the Medieval Papacy was followed by a Renaissance, then a
Baroque, and an Eighteenth Century Papacy. Such return, however, is not slavish, but
is based on the same historiographical approach as Lavenias: the idea of a European
Christianity characterized by confessionalism, by the denominational differences and
by Christian expansionism in the overseas territories and in the areas beyond the Ural
and the Caucasus Mountains.
The method applied by Tusor: the combination of the traditional reflection and of
the recent approaches is determined by the chosen field of observation. Namely, while the
above mentioned works aim at drawing such picture about the history of the European
Christianity, which takes into account equally each denomination, Tusor focuses on the
Catholic component, more specifically on its pontifical leadership. The baroque era, the
period between the pontificate of Clement VII (15921605) and Innocent XII (16911700),
is for him the interval in which the above mentioned phenomena, confessionalism and
colonialism, pushed the Holy See to the margins of the European political situation.
Let moderna (Storia del cristianesimo 3), ed. by Vincenzo Lavenia, Roma 2015.
1
Reform and Expansion 15001660 (Cambridge History of Christianity 6), ed. by Ronnie Po-Chia, Camb-
2
ridge 2007 and Enlightenment, Reawakening and Revolution 16601815 (Cambridge History of Christianity 7),
ed. by Stewart J. BrownTimothy Tackett, Cambridge 2006.

10 Preface
In the background there was the fact that between the Peace of Vervins (1598) and the
Peace of Westphalia (1648) the new Protestant and Catholic powers refused unanimously
to allow the papacy any spiritual or political superiority. As a consequence, in the second
half of the century the Holy See had to content itself with being a small Italian state and
was not being able to compensate its political and military inferiority invoking the divine
power. As Antonio Menniti Ippolito pointed out, in those decades the word of the
pontiff was even hardly heard in ecclesiastical matters and was certainly not respected
if not within the borders of Rome.3 The apparent weakness of the Papacy decreased its
universal power; hence, Rome could not be regarded as the head of the national Catholic
Churches that more and more exclusively were oriented towards the local sovereigns.
This later topic was the core of the project that has been led recently by Tusor and
me,4 the antecedent of which are the chapters of this book. This way, while I am writing
about their content, I cannot remain neutral.5 On the contrary, I regard it important to
mention my friendship with the writer and to narrate its origin. Our friendship was born
from the common work in the Roman and in the Vatican archives, as well as from the
common respect of the late Istvn Tth, one of the greatest Hungarian scholars of
the European Catholicism.6 Between the end of the first and the beginning of the second
millennium, Tth collaborated with two professors of the Tuscia University, where
I work, and participated in various researches under the direction of Giovanna Mot-
ta, who was then the full professor of Modern History, and Gaetano Platania, who
was then the associate professor of History of Eastern Europe.7 Platania was obviously
interested in the Hungarian history for reasons related to his discipline, but Motta also
took into account the Hungarian affairs in the course of her research.8
In the frame of the above mentioned Italian-Hungarian cooperation Tth urged
his compatriots to conduct research in Roman and Vatican archives to find documents
relating to those centuries, when the Hungarian archival material perished as a result
of the Ottoman occupation. Collaboration had already then started between scholars of
the two countries to find the missing documentation in loco, to redefine the relationships
between the centre and the Eastern peripheries of modern Catholicism and to restudy
Antonio Menniti Ippolito, 1664. Un anno della Chiesa universale. Saggio sullitalianit del papato in et
3
moderna, Roma 2011.

4
Il papato e le chiese locali. Studi The Papacy and the Local Churches. Studies, ed. by Pter TusorMat-
teo Sanfilippo, Viterbo 2014.
5
See also earlier: Gli archivi della Santa Sede e il Regno dUngheria (secc. 1520), ed. by Gaetano Plata-
niaMatteo SanfilippoPter Tusor, Budapest-Roma 2008.
6
Ab imo pectore. In memoria di Istvn Gyrgy Tth, ed. by Gaetano PlataniaMatteo Sanfilippo,
Viterbo 2005.
7
I turchi, il Mediterraneo e lEuropa, ed. by Giovanna Motta, Milano 1998; Mercanti e viaggiatori per le
vie del mondo, ed. by Giovanna Motta, Milano 2000; LEuropa centro-orientale e il pericolo turco tra Sei e
Settecento, ed. by Gaetano Platania, Viterbo 2000; Conflitti e compromessi nellEuropa di centro fra XVI e
XX secolo, ed. by Gaetano Platania, Viterbo 2001.
8
See the Storia dellUngheria, ed. by Pter Hank, translated by Giovanna MottaRita Tolomeo, Mi-
lano 1996.

Preface 11
how the boarders that divided the various regions and Christian denominations had been
redrawn by these connections, especially in Central and Eastern Europe.9 These efforts
affected the first researches of Pter Tusor and of Antal Molnr, who is presently
the director of the Hungarian Academy of Rome.10 Since then, both of them have helped
the Italian researchers to elucidate the consequences of papal diplomatic and pontifical
decisions in Hungary and in the Balkans and stressed out the Hungarian presence in
Rome, even if through simple agents.11
In the meantime Tusor carried out his research in the Archives of the Holy See,
coordinated the activity of many Hungarian scholars working in Rome and edited the
Collectanea Vaticana Hungariae series in the frame of the Pter Pzmny Catholic Uni-
versity and of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.12 Besides, he also worked personally
on filling the gaps of the history of the Hungarian Catholic Church and of Hungary
itself, responding to a centuries-old demand of the Hungarian historiography.13 In such
context he also deepened our knowledge of Cardinal Pzmny, who was the primate of
Hungary and at the same time the greatest promoter of the local Counterreformation
and of the relaunch of the Hungarian language.14
From what I have written it can be clearly seen the reasons of my esteem for Pter
Tusor, who is a tireless and keen scholar, and also the characteristics of his work in the
archives: he has always found a dynamic equilibrium between the examination of the
political situation of Catholic Hungary (and of the wider Habsburg area) and the exami-
nation of the universal aspirations of the Roman Church. This specific dual perspective
9
See about it for example: Frontiers of Faith. Religious Exchange and the Constitution of Religious Identities,
14001750, ed. by Eszter AndorIstvn Tth, Budapest 2001.
10
Antal Molnr, Le Saint-Sige, Raguse et les missions catholiques de la Hongrie Ottomane 15721647, Ro-
maBudapest 2007 and [Idem], Eine Handelsgesellschaft aus Ragusa im osmanischen Ofen. Geschichte und Do-
kumente der Gesellschaft von Scipione Bona und Marino Bucchia (15731595), Budapest 2009.
11
Papato e politica internazionale nella prima et moderna, ed. by Maria Antonietta Visceglia, Roma 2013;
Papacy, Religious Orders, and International Politics in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, ed. by Massimo
Carlo Giannini, Roma 2013; Innocenzo XI Odescalchi. Papa, politico, committente, ed. by Richard BselAn-
tonio Menniti IppolitoAndrea SpiritiClaudio StrinatiMaria Antonietta Visceglia,
Roma 2014; Ad ultimos usque terrarum terminos in fide propaganda. Roma fra promozione e difesa della fede in
et moderna, ed. by Massimiliano GhiladriGaetano SabatiniMatteo SanfilippoDonatella
Strangio, Viterbo 2014.
12
See the Index of the series and the links of the volumes that are available online at: http://institutumfrak-
noi.hu/cvh.
13
Pter Tusor, Magyar trtneti kutatsok a Vatiknban [Hungarian Historical Researches in the Vatican] (Col-
lectanea Vaticana Hungariae I/1), BudapestRoma 2004, and [Idem], The Papal Consistories and Hungary in
the 15th16th centuries, To the history of the Hungarian Royal Patronage and Supremacy, BudapestRoma 2012.
14
Pter Tusor, Dynastic Politics, Diplomacy and the Catholic Church: Pter Pzmnys 1616 Appointment as Arch-
bishop of Esztergom, A Divided Hungary in Europe: Exchanges, Networks and Representations, 15411699,
II, Diplomacy, Information Flow and Cultural Exchange, ed. by Szymon Brzeziskiron Zarnczki,
Newcastle upon Tyne 2014, 149182 and [Idem], Pzmny, a jezsuita rsek. Kinevezsnek trtnete, 16151616.
(Mikropolitikai tanulmny) [Pzmny, the Jesuit Prelate. His Appointment as Primate of Hungary, 16151616.
(A Micropolitical Study)] (Collectanea Vaticana Hungariae I/13), BudapestRoma 2016.

12 Preface
stands out from the present volume, in which the synthesis of the results of the interna-
tional historiography on the Holy See is accompanied by the clarification offered by the
archival material. Besides focusing on Rome, which is the obvious centre of this work,
it also pays attention to the importance of the local scenarios; see the chapter about the
relations of the Papacy and the national Churches. At this point, I can stress how bal-
anced is the arrangement of the material in the volume, which is divided into twenty
chapters and a short conclusion (the seventh part). From what I have written above, it
is obvious how functional is his choice to arrange the material in a historical and histo-
riographical introduction, in an overview of the political rule of the Papacy in Europe,
in an analysis of the economic-social state of the Papal State and its division in terms of
leadership (the question of nepotism, but also the mechanism of decision making). After all,
I could ask rethorically: if Tusor did not manage to find the way to explain what was
the Seventeenth Century Papacy, who would be able to do so?
Matteo Sanfilippo

Prologue
The Baroque Papacy takes place in a most exciting period of European history. It was
often called as the age of Protestant Reformation and on the authority of Hubert
Jedins synthesis1 as the age of the Counter-Reformation and the Catholic reform.2
In the past decades the theory of Konfessionalisierung has become generally accepted,
which emphasises the parallel phenomena occurring in the development of the Chris-
tian confessions, moreover it considers this evolution as the main force behind Western
modernisation.
Wolfgang Reinhard revealed numerous parallel features and characteristics
of the confessional self-identitys formation in the early modern period; for instance,
the elaboration of a clear religious perception, such as the Augsburg Confession (1530),
or the dogmatic resolutions of the Council of Trent, and the propagation and establish-
ment of teaching in such institutional forums like councils and canonical visitations.
Every denomination internalizes their doctrines, especially by means of founding schools
and seminaries but also by the wide-ranging use of communicational tools and meth-
ods such as propaganda through print as well as censorship to hinder others propa-
ganda. Employment of disciplinary methods, such as permanent control over the reli-
gious communities; excommunication; the oversight of services; and the development of
a particular church language, was, however, a common characteristic.3
1
Katholische Reform oder Gegenreformation?, Luzern 1946.
2
On the usage and historiography of the concepts of Counter-Reformation and Catholic reform,
which focus on inner revival: Giuseppe Alberigo, Dinamiche religiose del Cinquecento italiano tra Riforma,
Riforma cattolica, Controriforma, Cristianesimo nella Storia 6 (1985) 543560; Katalin Pter, A katolikus
megjuls s a protestns reformci [The Catholic Revival and the Protestant Reformation], [Idem], Papok s
nemesek. Magyar mveldstrtneti tanulmnyok a reformcival kezdd msfl vszzadbl (A Rday Gyj-
temny tanulmnyai 8), Budapest 1995, 514. Jedins criticism: John W. OMalley, Was Ignatius Loyola
a Church Reformer? How to look at Early Modern Catholicism, Catholic Historical Review 77 (1991) 177193.
3
Wolfgang Reinhard, Gegenreformation als Modernisierung. Prolegomena zu einer Theorie des konfessionel-
len Zeitalters, ARG 68 (1977) 226252; latest edition: Ausgewhlte Abhandlungen (Historische Forschungen 60),
Berlin 1997, 77102; [Idem], Konfession und Konfessionalisierung in Europa and Zwang zur Konfessionalisierung?
Prolegomena zu einer Theorie des konfessionellen Zeitalters, Ausgewhlte Abhandlungen, 103126 and 127150;
[Idem], Reformation, Counter-Reformation and the Early Modern State. A Reassessment, Catholic Historical
Review 75 (1989) 383404; the latest explanation of his ideas: [Idem], Was ist katholische Konfessionalisierung?,
Die Katholische Konfessionalisierung. Wissenschaftliches Symposion der Gesellschaft zur Herausgabe des Corpus

14 The Baroque Papacy
Supporters of the theory regard the foundation of the denominations as the most
significant factor in the development of the modern state, since denominations provided
the unity of the citizens or subjects and instilled in the wider social strata readiness for
the disciplina and loyalty towards authority. Moreover, Heinz Schilling and on behalf
of the English-speaking historiography Ronnie Po-Chia Hsia, both differentiate be-
tween confessionalism (the self-development of the denominations) and confessionalisa-
tion (the influence exercised on the society by the denominations, especially on the de-
velopment of the modern state).4 Already Reinhard emphasised and highlighted the
manifold influence of the confessions on modern societies in regard to the exceeding of
individualism, rationalisation, social disciplines and the European ethnocentrism (mainly
in case of Catholicism).
The results of this research go beyond the paradigm of Reformation versus Counter-Ref-
ormation and Catholic reform. As a consequence, one can state that there are five significant
answers, pointing in the same direction and historically equal though different in type,
to the challenge of the social and cultural changes in early modern Europe: Lutheranism,
Anglicanism, Calvinism, Unitarianism (in Transylvania and Poland), and Catholicism.5
The Baroque Papacy introduces the reader to the centre of Catholicism of the early
modern period or rather after the Council of Trent.6 Its direct and indirect interpreta-
tion actually tends to show the problem why the centre of Catholicism, which proved
an unprecedented modernisation in the second half of the sixteenth century, began to
decline in the critical decades of the following century. In a wider sense, through the
model of papacy, this book discusses how the development of the state, society, science
and culture continually pried apart the very confessional frameworks that gave rise to
their existence, giving place instead to the charms of the absolute raison dtat, secular-
isation, Enlightenment and rationalism, though, they possessed almost all elements in
Catholicorum und des Vereins fr Reformationsgeschichte 1993 (Schriften des Vereins fr Reformationsgeschichte
198, hrsg. v. Wolfgang Reinhard Heinz Schilling), Heidelberg 1995, 419452.
4
Heinz Schilling, Die Katholische Konfessionalisierung (Reformationsgeschichtliche Studien und Texte
135), Mnster 1995 and more comprehensively: [Idem], Die Konfessionalisierung von Kirche, Staat und Ge-
sellschaft. Profil, Leistung, Defizite und Perspektiven eines geschichtswissenschaftlichen Paradigmas, Die Katholische
Konfessionalisierung, 149; and Ronnie Po-Chia Hsia, Social Discipline in the Reformation: Central Europe
15501750, London 1989.
5
On the above-mentioned problem of terminology, there are two outlines with additional literature:
Robert Bireley, The Refashioning of Catholicism 14501700. A Reassessment of the Counter Reformation,
Washington 1999, 18; Ronnie Po-Chia Hsia, The World of Catholic Renewal 15401770 (New Approaches
to European History 12), Cambridge 1998, 19; on the numerous other aspects of confessionalisation: le-
gal, political, spiritual, moral, cultural, poetic, music, organisation-technical, see also Martin Heckel,
Dietmar Willoweit, Marc Venard, Anne Conrad, H.C. Erik Midelfort, Heribert Smolinsky,
Rainer A. Mller, Harald Dickerhof, Marianne Danckwardt and Angelo Turchinis studies:
Die Katholische Konfessionalisierung, 184241. 258383. 394404. I do not touch on the partial criticism of
the English-speaking historiography related to the theory of confessionalisation.
6
On the usage of the concept Bireley, The Refashioning of Catholicism, loc. cit. Cf. also Jean Delumeau,
Catholicism between Luther and Voltaire. A New Wiew of the Counter-Reformation, LondonPhiladelphia 1977.

Prologue 15
themselves. As a historical concept, the usage of Baroque in the title mainly symbol-
ises the restless unity of these processes.7
Apart from this, my work is not devoid of a certain textbook-character, as it contains

the material for one of my seminars held in the Institute of History at the Pzmny
Pter Catholic University. I found the explanation and the detailed demonstration of
certain fundamental phenomena, institutes and their function, in brief the compiled
summary of the international researchs results important mainly to make the younger
colleagues studies easier.8 With the unconcealed purpose that adequate replacements
for the reviving researches in the Vatican whose centre of interest is the seventeenth
century would be educated at the most competent university. However, I endeavoured
to construct this volume to separate the outlining (sub)chapters, which touch upon the
annals history claiming general interest, from those which have more detailed analyses;
moreover, I employed similar divisions within certain chapters.
7
Out of the related literature, mainly on the basis of the effect of the classical work of Carl J. Friedrich,
The Age of the Baroque 16101660 [The Rise of Modern Europe (5)], New York 1952, where the time limit not
in an art historical approach was in a way expanded. Cf. also the end of the Introduction.
8
Namely, there is only a brief secondary literature on the history of the papacy in Hungarian, which cov-
ers chiefly two millennia. For example: Jen Gergely, A ppasg trtnete [The History of the Papacy], Bu-
dapest 1982 (latest edition: 1999); Konrd Sznt, A katolikus egyhz trtnete III [The History of the Catholic
Church III], 19831985 (related chapters); Battista Mondin, Ppk enciklopdija [Encyclopaedia of the Popes]
(Dizionario enciclopedico dei Papi, Roma 1995, translated by Ilona R. Vida), Budapest 2001; Harald Zimmer-
mann, A kzpkori ppasg [The Medieval Papacy] (Orbis Universitatis, Trtnettudomny), Budapest 2002.
The works, which utilized the data of the Liber Pontificalis and mainly the results of the grandiose syntheses
of the German historiography, mostly focused on the annals history, partially on the history of the institutes.
The mentioned syntheses relating to the discussed period: Ludwig von Pastor, Geschichte der Ppste im
Zeitalter der katholischen Restauration und des Dreiigjhrigen Krieges. XII: Leo XI. und Paul V. (16051625),
Freiburg im Breisgau 1927; [Idem], Geschichte der Ppste im Zeitalter der katholischen Restauration und des
Dreiigjhrigen Krieges. XIII: Gregor XV. und Urban VIII. (16211644), Freiburg im Breisgau 1928; [Idem],
Geschichte der Ppste im Zeitalter des frstlichen Absolutismus. XIV: Von der Wahl Innozenz X bis zum Tode
Innozenz XII, Freiburg im Breisgau 19291930; Franz Xaver SeppeltGeorg Schwaiger, Geschichte der
Ppste V: Das Papsttum im Kampf mit Staatsabsolutismus und Aufklrung von Paul III. bis zur Franzsichen
Revolution, Mnchen 19592. A complex analysis was not available in Hungarian on any periods. However,
the masterpiece of Leopold von Ranke, the creator of the modern historiography constitutes a significant
exception. The Ppk trtnete az utols ngy vszzadban [The History of the Popes in the last four centuries] deals
mainly with the sixteenth-seventeenth century, and represents a useful source even from a distance of
some one and a half centuries. The Hungarian title of the work published originally in 18341836, but
put on Index in Rome in 1841: Leopold von Ranke, A ppk trtnete [The History of the Popes], Buda-
pest n.d [1936] [translated by Zoltn Horvth]. On Ranke: Heinrich Lutz, Leopold von Ranke e il papato,
Rivista di Storia della Chiesa 16 (1962) 439450; Ulrich Muhlack, Rankes Ppste auf dem Index und die
deutsche Geschichtswissenschaft. Ein Beitrag zur katholischen Geschichtskultur im Deutschland des 19. Jahrhunderts,
RQ 96 (2001) 163180.

The assistance of the scientific orientation accounted for the seemingly abundant
use of the secondary literature. The literature applied on different levels and depth is
obviously only the top of the iceberg; it only introduces the reader into the well-docu-
mented bibliography of the history of the papacy.9 During my researches in Rome and
Vienna in 19961998, and as a completion in 200120022003 I made an effort to put the
focus on such works, which often appear in the basic, latest international bibliography,
but unfortunately unavailable in Hungary. The consequent employment of this aspect
was naturally somehow altered by the difficulties of finding certain works.10
Apart from the limits caused by the necessarily restricted extent and purposes since,
with the title of the Baroque Papacy a whole series of bulky volumes could be written the inad-
equacy, which derives from the lack of the ecclesiastical approach, is way more apparent.
The only reason for this is that I do not have the theological competence adequately to
present aspects of salvation history.11
With the passing of ten years, within the scientific framework of the Hungarian
Academy of SciencesPzmny Pter Catholic University Impetus Church History
Research Institute, the English version of this edition, which was published in Hungar-
ian in 2004 at the Publishing House of Gondolat, was completed now. The reason for
the translation taking plenty of time and energy was to make this book useful at other
non-Hungarian universities. On the other hand, the detailed history of the institutes
written in Part V can be a useful synthesis for the international researches. Namely,
The bibliography of the annual (from 1963) journal of the Pontificia Universit Gregorianas faculty of
9
church history, the Archivum Historiae Pontificiae about the history of the papacy, which has been edited by
a Hungarian Jesuit for decades, has to be mentioned; as well as from 1900 the Revue dHistoire Ecclsiastiques
bibliography of broader topics. A similar orientation is given by the grandiose work of the latest times, the
Enciclopedia dei Papi. III: Innocenzo VIII Giovanni Paolo II, a c. d. Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, Roma
2000, on the seventeenth century: 267269. 276277. 292. 297. 317321. 334335. 346348. 357360. 367368.
393. 388389. 403404 (its praising review with some correction by Mario Fois: AHP 39 [2001] 291315, 314);
and Alexander KollerPeter Schmidt, Bibliographie zur ppstlichen Politik und Diplomatie (15001800),
Kurie und Politik. Stand und Perspektiven der Nuntiaturberichtsforschung (BDHIR 87, hrsg. v. Alexander
Koller), Rom 1998, 413493.
10
The dissimilar analysis of various topics caused further disproportions, furthermore, the fact that
I carried out an extended collection concerning the history of the institutions for the sake of the archival
basic researches and made more careful and extensive notes. Yet, at the annals- and social history within
one chapter besides the information of the secondary literature with the proportion of the notes I tried
to emphasise from where I borrowed the given fact, analysis, evaluation, history, etc. Not as a genuine ba-
sic research but a comprehensive summary, at times I was satisfied only with the indication-like and not
philological notations.
11
A nice example for the transcendent interpretation of the history of the papacy at the time: Benvenuto
Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo (16051774), I Papi nella storia. I: Da S. Pietro (30 d. C.) a Inno-
cenzo VIII (1492). II: Da Alessandro VI (1492) a Pio XII (1958) (a c. d. Pio PaschiniVincenzo Monachino),
Roma 1961, 669766, especially 669672 (Diorama politico, culturale, ecclesiastico dei secoli XVII e XVIII).

Prologue 17
the knowledge of the function of the Roman Curia in the early modern period serves
a main guide to the remaining sources exploration and naturally not only in the Hun-
garian relation.
My work is actually a unique synthesis of the illustrious experts basic researches and
results (without aiming at completeness: Hubert Jedin, Georg Lutz, Konrad Rep-
gen, Andreas Kraus, Josef Metzler, Josef Grisar, Thomas Frenz, Lajos Psz-
tor, Christoph Weber, Klaus Jaitner, Michael F. Feldkamp, Josef Semmler,
Ludwig Hammermayer, Wofgang Reinhard, Johann Rainer; Renata Ago,
Maria Antonietta Visceglia, Antonio Menniti-Ippolito, Alexander Kol-
ler, Gaetano Platania, Giovanni Pizzorusso, Olivier Poncet, Matteo San-
filippo).12 Some of these authors and naturally also others have published a series of im-
portant basic works lately. These volumes further shade, colour and enrich the picture
of the papacys history in the Baroque era.13 I have not found their incorporation and
direct usage my duty, and I am satisfied with calling the curious readers attention to
them along with the noted sources.
See the bibliography at the end of the volume.

12
Only some examples: Massimo Carlo Giannini, Loro e la tiara: La costruzione dello spazio fiscale italiano
13
della Santa Sede (15601620), Bologna 2003; Silvano Giordano (a cura di): Le istruzioni generali di Paolo V ai diplo-
matici pontifici 16051621 IIII (Instructiones Pontificum Romanorum), Tbingen 2003; Kaiserhof Papsthof
(16.18. Jahrhundert) (Publikationen des Historischen Instituts beim sterreichischen Kulturforum in Rom 12),
hg. v. Richard BselGrete KlingnesteinAlexander Koller, Roma 2006; Wolfgang Reinhard
(Hg.), Rmische Mikropolitik unter Papst Paul V. Borghese 16051621) zwischen Spanien, Neapel, Mailand und Genua
(BDHIR 107), Tbingen 2004; Offices et papaut (XIVeXVIIe sicle). Charges, hommes, destines (Collection de
lcole Franaise de Rome 334), d. par Armand JammeOlivier Poncet, Rome 2005; Martin Faber,
Scipione Borghese als Kardinalprotektor. Studien zur rmischen Mikropolitik der frhen Neuzeit, Mainz 2005;
Die Auenbeziehungen der rmischen Kurie unter Paul V. Borghese (16051621) (BDHIR 115), hg. v. Alexander
Koller, Tbingen 2008; Sergio Pagano (a cura di), I documenti Vaticani del processo di Galileo Gallilei (16111741)
(CAV 69), Citt del Vaticano 2009; Wolfgang Reinhard, Paul V. Borghese (16051621). Mikropolitische
Papstgeschichte (Mit CD-ROM: Mitglieder und Positionen der Kurie Pauls V.) (Ppste und Papsttum 37),
Stuttgart 2009; Philippe Levillain (ed. par), Rome, lunique objet de mon ressentiment. Regards critiques sur
la papaut (Collection de lcole franaise de Rome 453), Rome 2011; Olivier Poncet, La France et le pou-
voir pontifical (15951661). Lesprit des institutions, Rome, cole franaise de Rome, 2011 (Bibliothque des coles
franaises dAthnes et de Rome, 347), Rome 2011; Alexander Koller, Imperator und Pontifex. Forschungen
zum Verhltnis von Kaiserhof und rmischer Kurie im Zeitalter der Konfessionalisierung (15551648) (Geschichte
in der Epoche Karls V. 13), Mnster 2012; Rotraud Becker, Der Skandal um den Rombesuch Kardinal Pzmnys
im Spiegel der Nuntiaturberichte des Jahres 1632, 92 (2012) 381429. The same holds for the secondary
literature on the theory of confessionalisation.

I.
Introduction
The Tridentine Papacy
The Council of Trent clearly differentiated the Catholic and the Protestant teachings,
laid down the main practical agendas by which significant moves were made towards the
final establishment of the Catholic confession and its European, then worldwide, expan-
sion. Orders concerning the Papacy and the ecclesiology were not given, only proposals.
Although, many teachings were condemned as heresy, the heretics were not named,
thus leaving open the possibility of conversation with the Protestants.
The Papacy immediately embarked on accomplishing the decrees of Trent. The
control and development of the councils interpretation was maintained. As a conse-
quence, Romes prestige and centralization evolved causing on and off conflicts with
the councils bishop-centred, episcopal concept. Pius IV (15591565) orally confirmed the
resolutions of Trent during a secret consistory on 26 January 1564; however, the papal
bull with the same date, the Benedictus Deus, was not issued until 30 June. The curial
opposition wanted to ensure the right of interpretation to the Papacy and many of them
were afraid of losing their incomes due to the regulations on the obligation of residence.
Pius IV pledged to introduce these resolutions, yet he wanted to supervise the cases and
was reluctant to be only the executive body of the regulations of Trent. In the bull, the
right to interpret the resolutions was bestowed on a separate institution of the Holy See.1
1
I would not like to deal with the actual history of the Council which was called the milestone of Eu-
ropean history, I will detail only its decrees in context of their execution. Out of the numerous literatures,
I quote only the latest publication of the decrees: Conciliorum Oecumenicorum Decreta, ed. Iosephus Al-
berigoIosephus A. Dosetti PerikleP.I. Caludius LeonardiPaulus Prodi, Bologna 19733, 633775;
more publications on the newest approach to the Council, see: Klaus Ganzer, Das Konzil von Trient und
die theologische Dimension der katholischen Konfessionalisierung and Dorothea Wendebourg, Die Ekklesio-
logie des Konzils von Trient, Die Katholische Konfessionalisierung, 5069 and 7087; on the problem of the
Councils universality: Klaus Ganzer, Vertretung der Gesamtkirche auf dem Konzil von Trient? Die Stellung
der Prokuratoren abwesender Bischfe auf der dritten Tagungsperiode des Konzils (15621563), Ecclesia Militans.
Studien zur Konzilien- und Reformationsgeschichte Remigius Bumer zum 70. Geburtstag gewidmet. I: Zur
Konziliengeschichte. II: Zur Refomationsgeschichte (hrsg. v. W. BrandmllerH. ImmenktterE. Iserloh),
PaderbornMnchenWienZrich 1988, I, 253277.

20 Introduction
It was followed by other papal orders which continued the functioning of the council.
After a decade of initiatives, the focus of the development of Catholicism in the early
modern period was moved to Rome for good. The Index was released in March 1564.
In November the so-called Tridentine Creed was established. It summarized the teachings
of the council and amplified it with the term of obedience towards the pope. The creed
had to be taken by all bishop candidates and by those professors who received a Catholic
university chair.
Inspired by Trent, (Saint) Pius V (15661572) edited the Roman catechism, which
was far more moderate than the ones of Saint Peter Canisius of 1555, 1558, and 1566.
In contrast to those of Canisius, it was not imbued with anti-Protestantism, namely, it did
not mention indulgences and paid little attention to the Blessed Virgin Mary. Moreover,
it was more open to dialogue than the council was. While Canisius identified Christian
to Catholic, the new catechism spoke only about the Christian people and Christianity
in order to show its willingness to an agreement with Protestantism. Nevertheless, the
conciliatory tone did not become absolute. The Roman catechism was mainly composed
for pastoral use; it was a simple handbook for preaching and the administration of the
sacraments.2 In 1566 the Roman breviary was created; the Roman missal by 1570. These
books are characterized by incredibly meticulous regulation. Flexibility can only be found
concerning the special prayers, relating to certain events. Those rites that were not older
than two hundred years were repealed at the stroke of a pen.3
In the creation of the overall view of Catholicism in the early modern period, the
Apostolic reviews, the visitations proved to be the most effective tools in Italy, and
the Mediterranean, as well as in the Balkans and the parts of Hungary under Turkish
rule. In the main churches of Rome, the pope himself in other territories, his leg-
ates scoped the situation out, and where it was necessary they took measures to initiate
the reform decrees. Apostolic visitors were made unnecessary by the coming generation
of bishops, who were taught in the spirit of Trent. By the end of the sixteenth century
we can find numerous ordinaries, who complied with their own pastoral work as the
head of the dioceses. The incident was not exclusive but general.4 Pius V, in the spirit
Bireley, The Refashioning of Catholicism, 5859; Wendebourg, Die Ekklesiologie des Konzils, 7475; Ernst
2
Koch, Die deutschen Protestanten und das Konzil von Trient and Gottfried Maron, Die nachtridentinische
Kodifikationsarbeit in ihrer Bedeutung fr die katholische Konfessionalisierung, Die katholische Konfessionali-
sierung, 88103, 101102 and 104124, 112113.
3
On the liturgical reform: Hubert Jedin, Das Konzil von Trient und die Reform der liturgischen Bcher,
[Idem], Kirche des Glaubens. Kirche der Geschichte. Ausgewhlte Aufstze und Vortrge. I: Kirchen-
geschichtsschreibung. Italien und das Papsttum. Deutschland, Abendland und Weltkirche. II: Konzil und Kirchen-
reform, FreiburgBaselWien 1966. Kirche der Geschichte, II, 499525; Maron, Die nachtridentinische
Kodifikationsarbeit, 104124.
4
John P. Beal, The Apostolic Visitation of a Diocese: a Canonico-historical Investigation, The Jurist 49 (1989)
347398; the latest Visita apostolica e decreti di Carlo Borromeo alla diocesi di Brescia. I: La citt (Brixia Sacra.
Memorie Storiche della Diocesi di Brescia), a c. d. Angelo TurchiniGabriele Archetti, Brescia 2003,
xixlxxi; on the Italian enforcement of the Councils decrees: Giuseppe Alberigo, Studi e problemi relativi
allapplicazione del Concilio di Trento in Italia, Rivista Storica Italiana 70 (1958) 239298.

The Tridentine Papacy 21
of the decrees of the council, took the necessary steps towards increasing the severity of
the examination of the bishops appointments, a establishing a separate body to examine
the suitability of the nominees of Rome. As a consequence, the role of the apostolic visi-
tors was gradually taken over by those bishops who were imbued with the necessary
knowledge and spiritual abilities. According to the council, the reinforcement of the
reforms depended on them.5 The first representatives of the bishop ideal of Trent were
the archbishop of Milan and Bologna, (Saint) Charles Borromeo, Gabriele Paleotti, or
later, the bishop of Geneva, (Saint) Francis de Sales. Borromeo, for instance, held eleven
diocesan and six provincial councils between 1565 and 1584, founded many seminaries,
Jesuit and Theatine colleges, and made regular, personal visits.6
The fundamental spheres of the introduction of the reforms were the local coun-
cils, in which the decrees of Trent were announced including resolutions, concerning
the establishment of seminaries and the tightening of discipline of the religious orders
of women. The differences in various regions were significant. In the German States,
provincial councils were rarely summoned; there were two held in Salzburg in 1569
and 1573. In Mainz, for instance, there was neither a provincial, nor a diocesan council.
The provincial, which was summoned every third year, and the annual diocesan coun-
cil did not become widespread in the Church, with some exceptions, mainly in Italy.
Both the Papacy and the individual States did their utmost to keep the councils of the
clergy under their control. The early synods usually sent their resolutions to Rome to
have them confirmed. This had already been ordained in a bull of Sixtus V (15851590)
in 1588. In Spain, Philip II (15561598) summoned the councils, yet perhaps apart from
Catalonia, these did not become regular, either. These councils became the theatre for
the conflicts between the archbishop-metropolitan, who ruled the ecclesiastical province,
and the bishops, as well as the representatives of the ecclesiastical middle layer. In the
debated questions they turned to Rome, which strengthened the authority of the Papacy.
The councils, which became the scene of communication between the bishop and his
5
Hubert Jedin, Das Bischofsideal der Katholischen Reformation. Eine Studie ber die Bischofsspiegel vornehm-
lich des 16. Jahrhunderts, Kirche des Glaubens. Kirche der Geschichte II, 75117; Robert Trisco, The Debate
on the Election of Bishops in the Council to Trent, The Jurist 34 (1974) 257291; Giuseppe Alberigo, Lepiscopato
nel cattolicesimo post-tridentino, Cristianesimo nella Storia 6 (1985) 7991; and Jean Bernhard, Das Konzil
von Trient und die Bischofswahl, Concilium 16 (1980) 478483, especially 482483. From the antagonism of
the Papalism, Gallicanism, Episcopalism and Presbyterianism unanimously the first became victorious,
however there were some problems: the lay and State influence, moreover the vagueness of the episcopal
sovereignty remained the still perplexing and troublesome characteristic of Catholicism.
6
The literature on Borromei is easily available. On the less known Paleotti: Paolo Prodi, Il Cardinale Gabriele
Paleotti (15221597) III, Roma 1967. Although, compared to the above mentioned prelates, he cannot be
regarded as exemplary. The Church administrational activity of Ludovico Madruzzo, the leading figure of
the curial imperial party, is typical, especially in terms of the political projection of the reforms execution.
See on this: Cecilia Nubola, Conoscere per governare. La diocesi di Trento nella visita pastorale di Ludovico
Madruzzo (15791581), Bologna 1973; Bernhard Steinhauf, Giovanni Ludovico Madruzzo (15321600).
Katholische Reformation zwischen Kaiser und Papst: Das Konzept zur praktischen Gestaltung der Kirche der Neu-
zeit im Anschlu an das Konzil von Trient (Reformationsgeschichtliche Studien und Texte 132), Mnster 1993.

22 Introduction
clergy, were celebrated only in France from the second half of the seventeenth century.
In contrast, the other States hindered the existence of the councils, or they put them to
their own use. The establishment of the decrees of Trent went smoothly perhaps only
in the overseas missionary fields.7
The relatively long pontificate of Gregory XIII (15721585) was no less significant
in terms of the roaring success of the Catholic confessionalisation than Pius Vs. His
indisputably notable result was the introduction of the reform idea through the nunci-
atures. Apart from the diplomatic tasks, the main purpose of the papal legates became
the restoration of religion, cult and the administration of the Church, i.e., moderniza-
tion. It was true for the representations in the Catholic courts imperial, Spanish,
French, Portuguese, Polish, Venetian, Florentine, Savoyan and even more so for the
nunciatures, founded especially to control and harmonize the reforms of Trent in the
German States, in the Old Swiss Confederacy and in Austria. The institutions, which
employed only a couple of members at the beginning, played a similar role as the Apos-
tolic visitors in Italy, and along the initiatives the nunciatures were established in Luzern
in 1579, in Graz in 1580 and in Cologne in 1584. A sign of the special attention being
given to the German States was the German Congregation, established in Rome in 1561
to control the persuasion of the northern heretics (heretici oltramontani), which had
its height under Pope Boncompagni.8
Apart from the reform nunciatures, the other great achievement of Gregory XIIIs
pontificate was the development of the college system. He was encouraged by the par-
tially political, mainly financial difficulties of certain States around the execution of the
decree of Trent concerning the seminaries. Pope Boncompagni expanded the already
existing colleges, e.g., the Jesuit College in Rome, which still bears his name, and made
their sole purpose the education of priests. The new German, Hungarian, and English
colleges, as well as the Greek SantAtanasio (a Maronite and Armenian college), were
established with the aim of increasing the number of clergy, the latter in hope of uni-
Out of the numerous partial studies, the following stands out: Pietro Caiazza, Tra Stato e Papato: Con-
7
cili provinciali post-tridentini (Italia Sacra. Studi e Documenti di Storia Ecclesiastica 49), Roma 1992, 949.
107175. 177254, especially 228.
8
A milestone for the history and research of the nunciature: Nuntiaturberichte und Nuntiaturforschung.
Kritische Bestandsaufnahme und neue Perspektive. Beitrge von Heinrich Lutz, Gerhard Mller, Hubert Jedin,
Helmut Getz, Georg Lutz, hrsg. v. Deutschen Historischen Institut in Rom, Rom 1976 [The first publica-
tion of the studies: QFIAB 53 (1973) 152275]; furthermore Wolfgang Reinhard, Katholische Reform und
Gegenreformation in der Klner Nuntiatur 15841621. Aufgaben und erste Ergebnisse eines Editionsunternehmens
der Grres-Gesellschaft (Nuntiaturberichte aus Deutschland. Die Klner Nuntiatur IV), RQ 66 (1971) 865;
Johann Rainer, Die Grazer Nuntiatur 15801622, Die Gegenreformation in Innersterreich als politisches,
kirchenpolitisches und theologisches Problem (hrsg. v. France M. DolinarM. LiebmannH. RumplerL. Ta-
vano), GrazWienKln 1994, 289294; [Idem], Katholische Reform in Innersterreich, RQ 84 (1989), 258269.
On the Congregatio Germanica which was reestablished in 1591 and whose duties were taken over by the Sacred
Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith in the seventeenth century: Josef Krasenbrink, Die Congre-
gatio Germanica und die katholische Reform nach dem Tridentinum (Reformationsgeschichtliche Studien und
Texte 105), Mnster 1972, especially 74248.

fication as well. Not only did Rome become the centre of administration, but also the
centre of theology and the education of clergy. The foundation of the central colleges
was followed by the establishment of the northern papal college system (Vienna 1574,
Prague 1575, Graz 1578, Olomouc 1579, Kolozsvr (Cluj) 1583, Fulda 1584, Dilinga 1585),
with a German centre. The intellectual expansion of the reformed Papacy was sym-
bolized by the initiation and spreading of the calendar reform that also preserved the
name of the pope.9
One of the important phases of Sixtus Vs rule was the settlement of the papal budg-
et, which not only meant the reinforcement of Gregory XIIIs numerous establish-
ments but also the accumulation of a contingency fund10 of 3 million golden scudi and
1.5 million silver scudi.11 The other main accomplishment was the reorganization and the
radical reformation of the Roman Curia in the spirit of the Tridentine decrees. The
main element of the reorganization was the abrogation of the cardinal-oligarchy: their
number, which was determined by the Council of Constance (14141418) at twenty-four,
was increased to seventy. As a consequence the assembly of the cardinals, the con-
sistory, lost its previous importance in the everyday administration of the Church, its
role as a real senate was fading. The process that started with Nicholas V culminated at
the end of the sixteenth century; the papal monarchy paid no regard to the bishops or
the cardinals collegiate relations. The cardinals, once influential advisors with whom
the pope regularly met during the consistories, evolved into dignified bureaucrats. Cle-
ment VIII (15921605) already expressly refused to discuss the decisions of great impor-
tance in the consistories, preferring to speak only to his confidants. The consistories,
which earlier had two or three sessions a week, were reduced by the year 1600 to two
meetings a month.12
Similar tendencies can be recognized in the case of two altered medieval central of-
fices: the authority of the Apostolic Camera, which focused only on the administration
of the Papal States incomes, and the Apostolic Chancery, which simply issued docu-
9
Klaus Jaitner, Die ppstliche Kirchenreformpolitik von Gregor XIII. bis Gregor XV. (15721623), Die Ge-
genreformation in Innersterreich, 280288, 280282; Lszl Lukcs, Die nordischen ppstlichen Semina-
rien und Possevino (15771587), AHSI 24 (1955) 3394; on the Roman papal colleges lasting effect an example:
Erwin Gatz, Das Collegium Germanicum und der Episkopat der Reichskirche nach 1648, RQ 83 (1988) 337344.
10
On the value and change of the often occurring scudo, used in silver in the registers and everyday life,
see the Appendix. If it is not specifically mentioned, the scudo always refers to the silver scudo.
11
On its significance and occasional use: F.S. Tuccimei, Il tesoro dei pontifici in Castel S. Angelo. Erario
vecchio, erario sanziore, I. e II. moltiplico, denaro di S. Pietro, Roma 1937, 827, 18.
12
Hubert Jedin, Vorschlge und Entwrfe zur Kardinalsreform, Kirche des Glaubens, Kirche der
Geschichte, II, 118147; Wolfgang Reinhard, Kardinalseinknfte und Kirchenreform, RQ 7778 (19821983)
157194; Helmut Jaschke, Das persnliche Regiment Clemens VIII. Zur Geschichte des ppstlichen Staatssek-
retariats, RQ 65 (1970) 133144; Paolo Prodi, Lo sviluppo dellassolutismo nello Stato Pontificio. I: La monarchia
papale e gli organi centrali di governo, Bologna 1968, 87107; Klaus Jaitner (Hrsg.), Die Hauptinstruktionen
Clemens VIII. fr die Nuntien und Legaten an den europischen Frstenhfen 15921605 III (Instructiones
Pontificum Romanorum), Tbingen 1984, I, lxxxiixcv.

24 Introduction
ments.13 The reform of the Papal Penitentiary was realized under Pius V. Its authority
was restricted to the field of conscience, to the forum internum, which put an end to
the dumping of the applications for exemption under the regulations and ceased many
corrupt practices.14
The essence of the curial administrational reform was to trust the supervision of
different administrative territories with separate cardinal committees. There were some
permanent offices developing from them: the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Ro-
man and Universal Inquisition from 1542, being responsible for the theological questions,
the Sacred Congregation of the Council from 1564, which oversaw the application of the
Councils decrees, the Sacred Congregation of the Index from 1571, which composed the
list of the prohibited books and the Sacred Congregation for Bishops from 1572. The sys-
tematic reorganization of Sixtus V expanded this process. On 22 January 1588 he established
fifteen permanent congregations with circumscribed competence and of official nature,
among them there were also the already existing ones modified. Six congregations dealt
with the affairs of the Papal State and nine with the affairs of the universal Church.15
The regulation of Sixtus of 1585, that the bishops regularly had to visit Rome (visitatio
liminum) and make a report on the situation of their diocese, served for the realization
of a more efficient papal control. This provided to Rome an earlier inconceivable view
into the local relations and can be regarded as a milestone in the papal centralization of
Church administration. The other significant motion of Sixtus Vs pontificate was the
official publication of the Vulgata, Saint Jeromes Latin translation of the Bible, however,
the final and complete text was only issued under Clement VIII.16
Out of the three popes who succeeded Sixtus V (Urban VII 1590, Gregory XIV 15901591
and Innocent IX 1591) only Gregory XIV excelled in the reformation of the process of
appointing a bishop, the processus informativus. This also proved to be an effective tool
for the papal centralization; as a consequence it represented the other most important
source of information, besides the ad limina visits about the situation of the dioceses.
Likewise, it had decisive importance to appoint suitable people to the bishoprics.17
13
The changed scope of duties of the Apostolic Camera is introduced by Guglielmo Felicis rather obsolete
work (La reverenda Camera Apostolica. Studio storico giuridico, Roma 1940) and by the thorough study of Maria
Grazia Pastura Ruggiero (La reveranda Camera Apostolica e i suoi archivi [sec. XVXVIII], Roma 1984).
14
Filippo Tamburini, La riforma della Penitenziaria nella prima met del sec. XVI e i cardinali Pucci in
recenti saggi, Rivista di Storia della Chiesa in Italia 44 (1990) 110129, 116121.
15
On the system, establishment and competence of the curial offices: Niccol del Re, La Curia Romana
(Sussidi Eruditi 23), Roma 1970.3 (I could not use its latest publication [19984].)
16
I only quote here and in the next note a current summary of the rich literature: Vicente Crcel Ort,
Estudio histrico-jurdico sobre la visita ad limina Apostolorum, Relaciones sobre el estado de las dicesis
Valencianas IIII (ed. por Milagros Crcel OrtVicente Crcel Ort), Valencia 1989, I, 21212; moreover
another excellent publication: Le visite Ad limina apostolorum dei vescovi di Bergamo. I: 15901696, a c. d.
Ermenegildo Camozzi, Bergamo 1992.
17
Dante Gemmiti, Il processo per la nomina dei Vescovi. Ricerche sullelezione dei Vescovi nel sec. XVII, Na-
poliRoma 1989. The two methods of the Roman centralization, as well as most of the related questions
of the Introduction are detailed later.

Considering the personality of Clement VIII, he absolutely met the requirements of

the Catholic reforms bishop ideal. The Catholic reform triumphed with the celebration
of the Jubilee of 1600 under his pontificate (there were 1.2 million pilgrims in Rome,
which in its ratio, outnumbers the 30 million visitors of the Jubilee of 2000).18 Never-
theless, the progress of the renewal started to lose its impetus. The signs of which were
the sentence of Giordano Bruno, the debate of grace among the Dominicans and the
Jesuits.19 The marks of the defensive policy could be seen in the reformed Papacy, the
observances of the new regulations became routine-like and, moreover, the first hair-
cracks of the relations between the Papacy and the Jesuits occurred. The annulment of
numerous medieval exemptio, privileges at the particular Churches proved to be more
and more of an unsolvable task. In the instructions given to the nuncios such orders
seldom occurred which were related to the renewal of the local religious life. On the
other hand, as the regulation of the absolutions maintained only for the pope shows,
those regulations which served the centralization of the Church administration became
more and more strict.20
The reform of the Curia in spite of the institutional change of structure was
not realized the way it was circumscribed by the late medieval critics and the way many
council fathers imagined. Naturally, it did not mean that there had not been any improve-
ments. From Paul IV (15551559) on there was a significant change in the lifestyle of the
popes and cardinals. The demand for personal piety, the pietas, was put in the focus.
No matter whether most of the Roman prelates could not accomplish the ideal of Saint
Philip Neri and the scholar historian Cesare Baronio, through their examples, the
requirements towards them became even greater. Among the members of the Curia,
finally, the (value) pluralism became restrained, whereas, the moral and ascetic life be-
came dominant. On the other hand, the obligation of residence despite, 113 bishops
who lived in Rome under Paul IV were spectacularly sent back to their residence in
vain was disregarded in the case of papal officials (for instance, the diocesan bishop,
18
On its significance: Stefano Andretta, Devozione, Controversistica e Politica negli anni Santi 15501600,
RMC 5 (1997) 335376.
19
See in more detail in Chapter VI.
20
Cf. Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Clemens VIII., I, xxiiixxxii. lxxlxxxii; Wolfgang Reinhard,
Kirchendisziplin, Sozialdisziplinierung und Verfestigung der konfessionellen Fronten: Das katholische Reformprogram
und seine Auswirkungen and Klaus Ganzer, Die Trienter Konzilsbeschle und die ppstliche Bemhungen um
ihre Durchfhrung whrend des Pontifikats Clemens VIII, Das Papsttum, die Christenheit und die Staaten
Europas 15921605. Forschungen zu den Hauptinstruktionen Clemens VIII. (BDHIR 66, hrsg. v. Georg
Lutz), Tbingen 1994, 113 and 1533; Flavio Rurale, Clemente VIII, i gesuiti e la controversia giurisdizionale
milanese, La corte di Roma tra Cinque e Seicento. Teatro della politica Europea. Atti del Convegno Inter-
nazionale di Studi (Roma, 2223 marzo 1996) (Biblioteca del Cinquecento 84, a c. d. Gianvittorio Signorot-
toMaria Antonietta Visceglia), Roma 1998, 323366; Joseph Grisar, Die Reform der reservatio casuum
unter Papst Clemens VIII, Saggi Storici intorno al Papato (Miscellanea Historiae Pontificiae 21), Roma 1959,
305385; Stefania Macioce, Undique splendent. Aspetti della pittura sacra nella Roma di Clemente VIII Aldo-
brandini (15921605), Roma 1990, 328. On the pontificate of Clement VIII, see more: J.A.F. Orbaan, Rome
onder Clemens VIII (Aldobrandini) 15921605, Gravenhage 1920, especially 124.

26 Introduction
who complied with the duties of the nuncio). Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino who was
canonized in the twentieth century in his memoir of 1600 objected to the absence of
the decrees of Trent in the Roman Curia.21
Notwithstanding, a generation was enough for the Church to radically change its
face. By putting the decrees of Trent in the centre, the Papacy succeeded not only in
unifying but in liberating the available religious forces. The authority of Rome was
re-established, although not in the territory of the medieval Christian States, the Res-
publica Christiana, but only in those States which remained to be Catholic. The resto-
ration and modernization of the Papacy was not the triumph of the curialism, but it
was the natural consequence of the success of the confessionalisation. The new papal
centralism was not based on the centralization, aiming at the medieval fiscal policy, but
on a religious-spiritual basis. The Papacy performed the goals of Trent: the unity, based
on one Bible (Vulgata), on one certain liturgy (the Roman) and the mutually agreed
system of norms.22
The Baroque Papacy
The undeniable success of the reformed Papacy was the organization of the new dis-
similar to medieval Christianity Catholic confession. In spite of this, the tendency of
the Church administration and the structural development of the Papacy due to the
conservative, radical character of the Catholic confessionalisation were determined by
continuity. The conversion of the renaissance Papacy of the fifteenth-century into ba-
roque monarchic Papacy by the initiation of the Protestant reformation and the Catho-
lic reform was a continuous process. It started from Martin V (14171431) to Urban
VIII, until the Papacy formed into an absolute monarchy and decorated Rome in its
splendour as the residence of the popes. There are two main tendencies in this prog-
ress: 1. The religious and secular fields were mingled, however, the popes two head of
the Papal State and the universal Church roles sometimes proved to be incompatible.
(Two spirits within one body) 2. The alteration of the Papacy accompanied by the
21
Klaus Jaitner, De officio primario summi pontificis. Eine Denkschrift Kardinal Bellarmins fr Papst Cle-
mens VIII. (Sept.Okt. 1600), Rmische Kurie. Kirchliche Finanzen. Vatikanisches Archiv. Studien zu Ehren
von Hermann Hoberg III (Miscellanea Historiae Pontificiae 4546), Rom 1979, II, 377403.
22
Hubert Jedin, Das Papsttum und die Durchfhrung des Tridentinums (1565 bis 1605), Reforma-
tion. Katholische Reform und Gegenreformation (Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte 4, hrsg. v. Erwin
IserlohJosef GlazikHubert Jedin), FreiburgBaselWien 1967, 521560, 533. In this introductory chap-
ter, I do not quote separately the following surveys, yet I continuously utilize their findings and methods
in a concise synthesis of the partial studies: Po-Chia Hsia, The World of Catholic Renewal, 9297; Bireley,
The Refashioning of Catholicism, 5766. 7071; Jaitner, Die ppstliche Kirchenreformpolitik, 279288;
Jedin, Das Papsttum und die Durchfhrung, 521560; and Burkhardt Roberg, Rom und Europa im Zeit-
alter der katholischen Reform, Rom in der Neuzeit. Politische, kirchliche und kulturelle Aspekte (hrsg. v.
R. ElzeH. SchmidingerH.S. Nordholt), WienRom 1976, 5371.

The Baroque Papacy 27
centralization of the administration within the Papal State, which was built on the service
of the ambitious civil elite and the feudal noblemen into absolute monarchy basically
determined the development of the Roman Curia, as well.23 The Curia contrasted and
remained an absolutistic social-political system in contrast to the spirit of Trent, concern-
ing the inner logic of the baroque. To put it bluntly: the central body of the Church ad-
ministration was a typical baroque court with many contemporary characteristics. We
can think here of the originally well-organized administrations over-bureaucratization
and of the formation of court life.
In the character of the ruling pope, the spiritual and secular powers were specifically
fused. The Papal State itself was not only the centre of Catholicism of the early modern
period, but the participant and often the pioneer of the modern States development.
The complaint of the reformers about the secularization of the Papacy was actually
rooted in such development of the Papal State, rather than in personal abuse of author-
ity. There were two basic reasons for the papal consolidating policy. Firstly, there was
the realization that the Papal State had to take part in the maintenance of the Italian
peninsulas inner balance of power. This required the establishment and operation of
an efficient State apparatus with the maintenance of a permanent army. Secondly, the
papal financial system, which was formed in its completed form in Avignon and was
based on the Church incomes of all of Europe, practically collapsed. The States prevent-
ed the significant sums flow into Rome; as a consequence, the income of the Papacy
could derive only from the territory of the Papal State. The utilization of this situation
was only by the assistance of a well-operating State apparatus. Furthermore, due to the
Protestant confessionalisation a notable part of the Continent ceased to be a source of
income. By 1600, in contrast to the late medieval times, more than three-quarters of
the papal income came from the territory of the Papal State! While these States were
the least taxed territories around 1500, by 1600 its opposite was true. The significant
ecclesiastical income came only from Italy and Iberia.
By the end of the sixteenth century the popes had already administratively led their
State just like, or more efficiently than other European monarchs. Notwithstanding,
the reason why the Papal State remained behind in general development by the end of
the seventeenth, beginning of the eighteenth century was partly due to the negligence
of social and economical growth. Namely, there did not emerge a wide-ranging mer-
chant and civil middle class, moreover almost all important administrative positions
were gradually filled with clerics. The power for development and resources was spent
on the donation of the ecclesiastical and (related) secular aristocracy. A unique mani-
festation of the Papal States organization was the expansion and exercise of power over
the local clerics, which was against the canon law and the ecclesiastical immunity and
privileges. It was clearly illustrated by Paleottis, the archbishop of Bologna, desper-
ate clashes with the local papal governor in the second half of the sixteenth century.
A complex analysis: C.F. Black, Perugia and Papal Absolutism in the Sixteenth Century, The English
23
Historical Review 96 (1980) 509539.

28 Introduction
The main force behind the filling of the officials position with clerics was the elimination
of such conflicts and contradictions.24
Apart from the advanced bureaucracy, the other characteristic of the Papal States
organization in the early modern period was the extensive diplomatic system which, as
we saw, reached its height under Gregory XIII. The popes in Church matters instead
of preferring the local bishops and councils got in touch with the secular monarchs
through their nuncios, who were primarily the Papal States rather than the Churchs
officials.25 The Papacy usually arranged the ecclesiastical affairs by concordats, concluded
over the head of the clergy, or by occasional contracts with the single States. However,
this aroused further conflicts and gave a breeding ground to the movements against the
Roman centralization.26
The character of the renaissance Papacy had already been of Italian nature, in the
baroques, apart from the Italian trait, the aristocratic character became determinant.
This is proved by the geographical and social origin of the twenty-nine popes who ruled
between 1540 and 1770. From the territory of the Papal State twelve, from Tuscany
eight, from Milan four, from Naples three and from Venice two, acceded Saint Peters
24
In detail: Paolo Prodi, The Papal Prince: One Body and Two Souls. The Papal Monarchy in Early Modern
Europe, Cambridge 1987, especially 136. 102122. 182185 (it was originally published in Italian: Il sovrano
pontefice. Un corpo e due anime: la monarchia papale nella prima et moderna, Bologna 1982, I used the English
translation); [Idem], Lo sviluppo dellassolutismo nello Stato Pontificio, especially 7086; and Jean Delumeau,
Political and Administrative Centralization in the Papal State in the Sixteenth Century, The Late Italian Ren-
aissance 15251630 (ed. by Eric Cochrane), New York 1970, 287304; Wolfgang Reinhard, Papstfinanz
und Nepotismus unter Paul V. (16051621). Studien und Quellen zur Struktur und zu Quantitativen Aspekten
des Ppstlichen Herrschaftssystems I (Ppste und Papsttum 6 I), Stuttgart 1974; Joseph Grisar, Ppstliche
Finanzen, Nepotismus und Kirchenrecht unter Urban VIII, Xenia Piana (Miscellanea Historiae Pontificiae 7),
Roma 1943, 205366; Peter Partner, Il mondo della curia e i suoi rapporti con la citt, Roma, la citt del
papa. Vita civile e religiosa dal giubileo di Bonifacio VIII al giubileo di papa Wojtyla (Storia dItalia. Annali
16, a c. d. Luigi Fiorani Adriano Prosperi), Torino 2000, 203240, 208217.
25
Some case studies: Klaus Wittstadt, Atilio Amalteo (16061610). Bemhungen eines Nuntius um
Katholische Reform, Von Konstanz nach Trient. Beitrge zur Geschichte der Kirche von den Reformkon-
zilien bis zum Tridentinum. Festgabe fr August Franzen (hrsg. v. Remigius Bumer), MnchenPade-
bornWien 1972, 695711; Konstantin Maier, Die Luzerner Nuntiatur und die Konstanzer Bischfe. Ein Beitrag
zum Verhltnis Nuntius und Ordinarius in der Reichskirche. Zur Erforschung der Luzerner Nuntiatur, Papst-
tum und Kirchenreform. Historische Beitrge. Festschrift fr Georg Schwaiger zum 65. Geburtstag
(hrsg. v. Manfred Weitlauf Karl Hausberger), St. Ottilien 1990, 513536; Patrick Braun, Der Lausanner
Bischof Jean-Baptiste de Strambino (16621684) im Urteil der Luzerner Nuntiatur, Kirche, Staat und katholische
Wissenschaft in der Neuzeit. Festschrift fr Heribert Raab zum 65. Geburtstag am 16. Mrz 1988 (hrsg. v.
Albert Portmann-Tinguely), PaderbornMnchenWienZrich 1988, 5984.
26
The text edition of the concordats in the period: Raccolta di Concordati su materie ecclesiastiche tra la
Santa Sede e le autorit civili. I: 10981914, a c. d. Angelo Mercati, Citt del Vaticano 1954, 168233. 233261.
261282. 282572. Although their next heyday after the conciliarism was in the eighteenth century; their sig-
nificance, the priority of the State relations are emphasized by: Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo,
673676, 674, n. 4.

The Baroque Papacy 29
throne. There were six who were members of an aristocratic family,27 there were seven
noblemen28 and fourteen who were ambitious patricians (banker, lawyer, professor, mer-
chant, official and notary).29 The election of the two popes of poor origin (Pius V and
Sixtus V) was held just after Trent, during the impetus of the Catholic reform.30
After the death of Sixtus V in 1590, the succession to the papal throne became the
sole and exclusive right of the Italian elite. One could enter the College of Cardinals only
with a decent family background, wealth, relations and talent. A typical career in the
Church in baroque times looked like the following: the young candidate from a family
with good relations studies law after his secondary education. His first official position
in the Curia is acquired by a relative or a patron through inheritance, resignation or
purchasing. The young protg, the client, slowly starts to rise in the hierarchy: he is a
member of a more and more important office, or a curial body, or he becomes the head
of a smaller nunciature or bishopric which later he replaces with a more significant one.
The next step is the cardinals hat. Hereupon, the political relations that he is building
for a lifetime, accompanied by appropriate character and abilities could exalt to among
the papabili, from where there is only one step to the top.31 As a result of the long official
careers, in the fifteenth century the average age of the popes was 55,7, in the sixteenth
century it was 55,6, whereas in the examined period of time it was 66,6.32
Naturally, there are some exceptions. Paul III (15341549) became a cardinal through the
intervention of his sister, Giulia Farnese, who was a confidant of Alexander VI (14921503).
He still represented the renaissance Papacy. While Pius V, who became known in the
27
Namely, Paul III (Farnese), Paul IV (Carafa), Leo XI (de Medici), Gregory XV (Ludovisi, his father
was the conte di Pompeio), Innocent XIII (Conti), Benedict XIII (Orsini).
28
Urban VII (Castagna), Clement IX (Rospigliosi), Alexander VIII (Ottoboni), Innocent XII (Pignatelli),
Clement XI (Albani), Clement XII (Corsini), Clement XIII (Rezzonico).
29
Julius III, Marcellus II, Pius IV, Gregory XIII, Gregory XIV, Innocent IX, Clement VIII, Paul V, Ur-
ban VIII, Innocent X, Alexander VII, Clement X, Innocent XI and Benedict XIV. (The rough time limit
of the analysis is the first phase of the Jesuit orders history which is perfectly suitable for the chronological
modelling of Catholicism in the early modern period. That is why, Clement XIV, who acceded to the throne
in 1769, is not on the list. The other time limit, which is often used in this volume, the 15001800 is more
arbitrary than the previous one but it speaks for itself.)
30
Wolfgang Reinhard, Herkunft und Karriere der Ppste 14171963. Beitrge zu einer historischen Sozi-
ologie der rmischen Kurie, Medelingen van het Nederlands Institut te Rome 38 (1976) 87108, especially 88.
9394. 95. 98.
31
Cf. Wolfgang Reinhard, Papal Power and Family Strategy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,
Princes, Patronage and the Nobility (ed. by R.G. AschA.M. Birke), Oxford 1991, 329356; [Idem], Freunde
und Kreaturen. Verflechtung als Konzept zur Erforschung historischer Fhrungsgruppen. Die rmische Oli-
garchie um 1600 (Schriften der Philosophischen Fachbereiche der Universitt Augsburg 14), Mnchen 1979,
4549 (Ausgewhlte Abhandlungen, 289310). The example of Paul Vs family, the Borgheses is very typi-
cal, see more at Wolfgang Reinhard, mterlaufbahn und Familienstatus. Der Aufstieg des Hauses Borghese
15371621, QFIAB 54 (1974) 328427; the same briefly, set into French and German parallel incidents: Kirche
als Mobilittskanal der frhneuzeitlichen Gesellschaft, Stndische Gesellschaft und soziale Mobilitt (hrsg. v.
Winfried Schulze), Mnchen 1988, 333351, 335340 (Ausgewhlte Abhandlungen, 5376).
32
It was later stabilized. The average age was in the eighteenth century, 64, in the nineteenth century 63.1
and in the twentieth century 66. Reinhard, Herkunft und Karriere der Ppste, 99.

30 Introduction
course of the Roman Inquisition, could owe his rise to his zeal, with which he sym-
bolizes the ascetic Papacy. Yet, the majority followed a successful official course in the
papal administration and diplomacy, consequently they gained legal knowledge: there
were nineteen popes who were doctors of canon and Roman law, five who had a classical
education and there were only three who were experts in theology. Nevertheless, their
private lives were not overshadowed by scandals. In the baroque period, the secular cler-
ics formed the majority of the popes in spite of the fact that in the early modern period
the new and renewed orders were not to be dismissed in the shaping of the new face of
the modern Catholicism. Most of the popes coming from religious orders reigned in
the second half of the sixteenth century: Paul IV was the cofounder of the Theatines,
Pius V was Dominican, whereas Sixtus V was Franciscan.33
The vigorously secular: the humanist, scandalous renaissance Papacy which was led
and ruled by wealthy families, patronizing art, was replaced by the ascetic, short-lived
reformed Papacy which privileged theology and inquisition. This period was followed
by the baroque Papacy. At that time, the career of the popes was strictly reduced to
their official careers. The Curia became the centre of the growth of the aristocracy,
the patricians and the social rise. This change is the result of that institutional continu-
ance which linked the renaissance period with the baroque in Rome. The papal abso-
lute monarchy can hardly be understood without the awareness of the Italian leading
classes family-strategy.34 The ambitious middle-class had the leading part in this period,
as the origin of the popes also shows. Generation by generation, they advanced their
family-relations and the ecclesiastical career of the family-members to enable one to reach
the throne of Saint Peter. This is exemplified by the Farneses, Boncompagnis, Sfondra-
tis, Aldobrandinis, Borgheses, Barberinis, Pamphilis, Chigis, Altieris and Ottobonis.
The system of nepotism outlived Trent by some one and a half centuries.35
National States, Churches
As there is more or less continuity between the renaissance and baroque Papacy
and as the determinations of the baroque Papacy hindered the spread of the reform,
it is also true to Rome and the national Churches relations which were controlled by
the State. The gradual but unstoppable evolution of the modern States and the dissolu-
tion of the medieval Respublica Christiana are such manifestations of the early modern
Reinhard, Herkunft und Karriere der Ppste, 87108.

33
Out of the latest genealogical literature, the six bulky volumes of the papal and cardinals families thoroughly
34
analysed genealogies, in which the whole relational system can be traced back, emerge: Christoph Weber,
Genealogien zur Papstgeschichte IVI (Ppste und Papsttum 29IVI), Stuttgart 19992002.
35
This is also the central conception of Wolfgang Reinhards study which is rich in detail and covers
all aspects of his earlier works. Reformpapsttum zwischen Renaissance und Barock, Reformatio Ecclesiae
(hrsg. v. Remigius Bumer), Paderborn 1980, 779796 (Ausgewhlte Abhandlungen, 3752); [Idem], Nepotismus.
Der Funktionswandel einer papstgeschichtlichen Konstanten, Zeitschrift fr Kirchengeschichte 86 (1975) 145185.

National States, Churches 31
Europe, with which the Church and especially the Papacy were continuously confronted.
The relations of the States towards Rome from the fourteenth century, into the fifteenth
and early sixteenth century were determined by the Conciliarism and the Italian region-
al policy; moreover it made the pace of change more intensive.36
The Papacy of the sixteenth century rephrased its universal needs in the light of
the European overseas expansion and the Reformation. Theology created the theory
of the indirect papal power (potestas indirecta), which synchronized the papal needs
with the development of State autonomy. Its root can be traced back to Boniface VIIIs
(12941303) theory of the two swords, which clearly differentiated between the spiritual
and secular power of the popes and derived the authority of the monarchs from the
popes. This tradition served as a ground for Nicholas V in 1455 to grant the western
territories of Africa to the Portuguese and for Alexander VI in 1493 to divide the New
World among the Spanish and Portuguese crowns, with the obligation of baptizing the
natives. By the granting of the Spanish Patronato and the Portuguese Padroado, the pa-
tronage, the Papacy, which focused mainly on Europe, paradoxically executed its own
self-restraint in the New World.
Apart from the theory of Boniface, the theory of the State by Saint Thomas Aquinas,
based on Aristotle, had a much greater effect on the modern thought. According to this
the State is based on natural law; its aim is to achieve public good and the earthly happi-
ness. In this way, the State is an autonomous, legally independent institution. However,
its functioning is under the eternal lifes transcendent formula whose accomplishment
was the mission of the Church. The duty of the monarch is to lead his people to both
aims. If the monarch hinders the achievement of the transcendent aim, the Church
has the right and duty to intervene. This right and duty is the potestas indirecta of the
popes in secular affairs. The view was popularized and represented in the early modern
period by Francisco de Vitoria, the father of international law, and by the most noted
theologians, Francisco Surez and Roberto Bellarmino. In parallel to the Papacy and the
Churchs universal needs rephrasing, Rome accepted the new world of the sovereign
States and succeeded in adapting it for a little while, however mainly due its own po-
licy it was excluded from the century-long determining new European order which
was being formed in Westphalia.37
From the middle of the fifteenth century through the seventeenth century, the
States increased their controlling role over religion in three fields: the appointment of
higher dignities, levying a tax on the clergy, and the secular juridical jurisdiction over
clergymen. The leaders of the States more and more often intervened in the reformation
of the clergy and the Christianization of their people. Their reference to the Christian
monarchs taking responsibility considerably hindered the Churchs autonomous mani-
36
On the process: John A.F. Thomson, Popes and Princes 14171517. Politics and Polity in the Late Medieval
Church (Early Modern Europe Today [1]), London 1980, 353 and 114142.
37
Bireley, The Refashioning of Catholicism, 7195 (The Church, the State and Religious Wars); Macioce,
Undique splendent, 3146 (Bellarmino e la Monarchia pontificia universale).

32 Introduction
festations. The Papacy, though, could not identify itself with such development at first,
but in practice it was accepted. In return, they required royal support against the Conci-
liarism which threatened its authority, furthermore, even before the Reformation, Rome
tried to control the relations between the Church and the State with concordats. This
process accelerated during the Reformation. After its unfolding, the confessionalisation of
the State and society became the subject matter. The European monarchs often headed
the fight against heresy; they strived to prevent its spread, moreover, they even seized
weapons for the sake of their confessions defence. Although there were still conflicts
between the Papacy and the States but the popes basically approved the intervention of
the State into the religious affairs. They were aware of their dependence on the secular
authorities not only in the struggle against Reformation within certain States, or on
an international scale but in the mission organizations overseas, as well. The increasing
involvement of the State in religious life crucially contributed to the consolidation of the
State itself: the State engaged in confessionalisation, religion in politics.38
The cooperation, which was based on mutual interests started to disintegrate in the
first half of the seventeenth century. The sole and exclusive leading principle of the
stabilized, absolutist, secular powers became the national interest. The uniform, totally
controlled religion was regarded as optimal by the absolutist State. The result of the process
was the decline of the papal power, which could hardly deal with the opposition with
the repeated clashes and legal disputes , and the evolution of the Catholic State
Churches in the European ancien rgimes.39 The clearest formation of this tendency
was the so-called Josephinism, which emerged at the end of the eighteenth century.
The direction of the development corresponded with that of the Protestantisms, namely
with the State Churches of the German Lutheran territorial principalities or with the
Anglican Church. In case of Catholicism the existence of Rome, a central Church govern-
ment, could hardly alleviate the total inferiority by the eighteenth century. As a reac-
tion against the emerging centralization and unification of the Roman Church government
after Trent, the local Churches, as such, rather supported than hindered the establish-
ment of the State Churchs structure.40
From the seventeenth century, the Papacy could efficiently and notably meet its
pastoral duty only in the world missions field whose importance is sophisticatedly mod-
elled by the initiation and extension of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation
of the Faith. The same process in Europe proved to be more problematic due to poli-
tics-Church policy and Church governmental issues. The baroque Papacy could only be
Bireley, The Refashioning of Catholicism, loc. cit.

38
An analysis of the politics secularization in the context of the history of the Papacy: Carl Conrad
39
Eckhardt, The Papacy and World-Affairs, Chicago 1937; on the origins: Hubert Jedin, Religion und Staats-
rson. Ein Dialog Trajano Boccalinis ber di deutsche Galubensspaltung, HJ 53 (1933) 305319.
40
As the behavior of the Josephinist prelates clearly illustrates. Knut Walf, Das bischfliche Amt in der
Sicht josephinischer Kirchenrechtler (Forschungen zur kirchlichen Rechtsgeschichte und zum Kirchenrecht 13),
KlnWien 1975, especially 6167; Elisabeth Kovcs, Die sterreichische Kirche am Ende des alten Reiches
(17901806). Reflexionen zum Iosephinismus, AHP 33 (1995) 335349.

National States, Churches 33
compensated for the losses after the Reformation by organizing missions, with which it
could preserve the impetus of the reformed Papacy until the middle of the eighteenth
century.41 In spite of the fact that its relations with Spain and Portugal were not smooth,
with stabilizing the modern Catholicism in America, Asia and Africa, the Papacy created
the first global manifestation in the modern worlds history.42
At the beginning of the seventeenth century, the relations of the local Churches were
not tightened to the reformed but to the baroque Papacy. For being able to understand
all of the details of the whole history of the baroque Papacy, which was continuant with
the renaissance and parallel to the development of the nation-States, one has to examine
thoroughly five main fields. 1. the Holy See and the European politics; 2. the economi-
cal, social and financial relations of the Papal State; 3. a closely related topic, the problem
of nepotism; 4. the structure and function of the papal decision making; 5. the Church
government and policy, namely the relations between Rome and the main particular
Churches (French, Spanish, German), or in a wider sense the question of the universal
Churchs direction. The sole and compact analysis of the period of 16001700 is justified
by the fact that the narrowing of the Papal States political role and opportunities, the
over-bureaucratization of the administrational system, the halt of the Catholic reform
and the forming baroque Papacy and its characteristics despite the continuity clearly
separated this period from the previous centuries practice. As a consequence, the course
of Rome was charted, which had to be followed in the eighteenth century.43
41
Josef Metzler, Ppstlicher Primat als pastorale Verantwortung und missionarischer Auftrag in frhen
Dokumenten der Propaganda-Kongregation, Konzil und Papst. Historische Beitrge zur Frage der hchsten
Gewalt in der Kirche. Festgabe fr Hermann Tchle (hrsg. v. Georg Schwaiger), MnchenPaderbornWien
1975, 373386; the latest Giovanni Pizzorusso, Agli antipodi di Babele: Propaganda Fide tra immagine cosmopoli-
ta e orizzonti romani (XVIIXIX secolo), Roma, la citt del papa, 479518, 479483 and 483489. The first
signs of the focus on the missionary orientation could already be seen under the pontificate of Pope Aldo-
brandini. Cf. Josef Metzler, Die Missionsinitiativen und Unionsbemhungen in den Hauptinstruktionen Cle-
mens VIII, Das Papsttum, die Christenheit und die Staaten Europas 15921605, 3551.
42
Po-Chia Hsia, The World of Catholic Renewal, 67 and 165193; [Idem], Mission und Konfessionalisierung
in bersee, Die katholische Konfessionalisierung, 158165. A monograph covering all aspects: Sacrae Congrega-
tionis de Propaganda Fide memoria Rerum. 350 anni a servizio delle missioni 16221972. I12: 16221700, ed. Josef
Metzler, RomFreiburgWien 19711972. I utilized only some elements of this work as well as the huge
amount of literature on the history of the missions, despite the unavoidable attention to mission organiza-
tion. On this topic and its Hungarian relations, see a further thorough publication: Istvn Gyrgy Tth,
Litterae missionariorum de Hungaria et Transsilvania (15721717) I (Bibliotheca Academiae Hungariae Roma,
Fontes 4), RomaBudapest 2002, 6880; Antal Molnr, Katolikus misszik a hdolt Magyarorszgon. I: 15721647
(Humanizmus s reformci 26) [Catholic Missions in Ottoman Hungary], Budapest 2002, 477518.
43
The separation of this period clearly appears in the following two works: Massimo Petrocchi, Roma
nel Seicento (Storia di Roma 14), Roma 1970; and Mario CaravaleAlberto Caracciolo, Lo Stato Pon-
tificio da Martino V a Pio IX, Torino 1978, 415448 (Il Seicento: magnificenze e depressione).

II
The Holy See and the European Politics
While the Papacy was still known as the political centre of Catholic Europe in
1623, by 1644, when Urban VIII came to power, it became an average state among the
Italian States. According to the Catholic States of the Old World, the Papacy was seen
as no more than a tradition and the preserver of the ceremonial functions, declared
Konrad Repgen, the expert of the papal foreign policy of the Early Modern Ages. He
emphasized the phenomenon of the alteration of the Papacys power politics in the
early seventeenth century. The procedure of fading power can be understood in light
of the actions of Pope Barberini in the course of the Thirty Years War (16181648),1
namely, that policy which still determines the religious map of Germany.2
In the first phase of the Thirty Years War, military operations were consid-
ered to be a war of religions by both the Catholics and the Protestants;3 how-
ever, this was only one of the factors. The contemporaries were aware of the dan-
ger of the war which was rooted in the more and more acrimonious and ceaseless
conflict between Austria-Spain and France. Seemingly, the real stake was author-
ity over Europe. Any changes of the status quo had a great effect on Rome, since
its interests as an Italian State, were clearly highlighted. On the other hand, the
conflict of the Catholic States endangered at least literally the popes aim that
of the Catholic alliance against the Protestants and the Turks. The main dilem-
ma of the Holy See in the sixteenth and seventeenth century was the diversi-
ty of the confessional and political interests, which seemed an almost unsolvable
1
Out of the related lavish literature, I only use those works which deal with the Roman role. See the others:
Bibliographie zum Westflischen Frieden, hrsg. v. Heinz Ducchardt (Schriftenreihe der Vereinigung zur
Erforschung der Neueren Geschichte 26), Mnster 1996.
2
Konrad Repgen, Die rmische Kurie und der Westflische Friede. Papst, Kaiser und Reich (15211644) I12
(BDHIR 1415), Tbingen 19611965, I1, 164.
3
Robert Bireley, The Thirty Years War as Germanys Religious War, Krieg und Politik 16181648. Eu-
ropische Probleme und Perspektiven (Schriften des Historischen Kollegs, Kolloquien 8, hrsg. v. Konrad
Repgen Elisabeth Mller-Luckner), Mnchen 1988, 85106. The war of religions is actually a war against
the heterodoxy. For the sake of the military solution to the confessional problems, all the four great con-
fessions made use of it during the early modern period. It should not be confused with the crusade, since as
compared to the wars of the old Europe, it brought something absolutely new. Konrad Repgen, Was ist ein
Religionskrieg?, Zeitschrift fr Kirchengeschichte 97 (1986) 334349.

36 The Holy See and the European Politics
problem during the course of the German war. The simplified view according to
which there is a direct connection and coherence between the sacred and secular
deeds (cose sacre e profane) became slowly a thing of the past.4
From Vervins to Westphalia

The Stages of the Papal Powers Fading
The Pope of the Long Turkish War: Clement VIII
In the course of the Spanish hegemony of the sixteenth century, the Papacy was
able to keep its autonomy by relying on the financial supply of the renaissance Italy and,
moreover, it could hold the strength of Catholic Europe together by ignoring its own
inner interests. Romes important place in the power politics is proven by the triumph
of the papal-Spanish-Venetian League over the Turks in Lepanto, 1571.5
The position of the Papal State in the field of the European and Italian politics until
the pontificate of Clement VIII remained constant, or it might have gained strength, as
well. After the extinction of the Estes in Ferrara, the sovereignty of this territory fell to
the pope as to a liege lord. The occupation of the principality in 15971598 was without
any obstacles.6 Besides the enlargement of the territory, there occurred a new ally,
Henry IV (15901610). The essential condition of the Catholicized and crowned French
monarchs legitimacy who was excommunicated by Sixtus V in 1585 was the absolu-
tion of Clement VIII in 1595.7 The one-sided linkage to Spain was gradually ceasing after
this gesture due to the long hesitation. It was an important result, no matter how stable a
support Philip II was to the Papacy. The improving French relationship did not involve
the alienation of Spain. On the very day of his coronation, pope Clement VIII who
4
The new analysis of the problem: Georg Lutz, Roma e il mondo germanico nel periodo della guerra dei
TrentAnni, La corte di Roma tra Cinque e Seicento, 425460, 429432. The latest concise history of the
Thirty Years War ibid., 425, note 1.; the short historiography and almost the whole bibliography, divided
according to the national workshops, of the Papacys role ibid ., 426429, notes 28. The papal and secular
interests reconcilable problems at the turn of the sixteenth and seventeenth century are thoroughly analysed
by: Eckehart Stve, Hresiebekmpfung und ragione di Stato. Die Protestanten und das protestantische
Lager in den Hauptinstruktionen Clemens VIII, Das Papsttum, die Christenheit und die Staaten Europas
15921605, 5366.
5
A neat narration in Hungarian: Vera Zimnyi, Lepanto, 1571 (Csatk), Budapest 1983.
6
Cf. M. Bernard Barbiche, La politique de Clment VIII a lgard de Ferrare en novembre et dcembre 1597
et lexcommunication de Csar dEste, Mlange dArchologie et dHistoire 74 (1962) 289328.
7
Renzo U. Montini, Aspetti della politica interna e della politica estera allinizio del pontificato di Clemente
VIII, SR 7 (1959) 647656, 653656; Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 677679; on the question
from a wider perspective: Frederick J. Baumgartner, Crisis in the French Episcopacy. The Bishops and the
Succession of Henri IV, ARG 70 (1979) 278301.

From Vervins to Westphalia. The Stages of the Papal Powers Fading 37
wrote a warm-hearted letter to Philip II the day before renewed the so-called three
benevolences, the State use of the subsidio, the excusado and the cruzada.8
Not only could Clement VIII create his superiority, the supra partes, among the
Catholic States, but he could also establish their coherence by his active diplomacy. With
the mediation of cardinal legates, Alessandro Medici, the later Leo XI, and then Pietro
Aldobrandini, the best proof for this benevolent papal behaviour is the Peace of Vervins9
in February, 1598, which ended the Spanish intervention in France, and the Treaty of
Lyon in 1601. The treaty of Vervins left some open questions behind, which caused
a war between France and Savoy; however it was ceased by the agreement of Lyon.10
Not only did the pope want to unify the circle of the Catholic States but also to ex-
tend it. From the beginning of his pontificate, he was occupied with the idea of Catholi-
cizing the Scottish James VI, who became an English king known as James I (16031625).
However, in the end, he could not accomplish his aims, neither was he able to improve
the situation of the Catholics on the British island. His other effort also ended in a fiasco.
He wanted to take advantage of the coronation of Sigismund III (the king of Poland
15781632) the Swedish king in 1593 as a member of the Vasa dynasty, since with his
help the pope wished to weaken Protestantism in the Scandinavian State. His Church
policy, in the territory of the Holy Roman Empire proved to be more successful. With
his effective providence, William V, then Maximilian I, Bavarian governor,11 and Ferdi-
nand the archduke of Graz achieved remarkable results in catholicizing their territories.
Clement VIII made Rudolph II (15761612) change his Protestant advisers to Catholics
via his nuncios. His effort to hinder a possible election of a Protestant emperor with
the coronation of a Catholic Roman king remained vain. The question of the Habsburg
monarchs succession was only solved after his death.12
8
Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Clemens VIII., I, xiixvii; CaravaleCaracciolo, Lo Stato Pontificio,
406414; the latest evaluation of the reformed Papacy and especially Urban VIIIs Western European policy:
Bernard Barbiche, Clment VIII et la France (15921605). Principes et ralits dans les instructions gnrales et
les correspondances diplomatiques du Saint-Sige and Agostino Borromeo, Istruzioni generali e corrispondenza
ordinaria dei nunzi: obbiettivi prioritari e risultati concreti della politica spagnola di Clemente VIII, Das Papst-
tum, die Christenheit und die Staaten Europas 15921605, 99117 and 119234; Agostino Borromeo, Cle-
mente VIII, Enciclopedia dei Papi III, 249269, 254255. On the three, originally Church taxes, see the
subchapter which deals with the papal incomes and the Spanish relations.
9
La paix de Vervins 1598 (Socit archologique et historique de Vervins et de la Thirache), d. par Clau-
dine VidalFrdrique Pilleboue, h. n. 1998 (its review: AHP 37 [1999] 219220); Borromeo, Cle-
mente VIII, 256.
10
For example: C. Manfroni, Nuovi Documenti intorno alla legazione del cardinal Aldobrandini in Francia
(16001601). Tratti dallarchivio secreto Vaticano, ASRSP 13 (1890) 101105.
11
The latest biography of the often occurring monarch: Dieter Albrecht, Maximilian I von Bayern
15731651, Mnchen 1998.
12
Borromeo, Clemente VIII, 258259. The vivid curial attention, paid to the election of the emperor, was
the close continuation of an earlier tradition. Cf. Joseph Schmid, Die deutsche Kaiser- und Knigswahl und
die rmische Curie in den Jahren 15581620, HJ 6 (1885) 341.

With the establishment of the union of the Catholic States, the pope aimed at the
driving out of the Turks from the territory of Hungary, nonetheless, he wanted to
achieve the liberation of Constantinople, itself. After Lepanto, the theatre of operations
against the Ottomans shifted over from sea to land. Clement VIII yearned for victory
so dynamically and persistently that we have not witnessed one since Pius V. In order
to achieve his goals, he did not leave any chances behind. He constantly bombarded the
Catholic monarchs with his requests to make them send money, aid and subsidy to the
Hungarian fronts. By the help of the nuncios of Madrid, the bulk of the consignment
of the American-Spanish silver fleets landed in the boxes of the imperial paymasters.
The main focus of the papal foreign policy was put on the initiation of Spain, the Ital-
ian States and France into the land warfare against the Turks. The pope endeavoured
to convince the Catholic States even the remote Russia with a broad range of dip-
lomatic measures to form an offensive league.13 Three times (in 1595, 1598 and 1601),
the pope himself sent troops to the fronts of Hungary.14 Only in the first mission, he
sent 10,000 papal infantrymen, 650 cavalrymen and 100 officials, which cost 600,274
scudi.15 Apart from these, there were detailed plans about how to trigger a riot of the
Christians in the Balkans and in the Ottoman occupation. For the sake of opening the
central-east front, the pope led a secret correspondence with the Shah of Persia16 from
1599, and with the renegade Christian Scipione Ciacala, known as Sinan pasha in the
hope of his switchover. His attempts were as ineffective as that of the military actions
at the turn of the century.17
13
Cf. Domenico Caccano, La diplomazia della Controriforma e la corciata: dai piani del Possevino alla lunga
guerra di Clemente VIII, ASI 128 (1970) 255281.
14
The detailed annals and the exact account of the participants, based on a remarkable source basis: Flo-
rio Bnfi, Gianfrancesco Aldobrandini magyarorszgi hadivllalatai, Hadtrtnelmi Kzlemnyek 40 (1939)
133 and 213228; 41 (1940) 143156.
15
Andrea Da Mosto, Ordinamenti militari delle soldatesche dello Stato romano nel secolo XVI, QFIAB 6 (1904)
72133, 102. According to Endre Veress, the official accounts on the expenses of the first and third papal
troops maintained, and recorded an expense of 1,101,938 forints. Erdlyorszgi ppai kvetek jelentsei VIII.Ke-
lemen idejbl (15921600) [The Reports of the Papal Legates in Transylvania under Clement VIII (15921600)],
(Vatikni Magyar Okirattr II/3), Budapest 1909, xvii. The papal troops did not simply arrive in the
Hungarian theatre of war as Christian warriors, but as the soldiers of the Apostolic Church. Giampiero
Brunelli, Soldati del papa. Politica militare e nobilt nello Stato della Chiesa (15601644) (Universit degli
Studi Roma Tre. Dipartimento di Studi Storici Geografici antropologici. Studi e Ricerche 8), Roma 2003,
101132, 104111.
16
Jan Paul Niederkorn, Zweifrontenkrieg gegen die Osmanen. Iranisch-christliche Bndnisplne in der Zeit
des Langen Trkenkriegs 15931606, MIG 104 (1996) 310323; Carlos Alonso, Una Embajada de Cle-
mente VIII a Persia (16001609), AHP 34 (1996) 7126.
17
Clement VIIIs anti-Ottoman policy in the course of the Long Turkish War: Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruk-
tionen Clemens VIII., I, xviixxii; L.F. Mathaus-Voltolini, Die Beteiligung des Papstes Clemens VIII. an der
Bekmpfung der Trken in den Jahren 15921595, RQ 15 (1901) 303326 and 410423; Burkhardt Roberg,
Trkenkrieg und Kirchenpolitik. Die Sendung Kardinal Madruzzos an den Kaiserhof 1593 und zum Reichstag von
1594, QFIAB 65 (1985) 192305; Peter Bartl, Marciare verso Costantinopoli. Zur Trkenpolitik Klemens
VIII, Saeculum 20 (1969) 4456; [Idem], Der Trkenkrieg: Ein zentrales Thema der Hauptinstruktionen und
der Politik Clemens VIII, Das Papsttum, die Christenheit und die Staaten Europas 15921605, 6776; Jan Paul

The liberation of Hungary only a hundred years later was not due to these negoti-
ations failure. Neither was it due to the disorder of the imperial forces, nor to the unpro-
fessional high rank orders, given to the papal troops. The Ottoman Empire, in contrast
to its obvious weakening, had enormous power to move its supplies. On the other hand,
the real interests of the European States did not correspond with the league-founding
plans of Clement VIII. Frances traditional anti-Habsburg relationship with the Ottomans
and Spains engagement in the Low Countries were not favourable either. In the course
of the above mentioned plans, the northern Protestant States won their freedom and
independence by establishing the Netherlands. In addition, Venice did not want to bring
its relationship with the Ottomans to a head, owing to their untroubled eastern trade.
Besides, in Poland, people were afraid of being attacked from the rear by the Habsburgs
or the Russians during the Turkish campaign. The some 1.52 million scudi, which were
spent on the Turkish wars by Clement VIII, proved to be a fruitless sacrifice; moreover,
it also shook the papal State budget to a certain extent.18
Although the chance of suppressing the Turkish Crescent faded more and more away,
Romes intention did not cease to exist even after the death of Clement VIII. Even Leo XI
(1605), who was elected pope by the support of Henry IV owing to his legation in France,
did not consider himself to be indebted to the French monarchy. The most signifi-
cant event of his few-day-long pontificate is related to the anti-Ottoman wars. After
having received the begging letter of Rudolph II, conveyed by cardinal Madruzzo on
2 April 1605, in spite of the bare papal treasury, without any hesitation, the Medici pope
decided in favour of backing the imperial forces in Hungary.19
Paul V: the Slight Turn towards Italy
The turn of the papal policy was a straw in the wind during the pontificate of Paul V
(16051621). After the unexpected death of Leo XI, there were five factions competing
in the second conclave of 1605. There were the zelanti, who had only the ecclesiastical
interests in sight, the indebted cardinals of Spain and France and cardinals of the two
Niederkorn, Die europische Mchte und der Lange Trkenkrieg Kaiser Rudolfs II. (15931606) (AG 135),
Wien 1993, 161182; Elisabeth Springer, Kaiser Rudolf II., Papst Clemens VIII. und die bosnischen Christen.
Taten un Untaten des Cavaliere Francesco Antonio Bertucci in kaiserlichen Diensten in den Jahren 1594 bis 1602,
MStA 33 (1980) 77104; Borromeo, Clemente VIII, 259260.
18
The datum is disclosed by: Jean Delumeau, Vie conomique et sociale de Rome dans la seconde moiti du
XVIe sicle III (Bibliothque de coles Franaises dAthnes et de Rome 124), Paris 19571959, II, 762763.
However, according to the calculations of rpd Krolyi, the Holy See spent two million scudi only on
the payment of the imperial troops between 1594 and 1605. A Bcsi bke s a hrom kassai orszggyls. 1606.
jniusdecember [The Treaty of Vienna and the Three Diets in Kassa. June-December 1606], Magyar Orszg-
gylsi Emlkek XII, Budapest 1917, 103417, 138. Around 16051606, another 130 thousand scudi arrived in
Vienna from Rome. Reinhard, Papstfinanz und Nepotizmus, 2123.
19
The decision was preceded by the resolution, made on 13 April, of the Congregazione dUngheria which dealt
with the Hungarian war situation. Matteo Sanfilippo, Leone XI, Enciclopedia dei Papi III, 269277, 275.

former ruling families, the Perettis and Aldobrandinis (amministratori di eredit). Camillo
Borghese was to be grateful to these families for his election: to the patronage of the
Sfondratis and to the Peretti-Montaltis and Aldobrandinis assistance with his position
as a chierico di Camera and as a cardinal.
He had the support of Florence due to his origins of Siena. Moreover, he aroused the
sympathy of Spain, when he visited Madrid in 1593 as an extraordinary nuncio exhorting
to join the anti-Ottoman war. This sympathy did not win the opposition of France.
Actually, only his young age (he was only fifty-two years old, which meant to be the
youngest pope in the Early Modern Ages) and health could be against him. Namely,
a long pontificate entailed a new clientele with permanent positions, which implied cul-
tural and economical problems just like the evolution of the power relations within the
conclave projected the political dominance of Italy.20
Paul V obstructed the subsidies for the anti-Turkish wars only after a half a year
of his election. In his decision, the former serious sacrifices21 and the military defeats,
such as the surrender of Esztergom in the autumn of 1605, played an important role.
In reality, he wanted to ensure the aid of the Habsburgs in the campaign against Venice.
According to the new priorities, the diplomats of the Holy See actively supported the
Hungarian Peace of Zsitvatorok in 160622. Neither did they protest against the compro-
mise with the Protestants signed in Vienna in the same year.
It is hardly surprising that the most significant challenge of the early pontificate of
Pope Borghese was related to Venice. Traditionally, the Holy See had a cold and tense
relationship with the City-State. After the Council of Trent, the Papacy put a great
emphasis on regaining and preserving the immunities and rights of the Church. Venice
regarded them as theocratic efforts; therefore, it did its utmost to impede them in order
to save its state of being independent. It tried to have stricter control over the Church
institutions, especially on their benefices. Furthermore, Venice wanted to maintain
taking command of the clergy. It was almost symbolic that the more relentless Rome
insisted on the doctrines of Trent during the conflict, the slower the reform movement
became in the Curia. Yet, the republic of Venice turned into the intermediary of the
modern State which viewed the Church as an organization under the responsibility of
politics. The theoretical background was worked out by the legal advisor of the Signoria,
by Paolo Sarpi, in his memoranda and pamphlets.23
Volker Reinhardt, Paolo V, Enciclopedia dei Papi III, 277292, 279280.

20
The Italian historiography still calls the Long War tragiche guerre dUngheria. Stefano Andretta, Ceri-
21
moniale e diplomazia pontificia nel XVII secolo, Crmonial et rituel Rome (XVIeXIXe sicle) (Collection de
lcole Franaise de Rome 231, d. par Catherine Brice Maria Antonietta Visceglia), Rome 1997, 202221, 210.
22
The turn of the Turkish policy: Niederkorn, Die europische Mchte, 301329; Massimo Petrocchi,
La politica della Santa Sede di fronte allinvasione ottomana (14441718), Napoli 1955, 8688; Krolyi, A Bcsi
bke, 139144; Petrocchi, Roma nel Seicento, 2325.
23
Petrocchi, Roma nel Seicento, 2122; I disregard the representation of the immense amount of litera-
ture on Sarpi.

The differences became more acute in December 1605, when the pope (perhaps being
encouraged by the successful acquisition of Ferrara in 1598) threatened the republic with
the most severe sanctions if the republic did not withdraw some injurious laws and released
two clerics and gave them to the ecclesiastical court. After the already cold atmosphere was
made tenser more conflicts occurred, such as some boarder and financial debates, and the
complication around the papal confirmation24 of the new Venetian patriarch , in April
1606 Paul V excommunicated the senate, and he put the whole territory of Venice under
canonical ban, interdictum. However, the Signoria did not balk. As an answer, it threat-
ened the clergy with severe sanctions if they obliged to the orders of the pope. Besides,
the Jesuits were expelled from the City-State without hesitation.
The conflict of religious at the peak of the crises, there was a fear that Venice
was likely to be converted to Protestantism and political nature was drifting towards
a clash of arms. The preparations gravity was indicated by the fact that half a million
scudi was spent on the arm of the papal forces and on the hastily done fortification work.
The increasing tense implied an outbreak of a Europe-wide war. Not only were the sur-
rounding Italian States agitated but due to the neighbouring Lombardy, Spain, as well,
which made France be in a state of readiness. Such intensification of the conflict was not
in the interests of Rome, Venice, nor of the great powers. The negotiation with Spain
and France enabled their compromise without a backing, in the spring of 1607. The two
sued priests were handed over to the popes delegate; the questioned laws were not with-
drawn, however, they announced that the republic would manifest the usual humble
conduct and they accepted the papal absolution, yet, the Jesuits could not return.25
Paul V was not defeated as historiography sometimes States, the conflict, however,
indicated the events and conclusion of the Thirty Years War. The great powers, who
declaimed the agreement, declared that the age of the direct papal intervention in the
European policy was over. The political way of thinking, independent from the reli-
gious elements, was irreversibly developing, even among the Catholic States. Paul V ac-
knowledged the message. It is proved by his diplomatic-political behaviour which was
cautious, defensive and of a reserved nature in the following years of his pontificate.
His situation was eased for a decade by the assassination of Henry IV in 1610 which
brought the dtente of the French-Spanish rivalry until Richelieus entry on the scene.
The temporary state of peace, obviously, did not mean that Paul V though he ex-
24
Gino Benzoni, Una controversia tra Roma e Venezia allinizio del 600. La conferma del patriarca, Studi
Veneziani 3 (1961) 121138.
25
On the Venetian affair and its roots: Pastor, Geschichte der Ppste XII, 82154; Ranke, A ppk
trtnete [The History of the Popes], 454467; Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 682687. Rein-
hardt, Paolo V, 287; the annals with many sources: Enrico Cornet, Paolo V e la republica Veneta. Giornale
dal 22. Ottobre 9. Giugno 1607, Vienna 1859; Carlo Pio de Magistris, Per la storia del componimento della
contesa tra la Republica Veneta e Paolo V (16051607). Documenti, Torino 1941, xviixlv; furthermore with
ample literature: Stefano Andretta, Clemente VIII e la Repubblica di S. Marco: conflittualit e tatticismi,
Das Papsttum, die Christenheit und die Staaten Europas 15921605, 7798; Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen
Clemens VIII., I, xxiixxiii.

perienced the effective help of Philip III (15981621) in Venice was not aware of the
unstoppable decline of Spain and of Frances perspective under Louis XIII (16101643).26
That restraint, which was shown by the Holy See in the preliminaries and first phase
of the Thirty Years War, can be comprehended only in the light of the concluding of
the Venetian conflict. The pope, in spite of the repeated requests and urges even after
the establishment of the Catholic League in 1609, was reluctant to give military or fi-
nancial support, which support remained to be rather symbolic even after the outbreak
of the war. In 1583 a papal-Bavarian-Spanish military union hindered the archbishop-
rics of Colognes fall into Protestants hands. The main aim of Paul Vs German policy
was to maintain the status quo, namely keeping the principle of cuius regio eius et religio,
accepted in Augsburg in 1555. Rankes statement, according to which the Holy See, by
its legates on the imperial diet of 1608, contributed to the intensification of the conflict,
leading to the Thirty Years War, cannot be confirmed. Neither did Rome support Maxi-
milian I of Bavarias who had absolute power in his country and put the Catholic confes-
sionalisation in the centre of his policy by inner conviction effort to establish a Catholic
league. Paul V could hardly identify himself with Maximilian and Ferdinand IIs who
just acceded to the imperial throne, (16191637) endeavour to change the Catholic-Prot-
estant power relations, even beyond their frontier. The Holy See, for example, simply
did not answer to Ferdinand IIs question, whether in his difficult situation he could give
the freedom of religion to the Lower Austrian orders. The Papacy provided evidence
of its incapacity that shows its less and less vivid interest in the second half of the 1610s,
concerning the events, happening in the territory of the Empire.27
At the beginning of the Thirty Years War, despite the repeated urge and sending of
legates by the zealous Catholic Ferdinand II, he could gain only monthly ten thousand
scudi for the battles against the Protestants. Paul V refused the allocation of considerable
sums and the utilization of the reserves, accumulated under Sixtus V in the Castle of Saint
Angelo, by referring to the difficulties of the papal budget. His behaviour clearly voiced
that turn in the Curia which was taken after the death of Clement VIII, who ordered the
payment of a gigantic amount of money for the war against the Ottomans. The direct
reasons were naturally of many kinds. The imperial problems might have been under-
estimated in Rome, or they were afraid of a possible provocation of France. The Curia,
of course, did not want to strengthen Spains Italian presence with the aid granted to the
Reinhardt, Paolo V, 287288. On the later often quoted weakening of Spain in relation to foreign
26
policy: John. H. Elliott, Foreign Policy and Domestic Crisis: Spain, 15981659, Krieg und Politik, 185202.
27
Repgen, Die rmische Kurie und der Westflische Friede, I 1, 160161. I am unacquainted with the mod-
ern analysis of the foreign policy of Pope Borghese, might not exist there one. The relevant annals recon-
struction of a positivist nature: Pastor, Geschichte der Ppste XII, 275314. 498583; and the summary of
the pontificate: Michele Monaco, Le finanze pontificie al tempo di Paolo V (16051621). La fondazione del
primo banco pubblico in Roma (Banco di Santo Spirito), Lecce 1974, 57119; Jedin, Europische Gegenreforma-
tion, 652657; furthermore, Franz Bosbach, Die Habsburger und die Entstehung des Dreiigjhrigen Krieges.
Die Monarchia Universalis, Krieg und Politik, 151168.

Habsburgs. For this very reason, the pope gave a flat refusal to get involved in the more
and more serious conflict of Valtellina, to which his successor paid more attention. He put
the emphasis on the questions of his States government, society and city development.28
These later mentioned angles were of high-priority only in the Barberini era.
In case of Paul V, this picture was a bit more shaded especially in the first years of his
pontificate due to those small exceptional instances when he appeared less reserved.
By his nuncio in Cologne, Antonio Albergati, he took more firm measures concerning
the succession of the Duchy of Cleves and Jlich to gain these important territories for
Catholicism, though, the pope did not dare to intervene directly, since he did not want
to inflame those territories.29 In 1612, there was a reasoned strategy composed in the
Curia for the Catholicization of the Rhineland,30 and the instructions given to the nun-
cios were basically phrased in accordance with the Christianitas.31 Notwithstanding, in
the reports of the nuncios apart from some high-sounding plans this was hardly
reflected. The Holy See undoubtedly had a comprehensive reform-plan at this time,
though it can scarcely be regarded expansive.
It belongs to the exceptions; or rather it proves the gradualness of the papal policys
turn that the papal diplomacy showed remarkable interest also in Rudolph II and Matthias
of Austrias struggle for the throne. But for the cardinal legate Giovanni Garzia Mellinis
intervention in 1608, the conclusion of the fratricidal struggle could not have been re-
alized.32 The Roman zeal, in relation to the imperial succession of Rudolph and then
Matthias, can be reckoned here. The aim was to hinder a Protestant emperors succession
to the throne and to avoid a longer vacancy which could have been unfavourable to the
Catholics. Under all circumstances, Matthiass dependence on the Austrian, Bohemian
and Hungarian Protestants that derived from the circumstances of his coming into
power encumbered the duties of the pope. Due to the Hungarian bishops denunciation
28
A thorough analysis: Ingo Stader, Herrschaft durch Verflechtung: Perugia unter Paul V (160521). Stu-
dien zur frhneuzeitlichen Mikropolitik im Kirchenstaat (Beitrge zur Kirchen- und Kulturgeschichte 5),
Frankfurt a. Main[usw.] 1997.
29
When, on 14 November 1614, in Xanten, Brandenburg and Palatinate-Neuburg temporarily agreed on
the status of Jlich, Kleve, Berg, Mark and Ravensberg, they actually concluded a two-decade long conflict,
which could be regarded as the archetype of the conflicts of the Thirty Years War in many respects.
Burkhardt Roberg, Ppstliche Politik am Rhein. Die rmische Kurie und der Jlich-Klevische Erbfolgstreit,
Rheinische Vierteljahresbltter 41 (1977) 6387.
30
Wolfgang Reinhard, Ein rmisches Gutachten vom Juli 1612 zur Strategie der Gegenreformation im
Rheinland, RQ 64 (1969) 168190.
31
Silvano Giordano, Aspetti di politica ecclesiastica e riforma religiosa nelle istruzioni generali di Paolo V, Kurie
und Politik, 236271.
32
The documents of his legation: Johannis Garziae Millini ad cardinalem Burghesium epistulae e legatione apud
imperatorem anno 1608 datae (Epistulae et acta nuntiorum apostolicorum apud imperatorem 15921628 4, III 2),
ed. Elena Linhartova, Pragae 1946.

and the signing of the anti-Catholic acts, the pope was not reluctant to excommuni-
cate temporarily and in secret the monarch.33
After Matthiass gradual reversal for example on the Diet of Pozsony, in the spring
of 1609 Paul V won the Catholic imperial electorates to the succession of the Habsburg
dynasty, and agreed with Philip III in the person of Matthias. He urged, later as well,
the clarification of the imperial succession. In 1617, his nominee was expressly Ferdinand,
whose accession to the throne in 1619 was given a tremendous reception by the pope.
He was clearly aware of the fact that in certain territories (especially in the hereditary
provinces, in Bohemia and in Hungary) only the dynasty could guarantee the main-
tenance and expansion from whose coordination he withdrew himself of Cathol-
icism.34 He exerted political activity only on the periphery. Especially in Eastern Europe,
where not as the last in the raw of popes at all, driven by the desire of a union with
the orthodoxy he supported the succession of the False Dmitry, who was acting as
the son of Ivan the Terrible (15331584). Yet, the attempt failed. The pretender, who was
just beguiling the Holy See was assassinated. The failure cost the career of the nuncio
in Poland, Claudio Rangoni.35
The Last Military Reformist Pope: Gregory XV
The visible process of the voluntary or sometimes forced isolation from the im-
manent European, especially imperial problems under the pontificate of Paul V halted
at the beginning of the 1620s. The dominant and authoritative attitude of the refor-
mist Papacys return was owed to one person, to Gregory XV (16211623). However,
Alessandro Ludovisi became a cardinal rather late, in 1616.36 Due to the evenness of his
career and his contemplative spirituality, on the conclave in 1621 where he occurred
as a papabile he faced none of the factions veto. Spain and France both had favourable
memories of him, since Clement VIII appointed Archduke Albert of Austria to the arch-
bishop of Toledo and primate of Spain by his advice, while he played an important role
in the absolution of Henry IV. The fifty-two cardinals, participating in the uniquely
short conclave, which lasted only a couple of days, elected him without an actual
counter-nominee the successor of Saint Peter.37
33
Pter Tusor, Az 1608. vi magyar trvnyek a rmai inkvizci eltt: II.Mtys kikzstse [Hungarian
Acts of 1608 Before the Roman Inquisition: the Excommunication of Matthias II], Aetas 15 (2000) 4, 89105.
34
It is a radical, but typical example that Ferdinand II directly imprisoned Cardinal Melchior Klesl,
the former chairman of the secret council who sought for compromise with the Protestants. Truly, with his
action, he gave the Curia plenty to think about. Johann Rainer, Der Proze gegen Kardinal Klesl, RHM
5 (1961/62) 35163.
35
Reinhardt, Paolo V, 287288.
36
Alexander Koller, Gregorio XV, Enciclopedia dei Papi III, 292297, 293.
37
Unless we reckon with the candidate of the Borghese party: the Bolognian Pietro Campori. The new
Pope called himself after his first patron, the Pope of the calendar reform. Ibid.

In contrast to his predecessor, he paid exceptional attention to the contemporary

Europes two critical focuses: Bohemia and Valtellina. He was the only pope since Greg-
ory XIII, who wanted to fulfil a reasoned political program in the territory of the Em-
pire. The main chapter of this plan was the delegation of the electoral rights of the
marquis in Rhine-Pfalz, who was catastrophically defeated in the Battle of White Hill
on 8 November 1620 by the Habsburg troops. After Ferdinand II had debarred Frederick
from his duties on 29 January 1621, the policy of the Holy See aimed at strengthening
the position of the Catholics by the fifth vote of Rhine-Pfalz in the Electoral College.
Out of the two nominees, Wolfgang Wilhelm, Duke of Neuburg, and Maximilian,
the duke of Bavaria, the papal diplomacy supported the later one due to his reinforce-
ment of Catholic confessionalisation and his political and military achievements. Yet,
Gregory XV had the delegation of the electoral rights, based on medieval basis, ac-
knowledged in a vain attempt, which proved to be the first significant, however isolated,
sign of the popes losing power in the seventeenth century. After Carlo Carafa, the new
nuncio in Vienna, Fabrizio Verospi, extraordinary papal legate and Giacinto da Casale
had done their best to support Maximilian at Ferdinand II; Maximilian formally became
a prince-elector on 25 February 1623. As a token of his gratitude, he endowed Gregory
XV with the lavish library of the University of Heidelberg, which was occupied by the
troops of Tilly in September 1622.38 The collection of some 9,500 volumes arrived in
Rome on 5 August 1623, where it was placed in the Vatican Library, which can be still
found in Bibliotheca Palatina.39
In parallel to the diplomatic steps, the pope increased the amount of the subsidies
to the Catholic League, from the incomes of the Apostolic Camera and from the tithes
imposed on the German benefices and the Italian religious orders. At the end of his
pontificate, in the first three years of the Thirty Years War, the Borghese pope sent
a subsidy of 300330 thousand scudi to the Catholic troops.40 Gregory XV in spite
of the agricultural crisis, occurring in Italy, in the first period of his pontificate sent
more than twice as much as Paul V did. Between 1618 and 1623, Rome gave altoget-
her 1.051.08 million scudi to the Catholic League, from which they directly sent 700
thousand gulden, in accordance with the exchange rate, 230280 thousand golden scudi,
38
Dieter Albrecht, Die deutsche Politik Papst Gregors XV. Die Einwirkung der ppstlichen Diplomatie
auf die Huser Habsburg und Wittelsbach 16211623 (Schriftenreihe zur bayerischen Landesgeschichte 53),
Mnchen 1956, 1104; [Idem], Der Heilige Stuhl und die Kurbertragung von 1623, QFIAB 34 (1954) 236249;
[Idem], Die auswrtige Politik Maximilians von Bayern 16181635 (Schriftenreihe der Historischen Kommis-
sion bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 6), Gttingen 1962, 6266; Klaus Jaitner, Kurie
und Politik Der Pontifikat Gregors XV., Kurie und Politik, 116, 78; Repgen, Die rmische Kurie und der
Westflische Friede, I 1, 161162.
39
Stanislav Petr, Lanalisi dei manoscritti di argomento boemistico nella Biblioteca Vaticana, Bolletino dellIsti-
tuto Storico Ceco di Roma III (a c. d. Zdenka Hledkov), Praga 2002, 5670, 5961.
40
Half of the sum was covered by the payment of the twelve Italian monastic congregations. Reinhardt,
Paolo V, 284.

to the German papal troops.41 A considerable sum of it was spent on Pietro Aldobrandi-
nis recruitment in Moravia,42 which finally proved to be an unnecessary undertaking
since his troops were not deployed, owing to the peace treaty with Gbor Bethlen, the
prince of Transylvania, in Nikolsburg.
After the expansion of the Catholic League, which was greatly encouraged by the
pope, the aim of the Curia was to conclude peace and to stabilize military achievements
by gaining benefit from them. Extraordinary nuncios were sent to Germany, whose
task was to control the retrieved bishoprics and cathedral chapters. They had to take
care of the filling of the bishoprics with not only Catholic but zealous prelates, who were
suitable for governing. In the territory of Bohemia, the reinforcement of the Catholic
religion was directly organized by Carlo Carafa, the nuncio of Vienna. He provided for
the establishment of a Catholic university in Prague, and for the issue of the catechisms
and other spiritual readings in Czech. Furthermore, for the sake of the reform and
recruitment of the clergy and the religious orders, with Jesuit guidance he revived the
earlier established seminars and colleges.43
The triumphs of Catholicism in Germany were crowned by the splendid ceremonies
of four Spanish saints Ignatius of Loyola, Francis Xavier, Teresa of Avila and the me-
dieval patron of Madrid raising to altar on 12 March, 1622. These expressed the
seemingly everlasting union of the Papacy and the Habsburgs.44
The other centre of war besides Bohemia was Valtellina that was situated northeast
of Como. Its territory was owned by Graubnden, which joined the Swiss cantons as an
allied province in 1513. While the people in Graubnden (Grigioni in Italian) became the
followers of Protestantism, the inhabitants of Valtellina regarded themselves as an insep-
arable part of the Italian culture and language, so they remained Catholic. From 1618, their
efforts for autonomy, accompanied by confessional division, more frequently ended up
41
On the papal policy and the aids at the beginning of the Thirty Years War: Joseph Schnitzer, Zur
Politik des hl. Stuhles in der ersten Hlfte des Dreiigjhrigen Krieges, RQ 13 (1899) 151262, 151171; Albrecht,
Die auswrtige Politik Maximilians, 3139. 6266. 7880. [Idem], Zur Finanzierung des Dreigjhrigen Krieges.
Die Subsidien der Kurie fr Kaiser und Liga 16181635, Zeitschrift fr bayerische Landesgeschichte 19 (1956)
534567, 535545; Lutz, Roma e il mondo germanico, 432.
42
A copy of the order for Pietro Aldobrandini (who should not be mistaken for the former cardinal nephew)
to engage three thousand foot-soldiers: sterreichisches Staatsarchiv (StA), Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv
(HHStA), Handschriftensammlung, ms. W 780, fol. 302r306v. Published: Klaus Jaitner (Hrsg.),
Die Hauptinstruktionen Gregors XV. fr die Nuntien und Gesandten an den europischen Frstenhfen 16211623
(Instructiones Pontificum Romanorum), Tbingen 1997, 737. However, the instruction of the paymaster
(pagatore) of Matteo Pini remained to be unpublished: StA HHStA Handschriftensammlung, ms. W 780,
fol. 308r310v.
43
Numerous data on the Catholicization of the Kingdom of Bohemia: Ignatius Kollmann (ed.), Acta
Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide res gestas Bohemicas illustrantia III, Pragae 19231954. A short
outline as the preliminary study of the publication of the Bohemian related selected reports on the role of
Nuncio Carafa: Pavel Balcrek, Le nunziature di Carlo Caraffa degli anni 16211628 e la loro accessibilit di
edizione, Bolletino dellIstituto Storico Ceco di Roma III, 7190.
44
Koller, Gregorio XV, 293294; Po-Chia Hsia, The World of Catholic Renewal, 126130.

in armed conflicts. On 19 July, 1620, the saint massacre, the sacro macello was the height
of this conflict, where approximately four hundred Protestants were slaughtered. The
crisis was more than that of a confessional and local-political nature. In the question of
Valtellinas status, all significant great powers the Habsburgs, Venice, France, which
controlled a remarkable part of the Swiss cantons and Savoy felt concerned since here
reached the main roads, linking the Empire and the Spanish territories of northern Italy,
the southern part of the Alps, moreover, there stood those forts which controlled the
attainment of the important passes.
First the Habsburgs became conscious: the Spanish-Austrian troops occupied Val-
tellina in August, 1620. With their entry, they opened a strategically important corri-
dor from Milan to the German theatre of war and directly to Tirol, which could have
been reached only through the territory of Venice. After many attempts to conclude
peace and many recrudescent clashes, in Paris, in February 1623, France, Venice and
Savoy formed an alliance to chase the Spanish out. Their union involved the risk of the
conflicts considerable expansion.
For the sake of compromise, Gregory XV, whose policy in Valtellina was, besides
to preserve the Catholic interests, also to maintain Italys peace and tranquillity, was
inclined to make grave sacrifices. Not only did he undertake the mediation but also
the neutralization of whole Valtellina. According to the compromise with the court of
Madrid, in June, 1623 the papal troops of three thousand men, led by the brother of the
pope, Orazio Ludovisi, marched into the territory, where all of the forts were taken
over from the Spanish and the white-yellow flag was hoisted on their bastions. The total
conclusion of the question remained the task of his successor, since Pope Gregory died
in the following month.45
The other remarkable, but less successful intervention of the papal diplomacy in
European politics is related to the marriage plan of Charles, the Prince of Wales who
was later beheaded by Cromwell and Maria, the Spanish archduchess. From the wed-
lock, which excited the curiosity of the Continents public opinion since 1614, the pope
expected significant improvement in the situation of the Catholics in England, who
were practically outlawed after the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. In 1621, he entrusted a
particular congregation with the adjustment of the marriage contract. The cardinals
succeeded in elaborating a draft, complying with the canon law, which was accepted
both by the court of Madrid and London. In 1623, the pope could give the dispensation,
needed for the marriage, to the archduchess in good conscience. However, the breach in
Anglo-Spanish relation in the autumn of that year led this planning astray. Likewise,
the results and characteristics of the short ruling of Gregory XV, who took the role of
45
The conflict and consequences of Valtellina are dealt with by numerous earlier and current works, such
as: Georg Lutz, Kardinal Giovanni Francesco Guidi di Bagno. Politik und Religion im Zeitalter Richelieus und
Urbans VIII. (BDHIR 34), Tbingen 1971, 1926. 4660; Albrecht, Die auswrtige Politik Maximilians,
145150; Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Gregors XV., 1329; Schnitzer, Zur Politik des hl. Stuhles, 170180;
Pastor, Geschichte der Ppste XIII, 266299; Ranke, A ppk trtnete [The History of the Popes], 545550.

the industrious and initiative padre commune, namely the common father of Christi-
anity,46 did not prove to be lasting.47
The Acceleration of the Loss of Power: Urban VIII
In July, 1623, the conclave, assembled after the death of Pope Gregory promised to
be difficult and long. Out of the participating fifty-five cardinals, at least fifteen were
papabili. The three groups of the same number of cardinals did not represent political
lines but papal families, the Aldobrandinis, the Borgheses and the Ludovisis. After the
seventeen-day long unsuccessful voting, owing to the epidemic, spreading among the
conclavists, the Borghese and Ludovisi party finally reached an agreement with the
mediation of Antonio Caetani, Maurizio di Savoya and Odoardo Farnese. As a result, on
the final voting of 6 August, Maffeo Barberini, who likewise his colleagues fell seriously
sick, won the overwhelming majority of the votes, fifty out of fifty-four. He owed his
election to the fact that he was not dependent on the Borghese family, since he won
his appointment as a cardinal just at the beginning of Paul Vs pontificate, the sub-
stantial part of his career fell in other periods, which made him acceptable for the
Ludovisi party, as well.
It can be hardly decided whether as a consequence of his early speeches, in which
he emphasized the need of the fight against heretics and pagans he traced back his
name to Urban II (10881099), the pope of the Crusades, or to his affection for the
Urbs Romae.48 Under all circumstances, if we examine the accomplished program of
his pontificate, the later can be completely proved. In the following two decades, the
invasion against the Ottomans, the idea of Crociata, did not exist even on rhetoric
level. Moreover, after having expelled the Jesuits from Constantinople (where they
arrived under Gregory XV, in 1623) in 1628, and in 1634 the places of worship of the
Holy Land were taken over by the followers of orthodoxy from the Franciscan order
in spite of the achievements of the missions in the Balkans the circumstances of
the Catholics changed for the worse.49
One of the first significant events of Urban VIIIs (16231644) pontificate was the
Jubilee of 1625. He personally visited churches, confessed the people and, moreover,
46
The general analysis of the papal neutralitys (neutralit) theorem and the relations, roots of the political
conflicts: Prodi, The Papal Prince, 177181.
47
Koller, Gregorio XV, 293294. On the Church and Habsburg policy of Gregory XV, see also: Jait-
ner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Gregors XV., 953; Pastor, Geschichte der Ppste XIII, 151224; on his reform
program, his personality and the inherent characteristics of his pontificate: Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen
Gregors XV., 5463 and 67105.
48
Georg Lutz, Urbano VIII, Enciclopedia dei Papi III, 298321, here 302303.
49
Petrocchi, La politica della Santa Sede, 88.

Paul V (16051621)

Pope Urban VIII visits the Il Ges church in Rome to celebrate
the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Jesuit order (16401641)

Innocent X (16441655)

Innocent XI (16761689)

he spent 200 thousand scudi on the fortification of the town walls, the Castle of Saint
Angelo and the Quirinal.50
His fears were rooted in the conflict of Valtellina, inherited from this predecessor.
The papal neutralization of the territory proved to be only a temporary solution. The
negotiations between France and Spain, which lasted until September 1624, were fruit-
less. The Spanish wanted to keep the right of free passage, to which France did not
agree. Not only for the sake of its own interests, since by this means France should
have faced Spanish marching all around its borders, but of its Netherlandish allies,
who wanted to become independent from Spain. In December, 1624 with the leader-
ship of Coeuvres marquis, the French army occupied Valtellina. By January, 1625, the
papal soldiers were obliged to hand the two most important bulwarks Bormio and
Chiavenna over to them.51 A deaf ear was turned to Romes protest and menaces.
Urban VIII, the Barberini, who, also as a cardinal, was against the papal intervention
in the territory of the Alps, was not willing to make an alliance with Spain, in spite
of the obvious grievance. As Padre commune, he wanted to maintain the same distance
between the two States, therefore he sought the solution through diplomacy. In Feb-
ruary, 1625, he sent his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, to Paris as a legate. His
three-month long negotiations focused on two important issues: the deliverance of the
Apostolic Sees reputation and the recognition of Valtellinas total political and admin-
istrative independence. The inhabitants could not imagine returning under the rule
of the Protestant Grigioni. However, France remained persistently loyal to its allies
in Graubnden. In the possession of the territory, they demanded the direct control
of the strategic passes of the Alps. In November, 1625, the cardinal legate was obliged
to embark in Toulon with the bewildering realization of their diplomatic impotence.
His fiasco became the trauma of Urban VIIIs political world concept. At this time,
the pope started to realize that the interests of the Catholic monarchs were so irrec-
oncilable with the Roman universalism, to which according to his original program,
he pledged himself as the father of all Catholics.52
His suspicion was soon established. In March, 1626, when the cardinal nephew
visited Barcelona to attain his goal with the Spanish, as an unexpected turn, the Fran-
co-Spanish peace had been already concluded in Monzon. The threat of the escalation
of the problem ceased to exist. The treaty was ratified without the Apostolic Sees
knowledge and attendance on 3 May, which made many sacrifices for the settlement
of this conflict. The compromise ordained the territorys demilitarization, the dis-
mantling of its bulwarks and it was passed under the French allied Graubndens rule.
Maria Antonietta Visceglia, Giubilei tra pace e guerre (16251650), RMC 5 (1997) 431474, 436456.
50
Andreas Kraus, Die auswrtige Politik Urbans VIII. Grundzge und Wendepuntke, Mlanges Eugne
51
Tisserant IV (ST 234), Citt del Vaticano 1964, 407426, 410411; Lutz, Urbano VIII, 304305.
52
Lutz, Kardinal Giovanni Francesco Guidi di Bagno, 1926.

On the other hand, it assured the exclusive usage of Catholic religion, moreover, the
inhabitants of Valtellina won absolute autonomy on a governmental and judicial level.53
As a consequence, in spite of Romes exclusion, the points of the treaty regarded
Urban VIIIs religious political aims to a certain extent. In other words, it took almost
a year for the papal diplomacy to modify the religious phases of the treaty, which were
acceptable to them. Although his neglect dampened his enthusiasm, the pope did not
remonstrate about the compromise. Notwithstanding the Papacy did not receive in-
demnities for its grievances, suffered from the entry of the French, and for the price
of the neutralization according to certain estimates, the expenses of the Apostolic
See met 670 thousand scudi , the pope did not protest, either. Furthermore, at the
beginning of 1627 Valtellinas bulwarks were handed over to his troops to accomplish
the uncongenial task of their demolition.54
The regulation of religious matters, which proved to be more pragmatic than the
Roman theological-political maxims, abode the test of time and the three other occu-
pations (imperial, Spanish, then French) under Urban VIII. The most lasting result
of the settlement of Valtellina was the radical turn of the papal policy. The essence
of the new guiding principle, based on galling experiences, was the realization that
Rome had to stand aside from all of the conflicts of the Catholic States, or at least had
to beware of any undistinguished standpoint in the future. The method, how the tre-
aty of Monzon was concluded, left its mark on the Curia. The Papacy had to face the
fact that it was no longer able to represent an independent political pole therefore it
was forced to choose among the more and more antagonistic great powers. Pope Bar-
berini instead of his predecessors commitments: Paul Vs tepid and Gregory XVs
Habsburg-amity voted for France.55
The military preparation around the Jubilee of 1625 was not only for Valtellina.
It can be related as well as to the annexation of the duchy of Urbino by the Papal State.
Although the last duke of Urbino, Francesco Maria della Rovere, who had no heirs,
did his utmost to enable his State to revert to the Apostolic See, to its original liege
lord (devolutio). Urban VIII was afraid that this event would cause military replies
by the other Italian States, especially by Toscana. The gradual occupation, though,
ran an easy course. In 1625, the old duke resigned and his place was taken by a papal
governor. The territory was connected to the Papal State in 1631, after the death of
the duke. The ex novo legation, without a legal predecessor, was led by Antonio, then
by Francesco Barberini in 1633. In the territory of the duchy, the pope established a
new diocese in 1636 with the union of Castel Durante, whose name was changed to
Urbania, and Sant Angelo in Vado.
53
Lutz, Kardinal Giovanni Francesco Guidi di Bagno, 4660; Albrecht, Die auswrtige Politik Maximilians,
145150; Schnitzer, Zur Politik des hl. Stuhles, 170180; Pastor, Geschichte der Ppste XIII, 266299; Ranke,
A ppk trtnete [The History of the Popes], 545550; Lutz, Urbano VIII, 304305.
54
Ibid.
55
Ibid.

Along with Urbino, a prestigious title, which was formerly owned by the Della
Roveres, the title of the prefect of Rome changed hands. The title, endowed to Taddeo
Barberini by the pope, provided precedence over all of the foreign legates in the papal
court for the young nephew. However they for lack of imperial confirmation were
reluctant to accept. The pope endeavoured to fill this title with meaning in vain,
since the foreign diplomats consistently avoided the meeting with Taddeo. Later this
caused many diplomatic conflicts, for instance in 1631 with the Venetian legate,56 then
in 1638, with the extraordinary imperial legate, entering the Papal State with large
armed company.57
The easing of the tension between Spain and France after Monzon in the course of
which a plan of a common invasion against England was expressed58 by the help of the
papal diplomacy in 16251626 was stranded due to the question of the succession of the
Duchy of Mantua and the Earldom of Monferrato. After the reliable Habsburg-friendly,
governing line of the house of Gonzaga died out, Spain wanted to hinder, by all means,
the most legal inheritance of the French Duke of Nevers. The conflict of Mantua was
that phase of the Thirty Years War, where Catholics joined battle with each other in the
Italian peninsula.59 It showed the weakness of the Spanish which caused a slow turn in
Ferdinand IIs power. The emperor was at his zenith. In 1629, in Lbeck, he concluded a
favourable treaty with the Danish, who entered the war four years earlier. Furthermore,
he announced his decree, the so called Restitutionsedikt,60 which legitimized the superi-
ority of Catholicism in the territory of the empire and returned the benefices and in-
56
Visceglia, Giubilei tra pace e guerre, 436456; Lutz, Urbano VIII, 305. The acknowledgement of the
title of a prefect became the repeated topic of the nuncios reports. Maria Antonietta Visceglia, Il ceri-
moniale come linguaggio politico. Su alcuni conflitti di precedenza alla corte di Roma tra Cinquecento e Seicento,
Crmonial et rituel Rome, 117176, 154162 and 168170 (= Maria Antonietta Visceglia, La citt ri-
tuale. Roma e le sue cerimonie in et moderna [La corte dei papi 8], Roma 2002, 119190: Conflitti di precedenza
alla corte di Roma tra Cinquecento e Seicento); and also Pio Pecchiai, I Barberini (Archivi dItalia e Rassegna
Internazionale degli Archivi 5) Roma 1959, 166168 and 169174.
57
The clash took place at the time of the younger Prince Eggenbergs so called legation of oboedientia, through
which the new emperor expressed his obedience to the Pope. This action was not without any tense since Fre-
derick III. In 1577, for example, however late, Rudolph II was willing to send his delegation to Rome only to
express his humility towards the Apostolic See. He avoided the term of oboedientia, which Gregory XIII re-
luctantly accepted. Friedrich Noack, Das Deutschtum in Roma seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters, BerlinLeip-
zig 1927, 108; Alexander Koller, Der Konflikt um die Obdienz Rudolfs II. gegenber dem Hl. Stuhl, Kurie
58
Lutz, Kardinal Giovanni Francesco Guidi di Bagno, 117128132143155. 160313; on the relations between
the Holy See and England see: Petrocchi, Roma nel Seicento, 1719.
59
The events: Kraus, Die auswrtige Politik Urbans VIII, 412414.
60
A source on Romes ambiguous attitude towards the decree, which could not be questioned legally but
politically: Konrad Repgen, Lukas Holstenius als politischer Gutachter in Rom. Eine unbekannte Denkschrift
aus der Zeit des Restitutionsedikts, QFIAB 39 (1959) 342352.

stitutions. However, the temporary dismissal of the genius general, Wallenstein61 in the
following year and the launch of the Swedish attack62 caused the gravest crisis to him.63
Romes interests in the war of Mantua were clear; it is enough to have a look at the
map. The southern neighbour of the Papal State was the Spanish Naples, in the north,
there was the Spanish Lombardy.64 In case of Habsburg victory, the Hispanic influence
would have become more oppressive. If Mantua had fallen in the hands of Nevers, the
French successor, with the Frenchs gaining ground in Italy, the Habsburg superiority
could have been counteracted. Neverss success, namely France and the Papacys interests
coincided.65 Urban VIIIs actual attitude towards the events in Mantua was determined
by the dear and bitter experience gained in Valtellina. Already before the armed conflict,
the Barberini Pope decided that he would use every means to impede the expansion of
the Spanish influence in Italy. In his view, not only did it threaten, but also subjugated
the Papal State and the Church itself. (For the sake of historical truth, we have to point
out that the popes standpoint would have been the same if he had found the French in
the Italian position of the Spanish.) The daily friction of ecclesiastical and legal nature
with the Spanish and mainly with the viceroy of Naples contributed to the decision of
the pope.
The requirement of the role of padre commune precluded the expression of the un-
distinguished standpoint. The papal diplomacy, learning from the conflict of Valtelli-
na, as a mediator, which undertook guarantees, was cautious about coming to the fore.
Although the diplomatic measures being least as intriguing as intensive were not
totally known, they could be pictured.
Urban VIII, for the sake of the cease-fire and the compromise among the States
involved in the war of 1627 the emperor, the Spanish and French monarch, the Duke
of Savoy, Nevers and Venice , mobilized almost all of the nunciatures. Furthermore,
in favour of peace, he appointed his younger cardinal-nephew, Antonio Barberini with
61
On Wallenstein and on his assassination in 1634, based on Roman sources: Georg Lutz, Wallen-
stein, Ferdinand II. und der Wiener Hof. Bemerkungen zu einen erneuten Beitrag zur alten Wallensteinfrage,
QFIAB 48 (1968) 207243; moreover, Nuncio Ciriaco Roccis relevant reports are published: Pavel Bal-
crek, Chebsk exekuci ve svtle korespondence s mskou Kuri, Pocta Josefu Kollomannovi. Sbornk k ivot-
nmu jubileu (hrsg. v. Alena Pazderov), Prag 2002, 645 and 287288 (Die Egerer Exekution im Lichte der
Korrespondenz mit der rmischen Kurie), 2645.
62
On the motivation of the Swedish: Sven Lundkvist, Die schwedischen Kriegs- und Friedensziele 16321648,
Krieg und Politik, 219240.
63
On the conflict of Mantua and its context, see more: Robert Bireley, Religion and Politics in the Age of
the Counterreformation. Emperor Ferdinand II, William Lamormaini S.J., and the Formation of Imperial Policy,
Chapel Hill 1981, 94100; Lutz, Kardinal Giovanni Francesco Guidi di Bagno, 314408 (especially 314325);
Albrecht, Die auswrtige Politik Maximilians, 204210; Schnitzer, Zur Politik des hl. Stuhles, 190195;
Pastor, Geschichte der Ppste XIII, 366407; Ranke, A ppk trtnete [The History of the Popes], 558573.
64
On the latters Spanish government: Gianvittorio Signorotto, Milano Spagnola. Guerra, istituzioni,
uomini di governo (16351660) (Saggi Sansoni), Milano 1996, 25105 and 160170.
65
Lutz, Roma e il mondo germanico, 434435; The papal-Habsburg relations survey: Petrocchi, Roma
nel Seicento, 1921.

Giulio Mazarino on his side to an intermediary legate. By the extraordinary nuncio

Giovanni Battista Pallotto, the pope tried to withhold Vienna from going to war with
small gestures.66 In spite of all, his actions for peace seemed busy idleness. The ceaseless
activity of the papal diplomats could not shorten the war, which lasted until the end of
1631, whose bloodiest event was the siege and looting of Mantua by the imperial troops.
Rome did not only have the role of mediator,67 behind the scenes, the nuncio in
Paris expressly supported the French intervention in Mantua. Urban VIII also agreed
with the second French military action in Italy, which aimed at answering the imperial
military success in late 1629, moreover, he tolerated that the French provided religious
concessions to their hinterland. He did not raise his voice against the compromise made
with the English and the Huguenots in April and June 1629, in spite of the fact that
through them the French Protestants won freedom of religion despite La Rochelles siege
and their devastating defeat. The papal reply to the anti-Spanish compromise, made
with Low Countries, which also promised subsidy, was likewise omitted. These pat-
terns lead us to believe that there was a political deal (intesa politica) against the Catholic
Habsburgs between Rome and Paris from 1628, which was in flat contradiction to the
papal theory of neutrality. Urban VIII, as the head of the biggest Italian State, was in-
terested in Frances security in the north due to the open Italian front, furthermore in
the Habsburgs engrossing occupation in the Thirty Years War to weaken their Ital-
ian positions.68
After the quick victory due to primarily the hardened imperial troops, in the back-
ground the papal diplomacy attempted to change the balance of power with over-
shadowing the confessional aspects disadvantageously to the Habsburgs. The Curia
in 16301631, in spite of the public announcements, did not support the succession of
the son of the emperor, Ferdinand III (16371657), who was already a crowned king
of Hungary, but Maximilian Is, the Elector of Bavaria. Nuncio Ciriaco Rocci arm-in-arm
with the papal legate, Giovanni Francesco Guidi di Bagno, of Paris, organized the secret
Franco-Bavarian ally.69 With the contract reached in Fontainebleau on 30 May 1631, they
succeeded in dividing the imperial camp. Ferdinand II could not utilize the successes of
Mantua and he was to withdraw. At the same time, as a consequence of the crushing
66
Nuntiatur des Pallotto (16281630) III (Nuntiaturberichte aus Deutschland nebst ergnzenden Akten-
stcken IV 12), hrsg. v. Hans Kiewing, Berlin 18951897, I, 123, n. 46, note 1.; I, 123. 157. II, 9495. 98. 176.
184. 390; Bireley, Religion and Politics, 94100.
67
Lutz, Urbano VIII, 305306.
68
Lutz, Kardinal Giovanni Francesco Guidi di Bagno, 340410; on the behavior of the papal diplomacy
towards the earlier years English-Spanish-French marriage and federal plans idem., 113313; Albrecht,
Die auswrtige Politik Maximilians, 106127; Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Gregors XV., 3040.
69
On the papal role in the conclusion of the Bavarian-French secret agreement: Dieter Albrecht,
Die kurialen Anweisungen fr den Nuntius Rocci zum Regensburger Kurfrstentag 1630, QFIAB 35 (1955) 282289;
[Idem], Die auswrtige Politik Maximilians von Bayern, 211302; Repgen, Die rmische Kurie und der Westf-
lische Friede, I1, 191239; in summary: Kraus, Die auswrtige Politik Urbans VIII, 415418.

defeat suffered from the Protestant Swedish near Breitenfeld, all of the achievements
of the Catholic League collapsed like a house of cards in the territory of the Empire.70
The final outcome of the war of Mantua gave a clear proof to Richelieu and Urban
VIII about the appropriateness of their policy. The Treaty of Cherasco in April 1631,
which ended the Italian war, provided Mantuas imperial investiture for the Duke of
Nevers, besides, the French opened the door to Italy with the occupation of Pinerolo.
The war did not affect the papal territories, despite the repeated Habsburg menaces
Urban VIII succeeded in avoiding the imperial troops entry in Rome, like in 1527.
It shows his fear for another sacco di Roma that he spent more than 3.5 million scudi on
military expenses. In the summer of 1631 he still kept fifteen thousand people in arms, on
the border of Lombardy in Castelfranco, he had a new bulwark built, called Forte Ur-
bano, furthermore, he continued the strengthening of Ferrara and fortified the Castle
of Saint Angelo with cut bastions. Besides, the costs of negotiations were 100200 thousand.
The conditions of Pope Barberini were notably improved so that, contrasted with the northern
territories, his State was hardly bordering on the State of the plague, owned to the war.71
In the course of the 1620s, the pope paid attention to the Catholicization of the vast
territories, occupied by the Catholic League to the north of the Alps in the theatre of
the Thirty Years War. Rome vigilantly protected the regained benefices, institutions
and the rights and canonical regulations of the Church. At the same time, it accorded
privileges to the newer orders, such as the Capuchins and the Jesuits as opposed to the
older religious orders; on the other hand, it sent a lot of missionaries. Their main task
was the so called disciplina ecclesiastica to have the ecclesiastical discipline and the
norms of Trent complied with. In contrast to his predecessors, Urban VIII denied
giving remarkable financial aid to the League or to the German Catholic princes. His
well-announced reference basis was the inadequacy of his financial means. Only 1632
brought a turn in this policy, when the Swedish king, Gustav II Adolf (16111632) and
his German allies smote the Catholic troops on the battlefield of Lech, near Augsburg,
where Tilly, their leader died as well. After having swept to victory, the Swedish occu-
pied almost the whole territory of the Empire. They directly threatened Bavaria and
the Rhineland, and in the meantime, the Saxon troops were stationed near Prague.72
The Protestant successes were examined in Rome according to the experience gained
in the war of succession of Mantua. Namely, the failures in the north weakened the
influence of the Habsburgs in Italy, which was favourable for the papal policy. In the
extreme peril73 of the Catholic League, Urban VIII confidently denied responsibility
for the catastrophe; however, the papal secretary of State was aware of not later than
70
Rome and its nuncio followed the imperial attempts to settle the religious relations within the Empire
with remarkable passivity. Ibid.
71
72
73
The events of great importance: Fritz Dickmann, Der Westflische Frieden, Mnster 1959, 59657077.

the end of 1630 the previous negotiations of the Franco-Swedish compromise, which
was concluded on 23 January 1631, undertaking the obligation of a monthly-paid aid of
100 thousand livres.
After the defeat in Breitenfeld, by the gradual pressure of the Empire and Spain,
Urban VIII, who regarded the catastrophic situation of the imperial troops as the pun-
ishment of divine providence, reluctantly changed his policy of aid. While he provided
only 80 thousand scudi between 1624 and 1626, in the following years he did not give
any, and between 1632 and 1635 he sent 550 thousand imperial thaler (650700 thousand
scudi) for the sake of the Catholic League. Within five years he provided as much as his
predecessor during his most critical two years; though, not in a satisfying amount, at all.
The expenses were covered by the tithes imposed on the Italian clergy, therefore these
payments cannot be considered as direct papal grants. The first instalment already made
its effects felt in the Battle of Ltzen, in November 1632. In spite of this, they were still
defeated, but the Swedish king died.74
The reserved behaviour of the pope reflected the changed Roman public opinion.
While Clement VIII asked and received 150 thousand scudi from the public of Rome in
1599 for the general supplies of the papal troops75 in Hungary; the Roman magistracy sent
a delegate of eight members to the Apostolic Palace76 to prevent the expenditure of the
treasures of the Castle of Saint Angelo by the imperial legate, Pter Pzmny.77 The popes
joining of the old or perhaps a newer alliance was out of question.78 The main Roman
advocates of the Habsburg demands Cardinal Gaspare Borgia, who made a scandal
on the consistory on 8 March 1632 around the papal French policy, and his predecessors
nephew, Ludovico Ludovisi were removed from Rome by referring to the obligation
of residence.79
74
Albrecht, Zur Finanzierung des Dreigjhrigen Krieges, 545566; Lutz, Roma e il mondo germanico,
436437. Georg Lutz, on the basis of the latest resources on the papal aid policy between 1632 and 1635,
in his detailed survey considers the expenditure of the aids accomplished by the summer of 1634 and esti-
mates the sum at 477,000 scudi. Die ppstlichen Subsidien fr Kaiser und Liga 16321635. Zahlen und Daten
zu den finanz- und bilanztechnischen Aspekten, Staat, Kultur, Politik. Beitrge zur Geschichte Bayerns und
des Katholizismus. Festschrift zum 65. Geburtstag von Dieter Albrecht (hrsg. v. W. BeckerW. Chrobak),
Kallmnz 1992, 89105; [Idem], Urbano VIII, 306.
75
Delumeau, Vie conomique et sociale de Rome, II, 82936.
76
The decree of 22 April 1632 is published: Ferdinand Gregorovius, Urban VIII. im Widerspruch zu
Spanien und dem Kaiser, Stuttgart 1879, 138139, n. 13.
77
On the mission of the archbishop of Esztergom, see more: Pter Tusor, Pzmny lland rmai k-
vetsgnek terve 16321634 [Pzmnys Plan for the Permanent Legate in Rome 16321634], Pzmny Pter s
kora [Pter Pzmny and his Age] (Pzmny Irodalmi Mhely, Tanulmnyok 2, ed. by Emil Hargittay),
Piliscsaba 2001, 151175.
78
Those arguments are extremely characteristic, with which the entry into the League and the expendi-
ture of a considerable aid were rejected in Rome. Konrad Repgen, Finanzen, Kirchenrecht und Politik unter
Urban VIII. Eine unbekannte Denkschrift aus dem Frhjahr 1632, RQ 56 (1961) 6274.
79
On the details of the papal policy in the Swedish phase of the Thirty Years War (in which about the
protest of Borgia and about the legation of Pzmny): Stephan Ehses, Papst Urban VIII. und Gustav Adolf,
HJ 16 (1895) 336341; Gregorovius, Urban VIII. im Widerspruch, 1164 (The text of Borgias protest is pub-

Pope Barberini examined the all-Catholic interests with cool aloofness, therefore his
opponents conceived the idea to summon a council. The method, how criticism was in-
tended to parry in Rome, is very informative. In April 1632 Bichi, the nuncio of Paris,
was ordered to conduct a note of the Secretariat of State, dated back to January or earlier,
with Richelieu. This document would have protested against the Franco-Swedish alli-
ance and could have prevented the accusations of the Habsburgs. Furthermore, Urban
VIII referred to the breve of warning, which was sent to the French monarch, on the
audience of Pter Pzmny on 24 April.80 However, it did not exist, but on the very
same day they sent a duplicate to the nuncio of Paris by summoning him to hand it
over to Louis XIII with the explanation that the original had been lost. They made
decision on the partial aid later.81
In the unusually tense atmosphere of the spring of 1632, extraordinary nuncios were
sent to Vienna, Paris and Madrid in early May to represent the seemingly active papal
diplomacy. Their task was to unite the Catholic monarchs against the heretic Swedish.82
The papal negotiation of a mainly gesture-like nature was an attempt doomed to fail,
since it did not take the already concluded Franco-Protestant alliances into consideration.
On the other hand, Urban VIII persistently rejected all those attempts that wanted him
to join a political or military alliance, no matter if it was limited only to Italy.83 He made
vain efforts in 16341635 to summon a peace congress in Rome, or in another neutral city,
while the local negotiations between the Catholics and Protestants had already started.
The papal nuncios had to do their utmost to prevent the results of those negotiations,
which infringed upon the Churchs rights (for instance, they led to the loss of benefices).84
lished: 123124); Bireley, Religion and Politics, 169208; Lutz, Kardinal Giovanni Francesco Guidi di Bagno,
484707; Albrecht, Die auswrtige Politik Maximilians, 303377; Lutz, Roma e il mondo germanico, 435437
and 452453; Schnitzer, Zur Politik des hl. Stuhles, 212250; Pastor, Geschichte der Ppste XIII, 419501;
a clear survey: Dieter Albrecht, Richelieu, Gustav Adolf und das Reich (Janusbcher. Berichte zur Welt-
geschichte 15), MnchenWien 1959.
80
Pzmny Ptersszegyjttt levelei [Collected letters of Cardinal Pter Pzmny] III, ed. by Ferenc
Hanuy, Budapest 19101911, II, n. 734, 284.
81
On these criteria of the secret papal diplomacy: Georg Lutz, Glaubwrdigkeit und Gehalt von Nuntia-
turberichten, QFIAB 53 (1973) 228275, 245253; [Idem], Roma e il mondo germanico, 435436; in summary:
Kraus, Die auswrtige Politik Urbans VIII, 419.
82
The instructions to the legates which clearly express the Roman position, published: Quintn Aldea,
Espaa, el Papado y el Imperio durante la Guerra de los treinta aos. II: Instrucciones a los Nuncios Apostlicos
en Espaa (16241632), Miscellnea Comillas 39 (1958) 276296; furthermore 297318 (in connection with
Pzmnys legation, especially 318).
83
Between 1633 and 1635, by Tuscan suggestion, with the leadership of the Pope a concrete draft of an
Italian league was composed, which would have been exclusively of a defensive nature, moreover it did not
wish a confrontation especially with the Turks and French. Understandably this was passionately rejected by
the Spanish and partly by the French. Antonio Panella, Una lega italiana durante la guerra dei TrentAnni,
ASI 94 (1936) 3, 336 and 95 (1937) 1, 2150.
84
As an example the literature in note 86 can be mentioned.

Frances direct entry into the war in May 1635 made the situation of the papal diplo-
macy more difficult.85 Cardinal Marzio Ginetti, who had been waiting in vain in Co-
logne for the opening of a general peace congress86 from the summer of 1636, the three
other extraordinary nuncios,87 who were sent-off in May 1639 and Fabio Chigi, who
was finally accredited for the general negotiations in Mnster,88 in April 1644, had to
operate according to the same instructions, therefore they could face the same diffi-
culties. The closest interpretation of the Apostolic Sees neutrality, namely the prohi-
bition of including the pope in any compromises in the course of the plain conflict of
the Catholic great powers, deprived the diplomats of the possibility of every standpoint
and initiation. These regulations forced their role to a repetitive ritual, which was only
symbolic and made only the achievement of marginal results possible.89
The Roman diplomacys notable attempts at concluding peace after 16321635 re-
mained to be unsuccessful until the end of the Thirty Years War. The parties tried to
circumvent them according to their own interests. The Holy Sees actions,90 sketching
its ambitious plans, lacked adequate backing. In reality, only the economical-military
potential of the Papal State counted, which was by no means sufficient for maintaining
the State of a great power. The opponent, rather than constructive gestures of Rome for
the sake of the Catholic affair (for instance, the protest of Gaspare Mattei, the nuncio
of Vienna, against the legitimation of Calvinism on the Imperial Diet of Regensburg
in 16401641) were welcomed by unanimous refusal or disregard.91
Urban VIIIs policy during the Thirty Years War was followed by severe conse-
quences. Vienna and Madrid realized its contradictory nature. By 1632 the Holy See
could not influence the policy of the traditionally Catholic great powers, at all. Moreover,
by the secret diplomacy, by the double policy, Urban VIII surrendered himself to France:
in 1634 he was obliged to confess to his confidants, though it would have been necessary, but he
was simply not able to enforce ecclesiastical censures against the Churchs cardinal, against
Richelieu who could expect similar behaviour from the pope in the future to avenge
his Protestant allied policy. Such attitude that Rome showed when France entered the
war on the pretext of Protestantism in 1635 is not surprising. An additional example was
served by the behaviour of the Curia after having concluded the advantageous, though
with a content of religious concessions, treaty with the Saxon Elector in Prague after
85
Cf. Dickmann, Der Westflische Frieden, 7787; and more, Hermann Weber, Vom verdeckten zum of-
fenen Krieg. Richelieus Kriegsgrnde und Kriegsziele 1634/35, Krieg und Politik, 203218.
86
Konrad Repgen, Die Hauptinstruktion Ginettis fr den Klner Kongre (1636), QFIAB 34 (1954) 250287;
Auguste Leman, Urbain VIII et les origines du congrs de Cologne 1636, RHE 19 (1923) 370383.
87
Cf. note 90.
88
Their course is introduced by: Dickmann, Der Westflische Frieden, 189493.
89
90
See, for example, the instructions given to the three extraordinary nuncios (Scotti, Mattei, Facchinetti),
who were sent to Paris, Vienna and Madrid in 1639: Pierre Blet (ed.), Correspondance du nonce en France
Ranuccio Scotti (16391641) (Acta Nuntiaturae Gallicae 5), Rome 1965, 5890.
91
Cf. Repgen, Die rmische Kurie und der Westflische Friede, I1, 391534; Kraus, Die auswrtige Politik
Urbans VIII, 420425.

the triumphal victory won by the Catholic League in Nrdlingen in 1634. The Holy
See aloofly disapproved and protested against both, however, it avoided every standpoint
concerning canon law and politics of religion, with which it did not do harm, or good,
nor did it win anything. There are no traces of papal aid sent to the Catholic League
from Rome after 1635, and it was totally unlikely to happen after the French entry to the
war.92 Such gestures, like the papal support of Ferdinand IIIs election as an emperor and
his coronation as a Roman King did not have much weight.93
The policy of the Curia led to the Papacys loss of prestige in the countries of Habs-
burgs and also ambiguously in France. There developed a fight in competences between
the Holy See and the institutions and clergy of France concerning canon and constitu-
tional law. Those controversies, which were suspended in the course of the collaboration,
broke out again in an unusual way after 1635. France, as soon as the Papacy shifted its
ground according to the Curias interests, launched diplomatic contradictions that were
inconceivable before. By 1639 the spectre of discontinuance of the official relations threat-
ened. By the 1640s, in the relations between the Holy See and the Catholic States, the
general climate change was perceivable.94
The political horizon of the central Church administration in the Barberini era was
determined by the conditions of the preservation of the Papal States independence and
security, namely as in the case of other secular leaders the State interests and the
maintenance of integrity. This was the background of the fundamental principles prag-
matic transgression. Although the doctrine, based on medieval tradition, and the political
requirements of the struggle against the heretics maintained, the pope undertook the
substantial points of the basic program of the Catholic confessionalisation, however, in
practice it remained only a rhetoric topos. There occurred a huge gap between the ideal
of padre commune and the realities.95
It would only be proper to ask: was there an alternative? The decline of the papal
power was the most visible under Urban VIII; however, it had started decades earlier.
Pope Barberini undoubtedly inherited a burdensome situation. The Papal State could
not keep pace with the rising monarchies in Europe in the seventeenth century. Its ter-
ritorial expansion, economical productivity and military potential could not surpass the
92
Bireley, Religion and Politics, 209230; about the Peace of Prague: Repgen, Die rmische Kurie und der
Westflische Friede, I1, 239388.
93
The main force of the gesture might have been the fear of electing a Protestant emperor. The elec-
tion was accepted by the Pope in the secret consistory of 12 January 1637, where he made the decision about
sending a greeting brief and ordered the holding of the traditional oratio pro gratiarum actione in the Sistine
Chapel. However, he prohibited the planned celebration of the Roman magistracy, with the explanation that
he was actually the king in Rome. Auguste Leman, Le Saint-Sige et llection impriale du 22 dcembre 1636,
RHE 34 (1938) 542555, 553.
94
Lutz, Roma e il mondo germanico, 438439. On the papal-French relations in the 1630s, see more: Joseph
Bergin, Cardinal de la Rochefoucauld. Leadership and Reform in the French Church, New HavenLondon 1987,
8182; and a less critical survey: Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 692695.
95
The politicizing of the ideal of the padre commune is detailed in: Prodi, The Papal Prince, 157181.

moderate extent. It could have a political role only as a coalition partner in an alliance.
The scope for political action, however, narrowed down from the sixteenth century.
Europe was divided by two camps, Rome could obviously join only the Catholic side,
and therefore, it could not count on the Protestant powers as an ally.96
Furthermore, the ideal of padre commune made him take the all-Catholic interests
into consideration, namely he could not enter into an alliance with any Catholic States
against another Catholic State and in case of a battle between Catholic States he could
not take sides. When a Catholic State launched a war, by disregarding the all-Catholic
interests, Rome faced an insurmountable difficulty. The padre commune-maxima limit-
ed his scope for action to more insurmountable obstacles than Europes division into
Protestant and Catholic camps. As a consequence of its geographical situation, the Pa-
pal State was far from the Protestant States; its direct neighbours were the Habsburg
and French great powers. Thus, it could have a factual clash only with these States. Ur-
ban VIII could only broaden his political scope by the means of secret diplomacy, though
it proved to be awfully hazardous and double-edged.
Pope Barberini, as the sovereign monarch of the Papal State in the Italian relation
protected the legitimate interests, namely the maintenance of the status quo. Before
the war of Mantua the pope clearly saw that his State was threatened by the Spanish
expansion efforts; in the south, the Spanish Sicily and Naples, in the north the Spanish
Milan, from which only two weak duchies, Parma and Modena separated, while the
Republic of Genoa was politically and economically related to Spain. In the course of the
conflict of Mantua the realization of the nominal imperial rights over the northern Ital-
ian duchies would have concluded the ring around the Papal State. Besides the Adriatic
and Tyrrhenian Sea, it would have bordered on the Habsburg lands. Urban VIII was not
interested in anything else but to hinder according to his opinion and the altered at-
titude of power the threatening increase of the Habsburg influence in Italy.
However, the absolute victory of the House of Austria in the Thirty Years War
could have meant the triumph of Catholicism in Germany. The pope, as the head of
the universal Church, was obviously aware of this. His anti-Habsburg policy was not
only determined by pure political interests, but by spiritual-ecclesiastical considerations,
as well. The preservation of the sovereignty of the Papal State was one of the most im-
portant factors in the history of the Papacy and Church, since this could be the only
guarantee for the liberty of the magisterium and the preaching. The loss of the polit-
ical autonomy would have set bounds not only to the Papacys spiritual prestige, but
also to the liberty of the Church, as such. The self-imposed resignation from the Papal
States autonomy and the establishment of a pure spiritual alternative would have been
an absolute impossibility at that time, due to the ambiguity of the diplomatic standards.
Although the secret diplomacy against the Habsburgs caused detrimental conse-
quences for the prestige of the Papacy in the long run, the short-term results verified
the policy of Pope Barberini almost until the end of his pontificate. The winds of the
96
Ibid.

general European wars did not affect his States territories, the influence of the Habs-
burgs did not increase either, moreover, the pope could keep the Duchy of Urbino for
the Papal State.97 After the occupation of Bologna in 1506 by Julius II (15031513) and
of Ferrara in 1598 under Clement VIII, the early modern Papal State reached its larg-
est extension.98
Nevertheless, the genuinely successful Italian policy caused politically and morally
irretrievable harm to the Papacy. The war of Castro of Renaissance nature was launched
partly nowadays it is inconceivable due to reasons of precedence and prestige, owing
to the known prefect title of Taddeo Barberini. The Duke of Parma, Odoardo Farnese,
did not respect this, either, and in 1640 after the diplomats of the great powers, he also
resisted the Roman etiquette. Certainly, this was only the last drop in the glass; the real
reasons were much more far-reaching.
Odoardo Farnese was not only the sovereign Duke of Parma and Piacenza but also
of Castro and Ronciglione, which were located in the territory of the Papal State, north-
west to Viterbo. These fertile territories were indispensable for the corn supply of
Rome. The Barberinis declared their wish to occupy them already in 1635. Their plan
was facilitated due to the fact that Odoardo ran into debt as a result of a credit scheme,
the monte baronare Farnese, based on the incomes of Castro. He had to pay proceeds of
5060 thousand scudi to the papal creditors, the sum of which was charged for due capi-
tal-reimbursements, as well. His financial situation was worsened by his entry in war
against the Spanish Milan in 16351636 on the side of France, Savoy and Mantua.
By 1641, he was already indebted 1.5 million scudi to the Apostolic Camera, the trustee
of his debts and the representative of the creditors.99
In spite of his difficulties, the duke was adamant. He refused the surrender of Castro
as well as the marriage plan of the Farneses and Barberinis. After a three-month long
debate, he left Rome he outraged Taddeo Barberini at this time in stormy circum-
stances in February 1640, then he suspended the payment of his debts. After having
97
Out of the numerous historiographical studies, the above mentioned, which is regarded as the most rele-
vant analysis, is mainly based on those newer standpoints that were stated by Quintn Aldea with the
help of the correspondence of the nunciature in Paris and the Spanish State councils verbals for revaluing
Urban VIIIs policy, which was interpreted with apologia by L. von Pastor. La neutralidad de Urba-
no VIII en los aos decisivos de la Guerra de los Treinta aos (16281632), Hispania Sacra 21 (1968) 155178
(Urban VIII and the French presence in Italy: 161164; the war of succession of Mantua: 164174; the secret
Bavarian-French agreement: 174178). On the other hand, the excellent survey of Urban VIIIs pontificate by
Georg Lutz has been heavily drawn upon: Rom und Europa whrend des Pontifikats UrbansVIII. Politik und
Diplomatie. Wirtschaft und Finanzen. Kultur und Religion, Rom in der Neuzeit, 72167, 7478. 8590. I steadily
exploit the view, methodology and the statements of this brilliant study of Lutz not only in the outline of
the foreign policy of the Papacy in the seventeenth century, but also of the internal relations of the Papal
States Church policy and governmental system.
98
Jean Delumeau, Le progrs de la centralization dans ltat pontifical au XVIe sicle, Revue Historique
226 (1961) 399410, 399400.
99
We can become acquainted with the montes in connection with the papal budget.

forbidden the import of the corn of Castro and confiscating a cargo of wheat in Montalto
by Cardinal Antonio Barberini as a camerlengo in March 1641, Farnese allowed himself
an absurd step: he fortified and filled the citadel of Castro with ammunition and troops.
The demand of payment, issued by the Camera on behalf of the creditors on 20 July
was not effective either, which was followed by another one on 20 August. In this letter,
the pope summoned him to destroy the fortress and to disband his troops on pain of
excommunication and the loss of his tenure.100
As Odoardo Farnese took not the slightest notice of it, the papal troops twelve thou-
sand foot soldiers and three thousand cavalrymen gathering around Viterbo, launched
an attack. On 28 September 1641, without striking a blow, they occupied Montalto
and Castro in the middle of October. The quick success enabled Parmas siege, as well.
It was common knowledge around Europe that Urban VIII intended to gain this sov-
ereign duchy for his family. In January 1642, the pope excommunicated and dispos-
sessed Odoardo of his possessions in the territory of the Papal State. However, after
the occupation of the neutral Mirandola by the papal troops marching to the siege of
Parma in July, the neighbouring Italian States: Toscana, Venice and Modena with
the assistance of the French and with a monthly aid of 25 thousand scudi contracted
an alliance for balking the destabilizing Italian policy of the Barberinis.
Along with their support, Odoardo Farnese mounted an offensive, and as he had
been a genuine strategist of the twenty-first century, he compassed Forte Urbano and
Bologna, and forced his way forward to Rome. With his six thousand soldiers, he oc-
cupied Imola, Faenza and Forl. In October he established his general headquarters al-
ready at the Lake Trasimeno, from where he directly threatened Orvieto. There was
a bit of panic in Rome. The pope retreated from Quirinal to the palace of Vatican and
he ordered the offer of the expiatory prayers in the churches. As the escaping papal
troops burnt everything up, the duke, facing the impassable logistic barriers, sounded
the retreat. Despite being in a tight corner, the pope adhered to his demands: to the
apology and to the recourse to absolution, moreover to the surrender of Castro and to
the payment of the debts.101
The war continued with varying success in 1643. Farneses troops marched on
Viterbo, Firenzes on Perugia, in the meantime, the papal troops achieved success in
the northern territories, against Venice and Ferrara. The long wars drove all sides to
the brink of ruin. Another crushing defeat of the papal troops in March 1644 enabled the
conclusion of the negotiations by French mediation. By the treaty, signed on 31 March
in Venice, the pope absolved the Duke of Parma, who undertook the demoli-
tion of the fortress of Castro in return. As a matter of fact, it was about the restoration
of the former state, the status quo ante, yet the question of debt was not even mentioned.
100
The annals of the war of Castro: Pastor, Geschichte der Ppste XIII, 848881; Ranke, A ppk trtnete
[The History of the Popes], 585601; Pecchiai, I Barberini, 176177; Brunelli, Soldati del papa, 241272; Lutz,
Urbano VIII, 312313; Laurie Nussdorfer, Civic Politics in the Rome of Urban VIII, Princeton 1992, 205227.
101
Ibid.

Not only did the lasting Italian inner conflicts have catastrophic consequences for
the papal budget (the expenses of warfare are estimated at 5,77 million, together with
the havoc 1214, or 18 million scudi), but they also caused vast damages in the Ital-
ian and European authority of the Holy See. The Urban warfare (guerra Urbana),
which broke out for reasons of prestige and finance, was named after that pope, who
desired to go down in history as the padre commune and the mediator of peace in the
Thirty Years War.102
It remains to be a question whether Urban VIII or the members of his dynasty
had the real responsibility in the conflict of Castro. As a matter of fact, the pope
was so seriously ill at that time that he completely retired from the actual governing.
On hearing of his death in July 1644, there were riots in the Eternal City. The furious
mass, after not having been able to reach the monumental statue of Bernini in the Capi-
toline Hill, tore his portrait to pieces in the court of the Roman College of the Jesuits.103
Innocent X: Romes Elimination

from the New Power System
The conclave, succeeding the death of Urban VIII, was the longest ever since the
election of Gregory XIV in 1591. It lasted for thirty-seven days. According to the general
trend, it was characterized by the fight of three main factions, of the Austro-Spanish
party, led by cardinals Allbornoz and Harrach, of the French faction, led by Antonio
Barberini and of the Barberini-liegemens, represented by younger cardinals. They were
headed naturally by the first nephew, Francesco. Also according to the traditions, the
factions based on political interests objected to each others candidates, the Spanish to
Sacchetti, the French to Cennini. As a modus vivendi, finally Francesco Barberini initiated
the seventy-year-old Giovanni Battista Pamphili, who acquired knowledge of decades
in many congregations, such as in the Council, in the Rites and in the Holy Office.
He was known to be congenial to the Spanish. To such an extent that, Mazarin, who
was informed late by the Roman-French legate, imposed a veto on him on 19 September
1644 from Paris. By this time, Pamphili had already acceded to the throne of Saint
Peter, as Pope Innocent X (16441655) for four days. He received forty-eight votes and
became the oldest pope ever since Gregory XIII.104
Ibid.
102

103
104
Olivier Poncet, Innocenzo X, Enciclopedia dei Papi III, 321335, 324325. His neither splendid, nor
fortunate pontificates analyses: Ignazio Ciampi, Innocenzo X Pamphili e la sua corte, Roma 1878, especially
1114; Hubert Jedin, Europische Gegenreformation und konfessioneller Absolutismus (16051655), Reformation.
Katholische Reform und Gegenreformation, 650683, 659666; Pastor, Geschichte der Ppste XIV, 15299;
Ranke, A ppk trtnete [The History of the Popes], 602607; Donata Chiomenti Vassalli, Donna Olim-
pia o del nepotismo nel Seicento. La donna che per un decennio govern lo Stato pontificio, Milano 1980, 64255;
as well as Rodns below quoted book (5157).

Mostly his relations with the haughty France which objected to his election and
summoned its permanent legate back at the very beginning of his pontificate were
regarded as critical. The first serious conflict burst out when the pope rejected the
French monarchs request to appoint Mazarins brother, Michele, to a cardinal. Moreover,
the standpoints of the cardinal-election consistory on 6 March 1645 were not deter-
mined by the Frenchs interests, either. The tension was accelerated by the Barberinis
escape from their settlement to French territories.105 The conflict reached its summit in
June-July and September 1646, when Mazarin sent two military expeditions to launch
the siege of the Spanish bulwarks in Tuscany by directly threatening the border of the
Papal State. The Pamphili Pope retreated and as a result, on 24 May 1647 the French
legate returned to the Eternal City, on 7 October, Michele Mazarin was appointed car-
dinal and the Barberinis soon appeared.106
The relations with Spain were slightly more balanced. In the long pontificate of Urban
VIII, all of the initiations that with French assistance aimed at the dissolution of the
Spanish authority in Naples were supported by Rome. The most tumultuous out of all
were the vain attempts at a riot by Giovanni Orefice (principe di Sanza), Fabrizio Carafa
and Giovanni Girolamo Acquaviva (conte di Conversano) in 16391643. By Innocent Xs
accession, there was a notable change in the relations of the two States. We could not,
however, talk about an absolute dtente due mainly to the conflicts concerning canon
law, the support of the rebels by Rome ceased to exist. The anti-Spanish Masaniello riot
in Naples on 7 July 1647, did not win support either. The pope tried in vain to mediate
between the rebels and the Spanish, who were determined in finding military solution,
through his legate, Emilio Altieri, the future Clement X. These negotiations were ag-
gravated by the tension occurring between the nuncio and the Spanish viceroy, Rodrigo
Ponce de Len, the prince of Arcos. However, the cessation of the Spanish hegemony in
South Italy would not have crossed the interests of the Papal State, Innocent X did not
accept the dominion over Naples which was offered to him by the rebels. He expressed
his sincere wish for peace by announcing, in public, his regret of the towns bombard-
ment. On the other hand, the laying down of the arms in the spring of 1648 visibly eased
him since the French previously had been more and more vividly interested in the riot.107
The Pamphili Pope also faced the pressure of the great powers in the field of Church
policy on several occasions. On the one hand, the Portuguese, who seceded from Spain
by the accession of the Braganzas; on the other hand, the French, who occupied Cata-
lonia and Artois, endeavoured to persuade the pope to appoint their own nominees as
105
The details: Henry Coville, tude sur Mazarin et ses dmls avec la pape Innocent X (16441648)
(Bibliothque de lcole pratique des Hautes tudes. Sciences Historiques et Philologiques 210), Paris 1914,
224. 2547. 4873. 95118; Eckhardt, The Papacy and World-Affairs, 53163, mostly 101114; Chiomenti
Vassalli, Donna Olimpia, 8193.
106
Coville, tude su Mazarin, 141160 and 161169; and Vittorio Tornetta, La politica del Mazzari-
no verso il papato (164446), ASI 99 (1941) 86116 and 100 (1942) 95134; Poncet, Innocenzo X, 326327. See
more the fourth chapter, dealing with nepotism.
107
Poncet, Innocenzo X, 329; Chiomenti Vassalli, Donna Olimpia 117121.

bishops of the occupied and emancipating territories. The assignment of the State right
of appointing a bishop would have been equal to the acceptance, and especially, to the
ratification of the change of sovereignty. On the other hand, the series of the bishop-
rics vacancy especially in the case of the Portugal colonies had a compelling effect.
Therefore, as an intermediate solution, the pope contributed to appoint the Portugal
bishops alone in his breve on 20 April 1645. Although this includes the acceptance of the
loss of the Spanish rule, this did not necessarily legitimate the rule of the new dynasty,
the Braganzas.
However, this was too much for the Spanish. The Roman agent of the Portuguese,
Niccol Montero was attacked by the guards of the Hispanic delegate, Count of Sirvela,
some members of his retinue were wounded and his major-domo was slaughtered. This
event was obviously against Innocent Xs indulgent behaviour towards the new Portuguese
king, John IV (16401656). The conflict between Madrid and Rome was settled by Nun-
cio Giulio Rospigliosi, the future Clement IX, who could convince Philip IV (16211665)
to order Sirvela home.
By the end of his pontificate, Pope Pamphili intended to resolve the Portuguese
conflict once and for all and to meet the Frenchs wishes. Whereas, after the pope had
filled many Catalan bishoprics with the nominees of Louis XIV (16431715), Madrid
was reluctant to accredit the new papal nuncio and did not accept his Church jurisdic-
tion. This and the military successes of Spain in 16521654 (for instance the occupation
of Barcelona, the capital of Catalonia), moreover the threats of the Viceroy of Naples
(to suspend the corn consignment towards Rome), made the pope back down after a
long hesitation.108
During the ten years of his pontificate, the whole diplomacy of the Holy See was
characterized by forced waiting and continual postponement, which is clearly proved
by the unusual constancy of the nunciatures personnel. Out of the eleven permanent
positions, there were only four, where there were more than two nuncios, while Niccol
Guidi di Bagno, who was sent to Paris by Urban VIII in 1643, remained in his position
until 1656.109
Innocent X endeavoured to compensate the pressure of the great powers in Northern

Italy. The key to his effort was to resolve the relations with Venice. However, the republic
continued to violate the ecclesiastical privileges. The pope was still inclined to make such
symbolic gestures towards Venice such as the restoration of an epigraph, appearing in the
Regal Room of the Apostolic Palace and having caused a severe diplomatic crisis in 1630s;
and the exemplary punishment of Felice Contelori, the historian-archivist of Vatican,
who had earlier been announced as a scapegoat. One of the antecedents was the following:
in 1632 Contelori published a book on the history of the Peace of Venice in 1177 between
Alexander III (11591181) and Frederick I Barbarossa (11521190). The thorough book
108
Poncet, Innocenzo X, 330; Chiomenti Vassalli, Donna Olimpia, 9498.
109
Poncet, Innocenzo X, 331.

caused a tempest because according to its details, it occurred that the epigraph which
was ordered by Pius IV and described the events of the peace-negotiations in the most
magnificent chamber of Vatican, in Sala Regia, unlike reality, showed Venice to its best
advantage by regarding the republic as the saviour of the Papacy. Upon the evidence of
Conteloris data, Urban VIII had the insulting text to the sovereignty of the Papal State
rewritten. The Signoria objected to his actions to such an extent that the new legate, ap-
pointed in July 1635, could not even take his post. The diplomatic relations were finally
restored only by 1638.110
In 1645, the Cretan War established still closer links. The pope sent five armed galleys
against the Turks, to which the panic in Rome due to the Ottoman menace might have
contributed.111 Apart from this, he undertook to provide a military aid of 100 thousand
scudi a year in 1649 and 1653. Although this cannot be regarded as considerable, it was
not a negligible aid, at all, since it was not based on the popes traditional anti-pagan
crusade-ideal. Its extent and regularity were determined by the opportunities and the
best interests of the Papal State, namely, the defence of Italy.112 The new guiding prin-
ciples were bluntly expressed to Ferdinand III by the Pope in his reply in form of a breve,
Perscriptae a Maiestate tua, of 21 June 1645. Ferdinand asked aid for the battles in Upper
Hungary against George I Rkczi, who fought with Turkish support.113
Innocent X could profit from his policy in Northern Italy in the Second War of
Castro, where, in contrast to his predecessor, he met the benevolent neutrality of the
surrounding States. It so happened that after the new Duke of Parma, Ranuccio II Far-
nese had had the earlier appointed bishop, the Barnabite Cristoforo Giarda, killed
on 18 March 1649, the pope had Castro occupied and destroyed by his army of five thou-
sand members. He removed the Episcopal see and had the bells of the cathedral moved
to his later burial place, to the church of Sant Agnese in Agone, built on Piazza Navona.
Besides, by the relief of the creditors, he forced the Duke of Parma to pay his debt of
1.7 million and dispossessed him of his neighbouring land. In one fell swoop, he took
the estates of the Malatestas into the hands of the Apostolic Camera. The last medieval
feudal autonomies disappeared from the territory of the Papal State nearly for good.114
110
The events in the biography of Contelori: Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani XXVIII, a c. d. Istituto
della Enciclopedia Italiana, Roma 1983, 336341, 339 (F. Petrucci).
111
Giancinto Gigli: Diario Romano (16081670), a c. d. Giuseppe Ricciotti, Roma 1958, 268 (May 1645).
112
Petrocchi, La politica della Santa Sede, 8889; Ekkehard Eickhoff, Venedig, Wien und die Osmanen.
Umbruch in Sdosteuropa 16451700, Mnchen 1970, 3234 and passim; Poncet, Innocenzo X, 328329; a
comprehensive work: Petrocchi, Roma nel Seicento, 2528.
113
Pter Tusor, Jakusith Gyrgy rmai kvetjrsa 164445-ben (A magyar rendek ksrlete a Szentszk bevon-
sra a trk s az erdlyi protestantizmus elleni fegyveres harcba) [The Roman Legation of Gyrgy Jakusith in 164445
(The Attempt of the Hungarian Orders to Initiate the Holy See into the Battle against the Ottomans and Transyl-
vanian Protestantism)], Hadtrtnelmi Kzlemnyek 113 (2000) 237268. The document is mentioned also by:
Walter Friedensburg, Regesten zur deutschen Geschichte aus der Zeit des Pontifikats Innozenz X. (16441655),
QFIAB 4 (1902) 236285. 5 (1903) 60124 and 207222. 6 (1904) 146173. 7 (1905) 121138, 254.
114
Chiomenti Vassalli, Donna Olimpia, 144147; Poncet, Innocenzo X, 328.

The Italian successes could hardly cause the weakness of the papal diplomacy to be
forgotten, however, it was accelerated by the negotiations preceding the Peace of West-
phalia. This was the last act of the process of loss of power, beginning under Urban
VIIIs pontificate. Innocent X did not have any scope for action on international level.
The papal nuncio, the future pope, Fabio Chigi, who was sent to the peace negotiations
in Mnster, could participate only in the preparations, though he could not influence
the phrasing of the treaty.115 After his accession to the throne, Innocent X withstood
the pressure of Spain to call the diplomat, appointed by his predecessor, back home.
Along with the legate of Venice, Chigis task would have been to mediate between the
opposing parties in accordance with the instruction of Urban VIII of 1643, though, he
quickly realized that the decisions afoot hardly complied with the Catholic interests.
In agreement with the Catholic leaders of the Imperium, in the autumn of 1645 he had
already composed a protest document which was sent to Rome. Partly as a consequence
of this and in the spirit of the more and more severe Church policy, in his new creden-
tials, which were issued on 19 May 1646 (however, were dated back to 5 October 1644),
Pope Pamphili ordered his legate to leave the meeting in order not to violate the Cath-
olic interests in any form. However, Chigi wanted to maintain his more and more
narrow opportunities. The breve was handed over only in November 1647.116 Yet,
at this time the negotiations were at such an advanced stage that the papal legates func-
tion was decreased to a minimum.
The main disposals of the peace treaty meant obviously the defeat of the Catholic aims.
The Peace of Augsburg was extended to the Calvinists, as well; the ownerships except for
the case of the hereditary provinces were restored according to the conditions of 1624;
the orders right of reformation and the reservatum ecclesiasticum namely those, who
changed denomination had to resign from their office which were not allowed to be
Catholicized were accepted. By obeying the instructions of the Secretariat of State,
on 14 October 1648 the nuncio announced his first official protest against the Treaty
of Osnabrck, which had been concluded between the Empire and Sweden earlier
on 6 August. He protested again on 26 October against the infamous treaty (infame
pace) of Mnster, whose signing, in contrast to the other plenipotentiaries, he openly
115
Comprehensively: Eckhardt, The Papacy and World-Affairs, 53163; Matteucci, Il papato di fronte
allassolutismo, 697699; and Repgens frequently quoted classical monograph.
116
Jedin, Europische Gegenreformation, 664665. The instructions analysis of philological character: Kon-
rad Repgen, Fabio Chigis Instruktion fr den Westflischen Friedenskongre. Ein Beitrag zum kurialen Instruk-
tionswesen in Dreigjhrigen Krieg, RQ 48 (1953) 79116; the documents of Chigi nunciature: La nunziatura
di Fabio Chigi (16401651) (Miscellanea della Deputazione Romana di Storia Patria 14), a c. d. Vlastimil
Kybal G. Incisa della Rochetta, Roma 1943; his personal notes: Diarium Chigi 16391651 (Acta Pacis
Westphalicae ser. 3, Abt. C, I), hrsg. v. Konrad Repgen, Mnster 1984; the dating and genesis of the plan
for the protest: Konrad Repgen, Wartenberg, Chigi und Knringen im Jahre 1645. Die Entstehung des Plans
zum ppstlichen Protest gegen den Westphlischen Frieden als quellenkundliches und methodisches Problem, Dauer
und Wandel der Geschichte. Aspekte europischer Vergangenheit. Festgabe fr Kurt von Raumer (hrsg. v.
Rudolf VierhausManfred Botzenhart), Mnster 1966, 213268.

refused two days earlier. His third and last protest took place one day after the ratifica-
tion of the negotiations on 19 February 1649.117
In the meantime, the State Congregation of cardinals, which dealt with impor-
tant political affairs with the pope as its chairman, considered expediting a solemn bull
on the Apostolic Sees statement. For fear of disturbances in the territory of the Impe-
rium where Chigi appeared in the meeting of Nuremberg, dealing with the details
of the execution due to the too early publication of such a document, the pope post-
poned it for the time being. The breve Zelo domus Dei, which was finally not a bull but
a less solemn document, was dispatched on 20 August 1651, dating back to 26 Novem-
ber 1648. Its copies, duplicated in the press of the Apostolic Camera, were sent to all the
nunciatures for the sake of further spreading.118
In terms of canon law, the papal protest can be regarded as declaratio nullitatis, since it
annulled outright the points of the treaty. It was not conceived according to the spirit of
the former reservation of a right but of a definite strong opposition.119 Innocent X listed
at full length the most grievous points for Catholicism. For example, the loss of three
archbishoprics and thirteen bishoprics, the secularization of innumerable monasteries and
pious endowments; the compromises that were unacceptable to Rome, such as the alter-
nate rule over the bishoprics of Osnabrck by Catholics and Protestants (by the words
of Chigi: scelerata alternativa, fatal alternation); furthermore, the eighth electorate giv-
en to the Count of Rhineland-Palatinate, which strengthened the political positions of
the Protestants within the Empire.
According to the historiography, the conduct of Pope Pamphili is regarded as having
considerable importance in the history of Church. It meant nothing but the Papacys
voluntary withdrawal from the theatre of the international politics by narrowing the
Curias diplomatic scope for action. The no of 1648 was not self-evident, neither was
it unavoidable nor necessary. Mainly Pope Pamphilis personal canonical point of view
was expressed by the events. His views of canon law and theology was indisputable until
the Second Vatican Council (19621965), however not only was his policy disadvanta-
geous but explicitly harmful.120
117
More on the reception of the protest: Repgen, Die rmische Kurie, I, 1229 and partly; Dickmann,
Der Westflische Frieden, 456464.
118
Its latest publication, based on the original text from the Castel SantAngelo and its critique in accordance
with the variant readings neat philology: Michael F. Feldkamp, Das breve Zelo domus Dei vom 26. No-
vember 1648. Edition, AHP 31 (1993) 293305; Konrad Repgen, Drei Korollarien zum Breve Zelo domus Dei
(26 November 1648): Editionstechnik, Nachdrucksgeschichte, Vorgeschichte, AHP 33 (1995) 315334; former analysis
of the text: [Idem], Die Proteste Chigis und der ppstliche Protest gegen den Westflischen Frieden (16481650).
Vier Kapitel ber das Breve Zelo domus Dei, Staat, Kirche, Wissenschaft in einer pluralistischen Gesellschaft.
Festschrift zum 65. Geburtstag von Paul Mikat (hrsg. v. Dieter Schwab et al.), Berlin 1989, 623647.
119
This statement is reinforced also by the terminology of Chigis protest (repugno, resisto et contradico
atque protestor). Hans Jrgen Becker, Protestatio. Protest, Zeitschrift fr Historische Forschung,
1978, 385412, 403405.
120

The Zelo domus Dei did not achieve concrete results, if not that Rome marked its place
on the margins of the European politics for a long time. Ferdinand III expressly forbade
the announcement of the papal breve in the territory of the Empire. The Papacy slid
down from the state of political neutrality to the sphere of political impotence. After
the Peace of Westphalia, the Holy See could not influence international politics, at all.
This was distinctly determined by the Franco-Austrian and Franco-English conflicts.
From the second part of the seventeenth century the theocratic papal power was not the
subject but rather the object of the international politics; however, the process reached
its peak in the end of the eighteenth century. The only exception to this was the organ-
ization of an international anti-Ottoman union.121
The French Hegemony and the Squadron Volante
By the mid-1650s the French hegemony had become the most oppressive in the western
part of Europe ever. The Holy See also contributed to its establishment by Urban VIII. Rome
misjudged the opportunities of France and the supplies of the Habsburgs in the course
of the Thirty Years War. The former was under-, the latter was overestimated. For this
miscalculation a heavy price had to be paid in the following decades. After Innocent X, the
popes of the seventeenth century experienced the plain French pressure. Throughout the
process of political weakening and isolation, apart from the traditional French and Habs-
burg orientation within the Curia, or namely within the College of Cardinals, the emerging
third faction, the squadron volante (independent faction) could not bring an immediate
change, either. The leaders of the movement were: Decio Azzolini (Fermo), Francesco Al-
bizzi (Cesena) and Pietro Ottoboni (Venice); its members were: Giovanni Girolamo Lomel-
lino, Lorenzo Imperiale (Genoa), Luigi Omodei, Gilberto Borromeo (Milan), Benedetto
Odescalchi (Como), Carlo Pio (Ferrara), Ottavio Acquaviva (Naples) and Carlo Gualtieri
(Orvieto); all of them were appointed by Innocent X. Cristoforo Vidman from Friuli and
Giovanni Stefano Dongo from Genoa joined later. The original group of eleven cardinals
aimed apart from rescuing the Holy See from the great powers tutoring at the reform
of the administration and finances of the Curia and at the idea of the anti-Ottoman war.
The efforts of the movement owing to Benedetto Odescalchi, who remained in the
background for a long time reached their purpose after decades, though politically only
for the time being. The curial reforms became irreversible by the election of Innocent
XI, however, by this time, most of the squadrons had already died or become such old
cardinals that they could not represent, by all means, their former ideas.122
121
Konrad Repgen, Der ppstliche Protest gegen den Westflischen Frieden und die Friedenspolitik Urbans
VIII, HJ 75 (1956) 94122; Lutz, Roma e il mondo germanico, 456460; from a wider perspective: Prodi,
The Papal Prince, 157181.
122
A newer analysis of the movement, which initiated the still existing mentality of the papal Curia: Ma-
rie-Louise Rodn, Cardinal Decio Azzolino, Queen Christina of Sweden and Squadron Volante. Political and
Administrative Developments at the Roman Curia 16441692, Aun Arbor 1993, the general evaluation: 3450;

The French Hegemony and the Squadron Volante 73
Alexander VII: the Humiliating Struggle with France
The conclave in 1655 was absolutely irregular, since there was no cardinal-nephew,
which resulted in the lack of the faction around him. This enabled the establishment of
the independent faction, the squadron volante. The heads of the Spanish faction were
two Medici: Carlo, the dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals and Cardinal Giovanni
Carlo. Rinaldo dEste and Antonio Barberini led the French faction. Francesco Barbe-
rini again headed the old ones, who were appointed by Urban VIII. The primary can-
didate was Giulio Sacchetti, who failed ignominiously in 1644. As the candidate of the
Francophones, he obtained thirty-six votes out of the necessary forty-four; however,
the Spanish veto hindered the other eight cardinals from joining. Fabio Chigi came to
the fore by the suggestion of the squadrons, yet, he was objected by the French. However,
after the intervention of Sacchetti and the determined demeanour of the squadron vo-
lante against the right of exclusion, in April, Mazarin contributed to his election and he
could accede to the throne of Saint Peter as Alexander VII (16551667).123
In spite of the unfavourable tendencies, Pope Chigi endeavoured to perform an

energetic behaviour by leaning on the squadron cardinals concerning foreign affairs.
His policy, besides the spheres of power, was determined by his slight sympathy with
Spain. They wanted to counteract their rapid loss of power in Europe by increasing the
amount and number of the pensions given however, sometimes in secret to certain
members of the College of Cardinals by the Council of State (Consejo de Estado).124 On
the other hand, the popes bad relations with the omnipotent head of France were more
determining.
Mazarin on some basis blamed the pope for not having supported him properly,
as the nuncio of Cologne, in the course of the long crisis of the French politics between
1648 and 1653, during the Fronde, when he was forced to go into exile for two years.125
Apart from this, Pope Chigi supported the bte noire and rival of the cardinal minis-
ter, Cardinal Retz, far too much. The Pope provided shelter to him in Rome and was
Gianvittorio Signorotto, The Squadrone Volante: Independent Cardinals and Eurpoean Politics in the
Second Half of the Seventeenth Century, Court and Politics in Papal Rome, 14921700 (Cambridge Studies in
Italian History and Culture, ed. by Gianvittorio SignorottoMaria Antonietta Visceglia), Cambridge 2002,
177211, especially 181182. (Although, there is no reference, the volume is a shortened, sometimes amplified
version of the La corte di Roma Out of the overlaps I used some articles, like this one, due to its easier
comprehensible English language.)
123
Mario Rosa, Alessandro VII, Enciclopedia dei Papi III, 336345, 338.
124
Signorotto, The Squadrone Volante, 187190 and 190194.
125
On Chigis nunciature in Cologne, besides the earlier quoted literature, see more: Hendrick van Bergh,
Botschafter des Papstes. 400 Jahre Nuntius in Deutschland, Berg 1984, 140157; Konrad Repgen, Die Finanzen des
Nuntius Fabio Chigi. Ein Beitrag zur Sozialgeschichte der rmischen Fhrungsgruppe im 17. Jahrhundert, Geschichte.
Wirtschaft. Gesellschaft. Festschrift fr Clemens Bauer zum 75. Geburtstag, Berlin 1975, 229280; Mar-
cel Albert, Nuntius Fabio Chigi und die Anfnge des Jansenismus 16391651 (RQ Supplementheft 44),
RomFreiburgWien 1988, 4748. 205237. 284287.

willing to accept his resignation from the archbishopric of Paris only after a long hesi-
tation. This affair, at the very beginning of his pontificate had, likewise, its effect on
the relations between the Holy See and France, as well as the papal diplomacy on the
thwarting of the planned union of France and Cromwells England. For this purpose,
Alexander VII forwarded a breve to the summoned council of the French clergy in
16551656. He did not support, either, the similar ambitions of the Spanish. As an answer,
Mazarin supported the anti-Roman local religious movements: the Jansenists and the
Gallicans. Furthermore, Mazarin hindered Alexander VIIs from mediating, by pursu-
ing his independent policy in halting the war being waged since 1640, between France
and Spain on the ownership of Catalonia and the surrounding territories. It was out of
question that the Eternal City would be the theatre of the peace conference; moreover,
the French automatically refused the participation of the papal nuncio.126
The Treaty of the Pyrenees, concluded on 7 November 1659 which kept Catalonia
in exchange for Artois and many fortresses in the Low Countries, yet, sealed the decline
of Spain contained explicitly detrimental terms against the interests of the Holy See
which was, despite its intention, excluded from the negotiations. Namely, the territorial
demands of Parma and Modena against the Papal State were included in its clause. Rome
was informed about the demands for Castro and Comacchio lying south of the estuary
of the Po river, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea which were guaranteed by the great
powers, only on 1 January 1660. Alexander VII replied to the re-emerging realization
of the decadence of the great powers after Westphalia with the total re-occupation of
the territory of Castro on 20 December 1660, which caused numerous problems for the
earlier popes, as well. However, he was to retreat soon. In the relations with the French,
which were danger-fraught enough, in spite of the various, for example, personal
concessions, concerning the appointment of bishops the gravest breach ever ensued.127
Alexander VII had to face the most oppressive manifestation of the French hegem-
ony ever after the Treaty of the Pyrenees, in 16621663. Louis XIV, who embarked on
building up his absolutism after the death of Mazarin, employed a peculiar pretext for
breaking the pope, with the intention of spreading his authority over the French Church
as the cornerstone of his absolutist domestic policy. The indirect antecedent of the crisis
was that the pope, by following the ideas of the squadron volante, dealt with the question
of the Ottoman conquest to a greater extent than his predecessors did. Not only did he
send a papal fleet to Venice in 1657 as a return, the Signoria let the Jesuits come back
Rosa, Alessandro VII, 341342; Rodn, Cardinal Decio Azzolino and Squadron Volante, 7097; Burk-
126
hardt Schneider, Das Papsttum zur Zeit der franzsischen Hegemonie, Die Kirche im Zeitalter des Ab-
solutismus und der Aufklrung (Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte 5, hrsg. v. Wolfgang MllerQuintn
AldeaHeribert RaabBurkhardt Schneider et al.), FreiburgBaselWien 1970, 120151, 124129; Pastor,
Geschichte der Ppste XIV, 303389; Ranke, A ppk trtnete [The History of the Popes], 608611; more on the
outline of the papal-French relations in the seventeenth century: Petrocchi, Roma nel Seicento, 111417.
127
Ibid.

after nearly fifty years , but he also engaged in organizing an international union to
halt the Turks offensive in Hungary.128
His actions crossed the plans of Louis XIV, who did not concern himself, at all,
with the Habsburgs consolidation along on their eastern border. Therefore, his leg-
ates, dAubeville or Crcy, who were sent to Rome regarding the league, hindered the
negotiations. They raised formal objections of various sorts, and they were occupied in
extending diplomatic immunity in an unacceptable way and degree for a sovereign
head of a sovereign State around their accommodation. The violent clash in the tense
atmosphere between their strikingly large retinue and the Corsican Guard on 20 August
1662 could hardly be attributed to an accident.
In the accelerating crisis, Alexander VII, regardless of all his efforts to organize an
anti-Ottoman all-European coalition, became totally isolated. Madrid was absorbed by
the war against Portugal, Vienna was engrossed by the Turkish attack resulting in the
surrender of rsekjvr, Venice was filled with apprehension by the affair of Crete and
the other Italian States examined Romes tight situation with indifference mingled with
malice. Parma and Modena showed unreservedly hostile behaviour. The papal enclave
of Avignon and the related Comtat Venaissin were invaded by French troops, moreover
the Sun King was ready to occupy the Eternal City, as well. The Gallican card also ap-
peared: further clauses were phrased at the Sorbonne at the end of 1663.
As a consequence, there was no other way for Alexander VII but a total and humili-
ating retreat. In the Treaty of Pisa of 12 February 1664, Castros earlier legal status was
provisionally restored and the rights of the Duke of Modena over Comacchio were ac-
knowledged. The Treaty of Pisa reinforced the positions and influence of the French in
Northern Italy, who were not even satisfied with obtaining the right of intervention in
the affairs of the Papal State. On the other hand, Louis XIV demanded formal amends
from the pope. Namely, Alexander VII had to disband the Corsican Guard, proclaimed
as the scapegoat, he had to set up a shame-pyramid in front of their barracks admit-
ting the soldiers guilt, moreover, by the direction of his cardinal-nephew, Flavio Chigi,
the pope was obliged to send an apologetic legation to Paris.129
His ordeals in the politics of Western Europe and Italy were slightly mitigated by
the conversion of world-sensation of Queen Christina of Sweden (16321654, 1689), the
daughter of Gustav II Adolf, and her move to Rome.130 As a member of the old school of
diplomacy and incapable of forgetting the past papal influence over the European con-
128
Johann Rainer, Rom und der Trkenkrieg 166364, Atti e Memorie della Accademia di Scienze, Let-
tere e Arti Modena, 6 (1974) 174194; Petrocchi, La politica della Santa Sede, 8990; Eickhoff, Venedig,
Wien und die Osmanen, passim.
129
Rosa, Alessandro VII, 341342; Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 703; Rodn, Cardinal
Decio Azzolino and Squadron Volante, 7097; Signorotto, The Squadrone Volante, 198201; Schneider,
Das Papsttum zur Zeit der franzsischen Hegemonie, 120151, 124129; Pastor, Geschichte der Ppste XIV, 303389;
Ranke, A ppk trtnete [The History of the Popes], 608611.
130
Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 702703. There are more studies on the Roman phase
of the Swedish queen primarily from the perspective of art history: Brje Magnusson (a c. d.), Cristina di

tinent, the pope could not find an adequate solution in the new situation, even though
he did not have the chance for this after Westphalia.131
Clement IX and X: the Decade of Clementia
The period of the two Clements was determined by the quiet resignation to the vul-
nerability, bitterly experienced by their predecessors, however, the quest for new paths
had already started.132 The election of Giulio Rospigliosi did not have another alternative.
The soft-spoken diplomat started his career as the nuncio of Madrid in 1644 then he
became the secretary of State under Alexander VII. He was supported by Spain, by the
appointed ones of Urban VIII, led by Antonio Barberini, moreover by Louis XIV him-
self and by the squadron volante133 arm in arm with Christina of Sweden , which
made approaches to France. This time the Sun King endeavoured to provide his outra-
geously gained influence over the Papacy with a new basis by his unconditional support
towards the strongest candidate, to such an extent that the French diplomacy attributed
the election of Rospigliosi to Louis XIV.134 Rospigliosi, in terms of his program for the
settlement of the diverse confrontations, chose the name of Clement.
Like his predecessor concerning the Treaty of the Pyrenees, he did not have much
influence on the Peace of Aachen which ended the so-called War of Devolution
(16671668) for the territories of the Spanish-Low Countries between France and Spain
and allocated Lille for Louis XIV especially, he could not control its sections about
religion.135 His most important diplomatic achievement was removing the shame-pyra-
mid, helping to relax of relations between France and Spain after the war, moreover
he succeeded in organizing a temporary coalition of some smaller Italian and German
States with Emperor Leopold I (16571705). With the help of the temporary union un-
der the leadership of Vincenzo Rospigliosi, he launched two expeditions in 1668 and
in 1669 to back Venice in the lasting Cretan War. Due to the fateful divisions within
Svezia e Roma. Atti del Simposio tenuto allIstituto Svedese di Studi Classici a Roma, 56 ottobre 1995 (Suecoro-
mana 5), Stockholm 1999.
131
On the personality of the Pope: Giovanni Incisa della Rocchetta, Gli appunti autobiografici dA les-
sandro VII nellArchivio Chigi, Mlanges Eugne Tisserant VI (ST 236), Citt del Vaticano 1964, 439457;
Alexander Krautheimer, The Rome of Alexander VII, Princeton, n. d., 814.
132
On their reign, see: Gaetano Beani, Clemente IX, Prato 1893; and Rodn, Cardinal Decio Azzolino and
Squadron Volante, 124143; Schneider, Das Papsttum zur Zeit der franzsischen Hegemonie, 129133; Pastor,
Geschichte der Ppste XIV, 527665; Ranke, A ppk trtnete [The History of the Popes], 611613.
133
Signorotto, The Squadrone Volante, 198201.
134
Luciano Osbat, Clemente IX, Enciclopedia dei Papi III, 348360, 348353.
135
Giuseppe de Gennaro, La crisi della monarchia spagnola e la diplomazia Pontificia (16651673), Torino
1994, 89100.

the command and after the withdrawal of the French, the Venetians had to surrender
on 6 September 1669 and hand Crete over to the Turks.136
The four-month long conclave from December 1669, after the death of Pope Clem-
ent, was characterized by the same division as there was in the enterprise of the Aege-
an Sea. The, originally, fifty-six, then later sixty-five members of the pope-election
body were absolutely distinct. The supporters of France and Spain were seven-seven;
the cardinals of Alexander VII were twenty-four under the guidance of Flavio Chigi;
the cardinals of Clement IX were eight with Giacomo Rospigliosi and Urban VIIIs,
under the direction of Francesco Barberini, were seven. The squadrons, hallmarked by
Azzolini and Ottoboni, were at full strength, with their twelve cardinals. No matter
how well and cunningly they politicized which is commemorated the public satirical
pamphlet of 1669, the Il colloquio delle volpi (The dialogue of the foxes) , the confident
personal vetoes came in quick succession in the stalemate. That is why, Elci, the for-
mer nuncio of Vienna and Cardinal Vidoni and Brancaccio never became the Vicars of
Christ on earth and that is why Benedetto Odescalchi had to wait some six years more.
The eighty-year old Emilio Altieri owed the tiara to the lengthy and hopeless wrangling.
Neither his nunciature in Naples, causing bankruptcy and political failure, nor his later
curial offices condemned him to this position. He was invested with the red hat only at
the death-bed of his predecessor.137 The political balance of his rather quiet pontificate
turned in a positive direction.
This statement is also valid, even if his awkward memories of Naples did not cause
serious clashes but generated a gentle tension between Spain and the Holy See. The most
significant event was when, in spite of the several requests, he was reluctant to employ
ecclesiastical censures against the participants of the anti-Spanish riot in Messina.138
Even if we are aware that Pope Altieris behaviour towards France was neither clear
nor coherent, a favourable judgement is still acceptable. Clement X did not object to the
declaration of the war of conquest (16721678) against the Dutch, since he expected from
the successes the restoration of Catholicism in the Protestant territories after a period
of more than a century. Nevertheless, in 1673 France and the Holy See started to drift
apart, the pope had to realize that Louis XIV lacked all religious motivation, since the
main aim of his Church policy was to isolate the French clergy from the Roman cen-
tre as much as he could. Given the knowledge of the conquering intentions, Clement
X, in favour of the negotiation without a result yet , undertook the establishment
of diplomatic relations with the Protestant States. This gesture, beyond all questions,
was a huge advance. The alteration of Romes isolating policy and the realization of the
new European power politics required the bitter experience of the past thirty years.
136
Stefano Andretta, Venezia e Roma dalla guerra di Candia a Clemente XI, La corte di Roma tra Cinque
e Seicento, 393422; Osbat, Clemente IX, 355; Petrocchi, La politica della Santa Sede, 9092.
137
Luciano Osbat, Clemente X, Enciclopedia dei Papi III, 360368, 364. In his election, the memory of
his relative, Cardinal Giovanni Battista Altieris absolute authority played a role.
138
Osbat, Clemente X, 364.

Whereas Chigi categorically refused to establish any relations with Protestants during
the negotiations in Mnster, Clements instructions invested the extraordinary nuncios
with full authorization.139
Clement Xs diplomatic exploratory talk, transgressing the confessional bounds, was
followed by the cooling down of the relations between the French and the papal court.
Such a detrimental crisis, as there was under Alexander VII, did not break out. The
smaller diplomatic clashes for instance, the deprival of the foreign, especially French,
duty concession by cardinal nephew Altieri, the camerlengo indicates rather the new
and slow development of the papal independence. Rome re-gained a central role on
the stage of European politics by being preoccupied by organizing the defence against
the renewed Turkish threat in Europe, by providing financial aid and by encouraging
the union of the great powers. However, at first, his attempts were made possible by the
indifference of the great powers, the shaping Eastern European policy of Pope Altieri
increasingly elicited the sympathy of the Habsburgs, which in earnest, contributed to the
gradual liberation from the French tutelage. While the popes were excluded from every
important question and were compelled to the margins, their traditional attempts to me-
diation were simply neglected, however, their efforts in favour of halting the Ottoman
expansion found remarkable response. Realizing and emphasizing the significance of the
unique opportunity can be ascribed to the merits of the administration of Pope Altieri.140
The main stage of the anti-Ottoman policy of Clement X was Poland. Sultan
Mehmed IV (16451687) attacked on this front in 1672. However he was halted by the
Polish troops of John Sobieski, but Michael Korybut Winiowiecki, the Polish king,
underestimated the supplies of his country and the diplomatic aid of the Holy See, as
a consequence he concluded peace with the Turks at Buczacz, by acknowledging their
occupations. Yet, the Sejm discarded the treaty, and after the death of the king, they
elected Sobieski, who again gained victory in Chotin on 11 November 1673. In the fol-
lowing year, not only did the new king (16741696) fulfil the expectations by the repeated
blows levelled on the Turks, but he also opened new prospects for the offensive politics
by reconquering Podolia. Clement X and those surrounding him were not satisfied with
taking a huge part of the military expenses. They did their utmost to prevent the elec-
tion of a Protestant pretender to the throne, or a nominee of a great power instead of
Sobieski. Under the name of the bulwark of Christianity, the king was encouraged to
wage a war by the extraordinary nuncios and by the permanent papal legates and they
assured him of the steadfastness of the Apostolic Sees determination. The pontificate
of Innocent (Blessed) XI justified how successful it was.141
139
Schneider, Das Papsttum zur Zeit der franzsischen Hegemonie, 129133; Andretta, Cerimoniale e
diplomazia pontificia, 217221.
140
141
Gaetano Platania, Polonia e Santa Sede tra conflitti e compromessi (sec. XVII) (in addition: Lucien
Bly, La diplomatie franaise et les compromis en Europe centrale et orientale) (Incontri e dibattiti 1), Viterbo
2002, 3177, 3341; Petrocchi, La politica della Santa Sede, 9092.

The Provisional Return to the Role of Great Power: The initiation of the Holy League 79
The Provisional Return to the Role of Great Power:

the Initiation of the Holy League
Although the Western European political sphere of Rome from Westphalia through
the complete military defeat in the War of the Spanish Succession (17011714) to the
annexation of the Papal State by the revolutionary France, proved to be narrowing,142
the one and a half decade long pontificate of Benedetto Odescalchi can be regarded as
an exception to this tendency. However, his reign entailed another nadir in the relations
between the Holy See and France, this time Rome was not exposed to the French efforts.
In the course of the repeated debates over the extraterritoriality for delegates, the extra-
territorialitas, in 1687, the pope dared to excommunicate the French delegate in Rome.
In 1688, in the matter of the succession of the Electorate of Cologne he placed himself
again in opposition to France, however, this act caused another war between the House
of Austria and the Bourbons after the decade long peace from the Treaty of Nijmegen
in 1679.143
Innocent XI was the last, who could call himself padre commune in the line of the
popes. He did not achieve this role by his neutrality or by the accomplishment of eman-
cipation from the French rule with the assistance of the Habsburgs. The other goals of
the squadron volante: the compliance of the unrealized reforms after Trent, the settlement
of the Papal States finances and the organization of an international alliance against the
Turks after some partial successes yielded partly temporary, yet in many cases essen-
tial, moreover in the suppression of the Turkish Crescent lasting results under his reign.144
If we recall the policy of Paul V, we see that after the conflict with Venice, the ex-
penditure of the military aid to the anti-Ottoman wars was suspended for almost fifty
years. The plan of initiating an anti-Ottoman, all-European alliance did not occur
even on the level of rhetoric under Urban VIII. Innocent X, who endeavoured to square
the conflict with Venice, in the course of the Cretan War, which threatened the whole
Mediterranean, immediately sent assistance to the Signoria. To put it bluntly, his in-
tervention was not considerable, since the republic did not stop violating the ecclesias-
tical immunity and privileges, besides they continued the public utilization of tithes.
His successors, Alexander VII and Clement IX provided greater financial and military
aid to Venice,145 however, they could not prevent the surrender of Crete. We are aware
that the efforts of Pope Chigi namely to organize a league against the Turkish cam-
142
For example Norbert Huber, sterreich und der Hl. Stuhl vom Ende des spanischen Erbfolgekrieges bis
zum Tode Papst Klemens XI (17141721) (AG 126), Wien 1967, 2735.
143
See the related literature below, in the details.
144
Besides the works on the suqadron volante for instance: Agostino Lauro, Il cardinale Giovanni Battista
de Luca. Diritto e riforma nello Stato della Chiesa (16761683) (Storia e diritto. Studi 29), Napoli 1991.
145
Eickhoff, Venedig, Wien und die Osmanen, 3234 and passim; Andretta, Venezia e Roma dalla guerra
di Candia, 393422.

paigns in Hungary in 16631664 also remained fruitless. The same can be stated con-
cerning the efforts of Clement X in forming a coalition in favour of Poland in 1672.146
Let us highlight it again: the papal diplomacy masterfully realized in the second half
of the seventeenth century that it could only achieve successes on the stage of interna-
tional politics only by focusing on the eastern politics. In spite of the failures of organ-
izing a league, the Turkish question became the centre of interests of Rome more and
more. This theory is proven, for example, by the expenses of more than one million scudi
on the anti-Ottoman wars by Alexander VII. We learnt that under Clement IX and
especially later under Clement X the main target of the papal foreign policy was the
suppression of the Turks. Nevertheless, the initiation of the Habsburg-Polish-Venetian
Holy League and the creation of its financial background were merely the merits
of Innocent XI. However, paradoxically, the quick expulsion of the Turkish troops
made the renaissance of the Papacys role of a great power ephemeral. By the time of
the conclusion of the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 and the dissolution of the League,
the conditions after Westphalia were immediately restored. After the realization of
the old debt of the former Respublica Christiana, the European States no longer needed
Romes international role as a coordinator.
The Last Padre Commune: Innocent XI
In early August 1676, on the opening election of the ninth conclave of the seventeenth
century, out of the seventy-seven cardinals, there were only forty-four. The four French
cardinals arrived only at the end of the summer. The Holy College still remained rather
divided. Seven cardinals were still considered to be the members of the group of Urban
VIII, led by who else but Francesco Barberini. They were followed by those, who
were appointed by Innocent X, Alexander VII and the two Clement Popes. As usual,
there were the French and Spanish factions and the remains of the squadron volante, rep-
resented by Azzolini, Ottoboni and Omodei. After having dropped several candidates,
Odescalchis name was mentioned by the nephew of the former pope, by Cardinal Altieri.
He could win the support of the Spanish, who were led by the former grand inquisitor,
later cardinal and valido of Spain, Nidhard. On the other hand, Cardinal Altieri became
convinced that the French were no longer as hostile as they had been during the pre-
vious conclave. Every cardinal might have reckoned with Odescalchi, yet they did not
agree with his nomination by Altieri. Some shared the view that the ex-nephew wanted
rather to compromise the prelate from Como by his zeal. However, after Louis XIV had
adhered to his election with the reservation that Odescalchi should not be regarded
as the candidate of the Spanish or Altieri the white smoke rose from the chimney of
the Sistine Chapel. By the protodeacon Cardinal, Benedetto Odescalchi was crowned as
146
Rainer, Rom und der Trkenkrieg 166364, 174194.

pope under the name of Innocent XI (16761689) by remembering Pope Pamphili who
appointed him as cardinal.147
The two main pillars of Innocent XIs pontificate were the opposition to the ag-
gressive and hegemonic ambitions of Louis XIV and the war, inspired by the idea of
the Crusades, against the Ottomans. Parallel to the Sun Kings alliance with the Turks
in favour of weakening the Habsburgs, the pope had to pacify the destabilized Europe,
owing to the aspiring plans of France, and cut the root of the Ottoman extension.
The usual anxiety of the Austrian Habsburgs put obstacles in the initiation of the holy
leagues way, which aimed at the liberation of Constantinople. The Habsburgs were
afraid of the eastern war of a longer, engrossing engagement and of the Polish-Russian
traditional antagonism. The fear of the Russian who were also traditionally hostile to
Rome presence after forcing the Ottomans back, had already been shaped.148
In the mid 1670s, the complexity of the international affairs was exacerbated by Louiss
friendly relations with the Turks, moreover, by the fact that the Sun King also made
efforts to win Sobieski. As a result of the French diplomacys intrigue and mediation the
Polish agreed to sign the peace treaty in Zhuravno, which favoured the Turks, in Octo-
ber 1676. Their released troops, as the summit of the French wishes, could potentially be
turned against the Habsburgs and directly against Hungary. However, Louis XIV was
satisfied with standing to benefit from his victories in Eastern Europe on the peace con-
ference in Nijmegen in January 1676, in order to gain the territories of the Republic of
147
Antonio Menniti Ippolito, Innocenzo XI, Enciclopedia dei Papi III, 368389, 371372. About Innocent
XIs life, pontificate and French policy Pastor, Geschichte der Ppste XIV, 6691043; focusing on his sanctity:
Mattia Giuseppe Lippi, Vita di Papa Innocenzo XI raccolta in tre libri (a c. d. Giovacchino Berthier), Roma
1889; with also countless Hungarian aspects: Ferdinando de Bojani, Innocent XI. Sa correspondance avec
ses nonces IIII. (Premire partie: Affaires politiques [I:] 21 Septembre 167631 Dcembre 1679. [III:] 16801684.
Seconde partie: [II:] Affaires ecclsiastiques, 21 Septembre 167631 Dcembre 1679), RoulesRomeParisVien-
ne 19101912; his far-reaching correspondence with monarchs, prelates, among whom with also Hun-
garians: Innocentii PP. XI Epistolae ad Principes. I: Annis IV (3 Oct. 167620 Sept. 1681). II: Annis VIXIII
(24 Sept. 16816 Aug. 1689), ed. by Joachim Joseph Berthier, Romae 18901895; moreover Charles Grin
and E. Michauds French positivist works.
148
Menniti Ippolito, Innocenzo XI, 380; Hubert Jedin, Papst Innozenz XI. Verteidiger des chrsitlichen
Abendlandes, Kirche des Glaubens. Kirche der Geschichte, I, 287291; Wilhelm Frakni, Papst Innozenz
XI. und Ungarns Befreiung von der Trkenherrschaft, Freiburg im Breisgau 1902 (The German translation of
Fraknis work, written for the two hundredth anniversary of Budas liberation.); Rom und Wien im Jahre
1683. Ausgewhlte Actenstcke aus rmischen Archiven zur II. Scularfeier der Befreiung Wiens, Als Festgabe
des Campo Santo zu Rom hrsg. v. Augustin Sauer (Caplan des Collegiums), Wien 1883. I neglect here the
other rich and well-known Hungarian and Austrian literature, I only put emphasis on the studies of Jan
Paul Niederkorn, Adam Wandruszka, Anton C. Schaendlinger, Walter Leitsch, Zygmunt
Abrahamowicz and Paolo Preto, written on the occasion of the tricentenary: RHM 26 (1984) 337350.
243252. 263266. 267278. 279288. 289302; furthermore, it should be highlighted: Agostino Borro-
meo, Le direttrici della politica anti-ottomana della Santa Sede durante il pontificato di Innocenzo XI, 303330.

the United Netherlands after putting an end to the constant warfare, which brought
him many defeats and slight temporary decline.149
The legate of Innocent XI, Nuncio Bevilacqua and his chief administrator, Lorenzo
Casoni arrived in the Dutch town fairly late in June 1677, due to the initial opposition of
the Protestant countries. The commission of Bevilacqua was to conclude peace and to
improve the situation of the Catholics in the Netherlands, by maintaining papal neutrality
between France, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs. Although the conference, which
ended in February 1679, could not resolve the contradictions of the great powers, in spite
of its instability, the peace itself enabled Innocent XI to continue to fulfil his anti-Otto-
man plans. The idea of an emphasized war of liberation, which created a stir throughout
Europe parallel to the acceleration of the Ottoman menace, ceased the thirty-year long
marginalization of the papal diplomacy, which manifested bewildering activity during
the negotiations. However, the principles of the Treaty of Nijmegen coincided with the
terms of Westphalia (the religious provisions elicited strenuous opposition of the pope),
the Holy See was omitted from the final act merely because the pope, in his instruction
given to Bevilacqua, refused to name Louis XIV in the requested form.150
Even after Nijmegen, there were incredible difficulties piling up for Pope Odescalchi,
who even sent legates to Persia after some century-long interval. Be it either the im-
proving of the Russian-Polish relations, or the winning of Louis XIV, his nuncios could
only produce trifling results after the long lasting negotiations about the establishment of
either a defensive, or an offensive league. They managed to convince the monarch who
after having been defeated in the Netherlands was unable to launch a significant offensive
in the west and who could not withdraw himself from general European public opinion
in the shadow of the Ottoman threat to give his assistance in case of an Ottoman at-
tack against Poland or Venice.151 On the other hand, the initiation of an alliance between
Sobieski and the Austrian Habsburgs was crowned with splendid success. At the mere
news of the convention,152 which was concluded in April 1683, by the assistance of Fran-
cesco Buonvisi, the nuncio of Vienna, the sickly pope, who rarely left his bed at that
time, organized an irregular, lavish festival.
The points of the (first) Holy League stated that 1. the offensive league lasted until the
mutually established peace, whereas the defensive league lasted until an indefinite time
(in perpetuum). 2. With the purpose of reinforcing the safety of the League, one has to
take an oath to the pope, where the imperial majesty is represented by His Eminence,
Cardinal Carlo Pio, besides, the royal majesty and the Polish State are represented by
Menniti Ippolito, Innocenzo XI, 380.

149
The details: P.J. Rietbergen, Papal Diplomacy and Mediation at the Peace of Nijmegen, The Peace
150
of Nijmegen 16761678/79. International Congress of the Tricentennial, Nijmegen 1416 September 1978
(ed. by J.A.H. Botsl), Amsterdam 1980, 2996.
151
152
The diploma was signed by Leopold on 2 January 1683 in Vienna and by Sobieski on 31 March 1683 in
Warsaw. This was ratified by the Polish diet on 18 April. The last issue of the related documents from Vatican
sources: Marco Jaov, LEuropa tra conquiste ottomane e leghe sante (ST 403), Citt del Vaticano 2001, 217231.

His Eminence Cardinal Carlo Barberini153154 5. Neither party can make peace with
the Turks, only by a mutual agreement. 6. The inheritors and successors of both parties
are obliged to maintain the League. 7. This is limited only to the war against the Turks
and it cannot be extended to another war. 8. In case of an offensive war, the emperor
will mobilize an army of sixty thousand, including the subsidiary troops, and Poland
an army of forty thousand people. 9. There are going to be more theatres of war, the
emperor will siege the Turkish bulwarks in the territory of Hungary, while the Polish
monarch will reoccupy Kamianets-Podilsky, Podolia and Ukraine. 10. With the pur-
pose of launching the war the earliest and the most efficient as they can, in advance the
emperor sends 200 thousand thaler to Poland, which will reimburse it from the tithes
that the pope released. 11. For the sake of the entry into the alliance, legates will be sent
to the Christian monarchs and dukes, one can be received only by the mutual agreement
of the parties; in particular the Tsar will be pressed.155
The popes sheer joy was not ineffectual. After half a year, on 2 September 1683 the
united Catholic army of imperial, Polish and Bavarian troops, commanded by Sobieski,
defeated the forces of Kara Mustafa Pasha in Kahlenberg, by preventing the capture
of Vienna and the hoisting up of the Turkish crescent to the steeple of Saint Stephans
Cathedral. After the achieved victory, or rather victories since the League occupied
Prkny on 9 October and Esztergom on 27 October , which were the fruit of the
long preparation of the papal diplomacy, there was still much that remained to be done.
Not only did the pope have to prevent the Polishs withdrawal from the League but
he also had to divert Leopold I from his idea of an armistice. In the meantime, Louis
XIV took advantage of the Habsburgs dire straits, however, he did not launch a gen-
eral offensive, but occupied some fortresses in the western borderland. Moreover, after
the acknowledgement of Casale Monferratos obtainment in 1681 and the hegemony
over Savoy, he had Genoa shelled in early 1684. With the occupation of the City-State,
he made his positions in Italy the firmest ever, which meant that not only did he threat-
en the Habsburgs from West, but from South, as well.
Finally, the diplomats of Pope Odescalchi could not only save the Polish-Habsburg
alliance, but after long negotiations owing to the informal diplomatic activity of Pi-
etro Ottoboni Venice entered the (second) Holy League, which was initiated by the
pope, Leopold and Sobieski. The alliance of an offensive nature aimed at the cessation
of the Turkish presence in Poland and Hungary and their suppression to the eastern
part of the Mediterraneum. The League was ratified on 24 May 1684 by an oath in the
Apostolic Palaces consistorial chamber. In exchange for its help, the Signoria received
153
The ceremony of the taking of the oath was organized on 16 August 1683 in the Quirinal Palace. Carlo
Pio and Carlo Barberini represented the two monarchs as the cardinal protectors of the German empire,
the kingdom of Hungary and Poland. On this role of Barberini: Gaetano Platania, La Polonia nelle carte
del cardinale Carlo Barberini Protettore del regno, Accademie e Biblioteche dItalia 56 (n.s. 39) (1988) n. 2, 3860.
154
The 3rd and 4th point referred to the settlement of the conflicts, occurring at the Polish-Swedish war
and to the recognition of Sobieskis election.
155
Lippi, Vita di Papa Innocenzo XI, 161162; Jaov, LEuropa tra conquiste ottomane, 227228.

100 thousand scudi, and they won commandership over the papal fleet.156 The efficiency
of the alliance was guaranteed by the agreement signed in Regensburg, three months
later, on 15 August, which provided an armistice for twenty years between France,
the Empire and Spain. Another success of the papal foreign policy had a heavy price,
however it was unusually not paid by Rome. In exchange for his inclination to enable
the liberation of Hungary after one hundred and fifty years, the Sun King obtained
Strasbourg and Luxemburg.157
The newer Leagues initial enterprises went with varying success. The siege of Buda,
which started in July 1684 was interrupted on 3 November, nevertheless, the advance
of Venice into the area of the Adriatic and Ionian Sea, which not only assured their
dominance over Dalmatia, but it also held out hope for the obtainment of all Morea.
In the following years there were only smaller campaigns in Hungary, since Poland
was engaged with the recrudescent Russian-Polish conflict. Finally, through the agree-
ment,158 signed on 2 May 1686, Russia also joined the League. The alliance, inspired and
encouraged by Marco DAviano,159 emerged victorious on 2 September 1686 by captur-
ing Buda, which triumph was not only celebrated in Italy but throughout Europe, as
well. It was followed by the liberation of Pcs, Szeged and almost the whole Slavonia
during that given year. In the following years the Turkish garrisons one after another
surrendered. The forces of the League, led by Charles V, Duke of Lorraine, gained
a final victory over Suleiman, the Grand Vizier, in Nagyharsny on 12 August 1687.
On 6 September 1688 Belgrade was liberated.160
Innocent XIs actual authority in the battles of the League was to provide the finan-
cial background. The remittance to the emperor, to Poland and Venice was more than
two million scudi during 16831689.161 The pope was mostly obsessed with the establish-
156
The points of the treaty, signed on 10 March, correspond to the ones from the previous year.
The credentials of the cardinal protectors (Venice was represented by Pietro Ottoboni, the later Pope
Alexander VIII) were dated on 24 February, 6 February, 27 March and on Venetian side on 29 April. Jaov,
LEuropa tra conquiste ottomane, 232251.
157
Menniti Ippolito, Innocenzo XI, 381; Platania, Polonia e Santa Sede, 4150; Petrocchi, La politica
della Santa Sede, 9698; Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 717719.
158
The text, including thirty-two points, published on 25 April: Jaov, LEuropa tra conquiste ottomane,
251254; Platania, Polonia e Santa Sede, 5056.
159
Much data on his role can be found in the exemplary publication of his extensive correspondence: Arturo
Basso da Carmignano di Brenta, P. Marco dAviano. Corrispondenza epistolare IV, Venezia-Mestre 19861991,
passim; moreover Gabriele Ingegneri, Il cardinale Gregorio Barbarigo e padre Marco dAviano, Gregorio
Barbarigo patrizio veneto vescovo e cardinale nella tarda controriforma. Atti del convegno di studi Padova
710 Novembre 1996 (San Gregorio Barbarigo. Fonti e Ricerche III12, a c. d. Lilliana BillanovichPier-
antonio Gios), Padova 1999, 11291145, 11311133.
160
Menniti Ippolito, Innocenzo XI, 381; Petrocchi, La politica della Santa Sede, 9698.
161
The most exact and valid sums: Paolo Cherubini, Mandati della reverenda Camera Apostolica 14181802
(Quaderni della Rassegna degli Archivi di Stato), Roma 1988, 131 (Registro demandati delle tre decima per la guer-
ra dUngheria contro il Turco; Registro de polize de cambio delle decime imposte dalla S.t di N.S. Innocenzo XI per
la guerra dUngheria contro il Turco, principate li 8 maggio 1683 a tutto li 8 maggio 1691. [Archivio di Stato di
Roma, vol. 972]). Its data are affirmed by the enclosure of a breve of 20 February 1690, which indicates a sum

ment and maintenance of the harmony of the alliance and the restraint of France.
He was aware that the at least passive support of Louis XIV was essential to sustain all
the achievements in the eastern fronts. On the other hand, there occurred a vast amount
of problems. The question of Alsace and Lorraine was solved for the time being by the
surrender of Strasbourg, yet, by the death of the elector of Pfalz in May 1685, another
focal point arose in the west. At this time the French already laid claim to the territories
by the Rhine. By the mediation of the papal diplomacy in 1687, the candidate of Leo-
pold I could take the chair of the elector. As an answer Louis XIV had fortresses built
on the right riverside of the Rhine.
The efforts, undertaking more and more direct conflicts, of Pope Odescalchi to
avoid a fatal breach in the relations of France and the Habsburgs in the course of the
Holy Leagues wars, proved to be fruitful only until September 1688. This time, only
two weeks after the occupation of Belgrade, the Sun King by breaking his engage-
ments launched an invasion to annex the Rhineland, Mainz and Trier. By luck, due to
the zeal of Nuncio Buonvisi, the ministers, who hastened the one-sided armistice with
the Turks in the critical circumstances, remained in minority in Vienna. Much to the
popes relief Leopold shouldered the two-front war. In place of Charles V, Duke of Lor-
raine, and Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, who had to travel West, Louis
William, Margrave of Baden as the chief commander of the Leagues army continued
the advance to the heart of the Balkans. In October 1689, his troops reached Vidin then
they set up their winter-quarters at the Lower Danube. However, the only blessed pope
of the seventeenth century did not live to see it.162
Pope Odescalchi, in favour of the Holy League, did his utmost to keep in contact with
the most Christian monarch and participated in postponing the opening of the western
front. Nevertheless, the French-Roman, similar to the French-Habsburg relations, was
irresistibly drifting towards its fall. The reason was along two evolving paths: the tur-
bulent conflict around the district of the delegates in Rome and the whirling sequence
of events of the ecclesiastical prince-elector, the archbishop of Colognes succession.
The privileges of the accommodation of the diplomats became vivid by several abuses
since the failure of Alexander VIIs attempt to settle their questions. The tax and duty
free exchange of the most diverse types and amounts of products happened unhindered.
It also came up against obstacles to obtain a sealed document for money, which verified
ones status as a diplomat. The decrees of the governor, vicar and local magistrate of
Rome had no effect in the territories which were free of the papal jurisdiction. From
of 108,3753,22 scudi (di moneta), paid to Leopold I in annual instalments between 1683 and 1688 (StA HH-
StA Allgemeine Urkunden). Although it refers to sources from the Vatican Archives (Instrumenta Miscel-
lanea, n. 5382, fol. 9rv), criticism should be addressed to the sum, defined by Menniti (381) 5 million for-
ints between 1683 and 1689 and by Jaov (236, note 24.) 661,310 scudi between 1683 and 1699. On the
collection of 1683, among the cardinals and Roman noblemen, only 48,082 scudi were gathered. Platania,
Polonia e Santa Sede, 45. See also Borromeo, Le direttrici della politica anti-ottomana della Santa Sede, 329330.
162

the very beginning of his pontificate, Pope Odescalchi, by his loyal man, Giovanni Bat-
tista de Lucas advice, endeavoured to prevent the offences mingled with scandals. Not
only did he not accredit those diplomats who did not show any inclination to square the
unblessed matters, but he also neglected their visits in Rome.
Out of the most concerned States, Spain in 1682 and Venice in 1684, conceded the
papal call. In contrast to the French, they reduced the number of their delegates and
ceased the corruption there. The cardinals in Rome, Maidalchini and dEstres, who
represented the Sun King, refused their consent. The departing, new standing delegates
task was to maintain the privileges with diplomatic immunity.163 Lavardin arrived with
such a fully armed retinue at the northern gate of the Eternal City that the contempo-
raries suspected a military attempt. The Pope let the delegate cross the Porta del Popolo
only after some hesitation on 16 November 1687. Then, Lavardin had the already existing
French residence, the Palazzo Farnese, reconstructed into a genuine fortress. In reply
to the direct provocation, which profoundly violated the sovereignty of the Apostolic
See, Innocent XI was by no means inclined to see him. The Sun King answered with
threats of the annexation of Avignon and the Duchy of Castro. By Christmas, the crisis
increased to extremes, since the pope put the Church of Saint Louis of the French under
interdictum on 26 December. It happened, namely, that the indifferent French priests
administered Holy Communion to the delegate who had been earlier automatically ex-
communicated after having violated the papal orders. At the peak of the crisis, Spain and
England sided with Innocent XI and promised military aid to him. The French were
obliged to retreat. In their inability, in the summer of 1688, they planned to kidnap the
papal confidant, Lorenzo Casoni, since he was blamed for the established situation.164
Apart from the smaller problems in the nature of protocol, the outburst of the ex-
tremely tense situation was due to the succession of the Church Electorate of Cologne.
Louis XIV wanted to place a French loyal coadjutor next to the mortally ill archbish-
op, Maximilian Henry of Bavaria, in order to attain the appropriate succession and to
strengthen his positions within the Imperium. He succeeded in having his candidate
accepted by the Chapter of Cologne, however, the pope definitely refused its canonical
confirmation. In the meantime, the archbishop died in June 1688. From that point, not
the person of the coadjutor was at stake, but the new elector. The Sun King acted in
the most threatening way ever; he recruited his army to a direct invasion against the
Papal State. Innocent XI did not withdraw. On 18 September 1688, Joseph Clemens of
Bavaria received the papal bulls concerning Cologne, which was unacceptable for the
French. As an answer, firstly the freedom of the papal nuncio was restricted in Paris,
Signorotto, The Squadrone Volante, 206211. 126127; Schneider, Das Papsttum zur Zeit der fran-
163
zsischen Hegemonie, 133143; Ranke, A ppk trtnete [The History of the Popes], 667671; Menniti Ippo-
lito, Innocenzo XI, 383.
164
Signorotto, The Squadrone Volante, 206211. 126127; Schneider, Das Papsttum zur Zeit der franz-
sischen Hegemonie, 133143; Ranke, A ppk trtnete [The History of the Popes], 667671; Menniti Ippoli-
to, Innocenzo XI, 383. The problem of the Quartierfreiheit in the early eighteenth century reoccurred in
Austrian relations: Huber, sterreich und der Hl. Stuhl, 93106.

then Ranuzzi and Lavardin, who broke off the diplomatic relations, headed back home.
France according to tradition prepared for the annexation of Avignon and the Com-
tat Venaissin, which was indeed occupied later.165
Louis XIV took revenge for the humiliation in Cologne by his attack by the Rhine. His
aggression was mainly caused apart from Innocent XIs fruitful martial spirit by the
successes of the Holy League in Hungary. The pope, who moved to the celestial home
in August before the return of Nuncio Ranuzzi, could find his only pleasure in these
victories. On his deathbed, besides the French situation, the change of the English affairs
filled him with apprehension.
Under his pontificate the situation of the Catholics gradually improved, owing to
James II (16851688), who was also Catholic himself. Yet his absolutistic ambition and
his policy, lacking all foresight, projected a picture of the approaching fall. The pope,
who supported him from the very beginning of his reign, was aware of this danger
and tried to do his utmost to prevent a second Sun Kings evolution. Not only did he
refuse the appointment of Jamess confidant, the Jesuit Edward Petre, as a bishop then
a cardinal, but he also objected to the ambitious Jesuits political role as the secretary
and secret counsellor of the king. The papal diplomacy was fully aware of partly due
to the unrestrained ambition of the Jesuit the more and more unfavourable English
public opinion. As a consequence, the landing of William III of Orange (16881702)
in November 1688, then his marching in London on 28 December did not take Inno-
cent XI by surprise. However, the shadow of the French threat and his financial engage-
ment in Hungary hindered him from doing anything against it. The expelled monarch
and his Catholic followers, the so-called Jacobites, finally found shelter in the Eternal
City, where they hatched their unfulfilled dreams of return.166
Alexander VIII and Innocent XII:

Again on the Verge of Power Politics
The election of the last two popes of the seventeenth century was objected by France.
In contrast to his attempts at rapprochement in the 80s, the candidature of Pietro Otto-
boni was rejected due to his earlier statements against the Gallicanism. His election, as
Alexander VIII (16891691), was enabled by his promises without any obligations, made
to France, and by the disorganization of the imperial party, furthermore by the votes
165
Signorotto, The Squadrone Volante, 206211. 126127; Schneider, Das Papsttum zur Zeit der fran-
zsischen Hegemonie, 133143; Ranke, A ppk trtnete [The History of the Popes], 667671; Menniti Ippo-
lito, Innocenzo XI, 383.
166
The dethroned English king died in Rome, his tomb can be found in Saint Peters Basilica. Menniti
Ippolito, Innocenzo XI, 383384. On the Jacobites with other international literature (46, notes 3839. and
47, note 41.): Gabriella Erdlyi, Szent Margittal Magyarorszgrl jttnk. A skt Drummond csald
eredethagyomnya a 17. szzadban [We Came from Hungary with Saint Margaret. The Origin of the Scottish
Drummond Family in the Seventeenth Century], Sic itur ad Astra, 1994, 12, 3856.

of every cardinal at the conclave.167 The origin of the Spanish subject, the archbishop
of Naples, Antonio Pignatelli, was also questioned by Louis XIV in 1691. In contrast
to Leopold I, who set a veto on Gregorio Barbarigo, who was accused of French-amity,
Louis did not operate with such severe sanctions. The reason for this might be the fact
that the former nuncio of Vienna was not originally regarded as the candidate of the
Austrian-Spanish faction, but of the independent zelanti.168 Neither Pope Ottoboni, nor
Pope Pignatelli, crowned as Innocent XII (16911700), confirmed the initial French
fears. However, their pontificates radically differed from each other: Alexander VIIIs
was the traditional curialism, Innocent XIIs the triumph of the decade-lasting inner
reforms, on the other hand, the centre of both popes policies was the arrangement of
the French relations.
The Papacy of Alexander VIII started with favourable omens. The Sun King gave
up the privileges of the delegates immunity, which caused many tempests in Rome,
moreover, he settled the diplomatic relations and retreated from Avignon and Venaissin.
The pope returned the gestures of the monarch by giving the red hat to the bishop of
Beauvais, to Forbin-Janson, who was rejected for so long. (Innocent XI was reluctant to
appoint the French bishop, since he operated against the papal diplomacy on his legation
in Poland in 1670s.) Naturally, the question of Gallicanism and royal supremacy over the
French Catholicism was not solved immediately which irritated Louis XIV. The mon-
arch accused the pope of being biased toward the emperor, who supported the Protestant
England against France, though, his accusation was not grounded. Alexander VIIIs
relations to the Habsburg court were anything but not good. After the amount of aids
against the Turks, which were promised by his predecessor, was radically reduced to
minimum, he favoured his birth place, Venice to the Habsburgs.169 On the pretext of
the appointment of two French-amity cardinals around 1690, Leopold summoned his
delegate from Rome home.170
Amando Petrucci, Alessandro VIII, Enciclopedia dei Papi III, 389393, 391. On Pope Ottobonis career,
167
family and pontificate, besides the positivist works of Ranke and Pastor (and more French authors) see
also: Sigismund Bischoffshausen, Papst Alexander VIII. und der Wiener Hof (16891691), StuttgartWien
1900; the latest: Antonio Menniti Ippolito, Politica e carriere ecclesiastiche nel secolo XVII. I vescovi veneti
fra Roma e Venezia, Bologna 1993, in some places; here the remarkable writings of the later bishop of Szat-
mr should be mentioned: Jnos Scheffler, VIII. Sndor ppa s a bcsi udvar 16891691. A vatikni levltr
okmnyai alapjn [Pope Alexander VIII and the Court of Vienna 16891691. On the Basis of the Documents in the
Vatican Secret Archives], Ungvr 1914.
168
Renata Ago, Innocenzo XII, Enciclopedia dei Papi III, 395404, 396. Detailed annals from the per-
spective of a contemporary: Pontificato di Innocenzo XII. Diario del Conte Gio. Battista Campello, a c. d. Paolo
Campello della Spina, Roma 1887; and recently (apart from the editions of L. M. de Palma, B. Pellegri-
no): Francesco Antonio Gisondi, Innocenzo XII Antonio Pignatelli (Spinazzola 1615Roma 1700). I miei
nepoti sono i poveri, Roma 1994.
169
Platania, Polonia e Santa Sede, 5659; Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 719720.
170
In detail: Elisabeth Garms-Cornides, Scene e attori della rappresentazione imperiale a Roma nellul-
timo Seicento, La corte di Roma tra Cinque e Seicento, 509535.

The quickly isolated pope was compelled to make concessions to the French. However,
the long-term establishment of the modus vivendi in the question of the Church and
Church policy was accomplished only under his successor.171 In contrast to his prede-
cessors, Innocent XII inclined to the compromise with the Sun King for two reasons.
On the one hand, he clearly saw the infirm of Spain through his own experience;
on the other hand, Innocent XIs theory of the Crusade had no effect on him. Partic-
ularly, since by the dawn of his pontificate the Holy League had already achieved its
feasible goals. The results were stabilized by the victory of Prince Eugene of Savoy in
the Battle of Zenta in 1697 and were confirmed by the Treaty of Karlowitz. The treaty,
signed between the Empire, Venice, Poland, Russia and the Turks meant to Rome only
auspicious conditions for the Catholics in the Ottoman territory and it settled the status
of the shrines in the Holy Land.172
Innocent XII, in the shadow of Pope Odescalchis international authority, could reach
a compromise with France from a favourable situation. He did not shrink from such ges-
tures towards the Sun King, as the assignment of the right of filling the archiepiscopal
see of Cambrai, which he gained during the Dutch war. This enabled the legitimation
of the territorial conquests during 16881697. In parallel to these, the relations with the
Habsburgs were burdened by diplomatic scandals. In 1692, Anton von Liechtenstein and
in 1699, Georg Adam von Martinitz both had passionate rows with the pope. The fact that
Innocent XII supported the French candidate in the question of the Spanish succession
had more severe consequences than the crisis of a pure precedence and prestigious
reason. However, he could not live to see the war and its catastrophic consequences
on his State.173 He passed away shortly before the dying out of the Spanish Habsburg line.
At the time of his death, the Papal State had already returned to the course of the
decades after Westphalia. The declining curve of this orbit basically did not change until
a century later realized temporary cessation of the popes State. The policy of Innocent
XII, similarly to Urban VIIIs, brought its own punishment. Pope Pignatelli did not face
the facts that the long warfare had exhausted France, in whose back there reared up a
new world power: England. Neither did he reckon that with the liberation of Hungary,
Austria would gain strength to such an extent that it would be able to seize, though, not
the Spanish, but the Italian inheritance. Moreover, they would not shrink back from
the direct military actions against the Papal State
Petrucci, Alessandro VIII, 391392. See Chapter VI.

171
Gisondi, Innocenzo XII, 111118 and 151159; Petrocchi, La politica della Santa Sede, 9899; Platania,
172
Polonia e Santa Sede, 5977. Here it must be mentioned: Vilmos Frakni, Vrad felszabadtsa 1692-ben s
XII. Ince ppa [The Liberation of Vrad in 1692 and Pope Innocent XII], Rma 1892.
173
Ago, Innocenzo XII, 403; Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 720722.

III
The Society, Economy
and Finances of the Papal State
The evolution of Romes policy later its Church administration, then its relations
to the single nations and national Churches can only be comprehensible in the context
of the Papal States inner relations, which delimited the papal decision making. This
phenomenon is evident in the knowledge of Romes role on the European stage in the sev-
enteenth century. The analysis and survey of the central Italian regions social, econom-
ical and financial problems are a rather complex task. We should examine the struc-
ture and processes of the society, as well as the criteria of the change and stability;
the situation, population, production and financial needs of Rome, moreover, the relations
of the surrounding area of the city, of the Roman Campagna and the other provinces
of the Papal State; the economical measures of the curial offices, especially the tax and
financial policy of the central fiscal body, the Apostolic Chamber. The incomes (taxes
and revenues) of the Holy See from the territory of the Papal State and the incomes
from the universal Church, neither their allotments, must not be neglected. An overall
answer covering the whole centurys questions is almost impossible for the time being
due to the uneven circumstances of the resources and literature. Nevertheless, a rather
exact and trustworthy picture can be drawn.1
General Economical and Social Tendencies
Central and North Italy was the most developing region of Western Europe with
a rather high standard of living in the seventeenth century. However, around 1680 it
was characterized by backwardness and depression. Its industrial equipment was insuffi-
cient, the population was significantly greater than the available resources; the most im-
portant branch was the agriculture. The traditional explanations of this thesis are the
following: 1. The main trade routes were relocated from the Mediterranean Sea to the re-
gion of the Atlantic Ocean. This change mainly affected Venice and Genoa, since
A comprehensive, not too detailed analysis of the question: Petrocchi, Roma nel Seicento, 2991;
1
a perfect summary: Delumeau, Political and Administrative Centralization, 296302.

92 The Society, Exonomics and the Finances of the Papal State
only these two city States economies and wealth were based exclusively on trade. 2. The other
reason is financial: on the one hand, the devaluation of money and the dumping of pre-
cious metal from the New World caused depreciation, on the other hand, the so-called
price-revolution was not only an inflation shock but a slow, continuous rise of prices;
it was annually 2% and in Italy between 15521560 it was more than 5%. This phenom-
enon hindered the profit of money lending; moreover, it was a hard hit for the blooming
Italian banking sector.
The reason for the economic crisis of the seventeenth century can be found in the
producing sector. The agricultural production meant the production from the early
Modern Period to the Industrial Revolution. In the middle of the sixteenth century the
blooming agriculturalism reached its peak, the population of Italy rose from 10.5 million
to 13.3, though, in the seventeenth century it started to stagnate. Due to the price revo-
lution, the price of agricultural products, especially of the corn, rose fast; in fact, it left
the products of manufacture far behind. The result of which became the ritorno alla
terra, the phenomenon of the return back to the fields. The capital assets naturally
flew towards the agrarian sector, leading to the halt of the process starting in the Ren-
aissance of the widening achievement of middle-class status and the parallel economic
growth. The purchasing of manors was accompanied by the obtainment of titles of no-
bility by considerably inflating them.2
The re-feudalisation entailed rather negative consequences, since the recession of the
technical activity in the manufactures reduced the solvent demand resulting in the state
of being completely at the mercy of the cycles, which were characterized by the agri-
cultural production and attributed to the changes of the weather. For instance,
at the beginning of the seventeenth century in Milan, there were sixty-seventy cotton
mills, in which 450 km of wool was produced; in 1640 there were only fifteen and in
1682 there were only five. The others were obliged to close and lay off their workers.
By 16191622, re-feudalisation caused a general economic crisis in Italy, while those
countries (England, the Netherlands and partly France) which relied on the expansion
of trade, were not affected. The trade relations with the German States, which were
broken due to the Thirty Years War, had a bad influence. Italy was characterized by
ruralisation instead of industrialization in the seventeenth century.3
The general regression in Italy hardly concerned the Papal State, since Rome and
its surroundings due to their agriculture were of greater importance than in the North.
Carlo M. Cipolla, Il declino economico dellItalia, Storia delleconomia italiana. Saggi di storia econo-
2
mica. I: Secoli settimo-diciasettesimo (Biblioteca di Cultura Economica 24, a c. d. Carlo M. Cipolla), Mi-
lano 1959, 605623; Aldo de Maddalena, Il mondo rurale italiano nel Cinque e nel Seicento (Rassegna di
studi recenti), Rivista Storica Italiana 76 (1964) 341425; Pasquale Villani, Il capitalismo agrario in Italia
(sec. XVIIXIX), Studi Storici 7 (1966) 471513; the latest, Ruggiero Romano (a c. d.), Storia delleconomia
italiana. II: Let moderna: verso la crisi, Torino 1991.
3
Ruggiero Romano, Tra XVI e XVII secolo. Una crisi economia: 16191621, Rivista Storica Italiana 74 (1962)
508513; [Idem], LItalia nella Crisi del secolo XVII, Studi Storici 9 (1968) 723741; in summary and with further
literature on all, Lutz, Rom und Europa, 94101.

General Economical and Social Tendencies 93
The handicraft satisfied mainly the local needs. The export was insignificant; therefore,
the economy hardly became exposed to the external circumstances, so there was only
a general, long-lasting stagnation rather than regression, which is proved by the balance
of the papal incomes.
The agricultural crisis, due to the long-lasting cold weather and the reduction of the
general demand, generated structural changes in Rome also. In 1590 a papal bull had to
arrange the tension in the money market by ordering the auction of the indebted aris-
tocrats lands. This decision resulted in the fact that the properties fell into the hands
of new families who invested their money in real estate. Despite the development of the
new nobility, the most powerful group of the owners remained to be the restructur-
ing aristocracy. Its members, unlike in most of the other regions of Italy, were followed
by the religious bodies (cloisters, colleges, hospitals) which increased their property share
from 28% to 37% during the seventeenth century.
The process led to the establishment of new and extensive lands. The spreading of
the latifundiums damaged the populations social and economic situation on a large scale.
The independent peasants were replaced by hired workers in the surrounding fields, in
Agro Romano. As a result of the agricultural crisis, from the end of the sixteenth cen-
tury Campagna could not supply Rome with enough corn and they had to compensate
from other provinces (mainly from Romagna) of the Papal State. The purchasing and
transport demand brought about the evolution of a narrow wholesale merchant class
(mercanti di Campagna), whose activity was controlled by the papal office, which was
responsible for the corn supply, the Annona.4
Similarly to the other regions of Italy, the small economic elite was represented by
a narrow wholesale merchant class. The number of those Roman patrician families,
who mainly bought estates, titles, and were the wealthiest, was about 215 in the middle
of the seventeenth century.5 There was always a sharp difference between the title and
the economical potentiality of those historical families who were at the head of the social
hierarchy. It is true that one of the most mellow families, the Caetanis annual income
of only 27 thousand from their disadvantageously located lands raised astonishment and
became an exception, compared to the Colonnas and Orsinis income of some 100 thou-
sand. The genuine aristocracy, apart from the above mentioned, the Contis, Savellis,
Cesarinis, Cesis and Altemps, all in all sixty-one 300, thirty-two 200 and sixteen
4
On the social and economical conditions of the Papal State in the early modern period, the already
quoted fundamental work of Delumeau (Vie conomique et sociale de Rome); and Giampiero Carocci,
Lo Stato della Chiesa nella seconda met del secolo XVI. Note e contributi, Milano 1961; besides, a more detailed
monograph: Giorgio Rossi, LA gro di Roma tra 500 e 800. Condizioni di vita e lavoro (Biblioteca di Storia
Sociale 19), Roma 1985, especially 83174, 175208, 209252; on the merchants: Enzo Piscitelli, Un ceto
scomparso nello Stato della Chiesa: i mercanti di Campagna, SR 16 (1968) 446457; with a more comprehensive
bibliography, Lutz, Rom und Europa, 116118.
5
The data are estimated by Teodoro Ameyden (Relazione della Corte di Roma). They are quoted by Ma-
ria Antonietta Visceglia, La Giusta Statera de porporati. Sulla composizione e rappresentazione del Sacro
Collegio nella prima met del Seicento, RMC 4 (1996) 167212, 175176.

100-year-old noble families6 were heavily in debt and suffered its interest burdens.
(As an example, the debt of the Caetanis was 400 thousand scudi.) Neither could the
new papal families the Boncompagnis, Perettis, Aldobrandinis, Borgheses who accu-
mulated an enormous capital, withdraw themselves from indebtedness, which obviously
became severe after the death of the paterfamilias, the pope. However, it is not true
for the Barberinis who could gain and accumulate such an amount of money under
Urban VIII with which they could avoid this process.7
Only those who began a career in the Church could achieve substantial accumulation
as well as gain political and social influences from the old-new nobility and the devel-
oping municipal middle class. The maintenance of their vocations opportunities was
the essentials of life. This fact, in all segments, fundamentally determined the structure
and mechanism of the high society in the contemporary capital of the world, the Caput
mundi. It stands especially for the body, which created the main core of the elite and
included most of the opportunities, for the College of Cardinals.8
The Sacred College, the Papal Court and the Roman Society
By the beginning of the early modern period, the structure of the Sacred College had
already developed.9 The Senatus Divinus had its own revenues and apparatus for centuries.10
The head of the College, similarly to every curial college, was the dean; its adminis-
tration was controlled by the annually different cardinal chamberlain (the camerarius Sacri
Ibid.
6
On the economical conditions of the Italian aristocracy: Francesco Caracciolo, Il regno di Napoli nei
7
secoli XVI e XVII. I: Economia e societ (Universit degli Studi di Messina. Facolt di Magistero. Pubblicazi-
oni dellIstituto di Storia Vittorio De Caprariis 1), Roma 1966, especially 303317; Angelantonio Spagno-
letti, Stato, aristocrazie e ordine di Malta nellItalia moderna (Collection de lcole Franaise de Rome 111),
Roma 1988, 129 and 171200; Maria Antonietta Visceglia (a c. d.), Signori, Patrizi, Cavalieri in Italia
centro-meridionale nellEt moderna (Biblioteca di Cultura Moderna 1022), RomaBari 1992 (there are more
studies on the all-Italian relation); Maria Antonietta Visceglia, Identit sociali. La nobilt napoletana
nella prima et moderna (Studi di Storia Europea Protomoderna 9), Milano 1998, 158 and 5988. See the
other volumes of this series and the below quoted social-historical literature.
8
Cf. for example, CaravaleCaracciolo, Lo Stato Pontificio, 398405; and Visceglia, La Giusta Sta-
tera de porporati, 177.
9
On the College of Cardinals with a more comprehensive bibliography: Chirstoph Weber, Senatus Di-
vinus. Verborgene Strukturen im Kardinalskollegium der frhen Neuzeit 15001800 (Beitrge zur Kirchen- und
Kulturgeschichte 2), Frankfurt a. MainBerlin[usw.] 1996, 2735 and 539478; the latest outline in Hun-
garian: Erd, Egyhzjog, [Canon Law], 221224 (282287).
10
In more detail with international literature: Pter Tusor, A magyar koronabborosi s bboros protektori
intzmny kialakulsa s elhalsa a 1516. szzadban [The Establishment and Decline of the Institution of the
Crown-cardinal and Cardinal Protector in the Fifteenth-Sixteenth Centuries], Analecta Medievalia 2 (ed. by Tibor
Neumann), Piliscsaba 2004, 303322; [Idem], Purpura Pannonica. Az esztergomi bborosi szk kialakulsnak
elzmnyei a 17. szzadban [Purpura Pannonica. The Cardinalitial See of Strigonium and its Antecedents in the
17th Century] (Collectanea Vaticana Hungariae I/3), BudapestRma 2005, passim.

The Sacred College, the Papal Court and the Roman Society 95
Collegii, who should not be confused with the chamberlain of the Holy Roman Church,
the camerlengo). Its officials were from the clergy (clerici Sacri Collegii), and from the de-
positories (depositarii et computistae Sacri Collegii). The secretary of the College was always
Italian, however, among the clerics there was annually a clericus ultramontanus who was
in turn a German, a Spanish and a French. Besides them, there was the traditional and
prestigious body of the consistorial lawyers with its hundred members. At the beginning,
their duty was exclusively to prepare the formal-legal acts of the consistories, such as the
execution of the donation procedure of the badge of the metropolitans jurisdiction, the
pallium, and to issue the necessary requests. In the discussed period they had already
participated in the work of various curial offices (for instance the Sacred Congregation
of Rites) and took part in the operation of the Roman university.11
In the second half of the sixteenth century, the only substantial change was realized
by the increase and stabilization of the number of the corporations members and by the
establishment of the congregations of the Holy See. As we could already see, in 1586 Six-
tus V maximized the number, which became seventy (six cardinal bishops, fifty cardinal
priests and fourteen cardinal deacons). As a consequence the assembly of the cardinals
and certain cardinals lost their previous importance; however, the corporations own
estates and offices naturally remained.12
In the contemporary administrative system the development of the unique cardinal
committees, or rather the congregations, which were responsible for certain partial spheres
and regarded as the archetype of the later ministries, almost resulted in a modern sen-
ior role in the central Church administration and in the governing of the Papal State.13
Consequently, certain cardinals influence and ability to yield an income depended on:
of how many congregations they were a member and whether they had a leading po-
sition there, or whether they belonged to the party of the pope or to his opposition.
The prestige of the title of the cardinal, in spite of their inferior role by replacing
the renaissance cardinal-oligarchy as an official, was enhanced by the baroque period.
This is proved by the title of the eminentissimus, used from 1630, which not only put the
cardinals above the dukes but it drew an equals sign between the members of the college,
no matter their origin.14 Furthermore, this phenomenon the increase in prestige is es-
11
Ottavio Pio Conti, Elenco dei Defensores e degli Avvocati concistoriali dallanno 598 al 1905 con discorso
preliminare, Roma 1905, 135; Maria Rosa di Simone, La Sapienza Romana nel Settecento. Organizzazione
Universitaria e Insegnamento del Diritto (Studi e Fonti per la storia dellUniversit di Roma 1), Roma 1980, 3637.
12
HC IVV, 5861; the archontology of the officials of the College, the vice-chancellors, camerlengos and
chamberlain cardinals is at the same place; the deans: Christoph Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staats-
handbcher. Elenchus Congregationum, Tribunalium et Collegiorum Urbis (16291714) (RQ Supplementheft 45),
RomFreiburgWien 1991, 168169; see also the Appendix.
13
On the basis of the already quoted and later quoted literature.
14
The order was welcomed by the protest of the cardinals of ducal origin. The royal delegates also ob-
jected that they had to call also the last cardinal by this name. Visceglia, Il cerimoniale come linguaggio
politico, 145152. According to the resolution of Urban VIII on 10 June 1630, the three German electors and
the grand master of the Knights of Malta could also use the title of eminentissimus. Mario Bosi, Quando ai
Cardinali fu dato il titolo dei eminenza, Strenna dei Romanisti 41 (1980) 107114, 112.

tablished by the profusion of the contemporary works, dealing with the members, history,
rights and privileges of Sacred College.15 No wonder, since the influential cardinals house-
holds of fifty, hundred and sometimes hundred and fifty members with masters of
ceremonies, chaplains, chamberlains, with auditor (uditore), who headed a private office
to accomplish the official duties, with the secretaries, officials of economy, with pages
and servants were the centre of the baroque representation and patronage.16 They
usually left their palaces only in the company of their large retinue; their precedence of
protocol and their privileges were to be respected by everybody.17 In the presence of the
pope, they were the only ones who were allowed to sit with their hats on (apart from
them, the delegates of the great powers were the only ones who were not obliged to
keep standing), and on the papal audiences they were the only ones who did not have to
kneel down and, according to the tradition, kiss the feet of the pope.18
At the beginning of the seventeenth century, the income of the cardinals, in the case
of the relatives of the pope, may have reached 100150 thousand scudi from many sources
(benefices, pensions, official duties, the mutual revenues of the college, etc.); the lead-
ing officials earned 1015 thousand, an ordinary curial cardinal received only 58 thou-
sand scudi. Those cardinals, whose annual income did not reach 5,500 scudi (165 kg pure
silver), were regarded as poor and the deficiency was supplied by the papal treasury.
The incomes were spent on private expenditure, mainly in order to support their dis-
tinguished household. Under the pontificate of Urban VIII, there were 3,100 cardinal
15
Cf. Weber, Senatus Divinus, 2930 (their detailed bibliography in the notes 4348.); their still useful
synthesis: Lorenzo Cardella: Memorie storiche de Cardinali della santa Romana Chiesa IIX, Roma 17921797.
Giovanni Battista de Lucas works with documentary value, which are about the mechanism of entering the
College, about the tasks of the cardinal and about the function of many congregations: Il cardinale della S. R.
Chiesa pratico, Roma 1680; and Relatio Romanae Curiae Forensis, eiusque Tribunalium et Congregationum, Ro-
mae 1673; the recent analyses of the latter one: Giuseppe Ermini, Potest del papa nel600, secondo G.B. de
Luca, Nuova Rivista Storica 63 (1979) 434443; [Idem], La curia romana forense del secolo XVII nella relazi-
one di G.B. de Luca, ASI 138 (1980) 4157. Especially out of the volumes of the seventeenth century, the
works of De Luca are by far the best concerning the system of the Roman Curia; the practical aims of their
preparation will be detailed in relation with the reforms of Innocent XI.
16
Marcus Vlkel, Rmische Kardinalshaushalte des 17. Jahrhunderts. BorgheseBarberiniChigi (BDHIR
74), Tbingen 1993, 55 and 6264. While the printed and recently republished elenchi give information
about the officials of the curial offices (see the later often quoted work of Weber: Die ltesten ppstlichen
Staatshandbcher), the servants and workers of the papal and cardinal household are depicted in the manu-
scripts, the so-called Ruoli di famiglia. From the sixteenth century, there remained 432 pieces from them in
the library of the Vatican. (Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana: Ruoli 1432. Inventario a c. d. Giovanni Mo-
rello 1973 [Indice n. 448].) Some of them were partly or entirely published: Theodor Sickel, Ein Ruolo di
famiglia des Papstes Pius IV, MIG 14 (1893) 537588; Andreas Kraus, Zur Datierung des Ruolo di famiglia
Nr. 9 der Vatikanischen Bibliothek, RQ 51 (1956) 236237.
17
In more detail: Tusor, Purpura Pannonica, op. cit.; besides, H. C. Hynes, The Privileges of Cardinals
(Catholic University Studies in Canon Law 217), Washington 1945; S. Goyeneche, De iure praecedendi pa-
trum cardinalium proprio, Apollinaris 32 (1959) 129141.
18
Visceglia, Il cerimoniale come linguaggio politico, 137; on the unique tradition of the bacio del piede and
the debates around it: Marina Caffiero, La maest del papa. Trasformazioni dei rituali del potere a Roma
tra XVIII e XIX secolo, Crmonial et rituel Rome, 282316, 296298.

clients (servants, secretaries) in Rome who represented the 3% of the total population.
The growth of the college, compared to the renaissance, caused a severe differentiation
among the members. From the seventeenth century despite the increasing prestige there
were only a few who had expansive representation by means of the reform measures
to retrench the incomes, the inflation and the strengthening papal power within the
Papal State.19
In the control of the division of nationalities in the College, neither did the Catholic
renewal entail substantial change compared to the Italianization, starting in the fifteenth
century. The regulations of the Council of Trent and Sixtus V emphasized that the
members of the body should come from all Catholic nations (sess. XXIV, decr.de re-
form., c. I).20 In reality it meant that four-fifths of the cardinals were Italian in the early
modern period, and the rest were from other nations. According to the figures, out of
the 544 cardinals created between 1550 and 1690, there were only 101 who were not Ital-
ian.21 The reasons are remarkably complex.
The most important, no matter how strange it might be, was the dynastic policy.
The administration of the new pope was to be strengthened, his family had to be raised
which was only possible by satisfying the old elite of the Papal State. There were 793
out of the 1154 cardinals, appointed between 1500 and 1800, who were related to the
family of a pope be it a dead or a live or of a cardinal (eighty-nine of them were
directly descendant of one of the medieval or renaissance popes and ninety were of
collateral descent).22 In the course of the discussed period, there were thirteen cardinal
appointments which can be specifically regarded as a wedding present, consequently the
new pope acknowledged the reception of one of his family members in an older family.
The collateral descents of the direct predecessors entered the College on twenty-two
occasions and the family members of the previous pope, who made the new pope the
member of the College of Cardinals or supported his family, could expect special advan-
tages.23 The family relations also determined the role in the congregations. Among the
members of the Roman Inquisition during 16291714, the proportion of such cardinals
was always above 50% and sometimes exceeded 80%.24
19
Reinhard, Kardinalseinknfte und Kirchenreform, 157194.
20
Conciliorum Oecumenicorum Decreta, 760761.
21
Weber, Senatus Divinus, 236.
22
Weber, Senatus Divinus, 12. 367528. 363366. 248250. 118121.
23
Weber, Senatus Divinus, 9399 and 109121. A descriptive contribution: Benedict XV (19141922) was
the 18. generations nephew of Innocent IV (12431254), which shows the incredible stability of the Italian,
papal elite from the Middle Ages till the twentieth century and represents the fundamental reason for the
maintenance of a such stable system in the world history. Wolfgang Reinhard, Le carriere papali e cardi-
nalizie. Contributo alla storia sociale del papato, Roma, la citt del papa, 263290, 263.
24
Weber, Senatus Divinus, 140141. This unique client system was manifested also in the heraldry.
Wolfgang Reinhard, Sozialgeschichte der Kurie in Wappenbrauch und Siegelbild. Ein Versuch ber Devotion-
swappen frhneuzeitlicher Kardinle, Rmische Kurie Kirchliche Finanzen. Vatikanisches Archiv II, 741772.
Apart from the political divisions of the factions within the Sacred College mainly according to French
and Habsburg orientation the importance of the family patron-client system is put in the focus by Maria

The other way to enter the Sacred College was the curial career. Certain po-
sitions such as the nuncios or the judges of the Sacred Roman Rota, who were called
the auditors were clearly regarded to be a stage towards the title of a cardinal. Out of
them there were five in the fifteenth century (25% of the whole creation), twenty-three
in the sixteenth century (24%), twenty-seven in the seventeenth century (33%), thirty-six
in the eighteenth century (40%), and twenty-seven in the nineteenth century (44%)
who gained access to the College of Cardinals. Furthermore, there were six of them who
became pope: Clement VIII, Gregory XV, Innocent X, Alexander VIII and Clement
XIII. The loyal service to the popes had to be undoubtedly recompensed. This was de-
manded not only by the interests of the Papal State and the Roman court but by the
central Church administration, as well.25
The appointment of those curial officials (mainly the positions of the Apostolic
Camera) was reasonable for the sake of tangible benefits, which could be bought for
money. Between 1550 and 1690 every fourth cardinal obtained his title this way, out of
which there were seven who acceded to the throne of Saint Peter.26 It should be noted
that in the course of the process, which was the custom until the seventeenth century,
the red hat could never be bought. The income was from the action that the newly
appointed cardinal resigned from his former positions without compensation, which
enabled these positions to be sold again. The case of Benedetto Odescalchi is suggestive
and simultaneously the most famous: at his appointment in 1645, there was a position
of the Cameras chairman which was worth 42 thousand golden scudi, two secretarial
positions of 18 thousand scudi and a position of a protonotary apostolic of 7 thousand,
which became free. The choice of Innocent X is undeniable since thirty-two years later
in the person of Odescalchi one of the most prominent and outstanding popes in history
succeeded to the throne of Prince of the Apostles.27 Apart from these, the influence of
certain religious orders (mainly the Dominicans) and the theological or reformer renown
cannot be neglected. In the course of the Catholic renewal the appointment of Morone
and Bellarmino can be reckoned here.28
The peculiar tendencies left plenty of opportunities for adverse selection and several
oddities. As a matter of fact, from 1500 up to 1763, there were forty-five cardinals of
Antonietta Visceglia, Fazioni e lotta politica nel Sacro Collegio nella prima met del Seicento, La corte di
Roma tra Cinque e Seicento, 3791.
25
Weber, Senatus Divinus, 102108; Alessandro Gnavi, Carriere e Curia Romana: Luditorato di Rota (14721870),
Mlanges de lcole Francaise de Rome. Italie et Mditerrane 106 (1994) 161202, 179180. While
during 14171527 the 39% of the cardinals had already filled a certain office, this rate rose to 59% during
15931667 (under Urban VIII it was 70%) and even in the nineteenth century it was 66%. The some 34,00 car-
dinals various statistics: Wolfgang Reinhard, Le carriere papali e cardinalizie, mainly 264271 and 271288.
26
In the indicated period, there were all in all 112, for example Paul V and Urban VIII. Weber, Senatus
Divinus, 326327 and 210211.
27
Weber, Senatus Divinus, 199. According to an account from 1659, the position of the cameralistic treas-
urer was worth 56 thousand, the cameralistic auditors the same and the clerics 42 thousand. The prices rose
in the second half of the century (on all, in detail, idem., 182202).
28
Weber, Senatus Divinus, 123124 and 134.

different nationalities who had illegitimate child(ren), though in decreasing number.

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there were only eight such cases. During the
discussed period there were twelve cardinals who resigned and got married. Concerning
canon law, this was made possible by the fact that the dignity of a cardinal deacon could
be obtained through tonsure, where celibacy was not an obligation, or at smaller orders
possession; besides, it could be preserved by certain exemptions.29
The system, in spite of resulting in a gerontocratic method, was functioning. Cer-
tain cardinals, who were related to the pope, participated in Church administration for
more than fifty years, through which they gained valuable and considerable experience.
Among them we can find such outstanding characters, like Federico Borromeo or In-
nocent XIs secretary of State, Alderano Cybo. Besides traditions, the College of Cardi-
nals became the prototype for the Western European leading corporations (municipal
senates, royal cabinet-councils) due to its credible operation.30
The abundance of the above mentioned data definitely attests that, despite the series
of curial reforms of the sixteenth century, the local and Italian respects even if some-
times to a variable extent were in an advantageous situation in framing the College
of Cardinals membership. The claims and demands of the aristocracy, which had more
restricted opportunities than those living in a secular State, had to be satisfied: they could
only make a substantial fortune if there was a cardinal in their family. According to the
inner logic of the patron-client system the mobility of the official hierarchy within the
wider curial elite of the Church was to be provided, not to mention the financial respects
and the interests of the newer and newer papal families, and those layers who came
from the civil society and streamed into the nobility however, the former withdrew
weakened in the second half of the seventeenth century by the slow end of the mobility.
At the cardinal appointments, one had to meet the inner requirements then the ex-
ternal factors could play a part. The remaining places could be filled by cardinals who
were created by certain States nominations, requests or by reason of foreign policy.31
The unique inner mechanisms modelled on the Sacred College of Rome, or using
the contemporary terminology, Gran Teatro del Mondo, the great theatre of the world,
also operated on lower levels of the Roman court and society. These levels were limited
either to a couple of people, who were naturally the representatives of the important
offices, families or countries, or to the members of a less dignified curial college than the
primary body of the cardinals. The units of the court structure followed each other in
a strict and unchanging order in the seventeenth century. Namely, after the cardinals,
29
Weber, Senatus Divinus, 3643. 7475. 8082. There were thirty who won the cardinalship as widows.
Ibid., 8286.
30
Weber, Senatus Divinus, 116126 and 280302.
31
Later, in chapter VI, there will be more details on the complex problems of the non Italians entry to
the College of Cardinals.

the governor of Rome32 came (theoretically he was preceded by the prefect of Rome),
then in the third place was the imperial delegate, then the senator of Rome, the leader
of the magistracy (4), the delegates of the monarchs (5), the auditor of the Apostolic
Camera (6), the treasurer (7), Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalems titular,
and Venices regular patriarch (8). The ninth level was taken by the archbishops and bish-
ops, living in or casually visiting the Curia, among whom the secretaries endowed
with the above mentioned titles of the congregations could be found.
If we disregard the delegates of the foreign monarchies and the senator and prefect
of Rome, the laity appeared on the 10th place, namely the heads of the two most mel-
lowed families, the dukes of the throne, the Colonnas and Orsinis (the principe di Pa-
liano and the duca di Bracciano).33 Below them were the real apostolic protonotaries (11),
the members of Romes first four noble families (apart from them were the Savellis and
Contis), moreover the descendants of the families who had a papal ancestor and the
closer secular relatives of the ruling pope who were the owners of the most important
military positions (12); the judges of the Rota, the clerics of the Camera (13), then the
dukes, counts, barons, the conservatores of Rome, namely the members of the magistracy
(14). The 15th place is again the foreigners, the residents and the charg daffaires of
the ruling dukes, and furthermore Malta, Bologna and Ferraras representatives at the
Holy See. The 16th was taken by the generals of the religious orders, the 17th by the
referendaries of the Apostolic Signature and by the titular protonotaries. The long list
was closed by the papal major-domo (18).34
He was always from the confidants of the papal family and usually finished his
career as a cardinal. No matter where he stood in the hierarchy, his position could not
be evaded in the organization of the court life. With the help of the four masters of
ceremony he controlled the order of the popes burial and election, the consecration
of the bishops, churches and altars, the ceremony of the cardinals, the Holy Sees gen-
eral, the prefect of Romes, taking of the oath; furthermore, he supervised the seating
of the princes, delegates and prelates in the Sistine Chapel during every ceremony. On
the other hand, he was the one who organized the series of such spectacles which cov-
ered the whole city and represented power and legitimacy: like the coronation of the
popes, the entry of the Lateran in a ceremonial march (cavalcata per la prese di possesso
32
I did not find data where the datarius who, on behalf of the Pope, mainly had beneficiary, sacramen-
tal and disciplinary (beneficiaria, sacramentaria, disciplinarian) authority, stood in the curial hierarchy if he,
exceptionally, was not a cardinal. Cf. Stortis below quoted work, 138174 (La preminenza del Datario nella
Curia Romana).
33
The precedence among them was determined by the papal regulation according to the age of the persons.
34
Magister Domus Sanctissimi, and Praefectus Domus et Palatii Sanctissimi. Visceglia, Il cerimoniale come
linguaggio politico, 138139; Renata Ago, Hegemony over the Social Scene and Zealous Popes (16761700), Court
and Politics in Papal Rome, 229246, 236; archontology: Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 171.

papale), the entrance of the foreign monarchs and their delegates, the visitation of the
seven basilicas and the various processions.35
The greatest spectacle was the possesso, the popes mythical marriage with his episco-
pal cathedral. In practice, under Julius II this had already separated from the coronation,
but it became official under Gregory XIV.36 Its route was the so called via papale, which
started at the Vatican, by passing the Castel Sant Angelo, the Piazza Navona and the San
Marco until it reached the Forum, then led through the Arch of Constantine, turned
at the Coelius and by passing the Basilica of Saint Clement marched along the Lateran.
It was last organized at the beginning of Pius VIs (17751799) pontificate. The constraint
of the unique ceremonys observance is demonstrated by the death of Leo XI who
caught cold during the possesso in the windy April of 1605 and died within ten days.37
The major-domo alone directed and represented the papal household (Famiglia Pontifi-
cia) and the papal Chapels (Capella Pontificia) members of special influence; namely those
clerics and laymen, who had a determined function in the papal residency. The mem-
bers, prelates of the Apostolic Palace (Palazzo Apostolico) entered the popes service day
by day. The magister of the papal palace (magister Sacri Palatii)38 who was tradition-
ally a Dominican , the Capuchin or Jesuit court preacher,39 the personal theologian
and confessor of the pope,40 his auditor, sacristan41 and the real secret chamberlains,
with the leadership of the chief chamberlain (maestro di Camera), lived in the Vatican
and the Quirinal Palace.
Not only did they deal with protocol, but they also had an actual governmental
role. They participated in the work of diverse congregations, especially of the Inquisi-
35
Martine Boiteux, Parcours rituels Romains lpoque moderne, Crmonial et rituel Rome, 2787,
3136. 4550. 5052. 5265. 6986; Visceglia, Il cerimoniale come linguaggio politico, 127138; the descrip-
tion of the services in the life of the Curia ibid., 162168 and 170174; furthermore Renata Ago, Sovrano
pontefice e societ di corte. Competizioni cerimoniali e politica nella seconda met del XVII secolo, Crmonial et
rituel Rome, 222238.
36
The glowing spectacle of the old Rome was obliterated by his successor, Pius VII (18001823). Irene
Fosi, Court and City in the Ceremony of the Possesso in the Sixteenth Century, Court and Politics in Papal Rome,
3152; Visceglia, Il cerimoniale come linguaggio politico, 175176; Boiteux, Parcours rituels Romains, 3645;
Caffiero, La maest del papa, 302316; and again Maria Antonietta Visceglia, Cerimoniali romani: il
ritorno e la trasfigurazione dei trionfi antichi, Roma, la citt del papa, 113170, 114154 (= Visceglia, La citt
rituale, 53118: Il ritorno e la trasfigurazione dei trionfi antichi) (on the also spectacular papal funerals); moreo-
ver, on the other smaller festivals, ceremonies: Silvia Carandini, Leffimero spirituale. Feste e manifestazione
religiose nella Roma dei papi in et moderna, Roma, la citt del papa, 521554.
37
Sanfilippo, Leone XI, 276.
38
Their archontology: Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 170171.
39
Mauro da Leonessa, Il Predicatore Apostolico. Note storiche, Isola del Liri 1929, 4445 and with proso-
pography 61121.
40
Cf. more F. Antonio M. Vicentini, Il confessore del S. Palazzo Apostolico e lordine dei servi di Maria.
Memorie storiche pubblicate nellanno giubilare 1925, Vicenza 1925, 34. (From the beginning of the seven-
teenth century, the spiritual life of the members of the papal household was always led by a Servite monk,
their biographies: 2034.)
41
Their Latin equivalents: theologus, auditor, sacrista Sanctissimi Domini Nostri.

tion, in the organization of the consistories, or they functioned as various papal secre-
taries. Their clout was excellent since they met the pope daily, or they could engage in
longer conversations with those who were waiting for an audience in the often quoted
antechamber (anticamera). On the other hand, the papal chief almoner, the cup-bearer,
the guard of the papal cloakroom, the director of the papal pilgrim house (only this
latter could be a layman in the seventeenth century),42 etc.43 played an important role in
the everyday life of the court. From among the lower orders, the old Roman families
(by wearing a coat and a sword) were represented by the chief quartermaster of the Apos-
tolic Palaces, the Master of the Horse, the chief postmaster, the carrier of the Golden
Roses, the commander of the Swiss Guard and the officers of the papal Noble Guard,
out of whom there were many related to the pope.44
The highest level of the court elite and the papal household were co-opted by the rest
of the curial offices some fifty prominent officials without any order of rank , by the
provincial governors, vice-legates and major beneficiaries.45 They were followed by a long-
long row of the smaller officials who often formed a separate body: secretaries, abbreviators,
glossators, correctors, computists, bullators, etc. Their function was mostly titular, mainly
the clerics held the positions of real activity.46 The effectual Curia was enclosed by the
members of the cardinals and aristocrats households, the permanent or temporary repre-
sentatives of the Papal State and Italys towns, and of the foreign prelates and noblemen.47
42
See more on him: N. [!], Del Maestro del S. Ospizio Apostolico, Vignanello 1923, 810. His rights as a
chamberlain were confirmed by Alexander VII.
43
The group of the papal secret chamberlains was way more populous than the officials who accomplished
effectual tasks (camerieri segreti partecipanti). Filippo Frezza, Dei Camerari segreti e dOnore del Summo
Pontefice memorie storiche, Roma 1884 (on their other tasks and their unique dress: 2325).
44
Judith A. Hook, Urban VIII. Die Paradoxie der geistlichen Monarchie, Europas Frstenhfe 14001800
(hrsg. v. A.G. Dickens), GrazWienKln 1978, 213231, 213214; a recent outline: Henry Dietrich Fernn-
dez, The Patrimony of St Peter. The Papal Court at Rome, c. 14501700, The Princely Courts of Europe. Ritual,
Politics and Culture under the Ancien Rgime 15001750 (ed. by John Adamson), London 1999, 141163 and
326328; on the life, every days of the papal court and their sources, for instance: Giancinto Gigli: Diario Ro-
mano, op. cit.; Alessandro Bastiaanse, Le Memorie dellAmeyden sui Papi e cardinali del Seicento basate sulle
sue esperienze personali, AHP 4 (1966) 155195; and a thorough analysis from 16211623: Jaitner, Die Haupt-
instruktionen Gregors XV., 335497. However, the direct surroundings of the Popes, which did not do official
work, did not become the subject of newer analyses. Their numerous data, based on contemporary and mainly
eighteenth century descriptions, can be found: Gaetano Moroni, Dizionario di erudizione storico-eccle-
siastica. Da S. Pietro sino ai nostri giorni ICIII, Venezia 18401861, passim [Indici IVI, Venezia 18781879].
45
It must be noted that the critique of the Famiglia Pontificia is rather survey-like. An accurate account on
Gregory XVs family: Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Gregors XV., 463480. The primary scene of the
papal household, the actual papal palaces main building, won its present shape under Sixtus V. The public
and secret consistories rooms, the Sala del Concistoro Pubblico (Aula Tertia) and the Sala del Concistoro Segreto
(dello Spogliatoio) are here, moreover, the mainly representative Sala Regia and the Scala Regia, which leads to it,
furthermore, the Sala Clementina established by Clement VIII. Deoclecio R. de Campos, I Palazzi Vaticani
(Roma Cristiana 17), Roma 1967, 184193 and ad indicem. On the smaller alterations by certain Popes: 195228.
46
See the literature quoted in the previous notes.
47
On the delegates of the towns and then only on their agents: Stader, Herrschaft durch Verflechtung, 6281.

In spite of its close order, the whole system was characterized by occasional jockeying
for position and some flexibility, which was due to the reorganization and establishment
of the offices.48 In order to maintain the systems receptivity and social acceptance, the es-
tablishment of newer bodies and the extension of the older offices were still frequent in
the seventeenth century. However, this was accompanied by dysfunctional proliferation,
which threatened efficiency. The closing from below, the restriction then cessation of
reception caused the impossibility of the lower orders rise and also the reduction then
blocking of their social mobility. The functional capacity could have been supported only
in this way, since by the end of the century there was no financial basis for the Curia,
namely the Church and State administrations earlier extensive measures.49
Apart from having been regulated, the system was blended with various personal
overlaps and was operated and kept together by complicated concerns. The clients of
the cardinals could often obtain favourable curial positions. The papal officials could
distinguish themselves by possession of the title of referendary or chamberlain. The
office of the referendary in the Signature was often held by with the exception of the
cardinals and diocesan bishops the congregational secretaries and other curial offi-
cials who had important assignments from the governors of provincial towns and by the
members of the nunciatures. The proportion of the referendaries, coming from Rome,
or rather from the Papal State was 3050%, they were followed by Tuscan, Genoese,
Milanese, Venetian and Paduan officials. In their constitution concerning birth place, the
College of Cardinals factions and the popes place of origin was determining. In 1665,
there were not any Venetians, however, from 1693 their number rose considerably due,
not to the short pontificate of Alexander VIII, but to the vice-chancellorship of his
nephew, Pietro Ottoboni. Similarly, the ratio of the Neapolitans considerably grew at
the same time. (Before his election, Innocent XII of South Italian origin was the arch-
bishop of Naples.50)
Apart from prestige, the obtainment of many titles, offices, and benefices also im-
proved ones financial circumstances. The maintenance of the representation, which was
appropriate to the rank, was not cheap. The required level: the model of the careers,
which meant financial accumulation and growth in influence via obtaining titles, posi-
tions and benefices in spite of the complexity of the system , was graphically easy in
48
Visceglia, Il cerimoniale come linguaggio politico, 139143.
49
Comprehensively: Renata Ago, Carriere e clientele nella Roma barocca, RomaBari 1990, 1319; and the
related works of Reinhard, which were quoted in the Introduction.
50
Ago, Carriere e clientele, 1618 and 2325 (the data in chart format are from 16651733s). The function of
the patron-client system is summarised by: Marco Pellegrini, Corte di Roma e aristocrazie italiane in et
moderna. Per una lettura storico-sociale della Curia Romana, Rivista di Storia e Letteratura Religiosa 30 (1994)
543602; the most important works are introduced in review-form and collated by: Maria Antonietta
Visceglia, Burocrazia, mobilit sociale e patronage alla Corte di Roma tra Cinque e Seicento. Alcuni aspetti del
recente dibattito storiografico e prospettive di ricerca, RMC 3 (1995) 1155; mainly with the analysis of the exam-
ple of the Ottobonis: Menniti Ippolito, Politica e carriere ecclesiastiche, sporadically.

its main types.51 For success, an investment of capital was needed in order to buy certain
offices or a prestigious, related patron even on lower levels.
A successful advancement not only depended on ones family relations and financial
elements. The inner motivation, the criteria of the offices selection and their involved
risks, the small details of the careers advancement: its sophisticated culture, more-
over, the cross-dependence, proved to be determining. The long-awaited moment that
the prelate could do something to his family did not immediately arrive. A foreign mis-
sion proved to be a unique opportunity to internationalize ones relations; furthermore,
acquiring references from monarchs usually meant the obtainment of higher positions
for those who returned to Rome.52
Apart from numerous nunciatures, the commission usually for three years of the
Apostolic Camera; the two congregations which played an important role in Church
administration: the Consulta and the Buon Governo; the two courts: the Rota and the
Signature; the approximately fifty provincial governorships and legations, and respec-
tively the prelate and secretary positions of the other congregations were in question of
a real career.53 In the system, it should be emphasised that the all-Italian character oc-
curred on every level. Between 1665 and 1733 the proportion of the Romans in the Buon
Governo was 42%, in the Signature 39%, in the Camera 30%, while in the Consulta it
was only 15%. The remaining places were filled only by Italians though there was no
regulation for this , the Consulta was unanimously ruled by Tuscans.54 In this period,
only in the Rota did the cosmopolitan character dominate.55
Out of the known56 or unknown cases of the personal career types where sig-
nificant growth occurred by maintaining the gained positions through generations, one
should be examined, which has already been discussed, concerning the peace negotiations
in Westphalia: Fabio Chigis.
The future pope, the descendant of an ordinary Sienese family, after having grad-
uated from the university, arrived in the capital of the Papal State in December 1626.
51
Reinhard, Freunde und Kreaturen, 2231 and 71.
52
Certain phases micro-historical analysis, through the cases of Fabrizio Spada and Camillo Cybo: Ago,
Carriere e clientele, 3242. 4243. 4451. 5160. 73113. 115137. 139161 and 163180.
53
Ago, Carriere e clientele, 1921.
54
Statistics with detailed charts: Ago, Carriere e clientele, 2631.
55
Richard Blaas, Das kaiserliche Auditoriat bei der Sacra Rota Romana, MStA 11 (1958) 37152, 4857;
Ago, Carriere e clientele, 22. The above mentioned institutions are going to be presented in more detail later.
56
Apart from the next quoted and Reinhards works (Papal Power and Family Strategy, 329356; Freunde
und Kreaturen, 6367: Domenico Cecchini; 6769: Francesco Albizzi; 6971: Mazarin; mterlaufbahn und
Familienstatus, 328427.) the career studied in detail and in monographic form of the Barberinis devot-
ed supporter, who loyally served three Popes, Giulio Sacchetti, the candidate for the papal throne of 1644,
should be mentioned: Irene Fosi, Allombra dei Barberini. Fedelt e servizio nella Roma barocca (Biblioteca
del Cinquecento 73), Roma 1997; a more roughly outlined career picture of the French and Flemish nuncio,
Guido Bentivoglio: Raffaele Belvedere, La vita della Curia Romana ai primi del 600, SR 6 (1958) 534546;
on the typical relations of a slightly distant pope-relative cardinal: Renato Lefevre, Un cardinale del 600:
G.B. Deti, ASRSP 94 (3.s. 25) (1971) 183208.

In the first two years of his stay, he established and stabilized his circle of acquaintances
and patrons plainly, his connections , which preconditioned him for integration into
the Curia. In the company of his beloved brother, Agostino, he often visited the various
offices, he became acquainted with their operations and he extended his knowledge in
law. His primary patron was Clemente Merlini, one of the prestigious judges of the Rota.
Within two years, he was indebted to him for applying for the title of the referendary of
the Apostolic Signature from Urban VIII, which almost immediately involved positions
of effective duties. He received his nomination in January 1629, and in the same year he
moved to Ferrara where he functioned as vice-legate until 1634. He was ordered back to
Rome to be sent to Malta as a general inquisitor and Apostolic delegate. In the next year
he obtained the bishoprics of Nard, located by Lecce. Despite the fact that his vice-
legation was accompanied by diverse incomes, until this moment his expenses which
were doubled with his position of referendary were covered by his family in Siena,
namely by his uncle, Agostino Chigis annual allowance of thousand scudi.
What proved to be a matter of the utmost importance in his rising career was that
after his service in Malta, in 1639 he did not receive the leadership of a dignified Italian
diocese but he was entrusted with the nunciature of Cologne. Hereupon, he became the
primary expert of the German affairs, and later the extraordinary nuncio of the peace
congress of Mnster in December 1643. After twenty-two years of absence by fits and
starts, he returned to the Eternal City in 1651, where he was not obliged to wait for the
substantial turn of his career. Innocent X entrusted the administration of the Secretar-
iat of State to him, as to the key figure of the papal diplomacy, then in the following
year he was made a cardinal.
His career and the initial support of his family has been a peculiar example of the
strategy of an aristocratic family which aimed for the growth of fortune and influence.
The investment risked by his relatives would have been abundantly recovered, if Fa-
bio had become the archbishop of Siena after his service in Malta or his nunciatures.
His appointment as a cardinal guaranteed his younger relatives curial advance by being
far beyond their local opportunities. The papal throne, won in 1656, meant a dazzling
career for all of them.57
The ecclesiastical order and the nobility, with rather limited openings, in the social
and not necessarily financial rank of orders were followed by the civil middle and upper
class: wholesalers, bankers, notaries, lawyers, doctors, chemists, etc. The greatest class of
Roman society was naturally formed by the craftsmen, retailers and workers. In the 1620s
there were 5,6155,635 enterprises with 6,609 owners and 17,584 employees.58 The whole
curial system, as long as it promised a possibility to rise and to make ends meet, seemed
57
Marco Teodori, I parenti del papa. Nepotismo pontificio e formazione del patrimonio Chigi nella Roma
barocca, Padova 2001, 4655; Krautheimer, The Rome of Alexander VII, 814.
58
Renata Ago, Economia barocca. Mercato e istituzioni nella Roma del Seicento (Saggi Donzelli, Storia e
scienze sociali), Roma 1998, 3060, 6.

more than acceptable, it was almost ideal. The universal papal monarchy, which main-
ly rested on spiritual basis, was a wider opening field for them, comparing to other
European countries. Although in the seventeenth century they could not succeed to
the papal throne, yet there were many of these classes, who could enter the Sacred Col-
lege, not to mention social mobility from the lower ecclesiastical court and official levels.
The proportion of the clerics along with the nuns, in Rome, almost exceeded the 5%.
At the end of the sixteenth century, according to reliable sources, there were 68 bish-
ops, 1,221 priests, 1,489 monks and 1,641 nuns living in the Eternal City. After a cen-
tury presumably in close relation to the repeated regulation of the obligation of res-
idence there were, however only 40 bishops, but already 2,309 priests, 3,559 monks
and 1,814 nuns.59 This was a tremendously high proportion and number concerning the
overall-European average especially with the amplification of the prelate and cardinal
clients if the affiliation to the social elite is taken into consideration. Anticlericalism
was not a matter of question in the Papal State until the beginning and middle of the
eighteenth century. The phenomenon, occurring as a result of the end of the social
mobilization, would have been a rather decent self-contradiction. This statement con-
cerning the deep and traditional piety of the rural population is adequate even if we
are aware of the fact that the chance of rise in farmers and winegrowers, comparing to
the townspeople, was far more moderate and unrealizable by evading the way for the
achievement of middle-class status.60
Due to the centralized, rather clerical system the local governments in other towns,
as well as in Rome, had limited authority and autonomy.61 Apart from the curial power
centres, the magistracy of the capital comparing to its earlier influence was charac-
terized by a continuous and unstoppable weakening from the beginning of the sixteenth
century. It could be regarded metaphoric that around the end of the sixteenth century,
the position of Romes conservatori near the throne in the Sistine Chapel was taken up
by the representatives of the princes, headed by the imperial delegate. The magistracy
of the Eternal City cannot be completely disregarded.62 The town hall(s), the Palazzo del
Senatore and the Palazzo dei Conservatori had a central role in the ritual of the Roman
public life, mainly in the course of sede vacante. None of the papal dynasties neglected
59
The data are from 1592 and 1702. Pietro Stella, Strategie familiari e celibato sacro in Italia fra 600 e 700,
Salesianum 41 (1979) 73109, notes 26 and 79. The proportion of the clergy, concerning the total population,
rose from 1.2% to 1.6%, while the monks from 1.5% to 2.5%. There are data about the nuns from 1640 and
1650, according to which the result of their growth within one decade was from 1.6% to 2.21%, which meant
that there were 2796 (!) nuns to 126,192 inhabitants. (Ibid.)
60
Above all the quoted literature: Lutz, Rom und Europa, 106111.
61
At the bottom of the Roman society, there were the Jews and the prostitutes, the number of the latter,
despite the strict regulations of Clement VIII, was still around 1150. However, after having ousted them
around 1660, their number was around a hundred by 1740. Ibid. and Roberto Zapperi, Der Neid und die
Macht. Die Farnese und Aldobrandini im barocken Rom, Mnchen 1994, 5259; Anna FoaKenneth Stow,
Gli ebrei di Roma. Potere, rituale e societ in et moderna, Roma, la citt del papa, 557582.
62
It is symbolic that in parallel to the decline of the international role Innocent X gave back the position
of the representative of the conservatores in 1647. Visceglia, Il cerimoniale come linguaggio politico, 130133.

to insert their names and badges into the symbols of the Senatus Populusque Romanus.
Besides, the scenes of court life did not separate from but intertwined with the various
parts of the city. Not only should the Vatican-Quirinal-Lateran triangle be taken into
consideration, but for instance the Piazza Navona, which became a sort of private ter-
ritory of Innocent Xs family in the middle of the century.63
In figures, the typical characters of the patron-client system though, they served
as a field of success throughout Italy formed the life of the population of 1.61.8 mil-
lion people of 41,823 kilometres within the Papal State. The two margin numbers show
a slight increase in the seventeenth century, as opposed to Spain, where there is a de-
crease from 7.5 to 5.7 million.
The change and the number of inhabitants of certain provinces are shown in the
following chart:64
Provinces Population
1656 1701
Campagna Marittima, Sabina 170,762 241,115
Patrimonio and the Duchy of Castro 114,045 136,726
Umbria and Camerino 343,239 360,493
Marca 282,260 333,362
Duchy of Urbino 113,201 120,172
Romagna 252,027 295,612
Duchy of Ferrara 86,342 117,076
Bologna 203,462 237,381
Total: 1,565,338 1,841,937
The number of the inhabitants of 120 thousand people of the most affected Eter-
nal City (2428 thousand households) is only steady until the 1650s.65 This number was
63
Ago, Hegemony over the Social Scene, 230234 and 234238; Visceglia, Cerimoniali romani, 154170;
Partner, Il mondo della curia, 224229; Ago, Sovrano pontefice e societ di corte, 222238; in more detail:
Nussdorfer, Civic Politic in the Rome, 2158; [Idem], Il popolo romano e i papi: la vita politica della capitale
religiosa, Roma, la citt del papa, 241262; The criteria of becoming a citizen and his rank is analysed by:
Elisabetta Mori, Tot reges in Urbe Roma quot cives. Cittadinanza e nobilt a Roma tra Cinque e Seicento,
RMC 4 (1996) 379401.
64
G. Beloch, La popolazione dItalia nei secoli sedicesimo, diciasettesimo e diciottesimo, Storia delleconomia
italiana, 449500, 468 and 470. A general decline is noticeable only after this, the result of the register of
1736 showed 1,656,585 inhabitants.
65
Only as a subject for comparison, the population of other Italian towns around the 1630s: Naples 300,000;
Messina and Venice 120,000; Palermo 100,000. The data are on the basis of Raum und Bevlkerung in der
Weltgeschichte. III: Vom Mittelalter zur Neuzeit, hrsg. v. Ernst Wolfgang Buchholz, Wrzburg 1966
from Lutz: Rom und Europa, 109112.

already reached by the city under Paul V in the proliferation at the beginning of the
century. As a consequence of the re-feudalization at the turn of the century, from the
latifundiums, a powerful immigration started, however, into perishable rather than de-
veloping conditions. Between 1655 and 1657, the number of inhabitants reduced from
123126 thousand to 100 thousand people due to the plague; then, in the following dec-
ade it grew to 110 thousand. In 1680 the Roman population contained the same amount
of people and households as fifty years earlier.66 Thus, there was not a bigger increase
in the second half of the century, except the last decade, when the number of the total
population approximated 140 thousand persons.67
Apart from Rome, the number of the provincial capitals and bigger towns in the
Papal State were the following:68
Population
Towns
1656 1701
Bologna 53,494 63,346
Ferrara 23,368 29,129
Perugia 17,385 16,045
Ravenna 12,969 14,361
Viterbo 11,124 11,500
Faenza 10,445 11,380
Forl 10,276 11,985
Cesena 10,094 10,124
Ancona 9,556 8,644
Iesi 8,305 5,062
Velletri 5,266 10,120
The long and reliable row of figures can mainly be referred to the pure-blooded pop-
ulation. However, the audience of the Gran Teatro del Mondo cannot be forgotten.
The proportion of foreign people, staying on and off mostly Spanish69 in the city
was always considerable. Annually, it was 30 thousand people: merchants, diplomats,
artists and peregrinating young noblemen. Above all, there were the pilgrims, espe-
66
Monaco, Le finanze pontificie al tempo di Paolo V, 89; Krautheimer, The Rome of Alexander VII, 13.
67
There were exactly 138568 inhabitants in 1702. Stella, Strategie familiari e celibato sacro, 79. Belochs
data (La popolazione dItalia, 469) differ from the above, his data are: 1600: 109,729, 1650: 126,192, 1656: 120,596,
1701: 141,784.
68
Beloch, La popolazione dItalia, 470.
69
Cf. Thomas Dandelet, Spanish Conquest and Colonization at the Center of the Old World: The Spanish
Nation in Rome 15551625, The Journal of Modern History 69 (1997) 479511.

cially around Easter and in the Jubilees, which were organized every twenty-five years.70
During the ceremony of Jubilee of 1650, an enormous mass of 700 thousand believers
visited the Eternal City.71 In the course of the more and more popular European round
trips, from the middle of the century in Rome, there were more and more foreigners,
so called tourists, of mainly Protestant origin. These noblemen meant a considerable
risk by arousing the Inquisitions interest.72
Similarly to the proportion of the foreign population, the distribution of genders also
differed from the early modern European average, which was characterized by female dom-
inance. In Rome like in some harbours and university towns there were a hundred
women for one hundred-fifty men. This fact, like the continuously increasing number of
the clerics, is barely explained by the existence of the Curia. In the papal court itself ex-
cept certain extreme manifestations of nepotism women played no role at all.73
The picture of Roman society cannot be holistic without dealing with the in-
comes of the wider strata, compared to the ecclesiastical elite and secular elites, mainly
the cardinals incomes or later with the revenues in the papal budget , or along with
their expenses, to the price conditions which determined the general standard of living.
The sundry data shows societys division concerning the quality of life:
The daily wage of the winegrowers, living within Rome and forming the 20% of the
workers, was between 1425 baioccho (b), which meant an annual income of 4272 scudi if
we count with twenty-five working days a month. During 16271647, the day-labourers
of the Roman Campagna got daily 15 b. A painter in 1624 got daily 35 b, between 16321634
3140 b, which meant annually 90120 scudi. A wage of 4560 b is known from 1648,
which was in case of an assistant 2030 b, annually 135180, or 6090 scudi. In 1610 a
carpenter earned 80 b, a tinker 40 b, which were annually 240 and 120 scudi. In 1658 a
stonemason got 45 b, his assistant 25 b, so they earned annually 135 and 75 scudi. By ana-
lysing the incomes of the intellectuals, one can see that in 1610 a doctor earned 136 scudi
in accordance with various benefits. An auditor (computista) at the Banco de Santo Spirito
70
On the Roman catering trade, developed by the demand, with numerous hotel statistical accounts:
Mario Romani, Pellegrini e viaggiatori nelleconomia di Roma dal XIV al XVII secolo, Milano 1948, 155.
56141. 142197. 198234. 235262.
71
Out of which 400000 were counted by May. Uta Piereth, Bericht aus Rom. Ein Diario zum Heiligen
Jahr 1650, RHM 42 (2000) 324350, 350; Visceglia, Giubilei tra pace e guerre, 546472. The number of visitors
significantly reduced by 1675, yet it was still considerable. Marina Caffiero, Lanno Santo come risorsa poli-
tica. Il giubileo del 1675 tra polemica antiprotestante e apologia del papato, RMC 5 (1997) 475500; the description
of the still glamorous festivals: Robert A. Beddard, Pope Clement Xs Inauguration of the Holy Year of 1675,
AHP 38 (2000) 97117. On the ceremonies of the Jubilees and on their spectacles in the context of one and
a half centuries, more: Visceglia, La citt rituale, 239286: Haec est Porta Domini. Iusti intrabunt in
eam. I rituali del giubielo (= La storia dei Giublei. III: 16001775, a c. d. A. Zuccari, Firenze 1999, 84129).
72
Irene Fosi, Roma e gli ultramontani. Conversioni, viaggi, identit, QFIAB 81 (2001) 351396, 384396;
Peter Schmidt, LInquisizione e gli stranieri, LInquisizione e gli storici: un cantiere aperto. Tavola roton-
da nellambito della conferenza annuale della ricerca (Roma, 2425 giugno 1999) (Atti dei Convegni Lincei
162), Roma 2000, 365372.
73
Lutz, Rom und Europa, 106111; and the latest, Stefano Andretta, Il governo dellosservanza: poteri e
monache dal Sacco alla fine del Seicento, Roma, la citt del papa, 397428.

earned 200 in 1619, 400 scudi in 1658, however he did not receive any other allocations.
A deputy-cashier got 80 scudi in 1619, 120 scudi in 1658, plus benefits of the same amount
of money. The incomes in kind of the Santo Spirito hospitals commandant were main-
ly food 150 scudi a year. The price conditions, which consumed the incomes, were the
following. The rise in the prices culminated during 16001609, then there was a sudden
fall, then after 1620 a slow decrease can be seen. During 16231644 a kilogram of beef
was 811 b, a kilogram of cheese 1418 b, a hen 2535 b, a loaf of bread was 3,54,5 b; which
means, for a scudo one could buy 912 kilograms of beef, 5,57 kilograms of cheese, 34
hens, 2228 loaves of bread. While, a carriage cost 500 scudi, the Madruzzo Villa, nearby
the Vatican, was sold for 13,000 scudi in 1608, for 14,500 scudi in 1668. The rent of the
villa was rather cheap in 1630, at a life-long date it was 400 scudi a year.74
The mighty logistics of the city were characterized by more shocking data. Romes
annual need for corn was 25 thousand tons, which cost 700 thousand to 1 million scudi.
In 1622, the stock of horses was 3,400, with an additional 5,000 horses and mules which
were in the possession of the papal household, cardinals, and the diplomatic representa-
tives. At the end of the sixteenth century, there were 28 thousand cattle, 96 thousand
lambs and 20 thousand swine needed. The same figures stayed until the middle of the
seventeenth century.75 These numbers are remarkable by themselves. Their pure im-
portance is the fact that they clearly demonstrate the enormous challenge the papal
administration had to face in operating the Eternal City.76 Not to mention the utterly
complicated financial system.
The Papal Budget
If the medieval Papacy was the reformer of the administration, then the early mod-
ern Papacy can be regarded as the forerunner of the modern State due, not only to its
activity in State administration and diplomacy, but also in the handling of economy and
finance. It was the first body which imposed a permanent, direct tax (sussidio triennale)
in order to maintain its permanent army in 1543; the development of the economy was
supported by mercantilist means: construction and regular maintenance of roads, bridges,
ports and the expansion of industry and trade (the extension and modernization of the
port of Civitavecchia; the planned utilization of the mines in Tolfa).77 Its enduring ca-
74
Lutz, Rom und Europa, 113115. On the Roman population and the various sources of income, especial-
ly on the opportunities offered by the Curia: Nussdorfer, Civic Politics in the Rome, 60116 and 168204.
75
Lutz, Rom und Europa, 100106.
76
On the corn supply, on the Roman logistics, and on its organization in startling detail: Volker Rein-
hardt, berleben in der frhneuzeitlichen Stadt. Annona und Getreideversorgung in Rom 15631797
(BDHIR 72), Tbingen 1991, 134 and 37; on the officials of more importance: [Idem], Die Prfekten der
rmischen Annona im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert. Karrieremuster als Behrdengeschichte, RQ 85 (1990) 98115.
77
In more detail: G. Barbieri, Industria e politica mineraria nello Stato Pontificio dal 400 al 600, Roma 1940.

The Papal Budget 111
pacity is proved by a subsidy of 19,632,143 scudi that Rome gave to the Catholic nations
during 15421716.78
The economy of the Papacy was controlled by many offices, which had accurate
policy, separate accounting and competency. However, in the seventeenth century, the
incomes of the papal budget were determined by the above mentioned economical, so-
cial environment. The more and more complicated administration could hardly cope
with the more and more unfavourable tendencies. In the second half of the century,
the balance, turning to negative, was temporarily altered only by the curial reform and
the strict cuts under Innocent XI, who acted by the impetus of the squadron volante.
The papal finances which terminology primarily, but not exclusively meant the
finances of the Papal State , the situation of the incomes and expenses besides the so-
cial processes explain the seemingly controversial behaviour of Rome in the European
policy as well as in its relations with certain States and particular Churches. In contrast
to the Middle Ages, in the seventeenth century the proportion of the incomes from
the universal Church and to State incomes was 20:80. It also meant that three-quarters
of the papal revenues came from same sort of sources as other monarchs incomes.79
The State Incomes of the Papacy:

Steady and Precarious Revenues
According to a survey from 1652, the State incomes, the taxes, profits, duties and
dues were unevenly distributed among the provinces of the Papal State. Marca received
a share of 33% from the public burden, Umbria 1214%, the Patrimony of Saint Pe-
ter, namely the Patrimonium Petri: Northern Lazio and Sabina, furthermore Ro-
magna (except Bologna, which had an independent economy) 1214% alike, Campagna
and Marittima 4% and Urbino 2% due to its special privileges. The situation of Rome
was rather favourable due to many local bodies and communities numerous privileges
78
The data can be found at Armando Lodolini, LArchivio di Stato di Roma, Roma 1960, 82; the com-
prehensive evaluation of the aid policy: Monaco, Le finanze pontificie al tempo di Paolo V, 3537.
79
Cf. Po-Chia Hsia, The World of Catholic Renewal, 99102; Bireley, The Refashioning of Catholicism, 7173;
Thomson, Popes and Princes, 7895 and 95114. The first comprehensive attempt to the historical analysis
of the papal budget: Clemens Bauer, Die Epochen der Papstfinanz, HZ 138 (1928) 457503; the historiogra-
phy of the researches and the changes of the institutional structure: Peter Partner, Papal Financial Policy
in the Renaissance and Counter-Reformation, Past and Present 88 (1980) 1762, 2022; and Andrea Gardi,
La fiscalit pontificia tra medioevo ed et moderna, Societ e Storia 9 (1986) 509557, mainly 509520538 and
544557; Monaco, Le finanze pontificie al tempo di Paolo V, 1956; Wolfgang Reinhard, Finanza pontificia,
sistema beneficiale e finanza statale nellet confessionale, Fisco, religione, Stato nellet confessionale (Annali
dellIstituto Storico Italo-germanico 26, a c. d. Hermann KellenbenzPaolo Prodi), Bologna 1989, 459504;
and especially Enrico Stumpo, Il capitale finanziario a Roma fra Cinque e Seicento. Contributo alla storia della
fiscalit pontificia in et moderna (15701660) (Pubblicazioni della Facolt di Giurisprudenza dellUniversit
di Sassari, Serie Storica 4), Milano 1985.

and exemptions. It paid only 33% in the central Treasury, which was controlled by the
Camera Apostolica.80
The main units of the office controlled by the camerlengo (cardinalis camerarius S.R.E.)
consisted of eight presidenza, or prefettura, which were led by clerics of the Camera (chierici
di Camera) of the same amount. Their college of twelve members, since Sixtus V, con-
stituted the prominent body with the right of decision making. On behalf of the Apos-
tolic Camera, they signed with its seal and issued the documents of various cases, like
the prefetturas, as well, which controlled diverse cases related to economy and finance.
They dealt with the corn supply (prefettura dellAnnona), with the national food supply
(prefettura della Grascia), with duties (delle Dogane), with the roads (delle Strade), with the
army (delle Armi), with the ports and their profits (delle Ripe), with prisons (delle Carceri),
with the archives (degli Archivi) and with minting (della Zecca). Apart from the eight,
four other clerics of the Camera each governed a town, directly controlled by the office.
Apart from the college of the clerics, the other body of the Camera was formed by the
so-called Assistentes with its eight members. In contrast to their name, their duty was not
of a subsidiary nature. The governor of Rome, who was simultaneously a vicecamerlengo,
also belonged to them. The two positions, performed at the same time, meant the highest
non cardinals rank in the Curia. The proper leaders of the Camera in duumvirate were
the presidente and the commissarius generalis. They were obliged to control the interests
of the State economy and report on the important cases of the Camera, personally to the
pope. There were also in the line of the assistentes the treasurer (thesaurarius generalis/te-
soriere generale) and the auditor of the Camera (uditore generale) who headed the court
of the office that dealt with the economic cases. He also had jurisdiction over the curial
officials and their clients, too. The attorney of the Camera (procurator fiscalis generalis)
and his two leading lawyers (camerae et fisci advocatus and advocatus pauperum) brought
up the rear.81 Their work was obviously helped by a crowd of officials. While it had not
yet existed in 1629, by 1644 the so-called Cameralis Congregatio appeared to enhance the
decision making. Its prefect was the cardinal-nephew, out of its members there were three
who were from the Camera (the treasurer, the lawyer and the general-commissioner),
furthermore the prefect of the Apostolic Palace and the secretary of the Consulta. Later
the cardinal-nephew vanished, the sessions were led by the treasurer and an auditor from
the Camera always participated.82
There were several characteristics of the tax collection procedures. While the abso-
lutist monarchs of contemporary Europe initiated a vigorous centralization and ration-
80
81
Apart from the quoted literature in the Introduction, more: Felici, La reverenda Camera Apostolica, 111.
113115 and passim; Pastura Ruggiero La reveranda Camera Apostolica, 5363 and 63167; Ago, Carriere e
clientele, 1920. Out of the Latin-Italian terminology, which exist in parallel, I gave preference to those
which are used more often. The latest, precise archontology of the thesaurarius, the commissaries generalis
and the auditors of the Camera from 16271629: Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 166167
and 174; on the duty of the camerlengo, vicecamerlengo, commissarius and auditor generalis: Pastura Ruggi-
ero La reveranda Camera Apostolica, 6375. 203. 206. 211219.
82
Christoph Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 191. 221 and passim.

alization also in this respect, by entrusting the duty completely to the State apparat-
us, in the Papal State exceptionally unlike them concerning taxes, duties, benefits,
the role of the private collectors, who rented this position for a short or longer period
of time, remained significant. This is the so-called appalto-system, led to the division
of the tax revenues and gave wide-ranging possibilities to certain craftiness.83 The Camera
entrusted the administration of the central State treasury (tesoreria generale) to a Roman
banker for a long time, under Paul V they were the Ruspoli. However, the more and
more unambiguous need of the private banks pointed to the establishment of a public
bank which managed more general tasks.84 The title of the banker (depositario generale),
who dealt with the central treasury, was a confidential position. The person who held
this position was different in every pontificate and should not have been mistaken for
his direct superior, the tesoriere generale, who was meant to be the main official of the
Camera, despite the fact that his office could have been purchasable.85
The taxes, monopolies, duties, and the droit de regale (risposte delle tesorerie ed appalti
camerali ed altro) constituted the main part of the ordinary State revenues (entrate certe).
Some examples: the monopoly of salt-mining (there is no accurate datum), the extraor-
dinary tax (sussidio triennale) which was collected from 1543 and was at first 300 thou-
sand scudi and was replenished by the so-called quarto aggiunto in 1628; the salt-tax was
32 thousand scudi a year under the Barberini-era; the tax for the maintenance of the papal
navy was around 100 thousand scudi at the end of the seventeenth century. Besides, the
taxes imposed on the sum of the military and defensive actions were annually 17 thou-
sand scudi; moreover the meat-tax from 1553, the wine-tax from 1586 and the duty on
tobacco from the beginning of the seventeenth century, etc.
Urban VIII endeavoured to raise the taxes and replenish them with new ones, by which
he became worthy of having the nickname the tax pope (papa gabelle).86 The rise of
the taxes, especially on tobacco, continued also under Alexander VII.87 However, the
83
A local example from earlier times: Claudio Rotelli, La finanza locale pontificia nel Cinquecento.
Il caso di Imola, Studi Storici 9 (1968) 107144.
84
On the transaction and techniques of the real circulation of money: Reinhard, Papstfinanz und Nep-
otizmus, 35; Monaco, Le finanze pontificie al tempo di Paolo V, 121149; and more by Ermanno Ponti:
Il Banco di Santo Spirito fondato da S.S. Paolo V con breve del 13 dicembre 1605, Roma 1941, 583; another, rather
superficial, outline of the contemporary characteristics of the Roman circulation of money: Renata Ago, Po-
litica economica e credito nella Roma del Seicento, La corte di Roma tra Cinque e Seicento, 243261 (this is a sum-
mary of the authors major work: Economia barocca. Mercato e Istituzioni nella Roma del Seicento, Roma 1998).
85
Pastura Ruggiero La reveranda Camera Apostolica, 167. 179. 192. See the diagram of the total papal
financial system at the end of the chapter (Reinhard, Reformpapsttum zwischen Renaisannce und Barock,
785; [Idem], Finanza Pontificia, 490). The chart of Partner, Papal Financial Policy shows an earlier state
(19), Nussdorfer, Civic Politics in the Rome, however, the structure of the Apostolic Camera around 1650 is
depicted rather simplified (47).
86
For example, the gabella del macinato, a newer special meat tax yielded an income of 100150 thousand
scudi around 1630, in 1643 some 350 thousand scudi. Lutz, Rom und Europa, 122124. The latest analysis of
the Popes economic policy from Clement VIII to Urban VIII: Ago, Economia barocca, 111130.
87
Rosa, Alessandro VII, 343.

possibility for the decrease of the sums was being analysed, due to the rise of prices and
unemployment under Alexander VIIs successor, the financial condition of the Roman
inhabitants deteriorated.88 However, the improvement of the essential conditions under
the pontificate of Clement X was in the centre of politics, the substantial tax reduction
was achieved only under Alexander VIII in parallel with the minimization of the
anti-Turkish aid.
Various customs revenues aggregated 420 thousand scudi around 1640. In addition
to all these, there was the item of thousands, or even ten thousands, from the tenure
of lands (censi e feudi), the export licences (tratte) and the fines imposed by the courts
(malefizi). The ordinary State revenues formed 22.3 million scudi in the second half of
the seventeenth century, which may have been the same in the first half of the century.
It is true that as a result of the uncertainties by the appalto system, there were a large
number of years when the revenues were fewer with hundreds of thousands.89
Apart from the ordinary and fixed State revenues, which were hardly enough to
finance the budget and to cover the interests of the public debt, the so-called entrate
incerte, the extraordinary revenues played a significant role. Their unique system com-
prised a transition between the State and direct Church revenues. (The already men-
tioned malefizi can be reckoned among them, as long as the fines, imposed not only by
the governor of Rome, the auditor of the Camera, but also by the court of the cardinal
vicar, were included here.) The two main types of the extraordinary revenues which
in a long run increased the extent of indebtedness and enhanced the fragmentation of
the non-refundable public funds were the issue of the bonds, the monti, and the ve-
nality of the curial offices.
The monti, the rudimentary bonds, served as long-term credits; according to the prices
of the luoghi (which can be called today shares), they were worth between 50100 scudi.
The first monte was issued under Clement VII (15231534) at the end of 1526. In order to cover
the aid to Hungary against the Turks he provided shares of 200 thousand scudi namely
two thousand pieces to the burden of the Roman ports customs on annually 10% guar-
anteed proceeds.90 The further issue of bonds in the middle of the sixteenth century
ensured only 7.5% and later 5% at the turn of the century. These shares were inher-
88
Osbat, Clemente IX, 356.
89
There are exact cameralistic accounts only from the second half of the century. Their analysis: Georg
Lutz, Zur Papstfinanz von Klemens IX bis Alexander VIII. (16671691), RQ 74 (1979) 3290. On the State
revenues: ibid., 4951; and Grisar, Ppstliche Finanzen, 230232. In contrast to the Barberini era, the re-
sources of the Borghese pontificate are quite rich, however, Reinhard estimates the ordinary revenues to
182 thousand scudi and the total annual revenues to 386 thousand scudi. The huge difference is based on the
fact that Reinhard could not numerically explore the total revenues, which is proved by the expenses of
the monumental buildings of Paul V which were much higher annually than the noted revenues. On the
other hand, it seems that Reinhard dealt only with the net revenues, after allowing for the redemption of
debts. Cf. Papstfinanz und Nepotizmus, 6 and 23. More detailed data on Scipione Borghese can be found in
the work of Volker Reinhardt, which is quoted in the next chapter. (IV, note 30.)
90
On the monte della Fede: Gardi, La fiscalit pontificia, 511512; Monaco, Le finanze pontificie al tempo
di Paolo V, 3839.

itable (monti non vacabili). The monti vacabili, which fell into the hands of the Apostolic
Camera in case of the death of their owners, occurred only in the seventeenth century
and due to the greater risk comparing to their inheritable version they brought higher
proceeds of 34%.91
Monte was imposed on almost every papal tax, customs, and duty; however, it was
possible only via a papal bull from Urban VIII. This was accompanied by a reduction
of the proceeds during the century. In 1635, the profit of the inheritable bonds fell to
4.5%, in the second half of the century, due to the stagnation of the economy it was
4% then in the course of 16841685 it became 3% and the non-inheritable bonds fell
back to 78 and 6%. The number of the monti under Urban VIII was thirty-three
(out of which twenty-three were non vacabili), whereas according to other data, there were
thirty-eight, moreover Pope Barberini issued new bonds, as well. The annual income
of the monti is not mentioned by resources. The real value of the monti was altered as a
function of the issue of the bonds and the demand and supply. In general, they yielded
only a one-time major income to the papal treasury; as an example, Urban VIII founded
treasury bills of 3 million scudi for covering the expanses during the Wars of Castro.
Nevertheless, during 1542 and 1716 the Curia accumulated a public debt of 20 million
golden scudi with a dividend only from the issue of the monti. The sum considering
the austerity measures of the successors was already complete under the Barberinis.92
In the discussed period, the competence of the Apostolic Camera was confined to
the administration of the ordinary State revenues and the issue of the monti, which
was not a negligible task. In their books of accounts, notwithstanding, the total income
(and expenditure) of the Holy See was registered, thus the important allocation of the
other main type of the precarious revenues, as well.
The extent of the process of the venality of offices of a Roman origin, which was the
other determining component of the entrate incerte besides the monti, and was of smaller
but socially more important effect and also known by other European monarchies, was
the greatest here.93 The practice started to spread around 1400 and grew to considerable
dimensions in the second half of the fifteenth century. Under Sixtus IV (14711484)
the number of the curial offices, which were mostly of a secular character, grew from
91
On the monti in more detail: Armando Lodolini, I Monti Camerali nel sistema della finanza pontificia,
Archivi Storici delle Aziende di Credito II, Roma 1956, 263278; [Idem], Le finanze pontificie e i Monti, Ras-
segna Storica del Risorgimento 46 (1957), 421428; and Partner, Papal Financial Policy, 2331.
92
Ibid. Apart from the two unique borrowing practices: the issue of the monti and the later detailed venality
of offices, there is no information about taking out a loan from the European market. However, the credits
with an interest of 75%, borrowed from Genoa for the expenses of the War of Venice under Paul V, prove
this systems impracticability. Although, under the Barberinis there was a plan to take 2 million scudi from
the banks of Genoa with only an interest of 2%, yet this unrealistic idea was never fulfilled. Reinhard,
Papstfinanz und Nepotizmus, 1314; Lutz, Rom und Europa, 134.
93
On the general European practice: mterhandel im Sptmittelalter und im 16. Jahrhundert. Referate
eines internationalen Colloquiums in Berlin vom 1. bis 3 Mai 1980, hrsg. v. Ilja Mieck, Berlin 1984; an Italian
example: Enrico Stumpo, La vendita degli uffici nel Piemonte del Seicento, Estratto del volume XXVXXVI
(19731974) dellAnnuario dellIstituto Storico Italiano per lEt Moderna e Contemporanea, Roma 1976.

300 to 650, under Julius II it was 996 and under Leo X (15131521) it was about 2,230.
In 1551 there were 2,590, one decade later there were 3,640 offices sold for 3.5 million gol-
den scudi. Obviously, these actions were not encouraged by administrative needs but fiscal
consideration, a great part of the offices was fictive. In 1561, out of 3,460 there might
have been only 800 real ones, the owner of 2,840 positions did not function effectively.
For instance, at the Apostolic Chancery 104 collettori del piombo, who sealed the bulls
with lead, and 612 portionari della ripa, who supervised the ports of the Papal State, were
absolutely needless. Certain positions were already in their names only titular, such as
the 2,000 members of the five papal orders of knighthood. The 535 members of the Pian
Order, founded in 1560, paid 500, then later 530560 scudi to be entitled to bear the title
of the Pian Order.94 The sale of the offices meant to be a short and middle-term debt
contract, which demanded the expenditure of a high sum from the creditor. Even the
smallest office cost more than 500 scudi, consequently, the offices of actual roles and
authority were above 50 thousand scudi.95
The venal offices can be categorised into three classes: 1. the first category includes
some fifty offices, whose owners were obliged to be of a certain origin with the nec-
essary relations. The holders of these offices belonged to the leading prelates of the
Curia. They had actual jurisdiction and administrative authority, moreover, the most
prominent ones (the treasurer from the Camera and the auditor or the reggente della
Cancelleria) could certainly expect the red hat. 2. Besides these top officials, there was
the second class, which was represented by those officials who still had actual authority.
They were required to have appropriate qualification, for instance a doctorate. 3. There
was the mass of the fictive officials.96
The venal offices were uffizi vacabili, after the death of their owners they reverted to
the Holy See and could be sold again. These officials, who established corporations col-
leges in the third as well as in the second category had a share in the papal institu-
tions income in proportion to their paid-up capital. As, due to the vast growth of the
venal offices, the tax and duty revenues could not cover the allowances of the officials
the deficiency had to be supported by other incomes (tax, customs, etc.) by shortening
the ordinary papal revenues.
94
By the 1650s this number rose to 671 and the price to 750. The granting of two places out of them be-
longed to the Colleggio di Ges. Menniti Ippolito, Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 153 this work is men-
tioned below at the beginning of the following chapter. (IV, note 12.)
95
The development of the practice of venality and the mentioned data with numerous following details:
Storti, La storia e il diritto della Dataria Apostolica, 327373; Litva, Lattivit finanziaria della Dataria 131156;
Frenz, Die Kanzlei der Ppste, 193198 (the price of certain places in the colleges of officials, not only the
positions in the Chancery: 201233) all three of the works are quoted below in note 104; and more by:
F. Piola Caselli, Aspetti del debito pubblico nello Stato pontificio: gli uffici vacabili, Annali della Facolt di Sci-
enze politiche dellUniversit di Perugia 1 (1973) 98170 (the introduction to its substantial message: Visceglia,
Burocrazia, mobilit sociale e patronage, 2021).
96
The terms of the categorization of the offices according to Giovanni Baptista de Luca: 1. Officia maiora
seu praelatitia 2. Officia media 3. Officia minora (Tractatus de officiis venalibus vacabilibus Romanae Curiae,
Roma 1682).

The uffizi vacabili meant a great risk to the investors, since in case of their death the
capital was lost. The prime motive for the purchasing was the title and rank, moreover
the obtainment of some influences besides the quasi annuity. After a while the so-cal-
led uffizi non vacabili were established, as well. Namely, the fictive positions could be
bought by legal entities, ecclesiastical bodies and in case of certain offices (for the 10% of
the purchasing sum) as they were allowed to be held until the age of sixty-two , the
living owners were permitted to transmit them. Consequently, in some cases an office
could be kept within a family even through generations.97
For the papal budget, the venality of offices was only remunerative if the duration
of a position was not longer than fifteen years, otherwise the expenditure, spent on the
disbursement of the annual allowances of 1012%, would not have been balanced with
the incomes from selling the office (and with the profit from its investments gained in
the meantime). The risk of the long-term loss, which involved the collapse of the sys-
tem, was averted in three ways: firstly, by incredibly increasing the number of the fictive
offices and purchasable titles. Namely, the money gathered from this method a bit
like a pyramid scheme could also cover the running expenses. However, this oppor-
tunity was limited and technically exhausted during the sixteenth century, therefore the
number of positions could not be raised since the demand was finite. Due to the under-
standable opposition of the safeguarding colleges, the other solution, which was carried
through only in the second half of the seventeenth century as a part of a financial reform,
was the reduction of the payable annual incomes, namely to one half their previous
amount. The third way, which took a remarkable turn under Urban VIII, namely the
price of the offices in the first and second category, the ones with real influence, was vastly
increased by maintaining the amount of their incomes; besides, the price of the third
category, the fictive offices, was reduced for maintaining and partly increasing the de-
mand for them.98 Sixtus Vs regulation meant a certain relief, according to which, after
having been created cardinal or bishop, the officials had to resign from their other po-
sitions which were again offered for sale. From 1629 on in spite of the obvious fiscal
interests the bishops could keep their offices and their incomes.99
Some examples for the trend of the offices prices, besides the ones mentioned at the
appointments of the cardinals. Cleric of the Camera: around 1500, 10 thousand, around
1550, 20 thousand and from the end of the sixteenth century to the 1620s, 36 thousand
golden scudi (some 4550 thousand silvers, depending on the rate); under Urban VIII it was
already 42 thousand golden scudi. The auditor of the Camera paid 4 thousand around
1500, by the middle of the century 25 thousand; by 1585, 80 thousand then after cutting
his incomes to their one half, the price of the office became 54 thousand. Then by 1629,
97
Cf. Litva, Lattivit finanziaria della Dataria, loc. cit.
98
Cf. Wolfgang Reinhard, Staatsmacht als Kreditproblem. Zur Struktur und Funktion des frhneuzeitli-
chen mterhandels, Vierteljahrschrift fr Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte 61 (1974) 289319 (Ausgewhlte
Abhandlungen, 151178).
99
The data: Lutz, Rom und Europa, 128.

it rose again to 60 thousand golden scudi (which were about 78 thousand silver scudi).
(The essence of the previously mentioned process was that the price did not halve.) Fictive
positions: the secretarii apostolici in the second half of the fifteenth century cost 2,000,
at the beginning of the sixteenth century 2,600; around 1514, 4,300 golden scudi, in 1595
7,000, in the middle of the seventeenth century 15 thousand, then 22 thousand silver scudi.
The abbreviatori di Parco maggiore, the twelve minutants of the papal bulls: in 1514 they
paid 4,500; in 1551, 5,500, in 1586, 6,200 and in 1629, 11 thousand golden scudi. However,
the price of the scrittori apostolicis offices gradually reduced, in the sixteenth century it
was 2,700, whereas later it was only 1,200 golden scudi and in 1646 it rose only to 1,800.
Under Sixtus V the 3,900 venal and titular offices represented a capital value of more
than five million golden scudi (concerning the public debt), in the 1640s it reached 7.4 mil-
lion golden. Above all, there were some hundred positions which belonged to the Chan-
cery, the Penitentiary and to smaller offices and officials,100 which, furthermore, accu-
mulated a capital value of half a million golden scudi (which also required instalments).
In contrast to the public debt of 7.9 million according to the estimations under Ur-
ban VIII there were annually only 161 thousand golden scudi, namely 200300 thousand
silver scudi, from the sale of offices.101
To sum up the question of the venality of offices: the primary motivation of the
papal budget was to gain a substantial sum of money in one go, which, in the case of
uffizi vacabili, was not obliged to be repaid entirely but in instalments under the pretext
of salary. That is why, at the most ten-fifteen year-long tenure of office was the ideal
since there was not any deficit. In case of a longer tenure of office, the gain of the pur-
chaser was, apart from the given title and influence, a remarkable profit. His risk was
his early death, however, the Curias was the too long tenure of office. Consequently, the
limited, rather short-term tenure of office meant profit for the papal budget though, it
could hardly be controlled ; apart from death, the cardinals appointments meant a grea-
ter accumulation, since the capital of the released offices remained without instalments,
moreover they could be sold again. However, the drawback of the system was the un-
bearable amount of the annual, regular allowances, which were to be paid after the capital
of the partly inherited or transmitted offices, the payments of non-expired duration and
the more and more sold offices proceeds. Yet, these interest charges could not be cove-
red by the re-sold offices; moreover, newer offices could not be established by the begin-
ning of the seventeenth century. Therefore, other expenses and allowances had to be cut.
By the discussed period, the system was far beyond profitable; it created a gradually repro-
duced public debt. Nonetheless, it provided an opportunity for certain abuses and bribes,
100
For instance to the camerlengo, to the Camera itself, to the treasurer, to the Conservatori del popolo Roma-
no, to the vicar of Rome and to some confraternities. Their balances were hardly public. Menniti Ippolito,
Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 153. On the still popular confraternities in Rome and on their contemporary
economy: Armando Serra, Problemi dei beni ecclesiastici nella societ preindustriale. Le confraternit di Roma
moderna, Roma 1983, 139187; Luigi Fiorani, Charit e pietate. Confraternite nella citt rinascimentale
e barocca, Roma, la citt del papa, 431476.
101
Comprehensively: Lutz, Rom und Europa, 125130.

which spread to such an extent by the middle of the century that Alexander VII, im-
mediately after acceding to the throne, introduced strict orders against them.102
The Church Revenues of the Papacy
The third type of the papal revenues was constituted apart from the entrate certe,
based on the State droit de regale, and the entrate incerte, which was established to main-
tain the functioning system by the revenues from the universal Church and the var-
ious duties, paid for the services of the central Church administration. With some ex-
ceptions, by the beginning of the seventeenth century the Dataria Apostolica, which
moved to the palace on the Quirinal, controlled them.
The Apostolic Dataria was established as an independent institution in the fifteenth

century. The Dataria was entrusted with granting papal graces, indults which were related
to the external forum (forum externum). It consisted of two chief officials, the datarius,
who was usually a cardinal, and the sub- or prodatarius (sottodatario-prodatario), besides
there were even more subordinate officials than in the Camera. The name of the institu-
tion can be traced back to the act of dating (datam ponens, qui datam ponit) the petitions
(supplicationes). During the discussed period, the datarius is the eye of the pope (oculus
papae or organum mentis et vocis papae), in the course of his ordinary, weekly audience at
the pope, he reported only on the cases of great importance, moreover, he made the posi-
tive (concessum ut petitur), or negative decisions concerning the petitions. His subordinate
officials controlled certain tasks of the Dataria. The prefetto delluffizio per obitum dealt
with the vacant, non-consistorial benefices; the prefetto del concessum prepared the matri-
monial dispensations, the prefetto or amministratore delle componende dealt with the sale of
the offices and with the so-called compositions (see later); the prefetto delle date handled
the dating of petitions. (This parva data should not be confused with the so-called grande
data, which signed the documents arrival to the datarius.) They were followed by the re-
visers who prepared the decisions: the revisore delle matrimoniali who checked the petitions
concerning the matrimonial dispensations, the primo and secondo revisore delle suppliche
who examined the supplications concerning the benefices and pensions in formal and con-
tent respect in the first place (the latter ones marked the petitions with letter C = Com-
ponenda and with the first letter of their names). The officiale del missis (tassatore) provid-
ed the registration of the petitions which were arranged according to the payable duties,
determined by him. He was followed in the official hierarchy by the substitutes (sostitu-
ti) of the sottodatario and the prefetto del obitum, the revisore dei conti who controlled the
scale of charges, then the officiale dei brevi and the speidizioneri apostolici who prepared the
draft of the dispatched documents (breves, bulls) and (furthermore, the scrittore delle bolle
in via segreta, however this position might have not existed in the seventeenth century)
the custode delle suppliche who guarded the supplications. They were obviously only the
officials of great importance.103
Regulae, ordinationes et constitutiones Cancellariae Apostolicae, 1655. Rosa, Alessandro VII, 342343.
102
On the origin and development of the Dataria with additional old-recent literature: Nicola Storti,
103
La storia e il diritto della Dataria Apostolica dalla origini ai nostri giorni (Contributi alla Storia del Diritto Ca-

The competence of the Dataria changed in the course of time; it embraced more and
more tasks of the Camera and the Chancery. The incomes were transmitted to the so-cal-
led secret treasury, the tesoreria segreta, or in other words to the borsa particolare, whose
controller was the tesoriere segreto,104 however, its trustee was also the depositario generale.
They were exclusively responsible for the administration of the incomes. The salaries,
paid from the secret treasury, were remitted solely by the direct order of the pope.105
The sum of the Church revenues, similar to the precarious State revenues, was
fluctuating year by year, together with a considerable decline, comparing to the Middle
Ages. In 1562, the reorganization of the Rota, the Penitentiary and other papal courts
resulted in a deficit of 200 thousand scudi, moreover during 1537 and 1570 the sum of
the Church revenues narrowed to 400 thousand scudi. The annates from the universal
Churchs benefices were still the most important revenues until the middle of the seven-
teenth century. The concept itself embodies a quite ambiguous terminology and also in
the early modern period the servitium commune was meant by that. This was paid after
those benefices (bishoprics and certain monasteries), the grant or ecclesiastical confir-
mation of which required the mutual action of the pope and the cardinal consistory,
for which they were called consistorial benefices. The servitium commune was half the
College of Cardinals and half the popes. In the second half of the sixteenth century, it
already caused a big problem that they were collected in accordance with the medieval
registers; however, the servitium was nowhere equal to the annual income of the benefice,
but to its one-third. (In the middle of the seventeenth century, in the German States it
was equal to its one fifth.) In 1643, the net income from the servitium, entitled only the
pope, was way more than it had been at the beginning of the century (however insig-
nificant considering the Middle Ages); it comprised a total of approximately 110 thousand
scudi, though, in the second half of the century it was only 2530 thousand. (Together
with the part due the cardinals, the total was twice the sum.106)
The servitium was followed by the closer annates, which were called with a special
liking as Bonifaces annates. These were such duties in compliance with a half year
nonico. Nuova Serie di Studi Storico-giuridizi 2), Napoli 1968, 3969. 70109. 110137; on its official structure:
175226; on its expanding competence: 227279. On the institutions role in the papal finances with numer-
ous partial figures: Felice Litva, Lattivit finanziaria della Dataria durante il periodo Tridentino, AHP 5
(1967) 79174; Thomas Frenz, Die Kanzlei der Ppste der Hochrenaissance (14711527) (BDHIR 63), Tbingen
1986, 97100; Ernst Pritz, Supplikensignatur und Briefexpedition an der rmischen Kurie im Pontifikat Papst
Calixts III. (BDHIR 42), Tbingen 1972, 3394; Re, La Curia Romana, 443454. The archontology of the
dataries from 1627: Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 168; see also the Appendix. The official
structure and administrative role of the Dataria will be dealt with several times later.
104
In the Borghese era (and perhaps later, too) his person corresponded to the prefetto delle componende.
105
Cf. Storti, La storia e il diritto della Dataria Apostolica, 175226 and 139141.
106
Grisar, Ppstliche Finanzen, 213215; Mario Rosa, La scarsella di Nostro Signore: aspetti della fiscalit
spirituale pontificia nellet moderna, Societ e Storia 10 (1987) 817845, 832833. On the question of the pa-
pal taxing of the consistorial benefices more: Thomson, Popes and Princes, 7895. 145167. 167181. 181201;
Geoffry Barraclough, Papal Provisions. Aspects of Church History, Constitutional, Legal and Administrative
in the Late Middle Ages, Oxford 1935. (Its review: ZSSRG Kan. Abt. 56 [1936] 530534.)

income which were to be paid after the entry of those smaller benefices (namely, after
also those that were not granted by Rome), whose annual income reached the twenty-
four gulden. Their abrogation was discussed in the councils of the fifteenth century and
even in Trent. Their repeal was already promised by Martin V, the concordats with the
States limited their enforcement. Their rate gradually declined; in the seventeenth cen-
tury the rich Spanish and German monasteries did not pay it after their real incomes,
or after the old estimated value, but only after the minimal twenty-four gulden. Their
total abrogation was not complied due to the understandable opposition of the Curia,
but there was no other way of the particular Churches to contribute to the maintenance
of the centre of Catholicism. 107
The so-called quindenniums belonged to the annates to a certain extent. From the
fifteenth century, to retrieve the lost annates they were collected after those benefices,
which were to pay annata, however, they were incorporated into bigger benefices. In the
case of such incorporated benefices, the unique duty did not have to be paid when their
owner changed, but, as its name indicates, every fifteen years. In the Middle Ages, apart
from the above mentioned, there were other curial incomes. Some of them provably re-
mained, others disappeared or there is no data concerning their collection. 1. Procurationes
(the duty, paid to the pope, his legates, and to certain bishops who represented Rome),
there remained no definite traces of them, though, their abrogation was asked already in
Konstanz. 2. Visitationes (certain prelates, who travelled to Rome, paid these on the oc-
casion of the ad limina), there is no data from the discussed period. 3. Subsidia caritativa,
this was imposed on certain States, dioceses or religious orders by the popes in the case
of urgent circumstances of the Holy See and the Church. It was similar to the tithes, yet
it was not in proportion to the incomes but it was a fix sum, which fell mainly into the
possession of the State at the beginning of the sixteenth century. It seems that it existed
in the seventeenth century. It refers to its change in use that Pzmny thought that he
could have collected it from the clerics in order to cover the expenses of his Roman visit,
though with all rights reserved he renounced it.108 4. Schutzzinsen, the protection
money, as the literature calls it. Certain bishoprics, monasteries paid it in return for their
unique relations to the Holy See. It occurred also in the seventeenth century; however,
it was already negligible. 5. Peters pence was paid by the northern States: England, the Bal-
tics and Poland as a token of their esteem towards the successors of Saint Peter. This tradi-
tion ceased to exist with the Reformation in the seventeenth century. Pius IX (18461878)
introduced a totally different system under this name.109
107
Grisar, Ppstliche Finanzen, 215217 and 235236; A. Clergeac, La Curie et les bnfices consistoriaux.
tude sur les communs et menus services 13001600, Paris 1911, 142. 4478. 80109; with medieval documentary
accounts: Hermannus Hoberg, Taxae pro communibus servitiis. Ex libris obligationum ab anno 1295 usque ad
annum 1455 confectis (ST 144), Citt del Vaticano 1949. On the debates over the annatas of Trent: Klaus
Ganzer, Das Konzil von Trient und die Annaten, Rmische Kurie. Kirchliche Finanzen. Vatikanisches Archiv
I, 215247, the explanation of the maintenance of the annatas in the early modern period came from him.
108
Pzmny Pter sszegyjttt levelei, II 28249, n. 715. [Pzmny Pter Collected letters of Cardinal Pter
Pzmny III], ed. by Ferenc Hanuy, Budapest 19101911.
109
Grisar, Ppstliche Finanzen, 215217 and 235236.

The other source of the Church revenues, apart from the annates, was the spoliums,
namely those partial amounts which were reserved for Rome from the estates and the
chattels of the deceased clerics, owners of the benefices, or from longer unfilled benefices
(unless the beneficiary had free testamentary disposition). In the course of the fourteenth
century, they represented the most important papal revenue, however, by the discussed
period they also withdrew. In the seventeenth century only in Italy, Spain and Portu-
gal were few papal collectorias, integrated into the nunciatures. The fructus non exacti
(the revenues of those Church benefices, which could not have been collected due to
the death of the beneficiary) and the intercalary revenues (the incomes of the unfilled
benefices) differed from the spolia in a way.110 Their trustee was exceptionally not the
Dataria but perhaps due to the traditions the Camera.
The collectorias were not established for the collection of the spoliums, but for the
so-called papal tithes, which evolved from the tax, paid by the clergy in the course of
the crusades in the Middle Ages. At this period of time, Rome could make profit from
this type of revenue only from the territory of the Papal State where it itself collected.
By papal approval, in the other countries, where it existed, the collectorias increased the
State revenues on the stipulation that its sum had to be spent on the anti-Turkish war
and defence.111 In the case of a severe emergency, the attempt to a direct papal collec-
tion successful at times caused strenuous opposition among the local clergy, in Na-
ples as well as in Spain.
In 1642, the Holy Sees revenues from the collectorias were approximately net 90100 thou-
sand scudi, one third of which came from Italy. This figure shows a rise comparing to
the Borghese pontificate, when the net revenue was 45 thousand. The spoliums consti-
tuted a considerable part of the collected sum that is why they were called unofficially
collettori de spogli , the tithes were not registered as separate items in the accounts of
the Camera. The office of the chief collector (collettore generale) was directly subordi-
nated to the papal treasurer, to the tesoriere generale. Similarly to the spolia, the extraor-
dinary tax, which was annually imposed by the twelve Italian monastic congregations
and collected by the Apostolic Camera by three titles, was about 80 thousand scudi.112
In the seventeenth century, the Church revenues of the Holy See apart from
the specific taxes paid after the incomes of the universal Church were constituted by the
duties, collected by the central Church administration. A considerable part of them was
110
Grisar, Ppstliche Finanzen, 217220; Rosa, La scarsella di Nostro Signore, 834837.
111
Rosa, La scarsella di Nostro Signore, 833834; Stumpo, Il capitale finanziario a Roma, 184. The pres-
entation of certain States income-withdrawing role: Reinhard, Finanza Pontificia, 470472. For instance
the appropriation of the subsidio, excusado and cruzada, which occurred already in Spain, was part of this.
(Ibid.) The process in Italy, mainly in Tuscany and Venice, in Austria, in the German States, especially in
Bavaria is analysed by the papers of the noted volume of essays, the Fisco, religione, Stato nellet confessionale:
355386. 387426. 147190. 87118. 191225. The latest monographic analysis of the papal collectors work with
additional literature: Christiane Schuchard, Die ppstlichen Kollektoren im spten Mittelalter (BDHIR 91),
Tbingen 2000, 1194, certain institutions: 195320.
112
Reinhard, Papstfinanz und Nepotizmus, 78; Lutz, Zur Papstfinanz von Klemens IX, 5253.

constituted by the so-called compositiones, the sums from the accomplishment of the basic
duties of the Dataria. According to a definite rate, the compositions were paid for certain
privileges, graces, indulgences, absolutions (irregularity, hinders of consecration, plural-
ism) and for certain permissions (matrimonial dispensations, free testamentary disposi-
tion, obtaining a coadjutor, to burden the benefices with pensions).113 As a consequence,
these were to be settled, if somebody wanted to obtain justification for a given canonical
regulation.114 Comparing to the medieval conditions, there was a tendency to decrease
also in the sum of the revenues coming from the compositions. While, in the sixteenth
century their total sum was around 200300 thousand scudi, yet, due to the enforced
reforms the number of the absolutions declined, therefore the sum, paid after them, also
halved. Around 1640, the total sum was already 80140 thousand which might have
remained throughout the century, namely the Barberini-era did not initiate growth,
either, moreover, this figure did not change under the latter popes.115
The compositions were followed by the duties, which were paid for the issue of
certain papal documents. In the course of the seventeenth century they yielded little
income for the popes, however, their number and rate always increased. The issue of
the ecclesiastical as well as secular papal documents, especially of the papal bulls, was a
rather complex and complicated bureaucratic process; after each completed phase (issue,
drafting, verification, registration) a certain amount of sum had to be paid.116
There were duties imposed on the examination of the documents of the archive,
though, from the sixteenth century not the Dataria but the Apostolic Camera received
annually 11 thousand scudi. Why the Camera? It can be explained by many reasons.
On the one hand, its task was to control the papal archives; on the other hand, the centre
accounts were kept here, thirdly due to its former competence, a vast amount of original
data was here to be researched. In the seventeenth century, not only were such researches
carried on for settling debates of inheritance and possessory, but also for resolving disputes
about Church administration and legal questions.
By filling the consistorial benefices, the officials received the 3.5% of the annual in-
come (servitia minuta). Besides the sollicitators, who complied with the process, the agents,
moreover the Cardinal Protectors, who took part in the consistory (propina), received an
113
It is important to highlight that the absolutions given by the Dataria were never of spiritual character.
The Apostolic Penitentiary was competent in the matters of conscience. The data of the duties paid for
matrimonial dispensations: Quintn Aldea, Iglesia y estado en la Espaa del siglo XVII (Ideario poltico-eccle-
siastico), Santander 1961, 127138.
114
See Storti, La storia e il diritto della Dataria Apostolica, 280326.
115
Litva, Lattivit finanziaria della Dataria, 121130; Grisar, Ppstliche Finanzen, 220222; Reinhard,
Papstfinanz und Nepotizmus, 610; Rosa, La scarsella di Nostro Signore, 838842.
116
Lutz, Rom und Europa, 125; Clergeac, La Curie et les bnfices, 157186. 111132. 134150. 188206 and
207 (chart). Certain items numerically: 260261, n. 10 and 278, n. 24. In the case of a diocese with an annual
revenue of 1,000 golden forint, the obtainment of the bulls cost 1,672 golden scudi (in which the sum of the
servitium was also included). More additional data: Aldea, Iglesia y estado, 151.

extra fee. Under Sixtus IV, the duties of the bulls and the registers were annually 30 thou-
sand scudi, however under Sixtus V, they were only 10 thousand. In the first years of
Innocent Xs pontificate, they constituted an insignificant net income.117
This datum, together with the net Church revenues, might be deceptive. Namely,
many data were not registered in the accounts of the Dataria or the Apostolic Camera,
since they were directly spent on the salary of the officials, as well as, on the covering
of the titular, or effectual, venal offices value. It is noticeable mainly concerning the
incomes from the annatas and duties; the officials, who received their salary from this,
usually formed so-called annalistic colleges to assure their allowances. In the first half
of the seventeenth century, partly this phenomenon stands in the background of the
debates about the annatas and duties with the local Churches and of the implacable be-
haviour of the Curia and its officials. On the other hand, due to the limit of the increase
of the already rather high State taxes, in the Borghese and Barberini era, the Church
revenues which declined comparing to the medieval times seemed to support the
adverse budget. Therefore, the incomes (as the extant accounts conclude them by men-
tioning the fees of the leaden bulls: spogli, fruttato della Dataria: composizioni, le vacanze
e spedizioni e frutto del piombo), appearing in the accounts, were raised to 0.50.6 million
scudi. One of the most important changes in the second half of the century was to abol-
ish the locking up and strict collection of such forms of the incomes, which resulted in
only a yearly average of 300 thousand scudi. This time, appropriating the duties by the
officials was also lessened.118
According to the above mentioned data, the total revenues of the Papacy in the
seventeenth century (altogether the State, Church revenues and the incomes from
the venality of offices) constituted 2.32.8, or 3 million scudi, consequently they hardly
changed throughout the decades. Without economical development, a significant accu-
mulation was beyond question.119 The thorough examination of the papal expenditures
is required to answer the question, how Innocent XI could afford the anti-Turkish aid
of such a tremendous sum of money. However, the possibility of the rationalization of
the expenses was comprehensively appraised also under Clement X,120 the fiscal bril-
liance of the Odescalchi Pope, coming from a banker family, was necessary for amassing
the surpluses.
117
Clergeac, La Curie et les bnfices, 157186; Grisar, Ppstliche Finanzen, 236237.
118
Lutz, Rom und Europa, 122125; [Idem], Zur Papstfinanz von Klemens IX, 5357; Joseph Grisar, Fran-
cesco Ingoli ber die Aufgaben des kommenden Papstes nach dem Tode Urbans VIII. (1644), AHP 5 (1967) 289324,
313, n. 50. (Grisar denotes as the contemporaries sometimes did the total revenues of the Dataria with
the compositions; in 1648, the estimation of the Venetian delegate was 400 thousand.); and Serra, Problemi
dei beni ecclesiastici, 6987.
119
The chart of the exact, non-rounded data, see: Lutz, Zur Papstfinanz von Klemens IX, 57.
120

The Expenditures of the Papal Budget
The expenditures of the Holy See are even more chaotic than its revenues; in many
respects they give a hardly numerical account. The theory, which was kept until the
middle of the century, that the pope could freely handle all of the revenues of the Holy
See was the root of the problem since the State and the papal expenditures were consec-
utively confused. According to the demands, sums were spent from the cameralistic te-
soreria generale on the assistance of certain distant papal relatives, as well as on financing
diplomatic delegations from the secret treasury of the Dataria. In the second half of the
century, the formula simplified, since the State and non-State expenditures were clearly
separable. As an example, the State expenses (spese del Palazzo) of the Apostolic Palace
were covered by the Camera. This was remitted by a particular official, the depositario del
Palazzo, to the papal chief major-domo. The other personal, supplementary costs, for in-
stance the charities, were provided from the private treasury. Moreover, its surplus unless
the pope had not spent it on other purposes was redirected to the ordinary treasury.
In 1672, 135 thousand scudi were transferred to the tesoreria generale.121
There were three main categories of the expenditures. 1. The closer State expend-
itures. 2. The papal private expenses which can be regarded as State expenditures.
3. The public debts payments by instalments.
The expenses of the army, navy, the administration of finance and government not
only civil, but Church , furthermore, the diplomatic representations belonged, like in
other European countries, to the State revenues. The precise accounts are from the sev-
enteenth century, according to which in 1669 110 thousand scudi were spent on the navy,
whereas in 1678 only 50 thousand. In 1669, the cost of the forts (Castel Sant Angelo,
Forte Urbano, Avignon) and guards in Rome was some 200 thousand, while in 1678 it
was 125 thousand. The cost of the general supply of the papal troops which was de-
ployed in the Cretan War reduced from 80 thousand to 69 thousand at the beginning
of Innocent XIs pontificate, whilst it was only 55 thousand scudi in 1689. The engage-
ment of the troops in residential garrisons cost constantly about 60 thousand, however
it was not covered by the central treasury but by the provinces hardly known treasuries.
The expenditures, together with the navy, constituted a total of 400470 in 16501660,
by 16701680 280300 thousand scudi.122
Significantly smaller items formed the final cost of the State machinerys sustenance.
The supply of the (vice)legates of the provinces, the governors and officials of the towns
(judges, accountants, clerks, secretaries) and their Swiss guards reached 7587 thousand
121
The process is introduced by Reinhard, Papstfinanz und Nepotizmus, 26; Lutz, Zur Papstfinanz
von Klemens IX, 5860.
122
Lutz, Zur Papstfinanz von Klemens IX, 6064. On the contemporary history of the papal army and
navy: P. Alberto Guglielmotti, Storia della Marina Pontificia. VII: 15731644. VIII: 16441669, Roma
1892 (especially the collection of various sources); Brunelli, Soldati del papa, op. cit.

scudi.123 They spent on the official and material expenses of the curial and Roman offi-
cials, courts, congregations, official-bodies (out of which, the first place was taken by
the judges of the Rota with 6,600 scudi), the cameralistic officials, the architects in per-
manent employment, the secretaries of the congregations, the clerks of the library of
Vatican, the staff of the Roman mint, the salary of the Frankfurter papal proofreader,
etc. average 2124 thousand. This was still a ridiculously low sum, even if we know that
it does not include the allowances of those, who bought real offices.124
The budget of the auditor of the Camera and the Roman governors office appeared
in a separate chapter, which reached 1,4002,400 and 2024 thousand scudi. An aver-
age of 1920 thousand scudi was spent on the sustenance of the diplomatic representa-
tions. However, this does not include the occasional and greater travel expenses of the
extraordinary nuncios and legates. The Roman magistrates and officials had a share of
4,2004,400 from the budget, while the Roman residence and court of the vicar had ap-
proximately 1,500. In the name of spese incerte (building, maintenance works, gun-found-
ing, minting, etc.) 2535 thousand scudi were confined. There were subsidies given, which
were annually 7,000 scudi. 2628 thousand scudi were expended on the occasional State
expenditures with diverse purpose and appropriation, called the regaglie camerali.125
In the second half of the seventeenth century these sums stagnated, despite the at-
tempts to cut them; as a consequence, however there are no sources, a similar rate can
be expected from the earlier periods. This statement is supported by some data. On the
diplomatic representations there were spent 23 thousand under Paul V and 21 thousand
scudi under Urban VIII, the allowances of the auditors of the Rota came also to 6,600
scudi in 1605.126 The reverse conclusions might be correct. There are data on the suste-
nance of the northern Jesuit papal colleges from 1605 which was 17 thousand scudi, which
might have remained in later times. It is striking how a small part of the papal budget
was constituted by the actual Church administration, the diplomatic representations and
the typically new institutions of the Catholic reform.
Exceptionally, the growth of the expenditures is noticeable. The increase of the civ-
il forces (sbirri, bargelli), units expenses was motivated rather by the growing need for
order than the worsening public safety. (In 1585 exactly 10,573 scudi were spent on them,
in the middle of the seventeenth century they came to 1520 thousand, however, the
sum reached about 14 thousand already in 1605.)
Apart from the expenses of the navy and the army, the reduction of the ordinary
State expenditures generated a genuine decline in only one other case. Similarly to the
earlier years, at the beginning of the 1670s the allowances of the curial cardinals were
123
On the treasuries of the provinces: Pastura Ruggiero, La reveranda Camera Apostolica, 2543.
124
See the concrete sum of the incomes of certain important officials in Church administration in Chapter V.
125
Lutz, Zur Papstfinanz von Klemens IX, 6471.
126
Reinhard, Papstfinanz und Nepotizmus, 26.

around 62 thousand, then by 1689 fell to 22 thousand, albeit, Christina, the Queen of
Swedens allowance of 12 thousand scudi did not have to be paid.127
All in all, the State expenditure of the Holy See was 735,000 scudi in 1669, under In-
nocent XI it was around only 545583,000. Consequently, the saving, due to the reforms,
was some 200 thousand scudi.128
Due to the smaller budget, the savings at the official papal private expenditure was
smaller, as well. The heavy expenditure of the papal court, which maintained still under
Clement VIII, was cut by Paul V from 131 thousand to 89 thousand scudi by the begin-
ning of the 1610s. Mainly due to the baroque courts needs, under Urban VIII, these
expenses rose up to 150 thousand again. At the end of the 1660s the rate was the same,
and they were reduced to 120 thousand scudi only by the pontificate of Innocent XI. The
expenses of the regular papal court were constant, they were always between 8090 thou-
sand. The austerity measures only succeeded in the case of extraordinary expenses,
namely the spese diverse (spent on services, smaller festivals, feasts, the presents of the
guests, on painters, sculptures, musicians, etc.), sometimes they fell from 60 thousand
to 3031 thousand. However, the sum of the papal charities increased from 100 (it was
under the Borgheses and Barberinis) thousand to some 120 thousand.129
Some concrete examples on the ordinary and extraordinary expenditures of the pa-
pal household from 1672: the papal laundries received 300, the cleaners of the papal suite
(scopatori segreti) 120, the jeweller 72, the floral gardener 32, the servants 12 scudi a year.
The annual salary of the tesoriere segreto was 750 scudi, however about 1700 was spent
on the gardens of Vatican and Quirinal; the present for the Spanish delegate cost 3,750,
the auditors of the Rota received 1,800 scudi on their last annual session and 4,825 scudi
was spent on court musicians, singers, papal guards and clients on the occasions of Eas-
ter, Christmas, the festival of Saint Peter and the jubilee of the popes coronation. The
musicians of the papal chapel earned around 6,000, the sum of 1605, one of the countless
positions, the inspector of the Apostolic Palaces clocks earned 48 scudi.
Together with the charities, the official private papal expenditures decreased from
270,000 only to 240,000. The gained 30 thousand scudi is a negligible sum.130
The biggest part of the papal budgets official expenditures was constituted by the
public debts repayments of interest, which accumulated from the monti and the sale of
offices. The size of the public debt even if it did not reach the 20 million (silver) scudi
that Paul V announced to the imperial delegates who came to ask for help could be
estimated to a considerable sum of 18 and half million. In 1605, the ten million in monti
127
Lutz, Zur Papstfinanz von Klemens IX, loc. cit.
128
The exact data ibid., 72.
129
Ibid.
130
All the above mentioned data: Lutz, Zur Papstfinanz von Klemens IX, loc. cit.; Reinhard, Papstfinanz
und Nepotizmus, loc. cit.

and the four and a half in offices increased in total with three million, which might be
acceptable within the scope of such time.131 The rise of the earlier not heavy public debt
(it should be highlighted how big reserves Sixtus V could accumulate in the Castel Sant
Angelo, though, it did not mean the annulment of the public debt, only its balancing)132
started already under Clement VIII especially as a result of the aids given to the an-
ti-Turkish wars. This tendency continued at a rather accelerated pace during the Borghese
era. The interest charges (the proceeds of the monti, the salary of the officials with bought
offices and the life salary of the owners of the venal offices) were 830 thousand scudi
in 1619. The size of the public debt increased under Urban VIII. The instalments of the
monti (according to the proceeds of 4.5% and in the case of monti vacabili 78%) were
annually one million, based on the sum of the montis twenty million golden scudi and
the venal offices 7.9 million golden scudi forming a total of 36 million silver scudi. The
annual expenditures of the offices were similar to this sum.
All in all, it meant that the total sum of the accumulated debt-annuity was approxima-
tely a fifth as much as the 200220 thousand scudi from the venality of offices; as a con-
sequence, the total instalments of two million consumed more than two thirds of the Holy
Sees total revenues of 2.83 million by the end of the Barberini era.133 Out of the items,
which occur in the budget, the settling years were mainly tied up for the interest
charges; as an example, the collectoria of Naples revenues of 25 thousand (however, the
papal galley was directly supported by a part of this sum) and the spolium revenues of
15 thousand from other parts of Italy or the 80 thousand scudi, which was paid by the
twelve monastic congregations, and the so-called revenues of free use were spent on
this naturally not only during the Barberini era.
In addition to all, many revenues from duties did not occur in the accounts but passed
directly into the hands of the owners of the venal offices as instalments (which includ-
ed an even bigger income and expenditure than in the numerical data), as a result, the
contemporaries estimation on public debt of 40 million does not sound exaggerated.134
The payments of interest constituted a considerable sum in the second half of the cen-
131
132
The annulment could not have been realised, even if the financial circumstances would have enabled, the
creditors, the buyers of the monti and offices would have lost their ordinary revenues from the instalments.
They would have received their invested capitals in vain, if the absence of profit had caused social tension.
133
134
Without any separate references of source, at Poncet (Innocenzo X, 328), then at Rosa (Alessandro VII, 343.)
the amount of the public debt in the 1650s was 48 million. It can be hardly believable, they might have been
based on contemporary estimations, with which, apart from some exceptions, one should deal gingerly. These
estimations, for example, reckoned the sum given to the nephews from Clement VIII to Clement X at only
30 million scudi, moreover the rate of the venal offices, sold by the Dataria, at only 6 million. (Cf. Menniti
Ippolito, Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 127128 and 153.) Concerning the sum of the public debt, the fig-
ure which was given by Georg Lutz who intensively dealt with this question of 36 million, by rounding
40 million, can be accepted also after the 1640s. (Cf. more by Grisar, Francesco Ingoli ber die Aufgaben des
kommenden Papstes, 312313, n. 49.) Even if certain authors do not mention the cessation of the debt increase,
but only its paces decrease in the second half of the century. Osbat, Clemente X, 366.

tury, though, due to the gradual decrease of the proceeds of the venal offices and monti
(the process started already under Innocent X and accelerated by Alexander VII)135 they were
only between 1.351.47 million scudi. By the middle of Innocent XIs pontificate they lessen-
ed with a sum of 200300 thousand which meant the same amount of net profit.136
The Total Balance of the Papal Budget
The numerical expenditures were a total of 2.12.7, or between 23 million scudi in

the seventeenth century. Comparing with the revenues of 2.12.8, at least 3 million, the
deficit and surplus of the budget show a different picture in every pontificate (even
annually).137 The above mentioned values are the extreme values of the minimum and
maximum revenues of the century. Within these bounds, the annual relative difference
was always divergent. Theoretically, if the most successful year, for instance 1667, had
met the year with the least expenditures, there could have accumulated a surplus of 800
thousand one million scudi, however this never happened. The expected higher income
encouraged an increased expenditure already during the year. If we draw the balance of
the annual revenues and expenditures of the Papacy, it is clearly seen that the surplus of
the budget under Paul V was rather solid (100120 thousands scudi). The merit of Pope
Borghese is that he succeeded in consolidating the annual papal revenues permanently
above two million. His profit was proven by the fact that he could increase the income
of the tesoro di Castel Sant Angelo138 with 216 thousand scudi. His rational economy was
only surpassed by Innocent XI in the course of the century.139 During the short Ludo-
visi and the long Barberini era, there was basically no profit, Urban VIII could provide
the balance only with the increase of the Church revenues. The incredible growth of
the public debt can be explained by the phenomenon of covering the lack with credits.
In the last years of Urban VIIIs pontificate, the threatening total financial collapse due
to the Wars of Castro could only be avoided by the 800 thousand scudi from the Cas-
tel Sant Angelo.140
In the second half of the century, the years of a lower, 150200 thousand scudi,
profit (for instance 1652, 1657, 1660, 1664, 1667) and the years of a similarly not heavy
loss of 100190 thousand scudi (16681667), alternated with each other. The causes for
the fluctuation were the years of poor crop and the expenses of the Cretan War. The
permanent profit of 0.50.6 million scudi was reached by the 1680s, however, not due
135
136
On the above mentioned Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Clemens VIII, I, lxlxix; Reinhard, Papst-
finanz und Nepotizmus, 2123; Lutz, Rom und Europa, 130134; Grisar, Ppstliche Finanzen, 205210 and
237239; Lutz, Zur Papstfinanz von Klemens IX, 7679.
137
Concrete data: Lutz, Zur Papstfinanz von Klemens IX, 80.
138
Monaco, Le finanze pontificie al tempo di Paolo V, 4445.
139
140
Tuccimei, Il tesoro dei pontifici, 2527.

to the significant growth (the revenues were between 2.52.6 million) but to the stead-
fast and strict austerity measures of Innocent XI. This was the financial background of
the Papacys such immense anti-Turkish aid-programme that had not been experienced
since the late sixteenth century. Consequently, the more than two million scudi sent to
the Habsburgs and to the Polish king in the 1680s was the sacrifice of the papal budgets
four years net profit for the universal aims of Catholicism.141
The tendency of the papal budget, namely the financial problems of the previous dec-
ades explain the earlier political and Church administrational behaviour of the Papacy,
especially of the Barberini era. Romes loss of importance in international politics, the
deterioration of its relations with the local Churches and the breaking of the Catholic
reforms impetus were of a financial background. One of the most striking lessons of
the revenues and expenditures of the papal budget was the fact of how few the Holy See
spent on the maintenance of the effectual central Church administration and the reform
institutions (for instance on the northern papal colleges). These sums do not reach the
level of the Church revenues, especially not under their temporary growth under Ur-
ban VIII. Due to the redemption of debts, the other expenses had the forced preference.
Therefore, it is understandable why the financial basis of the Sacred Congregation for
the Propagation of the Faith, which was founded in 1622 as the highest authority of mis-
sions, could be only created by the duties paid after the cardinal rings. This can hardly
be regarded as a usual, stable, or lavish financial system, notwithstanding that the ba-
roque Papacys pastoral program gave special attention to the mission organization.142
Buildings: City-planning and Development
In spite of the data, which seem ample though, they were chosen only as a sample , an im-
portant question has not been answered yet. Namely, how the catastrophic financial
circumstances of the 1640s could be stabilized by the second half of the century. More-
over, how could they accumulate a surplus, despite the fact that the economy did not
grow and the Church revenues (mainly the annatas, compositions and duties paid to the
141
On all of these, see the literature quoted in the earlier notes and the summary of Lutz: Zur Papstfinanz
von Klemens IX, 8191; a more detailed analysis of the papal budgets balance, by covering also the sixteenth
century: Partner, Papal Financial Policy, 3257; and a comprehensive chart: Reinhard, Finanza Pontificia,
491 (Stima teorica per unanalisi del circuito finanziario legato alla S. Sede fra 1570 e 1600. In millioni di scudi di
moneta) = Stumpo, Il capitale finanziario a Roma, 308.
142
Partner, Papal Financial Policy, 5862; and Josef Metzler, Foundation of the Congregation De Pro-
paganda Fide by Gregory XV, Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide memoria Rerum, I1, 79111. After
having fought our way through the depth of the papal finances, we must have a picture about the state of
the Papstfinanz in the early modern period. If one happens to be interested in the more detailed and more
exact data, which were cross-checked with the earlier research, examine the impressive monograph of En-
rico Stumpo (Il capitale finanziario a Roma). The secular revenues: 65160; the Church revenues: 161217;
the shaping of the debt: 219306; their summary 307320.

Buildings: City-Planning and Development 131
Dataria) considerably regressed? No matter how significant they were, the sheer auster-
ity measures the breaking of the officials safeguarding colleges by limiting the direct
flow of the incomes to them; the reduction of the salaries and interests, the sums spent
on the army; the shortening of the cardinal provisions did not result in the halt of the
public debts accumulation under Urban VIII and the free use of the profitable years
benefits. It can even be asked on what the accumulated public debt of 40 million, namely
the State credits mainly drawn in monti which were not represented numerically
among the revenues and the revenues of the earlier profitable years (for instance the
two million, gained under Paul V) had been spent.
Among the extraordinary expenditures, the aid given to the Catholic League during
the Thirty Years War should be noted; however, its total sum was not countless. From
Alexander VII on, the sum of the aid continuously provided to the Habsburgs, Venice
and Poland against the Turks exceeded by far the earlier sums. The peacekeeping actions
of Gregory XV in the conflict of Valtellina, then the expenses of the Wars of Castro
and Clement IXs entry to the Cretan War meant a great burden.
Although, there are no extant data and exact registers, the building must have cost
a fortune to form the baroque Romes still fascinating face. The city-planning, even if
in many cases it was part of the papal patronage, can be considered to be a State invest-
ment, which obviously required a high cost.
Paul V from whom the public investments enjoyed an enormous advantage sent,
as an example, 165 thousand scudi to the fortification of Ferrara and spent 1.7 million
scudi on the Eternal City which almost reached one years total sum of State revenues.
There is no exact data about the cost of the extension of Civitavecchia, about the road
constructions towards Marca, about the modernization of the water-system, nor about
the building of the Aqua Paola in Trastevere. The building of the Saint Peters Basilicas
portico, designed by Carlo Maderno whose plans were objected by many cardinals
since he changed Michelangelos original plans , and the two bell-towers counted as
representative investments. 300 thousand was allotted to the Basilica. Paul V also had
the Quirinal rebuilt into a monumental papal residence, whose chapel, the Capella Paolina
formed on the analogy of the Sistine Chapel, was ready by 1617.143
The investments of 16201640 are also non-negligible, however, Urban VIIIs long
pontificate and his turn towards Italy can be considered as rather moderate. The most
spectacular memorabilia of his reign is the liturgical space which was consecrated on
18 November 1626. The primary material for Berninis baldachins characteristically
twisted bronze columns of fourteen tons, standing beneath the dome and above the tomb
of the Apostle, was from the porticus of the Pantheon, from which also the eighty can-
nons of the Castel Sant Angelo were cast. Apart from the baldachin which was con-
secrated on 29 June 1633 and cost 200 thousand scudi , the central space of the basilica
143
More literature: Reinhardt, Paolo V, 284286; his illustrated art historical description: Jack Was-
serman, The Quirinal Palace in Rome, Art Bulletin 45 (1963) 205244; on the later alterations: Dorothy
Metzger Habel, The Urban Development of Rome in the Age of Alexander VII, Cambridge 2002, 1162.

was decorated by monumental statues, altars, etc. around 16291641. Bernini raised such
a tomb to the imperishable memory of the Barberinis, adorned with the monumental
bronze statue of the pope, like Madernas faade, built to the Borgheses. Whilst, there
were only some minor alterations (there were two private chapels established) and dec-
orating works (the ornamentation of the corridor above the Cortile de San Damaso) in
progress in the Apostolic Palace.
Apart from the extension of some squares and the establishment of the via Urbana,
there were not other significant city-planning programs accomplished. In parallel to the
construction of the Santa Maria della Concezione in the Piazza Barberini, there were
many churches restored. The San Salvatore ai Monti and the San Lorenzo in Fonte
were restored in 1630, the SS. Cosma e Damiano nel Foro in 1632, the Sant Anastasia al
Circo Massimo in 1636. Also many marvellous fountains were built (Fontana della Bar-
caccia, Fontana del Tritone, Fontana delle Api); the palace of the Sapienza was extended
(16281632) and the university churchs (Sant Ivo) building was started. The moderate
developments might have been compensated by the coat of arms of the papal family. The
contemporaries counted some ten thousand engraved, cast in bronze and painted bees.
The real construction fever spread in the city only during 16421644. Thousands of
workers built the three-kilometre long city wall with twelve bastions by the Gianicolo,
which finally solved the defence of the Eternal City from the sea, as well. With the
fortification of the ports of Civitavecchia and Ancona on the other side, Pope Barberi-
ni in contrast to the beginning of his pontificate did not prepare for the prevention
of a distant devastating wars spread. Namely, after long decades, the Papal State was
already at war with the duke of another Italian State, with Odoardo Farnese, the Duke
of Parma and Piacenza.144
In the Barberini era, one cannot come across such investments which were compa-
rable to the amount of the indebtedness. Furthermore, the number of buildings did not
reduce; as an example, we can think of the most imperishable memory of Innocent Xs
Papacy, of the Piazza Navona with its church, palaces and fountains, or of the fact that
the city-planning and development played a central role under Alexander VII. It might
have been in close connection with the fact that Pope Chigi could never recover from the
effects of the trauma of Mnster. The truth was that the affairs of the world were not
decided in Rome but primarily in Paris, Vienna and Madrid and partly in London, Amster-
dam and Istanbul, which made the pope send reality into his subconscious and endeavour
to build up a new Rome, by rivalling with the antique glamour, to counteract his loss.145
The mottos of the Chigi era were the magnificence and beauty (magnificenza e
bellezza), hallmarked by Bernini and Borromini.146 The most known memorabilia of
144
Francis Haskell, Patrons and Painters. A Study in the Relations between Italian Art and Society in
the Age of Baroque, London 1963, 3166, 2462; and with related bibliography: Lutz, Urbano VIII, 311312.
145
Krautheimer, The Rome of Alexander VII, 131147.
146
As also earlier. Cf. Frederick Hammond, Musik and Spectacle in Baroque Rome: Barberini Patronage
under Urban VIII, New Haven 1994, 360.

Buildings: City-Planning and Development 133
Alexanders Rome, the Roma Alessandrina, was the colonnade of the Saint Peters square.
Above all, at that time the Piazza del Popolo developed, the grandiose plans of the Span-
ish Steps were elaborated, the Pantheon and the Pyramid of Cestius were restored and
the church of the Sapienza was completed by an architecturally peculiar accomplish-
ment.147 The degree of the opening of new roads affecting the system of the city and
the building and restoring of churches was insomuch that it would be difficult to list.148
The reconstructions, the quality of the roads and their maintenance were controlled
by a separate authority, the Congregazione delle Strade, which was re-established by the
pope himself.149 The recording and propagation of the obtained results were provided
by the outstanding, illustrated publication of Giovanni Battista Falda, which occurred
in the book stores in 16661667.150 The establishment of the library of the Sapienza
(Bibliotheca Alessandrina) and the conveyance of the codices of Urbino (Codici Urbinati)
to the Vatican in 1657 not only strengthened the memory of arts but science, as well.151
By 16701680, the pace of the public investments undoubtedly slowed down. From
Clement X, the tomb raised to his predecessor in the Santa Maria Maggiore, the bridge of
the Castel Sant Angelo and the decoration, mainly with statues, of the Saint Peter Basili-
cas portico and colonnades remained for posterity,152 yet, from the era of Innocent XI not
so much was preserved. The phenomenon in spite of exact data , which explains the
saving, does not explain the halt of the accumulation of debts. Moreover, the buildings
regained strength under Innocent XII, this time the social institutions and services were
extended, such as hospitals.153
The answer for our question is to be sought somewhere else.
147
Krautheimer, The Rome of Alexander VII, 9093. 114125. 102109; Metzger Habel, The Urban
Development of Rome, 6395. 140256. 257285.
148
Their detailed representation: Krautheimer, The Rome of Alexander VII, 15130.
149
Krautheimer, The Rome of Alexander VII, 17; cf. the section about the congregations in Chapter V.
150
Il Nuovo Teatro delle fabriche et edificij in prospettiva di Roma moderna sotto il felice pontificato di N. S.
Papa Alessandro VII.
151
Rosa, Alessandro VII, 343. Another comprehensive analysis of the developments under Pope Chigi:
Metzger Habel, The Urban Development of Rome, 286325.
152
Osbat, Clemente X, 366; on the decline of the patronage of Roman art after Alexander VII: Haskell,
Patrons and Painters, 146166.
153
Ago, Innocenzo XII, 397399; and more by Gisondi, Innocenzo XII, 119130.

IV
The Papal Nepotism
The knowledge of the economical malfunction, of the constraint of the papal courts
inner mechanisms operation and of the rather controlled state of the revenues and expend-
itures helps us to understand the change of the centre in the Catholic confessionalisation
during the early modern period. However, to get an overall picture one should examine
the spiritualised form of the patron-client system of the early modern period, namely, the
papal nepotism. In the unique historical phenomenon these factors functionally amalga-
mated. This complex formation was at the same time the determinant trend of the social
structure and the operation of the Church administration of the Papal State.
Although, with the understanding of these manifestations the abstract of the Papacys
inner world is not yet complete; the question of nepotism can also be examined from the
aspect of the papal expenditures. As a consequence, the culmination then breaking and re-
gression of the system of nepotism can be regarded as the most important cause of the papal
budgets stunning deficit then its rehabilitation. According to the Jesuit Joseph Grisar, in terms
of finance, this occurrence meant considerable squandering of the State and Churchs goods.
In the early modern period, a new type of the papal nepotism was performed. The main-
tenance of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the Papal State precluded the nephews
from establishing separate duchies, like under the Borgias, or from organizing independent
principalities, like that of the reign of the Farneses in Parma. A significant attribute of the nep-
otism in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was the assignment of the State and Church
revenues considerable part to the papal relatives: in the form of money, monti, pensions,
curial offices, benefices and sometimes of the incomes from taxes and duties. Naturally, the
relatives of the prevailing pope were always beneficiaries of the papal authority, from earlier
times to the twentieth century. Moreover, in the course of the early modern period, the papal
nepotism embodied a unique factor, namely the primary relative, the cardinal nephew, had
outstanding rights in the Church and State administration as the leader of the papal diplomacy.
He was the correspondent of the nuncios, therefore, the reports were addressed to him
and the instructions were written in his name. The system, as such, existed from 1538 to the
middle of the seventeenth century, however it was abolished only at the end of the century.1
A satisfactory outline with thorough bibliography on nepotism: Teodori, I parenti del papa, ixxviii.
1
Grisars analysis of the papal finances can be found in his often quoted work.

136 The Papal Nepotism
Mainly the nature of nepotism should be examined, whether it was organically em-
bedded in the society or if it was a matter of corruption; furthermore, what kind of func-
tions did it have in the State mechanism and what was the proportion of the functional
and dysfunctional factors.2
Functions and Dysfunctions
1538 was the year of the commission, with which Paul III charged his almost eighty-year
old uncle, to control the diplomatic correspondence. From this moment, the primary cardi-
nal relative, usually the cardinal nephew, can be regarded as a sort of vice-pope concerning
the secular wielding power. He possessed far-reaching licenses which were circumscribed
by the breve. Besides the pope, he is the one who negotiates with the foreign delegates; he
obtained the title of soprintendente dello Stato Ecclesiastico (the superintendent of the Papal
States). It meant that he corresponded with the legates, the provinces, and the vice-legates,
moreover, he led the important congregations: the Sacra Consulta and the Buon Gover-
no. However, in the questions closely related to the Church he hardly had a leading role.
The existence of the cardinal nephew can be compared to two contemporary Europe-
an offices. On the one hand to the intendants, which controlled the operation of the
central State offices, and the chief intendants; on the other hand to the favourites, who
monitored the State offices, such as, Mazarin, Richelieu, Buckingham and the Spanish
Lerma. Around the seventeenth century, as the latters were replaced by the prime minis-
ter (primus minister),3 the cardinal nephew was replaced by the secretary of State. If we
examine the formally received licences, theoretically the nephew had real total power.4
In the European context, apart from the similarities, there is a difference of sub-
stance. Concerning the court representation, the Papacy, as a complex ruling system,
characterised its own monarch and administration in a unique way. That is to say,
2
Reinhard, Nepotismus, 145147; on the historiographical debate about the question of nepotism: Ma-
deleine Laurain-Portemer, Ministriat, finances et papaut au temps de la rforme catholique, Bibliothque
de lcole des Chartes 134 (1976) 396403 (an answer to the criticism of Reinhard on Portemers later
quoted work).
3
On the difference between the favourites and the primus ministers in the general which was pre-
vailed last in Vienna European administrative development: Jean Brenger, Pour une enqute europene:
Le problme du ministeriat au XVIIe sicle, Annales 29 (1974) 166192, on Vienna 177183.
4
The exact official name of the cardinal nephew: generalis et specialis superintendens. The first remained breve
of appointment was Francesco Barberinis, though, its existence might be traced back to earlier times. The breve
of 1623 in reality motu proprio is issued: Madeleine Laurain-Portemer, Absolutisme et npotisme. La sur-
intendance de ltat ecclsiastique, Bibliothque de lcole des Chartes 131 (1973) 487568, 552561. The contem-
porary list of the cardinal nephews rights and duties in nine points: Andreas Kraus, Amt und Stellung des
Kardinalnepoten zur Zeit Urbans VIII. (1623), RQ 53 (1958) 238243. The latest outline on the comparison of
the cardinal nephew and the ministers of favourites, moreover on the emphasis of the Roman peculiarities
and the offices of the nephew: Brigith Emich, Brokratie und Nepotismus unter Paul V. (16051621). Studien
zur frhneuzeitlichen Mikropolitik in Rom (Ppste und Papsttum 30), Stuttgart 2001, 13344149 and 201261.

Functions and Dysfunctions 137
in contrast to other European courts it lacked the dynastic-hereditary legitimation. From

time to time, each pontificate was followed by a new reigning family. The pope, as a so-
vereign monarch, had to establish the representation of his secular dominion which was
always threatened by the uncertainty, derived from the lack of continuity with the ab-
sence of this legitimizing factor. The emphasis of the spiritual base of the Papacy and
the strengthening of the spiritual legitimacy could not retrieve this lack, moreover it
rather narrowed down the opportunities of representation. The reform of the Curia after
Trent was basically against the court. The tournaments, competitions (which were
organised even under Pius IV), lavish festivals, hunting, banquettes were vivid parts of
the court life of the Roman Renaissance and the Baroques secular life at court, how-
ever they totally disappeared from the papal court by the second half of the sixteenth
century. The spiritual legitimation of the reform Papacy, which served as a basis for the
development of the papal absolutism, hindered the popes from taking the opportunity
of the Baroque forms of the absolute power. Due to this tendency, the expenditures,
spent on the papal court, reduced in the second half of the sixteenth century, the nadir
was under Sixtus V. However, under Clement VIII and Urban VIII they considerably
grew but never reached the degree of the Renaissance.5
A solution to the representation of the papal secular power, which differed from the
European trends and did not hurt the spiritual legitimacy, had to be found. It was realised
in two ways; on the one hand, in the field of an outstanding and intensive, sometimes
monopolized architecture and art.6 The richness of the compelling architecture and
art of the Baroque Rome was due to the lack of opportunities of power manifestation.
On the other hand, the other solution was embodied by the delegation of the necessary
secular power representation. The necessity of the delegation of this secular function
practice explains the phenomenon of the papal nepotism of the early modern period,
which becomes an organic and active part of the papal reigning system by the symbol-
ic delegation of power representation. Thus, the vast amount of money, spent on the
building processes and given to the cardinal nephew, cannot be regarded as unnecessary
and vain expenditures of the Papal State, or as a tool of corruption. As a consequence,
one cannot handle such statements like Leo XI did not stain himself with nepotism,
as the previous Medici Popes, Leo X and Clement VII had done.7 From this ap-
proach, nepotism in the early modern period was a unique formation of the function
and self-revelation of the Baroque papal monarchical administration, which had a real
role in the legitimacy of dominion.8
Due to the traditionally restricted administrative alternatives (which are well illustrat-
ed by the breves, bulls set phrases and locutions), the pope could participate in the daily
5
Volker Reinhardt, Der ppstliche Hof um 1600, Europische Hofkultur im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert IIII
(Wolfenbtteler Arbeiten zur Barockforschung 810, hrsg. v. August Buck et al.), Hamburg 1981, III, 713.
6
Haskell, Patrons and Painters, 323.
7
Mondin, Ppk enciklopdija [The Encyclopaedia of the Popes], 480.
8
Reinhardt, Der ppstliche Hof, loc. cit.

affairs only through the nominal initiation of the nephew, the prime official of the
Curia, into the exercise of power by means of issuing documents. This way, he could
keep the formal aloofness. As an example, a letter of the nephew in fact of the Secre-
tariat , which was often drafted and corrected by the pope, was enclosed to the breves.
The role of the cardinal nephew enabled the preservation of the role of the papal pad-
re commune also within the Curia. Formally, the papal clientele did not belong to the
pope but to the nephew in Rome as well as in the country9 , therefore he was called
cardinal patron (cardinale padrone) often even in the diplomatic correspondence.10
Not only was the reception of the delegates and monarchs the task of the nephew on
the side of the pope, but also, as an alter-ego, the arrangement of the visitors catering and
banquets in and out of Rome. He had to behave like the prince of the State (Principe di
Stato). He took over the role of the patron of culture, founded an art collection and li-
brary.11 However, he never discharged his duties in his own name. His authority derived
from the popes, consequently this granted power automatically ceased to exist with
the death of the pope; however, in most cases, he wielded influence over the process of
the conclaves. His activity had three phases: the life of the pope, the vacancy, then the
period under the new pope. In the course of the latter, a couple of titles for life and the
loyalty of the earlier clients, moreover the diversified personal strategies helped to main-
tain the fragments of his influence over the Curia,12 such as in the case of Francesco
Barberini as opposed to Scipione Borghese and Ludovico Ludovisi.
The tested and functioning system remained unchanged until the middle of the sev-
enteenth century. One of the reasons for its banning was the loss of the papal role as a
great power and the secular power representations loss of importance. The functions of
the cardinal nephew were performed by the cardinal secretary of State without a par-
ticular financial support. In 1676, Alderano Cybo obtained all the licences of the cardi-
nal nephew from Innocent XI and later practiced them without receiving any surplus
endowments. The practical activity of the cardinal secretaries despite the occasional
functional mishaps henceforward supported the reputation of the prevailing pope.
In so far as we can talk about the sacralisation of the papal role in the eighteenth centu-
ry.13 However, earlier the reigning system, based on nepotism, had no real alternative.14
9
On how important it was in everyday life, and how it generated the production of correspondence, see:
Stader, Herrschaft durch Verflechtung, 169284.
10
On keeping connection with mainly those clients who were in governmental function: Emich, Brokratie
und Nepotismus, 115152.
11
Cf. for example Hammond, Musik and Spectacle in Baroque Rome, 117252; and especially on the ceremo-
nial calendar of events of Urban VIIIs pontificate: 255282.
12
Antonio Menniti Ippolito, Il tramonto della Curia nepotista. Papi, nipoti e burocrazia curiale tra XVI e
XVII secolo (La corte dei papi 5), Roma 1999, 2970, 3039 (its praising review from the Jesuit Giacomo
Martina: AHP 37 (1999) 220223).
13
Caffiero, La maest del papa, 286294.
14
Reinhardt, Der ppstliche Hof, loc. cit.

Functions and Dysfunctions 139
In the political-social reality, from the point of view of the optimal exercise of power,
many predominant dysfunctional characteristics associated with the undoubted function-
ality of nepotism, which was based on the administrational-power and social organising
demand for legitimacy. In the early modern period, the cardinal nephews, in spite of
their prominent rank, their extensive influence and several titles, did not have real, in-
dependent decision making jurisdiction yet, like the western European favourites. This
is proved by the range of the juvenile cardinal nephews. In the case of Alessandro Far-
nese who was the second relative in this role Paul III managed the affairs with the
help of his loyal secretaries. Practically, the same happened under Paul V with Scipione
Borghese. However, there were some exceptions, such as Francesco Barberini, who again
and again attempted to seize the cases; or the nephews, who filled the power vacuum
under the weak and sickly popes, like Sfondrati under Gregory XIV or Ludovico Lu-
dovisi under Gregory XV. The formula could change even during a given pontificate.15
From this approach, the real and permanent role of the cardinal nephew was to
enable provision for the papal family, he had the right to transfer the diverse Church
revenues then with the help of free will, he could perpetuate them into the familys
wealth. Behind the titles and allowances, given to other relatives, there was not a power
legitimizing background. The contemporary social values and norms allowed the pope
to provide for his relatives, moreover, it was his moral obligation. (Even in the middle
of the eighteenth century, the main hindrance of Innocent XIs raising to the altar was
the accusation that he had not loved his family enough.)
Not only did the popes avail themselves of nepotism to legitimize their reign but
also to strengthen their inner power basis and to provide for their familys social rise.
The phenomenon of the development of the self-made papal dynasties became signifi-
cant already from the fifteenth century, within the scope of that general tendency,
according to which the wealthy citizens endeavoured to enrich the aristocracy. (That is
quite another matter that the Italian aristocratic families repeatedly gave popes to the
Church.) From Eugene IV (14311447) to Alexander VIII every popes family became
part of the aristocracy, even if in the second half of the seventeenth century, the ac-
cumulated incomes could not be compared to the earlier amounts. The stake was still
high, though. Notably, in the 1630s, Giacinto Centini hatched a hazardous plot for the
assassination of Urban VIII, who, according to the contemporary opinion, was reigning
for a rather long time. He meant to keep the hope of his elderly uncles creation as pope
and his creation as a cardinal nephew.16
In the creation of a new dynasty the critical point was the death of the pope. Con-
sequently, at that time it appeared whether the obtained social positions were made last-
ing enough. The last nephew, who was elected a pope, was Clement VII.17 A new popes
15
Reinhard, Nepotismus, 171175; [Idem], Papal Power and Family Strategy, 341344.
16
M. Rosi, La congiura di Giacinto Centini contro Urbano VIII 163335, ASRSP 22 (1899) 348370.
17
Reinhard, Nepotismus, 147167 (the earlier historical examples) and 168171; Papal Power and Family
Strategy, 341344.

accession to the throne meant a great shock also to the clients; such careers which span-
ned several pontificates like the Ludovisi-client, Domenico Cecchinis18 or Rospigliosis,
who was supported by the Barberinis and remained the head of the nunciature of Ma-
drid until 165219 , were regarded as exceptions owing to their clever personal strategies.
All in all, nepotism of the early modern period apart from the unique legitimizing
role can be characterised by many dysfunctions, whose main practical purpose was to
support the rise of the papal family and to establish their social providence. It could exist
only because it met the contemporary norms, the obligatory command of the pietas, the
expectations of the magnificentia and liberalitas, and the social movements.
Its banning is traced back to three reasons: 1. to the loss of the role of being a great
power which made the representation of the nephew useless. 2. Secondly, to its over-
growth in the Barberini era which hurt the public good, the bonum commune, and was no
longer supported by the demand of the pietas. 3. Thirdly, to the change in social structure
of the second half of the seventeenth century. The growth of the economic crisis, the
cessation of mobility basically altered the common norms. Therefore, nepotism, which
represented the most spectacular form of the social rise, became unacceptable, for good.
The criticism, expressed against it in the seventeenth century, did not differ from the
earlier ones, however created entirely different stir amidst the altered circumstances.20
The Golden Age
After the above mentioned, let us examine what the mechanism for the creation of
the papal dynasty was like. The practical role of the cardinal nephews in the State and
Church administration will be detailed in the next chapter.
The Borgheses and Ludovisis
Camillo Borghese who was elected pope in 1605 and whose, as well as his familys,
uniformly rising curial career is one of the best known and most typical 21 adopted a
relative from the female line for lack of other possibility , his sisters son, Scipione
Caffarelli and created him a cardinal. Caffarelli-Borghese won in quick succession the
18
Reinhard, Freunde und Kreaturen, 6367. His manifold course of life is more vividly described in
his biography. L. Fumi, Il cardinale Cecchini romano secondo la sua autobirografia, ASRSP 10 (1887) 287322.
19
It was, for instance, welcomed in the Curia that the nuncio procured archdeaconry for Camillo Pamphili
in the chapter of Toledo. Poncet, Innocenzo X, 351.
20
Reinhard, Nepotismus, 175185; Papal Power and Family Strategy, 341344. The analysis of the term of
pietas and its practice in the early modern period: Wolfgang Reinhard, Papa Pius. Prolegomena zu einer
Sozialgeschichte des Papsttums, Von Konstanz nach Trient, 261299, the general establishments concerning
the epoch: 261262. 276278. 283285. 289. 297299 (Ausgewhlte Abhandlungen, 1336).
21
As it was already quoted in the Introduction. Reinhard, mterlaufbahn und Familienstatus, 328381.

The Golden Age 141
various smaller-bigger privileges and offices of a protocoled and real nature. He could
have a private chapel; he could celebrate masses on the papal altar of Saint Peters Basilica
and the Santa Maria Maggiore; his confessor was provided for in all the existing facul-
ties, consequently in the matter of conscience, he did not depend on anybody else but
on his subordinate priest. Furthermore, he became the governor of Fermo, then from
16101611 the cardinal-protector of Flanders and the Empire. The latter two positions,
although they did not yield little income, were mainly to strengthen the international
political relations of the family, especially in the Habsburgs direction. Naturally, he
immediately received the facultas testandi, the right for bequeathing his increasing capi-
tals freely; moreover he obtained a profusion of economic and tax allowances, such as the
right to manufacture gunpowder. A separate household was arranged for him, besides;
he had a right of jurisdiction over his clientele, except for heresy and high treason. On his
estates, he also won full authority in civil and criminal suits. For practicing his jurisdic-
tion he also received the necessary Church faculties (facultas immiscendi se in criminali-
bus, facultas absolvendi banditos).22
The annual revenues of the cardinal were 8090 thousand scudi in 1609, 140 thousand
in 1612, in 1614 concluding from the rate of the purchasing of properties they yield-
ed 280 thousand. These do not contain the bills and money, constantly given by the pope
(a not too serious amount, some 140 thousand scudi during the whole pontificate), and
the numerous works of art: paintings, sculptures, jewelleries, which laid the biggest
foundation of a collection ever. Only one part of the annual revenue came from the rev-
enues of his offices. Its considerable part did not charge directly the papal budget, but
it was constituted by the numerous ecclesiastical benefices and pensions given to him.23
Excursus
After Trent the accumulation of benefices, unlike in the Renaissance, became nat-
urally impossible. Nobody could be the owner of many bishoprics and Church benefices
(as a coadjutor, administrator), which required pastoral work, at the same time, not even
with papal dispensation. Paul V was incidentally a consistent canonist who strictly su-
pervised the control of the nominees for the chair of a bishop. However, due to curial
opposition, the Council of Trent did not ban the granting of the monastic benefices to
clerics, it only recommended this processs abandonment to the pope. Instead of discon-
tinuing it, the possession of various abbeys and provostships became the primary ways of
the nephews and the Church elite to make their fortune in the early modern period. The
curial officials had a very good chance in the case of vacant non-consistorial benefices,
namely those which belonged to the Dataria (canonries, altar directories, etc.). However,
the papal clients had the most opportunities. Their scope for action was increased by the
fact that according to the rules of the Chancery, the popes reserved the granting of the
22
Reinhard, Papstfinanz und Nepotizmus, 2430; mterlaufbahn und Familienstatus, 392396; Reinhard,
Papal Power and Family Strategy, 334339; Wodka, Zur Geschichte der nationalen Protektorate, 53 quoted
in the chapter dealing with the Church administration. (VI, note 77)
23
The detailed list of the art treasures: Reinhard, Papstfinanz und Nepotizmus, 5970.

benefices of the passed away cardinals, curial officials, and papal clients and in many cases
of those prelates who died in Rome, which were later granted exclusively to their own
people. The often debated institution of the papal reservatios lived on, yet in a smaller
sphere.24 The other method was the burden on the revenues of the dioceses by the often
quoted pensions.25 According to the regulations of Trent, the residing bishop obtained
only a thousand scudi, the rest of it was spent on other purposes solely by the pope. Other
alternatives were provided by the resignatio in favorem, the institution of the resignations
from benefices, which was popular also in the particular Churches.26 The dispensation
from the obligation of residence was rarely given, even to the cardinals. As a consequence,
a process spread, according to which they resigned from the obtained bishoprics for the
benefit of a concrete person, however, in advance they asked in secret a share from the
income of over a thousand scudi from the new bishop in the form of pension. Formally,
simony was not a matter of question since the new bishop did not pay for his office,
though, the practices bore a very near resemblance. The vast of the cardinals lived up to
this opportunity. (For instance, the later Urban VIII Maffeo Barberini resigned from
his bishopric in Spoleto in this way, though, not for pension but for certain abbeys. Later,
he received a papal permission, which enabled him to gain pensions from his earlier
owned bishoprics and allocated them to his relatives.) Apart from the papal family, the
testamentary bequeathing and the delegation of benefices to a young cleric of the family
(faculatas transferendi) enabled the social evolution of several families.27 The cumulative
system perfectly worked in the territory of the Papal State. However, in France, Spain,
Portugal, Naples, Milan and Savoy, due to the restrictive statute laws and the former
papal concessions the scope of the Curia was rather moderate. In Genoa, Venice and
Tuscany, where concrete papal privilege and concordat of any sort did not control the
question, the will of the local politics always had to be taken into account. The revenues
24
25
The historical preliminaries of the pensions employment, the contemporary criticisms and several prac-
tical examples, see Mario Rosa, Curia Romana e pensioni ecclesiastiche. Secoli XVIXVII, Quaderni Storici 14
(1979) 10151055; on the canonical background Sylvester Francis Gass, Ecclesiastical Pensions. A Historical
Synopsis and Commentary (Canon Law Studies 157), Washington 1942, 40. Apart from the endless venality of
offices, the scientific analysis and evaluation of the also unusual pensions were already accomplished in the
epoch by De Luca, De pensionibus ecclesiasticis, Romae 1684. In the debate, whether only the pope or also
certain bishops could carve a pension out of their revenues, as opposed to Fagnanti, De Luca supported the
latter. Gass, Ecclesiastical Pensions, 4041.
26
On the canonical background and details of the resignations, regulated by Gregory XIII, see: F. Gill-
mann, Die Resignation der Benefizien, AKK 80 (1900) 5079. 346378. 523569. 665788. 81 (1901) 223242.
433460, (on their forms 552664; results: 665687; in favour of a third person: 687708; on the pensions:
433); and recently: P.G. Caron, La rinunzia alluffizio ecclesiastico nella storia del diritto canonico dall et apos-
tolica alla Riforma cattolica, Milano 1946, on the epoch 355410.
27
The various family techniques of obtaining benefices, licences, numerous details of the patron-client
system apart from the ones quoted in the Introduction and Chapter III in all-Italian relation (Milan and
North Italy, Tuscany, the Papal State and Naples): Christoph Weber, Familienkanonikate und Patronats-
bistmer. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte von Adel und Klerus im neuzeitlichen Italien (Historische Forschungen 38),
Berlin 1988, on the Papal State 148266, on the family prelatures of the papal court 169404; Mario Rosa,
Per grazia del papa. Pensioni e commende nellItalia del Seicento, Roma, la citt del papa, 293326 (especially
concerning Tuscany, Venice and Naples); moreover Reinhard, Papal Power and Family Strategy, 329356;
and [Idem], Freunde und Kreaturen, loc. cit.

The Golden Age 143
from the benefices, freely granted by the popes and almost exclusively provided for the
papal limited-wider clientele (consequently, not the direct papal incomes), were signifi-
cant from Naples and southern Italy. Their sum, from 109 bishoprics, was 200 thousand
ducats, which was equivalent to the same amount of golden scudi.28 Not only Sarpi from
Venice, who had explicitly hostile feelings towards Rome, addressed criticism (Trattato
delle materie beneficiare) to the system, but also Robert Bellarmino. His so-called Consi-
derationes quatuor ex concilio Tridentino memorandum of 1612 condemned especially the
accumulation of benefices. In his reflection, Paul V, who had an excellent vein of a jurist,
put the emphasis on the impossibility of the execution of the councils certain decrees,
and on the superiority of the Apostolic See as against the reproaches. The complexity of
the situation is proved by the fact that the quoted Bellarmino enjoyed more benefit than
necessary due to a tidy pension of Toledo.29
Scipione Borghese had an annual income of 38 thousand scudi from reservations and
pensions from the Mediterraneum. He had a profit of 114 thousand scudi from forty-eight
(!) abbeys in the Papal State, Naples, Sicily, Milan, Piemont and Venice, though, these
data remained from 1619, from the end of his uncles pontificate. The cardinal nephew
earned 3.34 million scudi between 1605 and 1621, out of which 850 thousand came from
his positions, 1.19 million from presents and other allowances, 1.3 million from Church
benefices.30 However, his expenditures on his household and various investments (in 1610,
for example 190 thousand) were all in all 3.3 million. As a consequence, he was obliged
to survive the change of the papal throne with a rather solid profit, although, this did
not mean that Paul Vs pontificate was not significantly more fruitful for the Borgheses.
By 1621, in Rome the family had already obtained twenty-nine properties, through pur-
chase and building, and fifty-one estates, parcels of total 2.32 million scudi in the sur-
roundings of the Eternal City. These were not exclusively the acquisitions of the cardinal
nephew in the case of whom we should not forget the revenues which were not reg-
istered in the accounting , but also the popes two brothers, Francesco and Giovanni
Battista Borgheses properties.31
The two secular brothers were excluded from the Church benefices and allowances
as opposed to their nephew. Therefore the degree of the direct papal monte-, bill- and
cash endowment, titled to them, was significantly (some 760 thousand scudi) higher.
The sum might have been higher since, according to the above mentioned system, nu-
merous settlements had been done before the income could have been passed into the
books of the secret treasury. Moreover, the secular nephews won the vast amount of
28
Reinhard, Papstfinanz und Nepotizmus, loc. cit.
29
Antonio Menniti Ippolito, Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 7275.
30
Volker Reinhardt, Kardinal Scipione Borghese (16051633). Vermgen, Finanzen und sozialer Aufstieg
eines Papstnepoten (BDHIR 58), Tbingen 1984, 4071. By analysing only the years from 16071621, Rein-
hard shows an income of only 3,207,000 scudi and a moderate loss. Papstfinanz und Nepotizmus, 3959.
81141. 144145.
31
Reinhard, Papstfinanz und Nepotizmus, 81141; with a profusion of complete, covering up to 1633, de-
tails and an outstanding summary: Reinhardt, Kardinal Scipione Borghese, 1439. 40116. 117181. 182192.
193236. 237258. 259264. 341547 and 548560.

the positions for the secular aristocracy of the Papal State. The title of the general of
the Church with its monthly provision of a thousand scudi, the commandership of the
papal guards, governorship of Borgo (this district between the Vatican and the Castle
of Sant Angelo was not under the public administration of Rome),32 the position of the
Castle of Sant Angelos commander, who earned 600 scudi, furthermore, the com-
mandership of Ancona, Ascoli, Perugias papal fortresses and the duchy of Spoleto and
Benevento (this latter was a papal exclave in the territory of Naples). The income of
only Giovanni Battista was 20 thousand scudi in the year of his death, in 1609.33 Gener-
ally speaking, by the end of the first five years their income was around 100 thousand,
by the end of the tenth year, it was already net 180 thousand per capita, which was rather
glaring compared to the earlier times.34
The positions of Giovanni Battista were inherited by his son, Marcantonio, who in-
herited also the task of establishing a dynasty. Notably, his uncle was childless, and for
this he was regarded as a functionless nephew. The little more than eighteen-year-old
young man was married to a member of a mellowed Roman family, the Orsinis that had
already given many popes.35 In 1619, when he married Camilla Orsini, the wealth of the
Borgheses was in total four million scudi, out of which two million was from provincial
lands and 700 thousand from Roman estates. The palace, which was built around 1605
then augmented near the Piazza di Spagna, and the lavish villa on the Pincio, as well as
the beautiful villas in Frascati, which were ornamented by Pietro Berninis sculptures and
Ludovico Cigolis pictures, were parts of the familys property. The Capella Borghese,
built in the Santa Maria Maggiore, cannot be included here, however, it represented dy-
nastic purposes: this became the vault of the family.36 Such temptation, the ransoming
of the msalliances, could not have been resisted even by an old aristocratic kinsman.37
The poor family of Siena rose amongst the most prosperous Roman families by this
marriage. The process, based on Church wealth and the papal revenues, of the establish-
ment of the dynasty was accomplished. Only the death of the pope had to be survived.38
32
Niccol del Re, Il governatore del Borgo, SR 11 (1963) 1329, 1323. The archontology of the neph-
ew-governors from the Aldobrandinis to the Altieris 2629.
33
Reinhard, Papstfinanz und Nepotizmus, 3159; mterlaufbahn und Familienstatus, 388392. 397406.
The positions in the papal army that the nephews could hold were the following: capitano generale di Santa
Chiesa, capitano generale del mare, luogotenente generale delle galere pontificie, soprintendente generale - prefetto
generale, luogotenente generale delle guardie pontificie.
34
35
As Margherita Aldobrandini had been so to the Farnese family by his predecessor. Zapperi, Der Neid
und die Macht, 3039.
36
Reinhardt, Paolo V, 284286. On the establishment of dynasty and entail, see the recently: Alberto
Corteggiani, Ad instar regum. Note sulla fondazione del giuspatronato fedecommissario Borghese, SR 48 (2000)
6082; the survey of the Villa Borghese and its bewilderingly rich art collection: Guide to the Borghese Gallery,
ed. by Kristina Herrmann Fiore, Roma 20013.
37
38
Reinhard, mterlaufbahn und Familienstatus, 406427

The Golden Age 145
The nuclear family was followed by the extended family and the circle of clients.
The thorough analysis of the curial cursus honorum is a rather complex task and the
necessary basic research is insufficient. The most useful sources are the appointments
of the cardinals. According to them, between 1605 and 1616 there were sixty cardinals
created on seven consistories. In the last five years there were no more appointments.
By analysing the genealogy of the new members, it is shown that a circumscribed group
of them involved the members of old aristocratic and Roman patrician families (Lante,
Millino, Torres, Maffei, Verallo, Leni, Lancellotti, Muti), who got closer to the Borgheses
through marriages. Another group of them belonged to the clientele of the Borgheses,
especially of Scipione (Bichi and Cennini of Siena, furthermore, Tonti, Campori, Ghe-
rardi, Pignatelli). Although, these new appointments did not contrast with the inner
reform of the curial life due to the moderate way of life of the cardinals and their pious
behaviour, the fact that their proportion reached a quarter of the creations (fourteen
out of sixty), the tendency pointed to the improvement of the status familiae, namely to
the dynastic and not reform politics.39
Gregory XV, who was ill and old when he was elected, had little time to strengthen
his familys future which made him spend the papal wealth more intensively. Already on
15 February 1621 he created Ludovico Ludovisi cardinal, then two days later he was ap-
pointed as the prefect of the Secretariat of Briefs and on 21 February the chief-intendant
of the Papal State. Prior to this, the twenty-five-year old nephew was only a referendary
and a prelate member of the Consulta. Under the pontificate of his uncle, the sum of the
properties granted to him was significantly increased by the death of two former cardi-
nal nephews, Pietro Aldobrandini and Alessandro Peretti, the relative of Sixtus V. Apart
from numerous abbeys, commendas, etc., he inherited the lifetime office of the camer-
lengo in 1621 and the vice-chancellor in 1623. Besides the vast prestige, the position of the
chamberlain of the Church and the vice-chancellor (in reality the chancellor) was stra-
tegically important not only since these two ancient offices controlled the Camera and
the Chancellery, but due to their lifetime character, they provided a great influence even
after the demise of the pope. (Their significance is proven by the fact that they could not
have been held by the same person, therefore the position of the camerlengo fell back to
the allied Aldobrandinis.40) Ludovico received monti of 800 thousand scudi and Church
benefices of 1.2 million scudi. The monti and the benefices, even after his uncles death,
yielded annually 230 thousand scudi.
The usual secular offices were taken over from the Borgheses by Orazio, who is
familiar from Valtellina, and his eleven-year old son Ludovicos brother , Niccol.
The financial means of the Ludovisis is shown by the duchy of Zagarolos purchasing for
850 thousand scudi in 1622 from the Colonnas, moreover, besides this, they started the dear
39
40
HC IV, 58.

building of their Roman palace.41 Above all, the pope also bought the duchy of Fiano for
220 thousand scudi for his brother in 1621. Solely in 1622, he gave sixty-two venal offices
to his nephews with a value of 83,755 scudi. The integration of the new dynasty into the
old one was deepened by the marriage of his niece, Ippolita Ludovisi and Giovanni Aldo-
brandini (whose family helped the popes election) and the matrimony of Niccol and
Isabella Gesualdo. Niccol Ludovisi married Constanza Pamphili in 1644 which led to the
three papal families the Aldobrandini, Ludovisi and Pamphili union.42 A wider circle
of clients could not have been established for lack of time. In the course of four consisto-
ries, Gregory XV appointed only twelve cardinals, among whom there was Richelieu.43
The amount of the allowances, granted to the nephews, show a significant rise in the
first quarter of the seventeenth century. Under Clement VIII, the two cardinal nephews
earned annually only 40 and 20 thousand scudi from the Church benefices, however, the
secular relatives, for instance Giovanni Francesco, who died in Varasd as the commander
of the papal troops in Hungary, obtained one million scudi within twelve years.44 Despite
the growth of the expenses spent on the relatives, Montaignes remark on the Boncom-
pagnis, made in the Travel Journal in 1580, is also valid in the case of the Borgheses and
Ludovisis to a certain extent. Namely, Gregory XV could assist his relatives without hurt-
ing the Churchs interests. Comparing to the Spanish crown-cardinal, Gaspare Borgia,
who received a farewell present of 1.2 million scudi at the end of his viceroyalty of Naples,
or as well as to Richelieu, who had a private annual income of 850 thousand cu in 1640,
Scipione Borghese and Ludovico Ludovisi were only impecunious.45
The Barberinis and Pamphilis
Montaignes words can hardly be correlated with the Barberinis. The long pontificate
and the favourable constitution of the family offered more remarkable opportunities to
41
Grisar, Ppstliche Finanzen, 241242; On the privileges, offices and allowances of Ludovico, Niccol and
Orazio Ludovisi, see more: Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Gregors XV., I, 113154. 157178. 178184; Koller,
Gregorio XV, 296297; Jaitner, Kurie und Politik, 916. On Ludovico, more by Mario Rosa, Per Te-
nere alla futura mutazione volto il pensiero. Corte di Roma e cultura politica nella prima met del Seicento,
La corte di Roma tra Cinque e Seicento, 136, 2836.
42
On the connection between the dynastic marriages and the outcome of the conclaves: Maria Antoni-
etta Visceglia, Marriage and Politics at the Papal Court in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, Marriage
in Italy 13001650 (ed. by Trevor DeanK.J.P. Lowe), Cambridge 1998, 197224.
43
Koller, Gregorio XV, 294295.
44
Yet, for example in 1598, all three obtained 6060 thousand scudi, apart from which between 1600 and
1601 they received 190 thousand from the revenues of the Apostolic Camera. In the case of the two cardinals,
the payments for various Church positions are well-known, which did not come to a large sum. Jaitner,
Die Hauptinstruktionen Clemens VIII., I, xcvicxliv; Reinhard, Papstfinanz und Nepotismus, 3132, note
3; Klaus Jaitner, Il nepotismo di Clemente VIII (15921605): il dramma del cardinale Cinzio Aldobrandini,
ASI 146 (1988) 5793; Borromeo, Clemente VIII, 253.
45

The Golden Age 147
them than to their predecessors. Notably, Urban VIII could make three of his relatives car-
dinals; one of them was his elder brother, the Capuchin monk Antonio, the other two were
his other brother who naturally became the general of the Church , Carlos two sons,
the primary and secondary cardinal nephews, Francesco and Antonio. The duty of est-
ablishing the dynasty fell on their younger brother, Taddeo.46
The annual income of the two cardinal nephews, Francesco and Antonios, similarly
to the Borgheses for each was more than 100 thousand scudi. However, in 1632 after the
death of Ludovico Ludovisi, two-thirds of the former nephews wealth, which did not
concern the right of free will, was divided among them and the Capuchin Antonio.
This meant an income of 58,500 scudi annually. The vacancy of the vice-chancellors
position weighed more. It was won by Francesco, out of whose titles this became the
one of primary importance until his death in 1679. At the end of 1633, three members of
the Barberini family also obtained a great part of the Church revenues of the deceased
Scipione Borghese.
The positions of Francesco, the proper cardinale padrone, considering their nature
and proportion, did not differ from his predecessors.47 In the case of the younger An-
tonio who was made cardinal in 1628 and the arciprete of Santa Maria Maggiore in
1629 and received the major orders only in 1633 one can learn that the basic sum of his
revenues was 22 thousand to which at least a Church pension of 8,500 scudi was added.
The number of his abbeys rose up to eighteen by 1643. Besides, he came into possession
of six preceptoria, three priorities and provostships. If his venal offices and other positions
(from 1628 he was the prefect of the Apostolic Signature, from 1638 after the death of
Hippolito Aldobrandini to 1671 camerlengo, he was the member of at least eight con-
gregations and the prefect of the Propaganda, moreover the protector of France48 and
various religious orders, colleges and confraternities) are added to the above mentioned,
there are no doubts that his revenues considerably surpassed the annual 100 thousand scudi
by the middle of the 1630s.49 His uncle, Cardinal Antonio had rather similar allowances.
The destiny of Taddeo, who was acquitted of the process due to the murder of a
papal sbirro, a gendarme, in 1626, was more favourable. In 1625, the Castel Roviano was
bought for him from the Colonnas, which was worth 57 thousand scudi, then, in 1627
Anticoli Corrado was bought for 36 thousand scudi. In 1631, his annual income was some
46
Their longer-shorter biographies with their offices, wealth, patronage can be found in the slightly
out-of-date monograph of the familys history: Pecchiai, I Barberini, Carlo: 130133. Antonio Snr: 151152.
Francesco: 154159. Taddeo: 159189. Antonio Jn: 189213; see more Maria Grazia Iodice, Il cardinal Francesco
Barberini, Roma 1965, 531; with many biographical details Olivier Poncet, Antonio Barberini (16081671) et
la papaut. Rflexions sur un destin individuel en cour de Rome an XVIIe sicle, Mlanges de lcole Francaise
de Rome. Italie et Mditerrane, 108 (1996) 407442.
47
These are listed by Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 1014 quoted in the following chapter.
(V, note 112.)
48
The office went with a French pension of 18 thousand livres. Olivier Poncet, Les cardinaux protecteurs
des couronnes en cour de Rome dans la premire moiti du XVIIe sicle: lexemple de la France, La corte di Roma
tra Cinque e Seicento, 461480, 469471.
49
Lutz, Rom und Europa, 135140; Lutz, Urbano VIII, 309310.

143 thousand scudi; out of which 83 thousand scudi came from the estates, 34 thousand
his offices of representative nature and duties, 26 thousand came from the monti and the
venality of offices, assigned to him. At the end of Urban VIIIs pontificate, when he was
threatened by the loss of the well-paid offices, with motu proprio, various commercial
and economic monopolies were bestowed upon him by his uncle.50
The annual revenue of 143 thousand scudi was equivalent to the profit of a capital value
of approximately three million. However, the vast amount of the incomes could not cover
the expenses of the duke, the deficit was 31,500 scudi. In 1632 he could have been given a
good sum of money infusion by his uncle. At that time, his total assets were four mil-
lion scudi, his annual revenues later reached 200 thousand scudi. In 1640, for example, he
could purchase an Orsini estate (the so-called Stato di Montelibretti) for 1.5 million scudi.51
In parallel to the aiding of relatives, the prestigious investment of an enormous sum
was launched in 1628, namely the building of the Palazzo Barberini (next to the Quattro
Fontane).52 At the same time they created the legal framework of the dynastys establish-
ment. The pope circumscribed the order of inheritance, by ensuring its legitimacy in any
cases (etiam ex presbyteris et coniugatis) by three breves. In 1627, Taddeo was married to Anna
Colonna, whose dowry was 180 thousand scudi, though, only about its one third was paid.
In 1630 Palestrina was obtained again from the indebted Colonnas for 550 thousand scudi.
Owning to this, Taddeo rose to princely rank. His real social position was guaranteed by his
duchy and not by the military ranks, governorships, castellanies inherited from his mean-
while dead father. However, the title of the prefect of Rome led to severe complications.
The extended family, namely Lorenzo Magalotti, Gregorio Nari, Francesco Maria
Macchiavelli obtained special opportunities by being created cardinals among the sev-
enty-four cardinals who were appointed in the course of the eight consistories of 1624,
1629 and 1641. (Four in pectore appointed cardinals died prematurely.) Taddeos marriage
made Girolamo Colonna (16271628), Alessandro Cesarini (1627), Antonio Santacroce
and Giovanni Francesco Guidi di Bagno (1629) related to the Barberini family. Except
of the last two creations in 1641 and 1643, the bestowing of the family was always in the
focus of importance. However, at that time the economic crisis determined the reasons
of support. Out of twenty-nine appointments, there were eight cameralistic officials,
which earned half a million scudi for the benefit of the Papal Treasury. Moreover, four
50
Cf. Pecchiai, I Barberini, 168169.
51
The proof of the Barberinis gigantic art collection is their enormous library. The history of its organi-
zation is made known by Cinzia Fortuzzi, Bibliotheca Barberina. La libreria di Urbano VIII e Francesco
Barberini, Roma 1994. I do not touch upon the positive relation of their patronage, like the employment
of the famous composer, Girolamo Frescobaldi, the architect Maderna, Bernini, Borromini, the humanist
Lucas Holstenius and the Hungarian Melchior Inchoffer, etc. See on all Judith A. Hooks already quoted
outline: Urban VIII. Die Paradoxie der geistlichen Monarchie, 213231.
52
The theatre and iconography, appearing in the inner ornamentation of the palace, of nepotism, espe-
cially concerning Taddeo Barberini: John Beldon Scott, Images of Nepotism. The Painted Ceilings of Pa-
lazzo Barberini, Princeton, 1991, 33124 and 160179.

The Golden Age 149
of them were from Genoa, indicating that partly the banks of Genoa prevented the
economic bankruptcy of the Holy See.53
The personal policy, though, was ambiguous. Out of the fifty-six cardinals in the
conclave of 1644, fifty owed their hat to Urban VIII, however, the nominee of the Bar-
berini faction, Giulio Sacchetti received only 5, namely five votes. The failure of the
smooth transfer of power cannot only be led back to the political, military and economical
bankruptcy of the Barberini pontificate. There was grave opposition to the pope within
the Sacred College, since the cardinals were deprived of their usual Church allowances
due to his unlimited nepotism. It speaks volumes that the term of nepotism naturally,
not the institution evolved in those years.54 During the twenty-one years, the Barbe-
rinis obtained some 30 million scudi in cash and other revenues, out of which 1.7 million
was explicitly escamerazione, namely the direct expenditure of the Apostolic Camera.
The ten-twelvefold of this outrageous number could be regarded as the total rev-
enue of a fruitful year and in such extent, a completely unproductive prestige invest-
ment. Apart from Taddeo, the ample allowance of the three cardinal relatives (and other
relatives) and the less numerical sum of other expenditures, for example spent on the
building of palaces, shook the papal budget to the fundaments by 1640 and caused the
catastrophic accumulation of the public debt. The financial faltering of the Holy See
not only questions the popes personal and moral responsibility but also proves it. Urban
VIII, himself, was aware of this problem; he asked the statement of theologians around
16421643, though, his worsening illness might have played a role in this, not his scru-
ple. However, he might have desired to strengthen the total papal authority on the level
of economy in this way, or he might have wanted to defend himself against the more
and more severe discontent.
The committee, which was rather a partial congregation (congregatio particularis) gath-
ered for a given task, included Giovanni Battista Altieri and Juan de Lugo cardinals,
Marco Aurelio Maraldi, the secretary of the Briefs and the Capuchin Valeriano Magno.
The first conclusion of their inquiry was that the pope could freely handle the revenues
of the Holy See. Later, they reconsidered their statement and less uniformly expressed
their opinion, namely the pope could alone decide only on the one-fourth of the Church
revenues including the revenues from the venality of offices and other titles. Unreal-
istically, they estimated a sum of only 100 thousand scudi. The more and more rigorous
statements did not serve such directive that would bring a change in the popes behaviour,
true, they did not support the legitimation of the nephews, either.55 On the contrary,
they furnished a basis for such manifestation that after the death of Urban VIII, the
statutory settlement of the relatives was launched.56
53
An almost full analysis: Visceglia, La Giusta Statera de porporati, 177203 and 203210.
54
Fosi, Allombra dei Barberini, 141142.
55
56
On the function of the committee, moreover committees due to its varying members, whose results
are vital sources of the Barberini eras finances: Grisar, Ppstliche Finanzen, 252297; Menniti Ippolito,
Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 7580.

Innocent X deemed it advisable to listen to the grievances in the spring-summer

of 1645. After having spent some time on the throne of Saint Peter, he expressed his
opposition against the fact that the papal treasury was emptied and launched a row of
vindicatory sanctions. It happened that the Barberinis almost trembled for their lives.
They hoisted the French flag on their palaces in vain since Mazarin, in his indignation
at their earlier compliance in the conclave, withheld the French patronage on 25 Octo-
ber 1644. Antonio Barberini secretly escaped from the more and more acute crisis on
28 September 1645. His itinerarys target was France. The answer of the pope was not
delayed; he summoned an extraordinary congregation on 20 November, which was de-
termined on having the family of Urban VIII account for the expenses of the War of
Castro.57 The family members who stayed in Rome, Francesco and Taddeo also set off
to Paris on 17 January 1646. In the French capital, Mazarin solemnly welcomed them
and became the patron of his former benefactors for the time being.58 On 3 February,
the Pamphili Pope sequestrated all of their properties, then sixteen days later he issued
his well-known sometimes called bull breve. The document obliged the members
of the Sacred College to appear in the Curia within six months if they did not have a
benefice of obligation of residence or a papal authorization for their absence.
The Barberinis, owing to the French armed menaces, could enter the Eternal City
and obtained their offices and properties in 1648. The reconciliation was followed by
the allying of the two families, which was sealed in 1653 with the red hat of Carlo and
the marriage of the younger Taddeo and Olimpia Giustiniani, the second niece of the
Pamphili Pope.59 However, this matrimony is related to the history of a more problem-
atic dynasty-establishment, which had to cope with a confusion of legitimacy. Notably,
at Innocent X, for the lack of suitable relatives, the nepotisms unique type appeared.
As a reminder, Niccol Ludovisi (principe di Piombo), married his niece, Constanza
Pamphili in November 1644 and his nephew, Camillo Pamphili married into another
papal family, the Aldobrandini in February 1647. There was no problem with the first
matrimony; however, the second did not correspond to the aims of Innocent X, since
from 14 November 1644 Camillo was the cardinal nephew. As a result, this posi-
tion remained vacant, for the first time since the sixteenth century. As a replacement,
on 7 October 1647, the pope made the seventeen-year old nephew, Francesco, of his broth-
ers widow, Olimpia Maidalchini, cardinal, yet, who was unsuitable for the position due
to his age. He owed his appointment to the papal sister-in-laws far-reaching influence.
The unique rule of women in the early modern period generated strenuous criticism
among the contemporaries and rather exaggerated reactions in the College of Cardinals.
A couple of cardinals, like the former nuncio in Vienna, Giovanni Battista Pallotto, some-
57
The description of the events: Pecchiai, I Barberini, 182189.
58
Reinhard, Freunde und Kreaturen, 6971.
59

The Golden Age 151
times abused Donna Olimpia in an unaffected style.60 The unlimited rule of women was
broken around 16491650, though, only for the time being. At this time, the papal sister-
in-law could not even enter the Apostolic Palace. From the autumn of 1650, the duty
of the nephew was accomplished by a remote relative, by Camillo Astalli, who was
adopted by the Pamphili family. He was created cardinal on 19 September and some
two weeks later chief intendant. However, this stopgap arrangement did not prove to
be successful. Donna Olimpia retrieved her former unlimited influence in March 1653,
therefore, at the beginning of the following year, Astalli was sent into exile, by parting
with the name of Pamphili. Niccol Ludovisi also fell out of favour.61
Such torso of nepotism is made intelligible by Ranke wrote exceedingly subtly: The
sculptures of the pope and his sister-in-law are in the same room in the Villa Pamphili.
If we compare the two faces, the womans face, radiant with determination and wisdom,
and the popes meek and expressionless feature, we understand how it was possible, more-
over unavoidable that the woman directed the pope.62
Apart from his family, Innocent X had no luck with his clients, either, which is il-
lustrated by the unprecedented scandal, the case of Mascambruno. At the end of 1651,
the sottodatario who was the personal auditor of the pope and owed his career to
him was accused of the forgery of dispensations. In a short while, the court of the
governor of Rome discovered a corruption network within the Dataria Apostolica.
The pope, being shaken by the revealed evidences, ordered a criminal procedure,
at the end of which the corrupted curial official was beheaded in public on 15 April 1652.
The damaged reputation was not amended even by the exemplary verdict63 and
the increasing control over the College of Cardinals could also only partly counteract.
On the basis of the resolution of the Consistorial Congregation in 1650, the verbals of
the canonical examinations of the bishop-candidates were controlled by the personal
auditor of the pope, which process led to the cessation of the leaders of the Colleges
(Capi dei Ordini) similar jurisdiction. The consistorial sessions were rarely summoned
between 1648 and 1649, there were only eleven. The pope strengthened the resolution
of the Ceremonial Congregation in his apostolic regulation of Militantis Ecclesiae, issued
on 19 December 1644; in which he expressed that the cardinals were not allowed to use
secular symbols for instance the crown in their coat of arms. This regulation con-
cerned mainly the cardinals from princely families (Savoya, Este, Medici), whose ad-
dresses (Altezza) were banned by the Pamphili Pope. From 1654, the congregations ex-
60
era una vergogna, che il governo di Roma stesse in mano di una Puttana. The quotation can be found:
Giancinto Gigli: Diario Romano, 327.
61
62
Ranke, A ppk trtnete [The History of the Popes], 606607; the positivist analysis of the Pamphi-
li-nepotism: Ciampi, Innocenzo X Pamfili, 115208; recently Chiomenti Vassalli, Donna Olimpia, 99143.
148174 and 194234; the survey of the crisis series of the family, more: Lina Montalto, Un mecenate in
Roma barocca. Il cardinale Benedetto Pamphilj (16531730), Firenze 1955, 342.
63
Chiomenti Vassalli, Donna Olimpia, 175186; Poncet, Innocenzo X, 326.

cept of the Propaganda and Inquisition had to summon in one of the papal palaces
and not in one of the cardinals. Innocent X significantly reformed the Sacred College
with his appointments which meant a certain compensation to him. Out of the sixty-six
cardinals, who elected Alexander VII, thirty-two were created by him, among whom
there were his later successors: Chigi, Odescalchi and Ottoboni.64
The overall understanding of the Pamphili Popes nepotism is not only a compli-
cated task but almost impossible for the lack of researches related to the expenditures.
According to the calculations fifty years later in 1691, his nepotism cost 1.4 million to
the State, comparing to the 900 thousand of the Barberinis. Not only is this numer-
ically mistaken but also in its proportions, namely it rather produces evidence to the
negative judgement of the contemporary nepotism torso. The adverse budget could
hardly afford such lavish spending. The least favourable situation was exacerbated by the
corn crisis, which erupted in the provinces of Marca and Lazio, furthermore, in Todi,
Perugia and Viterbo due to the weak production of 1647. In Fermo, even the vice-gov-
ernor fell victim to the riotous crowd. Innocent X was obliged to command troops in
the town to restore order.65
The Decline
The Chigis, Rospigliosis and Altieris
The only favourable circumstance of the striking dysfunctional nepotism of the

Pamphili Pope was the breaking of the system, the irreversible beginning of its decline.
The invitation of Alexander VIIs relatives from Siena to Rome happened only after
some delay. At the same time, another committee of theologians which was led by
the Jesuit Sforza Pallavicini endeavoured to estimate the nephews annual allowances
in roughly 12 thousand scudi. However, such radical change could not have been accom-
plished, since for instance, only the collection and transport of Flavio Chigis properties
cost 41,264 scudi. Nevertheless, the pope, ten days before the order of the familys move
to Rome,66 in his bull of 2 May 1656, the Inter gravissimas banned everybody includ-
ing also the relatives of the pope from accepting any compensation in return for the
transfer of curial offices and Church benefices. In brief, he terminated the institution
of resignatio in favorem. Since Paul Vs bull, which declared the ban of the Church ben-
efices alienation, this was the first regulation which affected the patron-client system,
including the nepotism.67 However, the granting of the offices of the nephew started
64
65
Ibid., 328; on the patronage, more: Ciampi, Innocenzo X Pamfili, 209334; and Alessandro Zucca-
riStefania Macioce (a c. d.), Innocenzo X. Pamphilj. Arte e potere a Roma nellet barocca, Roma 1992.
66
Menniti Ippolito, Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 8089.
67
Its issue: Bullarium Diplomatum et Privilegiorum Romanorum Pontificum XVI, Augustae Taurinorum
1869, 156161; its survey: Teodori, I parenti del papa, 5662.

The Decline 153
on 27 May 1656. His brother, Mario Chigi became the general of the Roman Church,
the captain-general of the papal fleet and the governor of Borgo which was followed
by the governorship of Civitavecchia, though it was originally intended for the young-
er Agostino. Agostino was the son of the popes earlier deceased brother, who had the
same name. In compensation, on the very day, he entered into the possession of the head-
quarters of the two papal guards and the castellany of Castle of Sant Angelo, Perugia,
Ancona, Ascoli and Benvento.
On the other hand, Flavio, Mario Chigis son, had to content himself with the gover-
norship of Fermo that he obtained on his ordination, on 3 June 1656. Until his creation
as a cardinal, 9 April 1657, he was introduced to the State affairs as a referendary. Here-
upon, in quick succession, he became the soprintendente of the Papal State, the librarian
of the Church, the prefect of the Sanit and the Buon Governo Congregation and the
legate of Avignon. In the course of the following years, his titles were multiplied by the
governorships of Tivoli and Capranica, furthermore by the leadership of Segnatura di
Grazia, the Confini (between July 1663 and February 1664 the Council), the Acque and
the Sgravi Congregation. Namely, he could act the part of the minister of health, in-
terior, border, council, water and the fiscal affairs in one person. The latter position was
rather rewarding since this office dealt with the moderation of taxes.
However, in contrast to the practice of earlier pontificates, the granting of the offices
of the nephew which should be highlighted did not mean such governmental influ-
ence, neither on the level of opportunities. As opposed to the congregations subordinate
to Flavio, he had nothing to do with the Secretariat of State. His situation is clearly
depicted by the report of the delegate of Venice, according to which every evening, in
the presence of him Alexander VII saw Rospigliosi, the secretary of State, who gave
account of the current affairs, though the nephew could not say a word.68 The same can
be told about Mario or Agostinos participation in the military affairs. The symbol of
the formal authority was that in 1657, the only eight-year old Sigismondo Chigi could
become the luogotenente generale of the two papal guards.69
Apart from the representation of power, the chief purpose of the offices was the assur-
ing of the revenues, which did not reach the earlier measure either. The further debate
on nepotism in 1658 also contributed to the unavoidable decline. Concerning Agostinos
marriage with the Borgheses, Alexander VII found it necessary to ask the opinion of
the College of Cardinals with regard to the degree of the wedding present. The major-
ity of the cardinals agreed with the presents, though without having calculated their
value. As Cardinal Spada conceived, they trusted the self-restraint of the pope. Their
hesitation rooted in the old dilemma that hardly anyone could contradict and question

68
Teodori, I parenti del papa, 6771. Barely eight months after the death of Alexander VII, he will provide
69
the restituzione capello, the assurance of the familys constant membership in the Senatus Divinus. Ibid., 136.

the successor of Saint Peter, being embodied with absolute power and ancient tradi-
tion; even if the given cardinal was responsible for the prevention of corrupt practices.70
Alexander VII, however, who was seeking legitimizing support, needed concrete fig-
ures. Cardinal Savelli was the most sedulous; he regarded one million scudi as a reasonable
price, which would have led to State bankruptcy. According to Cardinal Sacchetti, the
nephew could not obtain less than 200 thousand, which would have been complemented
by various grants, like land and offices. The proposal of Paolucci estimated 150 in one
sum, then annual allowances of 50 thousand. The noted canonist-cardinal who was the
cardinal presbyter of Santa Balbina, located next to the Baths of Caracalla as a theo-
logian, Juan de Lugo assumed a strict point of view, he would have found 50 thousand
scudi amply sufficient. Benedetto Odescalchi went further. He held that the pope could
use only his own benefices, namely his personal revenues; moreover he believed that it
should be spent on more charitable purposes. Notably, being aware of the miserable state
of the papal budget, Alexander VII could responsibly spend his private wealth on his
poor relatives only if the opinion of a committee of theologians considered it justified.
The opinion of the committee, which was summoned after a short hesitation, was
close to that of Odescalchis. Francesco Rosso (Franciscus De Rubeis), who generated
several debates on the Hungarian-related cases, claimed on the basis of the Council of
Nicaea and Trent that the providence of the relatives was admissible only in case of true
poverty and according to the norms of Saint Thomas. Sforza Pallavicini had no doubts,
either, about that the interests of the Church, the standard of living of the clergy and
the obligation of the poor peoples providence drew limitation to the popes authority
concerning the Church revenues. On the other hand, the pope could take other aspects
into account, such as the needs of a relative. For the well-known Jesuit historiographer,
it meant a wedding present of 15 thousand scudi and an annual allowance of 50 thousand,
which reached a total of 600 thousand scudi.
In the discussion of Juan de Lugo it appeared that this sum covered the maintenance
of a middle sized baronial family: the everyday expenses, the inheritance of the first and
second-born and the dowry of the daughters. The Spanish cardinal shared Pallavicinis
standpoint, by going beyond his earlier opinion of 1642, when he regarded the annual
100 thousand scudi per nephew as acceptable. His literary vein got an inkling of the core
problem of dealing with figures, which rooted in the lack of circumscription of the papal
income. He estimated the income of the Dataria from Church revenues to 200 thousand
(which was rather around 300 thousand), however, he found impossible to give chapter
and verse about the sums from the venality of offices and the monti.
The indefinable character of his personal income and the convincing opinion of the
most influential member of the College, Decio Azzolini namely, if the cardinals were
permitted to use the allowances from the consistorial revenues freely, why was the pope
70

The Decline 155
forbidden to do so , made the creation of the dynasty possible for Alexander VII. Fi-
nally, Sigismondo obtained 620 thousand scudi as a wedding present.71
Nevertheless, the direction of the process was the point. Although there is a perfect
analogy between the Chigis and Borgheses concerning the three groups of the allow-
ances (offices, Church revenues and gifts) and the accumulation of offices, the change
of the rate is striking.72 While Scipione, alone, could acquire an income of 3.34 million
scudi under his uncle, his later successor, Flavio obtained only 852 thousand around
16561667, moreover, his whole family got a little more than two million: 990 thou-
sand from offices, 663 thousand from grants, and 349 thousand from benefices.73 The
differences, which can be estimated to 1.338 million, between the Chigis and Scipione
Borgheses allowances are striking even if we take into consideration that the Borghese
pontificate lasted five years longer.
Except of the three outstanding years (1657: 163 thousand, 1658: 268 thousand, 1666:
211 thousand), the annual benefits of the nephews, especially Flavio, Agostino, Mario and
other Chigis, like Sigismondo, were altogether between 107142 thousand. Even if we
calculate with the highest values, the additional 900 thousand scudi, which are rendered
for five years, are half million less than the incomes of the Borghese nephew. If we had
concrete sums, the difference, comparing to the whole Borghese family, would be even
more striking, not to mention the Barberinis. Urban VIIIs pontificate was approximately
twice as long as Alexander VIIs, namely 30 million faced 4 million pro rata. This num-
ber is a more telling data than the similar figure that is shown by the amount of the
obtained estates and properties.74
The nepotism of the new pope, Clement IX, was even more moderate than his pred-
ecessors. His relatives from Pistoia could only move to Rome for the period of his
pontificate. Although the tesoriere generale as well as the tesoriere segreto provided their
payments, these were not enough for the creation of a noble family not only due to the
shortness of the pontificate. It was of more importance that the pope renounced his
inheritance in favour of his brother, Camillo, moreover that Camillos son, Giovanni
Battista could marry Camilla Pallavicini, the heiress of the Colonna-wealth in Lazio.
The heirless head of the Pallavicini family, Cardinal Lazzaro, with the authorization
of the use of the Pallavicini name, he created primogenitura from the new family, an
entail based on primogenitary right. Apart from his, the Rospigliosi nephews obtained
the usual offices. Camillo became the general of the papal troops, his sons: Giovanni
71
Ibid., 9093.
72
Teodori, I parenti del papa, 6566. The revenues from the offices: 6697, chart: 95. papal donations:
97106, chart: 105. Church benefices, pensions: 106120, chart: 118 (other economical benefits: 120124). their
summary: 125136, chart: 130, estate and financial investments: 137208, chart: 178 and 186.
73
Mennitis estimation of 4 million is false. Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 9093.
74
Teodori, I parenti del papa, 127128 and 209225; comprehensively Marie-Louise Rodn, Cardinal Decio
Azzolino and the Problem of Papal Nepotism, AHP 34 (1996) 127157, 134140; more Francesco Petrucci,
Alcuni arredi Seicenteschi del palazzo Chigi di Ariccia nei documenti darchivio, SR 46 (1998) 320336.

Battista became the general of the Church, Tommaso the commander of the Castle of
Sant Angelo, Vincenzo the commander of the papal fleet and the former internuncio
of Brussels, Giacomo was created cardinal. However, he had to go without the rights
and allowances of the cardinal nephew.75
In contradiction to the Rospigliosi era, there was an absolutely counter process under
Clement X. According to a survey from 1690, the Altieris obtained an income of only
1.2 million scudi from the Camera. The data is markedly doubtful again, however,
it is undeniable that the withdrawal of nepotism temporarily halted for five years. The
adopted relative of the pope, Paluzzo Albertoni-Altieri centralized considerable power in
his hand. He was in one person the cardinal nephew with all his privileges, the camer-
lengo, the vicar of Rome, the prefect of the Secretariat of Briefs and the Propaganda,
the legate of Avignon and Urbino, the governor of Tivoli, the archbishop of Ravenna
and the protector of Loreto, several countries and orders. It was rumoured in Rome
that there was a special division of labour developed in the Palace: the ruling became
the task of the nephew, while the pope gave only blessings. The larger estates Orio-
lo, Veiano, Monterano and Bassano were gained by the close relatives of Albertoni.
A less fortunate relative, however a cardinal, Giulio Gabrieli obtained only the lega-
tion of Romagna and the governorship of Fermo, Benevento and Capranica. From the
extended family, Vincenzo Maria Orsini then Federico Baldeschi-Colonna became the
prefect of the Sacred Congregation of the Council, the close friend of the pope, Gaspare
Carpegna became the head of the Dataria.76 The recruitment of the Sacred College
from, basically, relatives and clients, despite the moderate form of nepotism, proved to
be determining also under the two predecessors of the Altieri Pope. In case of Clement
IX, there was only one prelate out of the cardinals, who were dubiously appointed by
the pope on his deathbed who did not belong to this circle.77
The Odescalchis and Ottobonis
The swing of the pendulum of nepotism under the Altieries, in parallel to the accele-
ration of the contemporary criticism,78 was followed by a natural decline. The occurrences
turning into a cyclic movement could not be halted at the standstill, however, Innocent
XI, before the acceptance of his election, had the cardinals sign the election capitulations.
The points declared by interpreting the problems of nepotism in a broader context that
the new pope should eliminate all those corrupt practices which caused a scandal among
the foreigners, furthermore, he was to maintain the prestige of the College of Cardinals
and follow the advice of the cardinals and the dean of the Sacred College in relation to
75
76
77
78
Cf. Marie-Louise Rodn, The Problem of Papal Nepotism, 140144.

The Decline 157
the questions of the Church, the Papal State and the Apostolic Camera. He was obliged
to spend the money from the venality of offices exclusively on the reorganisation of the
public debt and he could not allocate anything to his relatives from the incomes of the Ca-
mera. There were many clauses, which dealt with the reconstruction of the Holy Office
and the Propaganda, with the aspects of the more cautious appointment of the bishops
and priests and with the legal and administrative reforms, especially with regard to the
taxes and various economical monopolies.79
Odescalchi Pope endeavoured to meet the programme, stated in the capitulations,
with personal exemplification. The aspects of the family and clients did not play a role
in the publicized appointments of the two consistories (1681 and 1686). On the first oc-
casion he rewarded his close colleagues with the red hat. Only those had the chance to
be appointed who had already had a cardinal in their families, however, with the excep-
tion of Benedetto Pamphili, most of them had already an important curial office.80 Five
years later, explicitly the international character was the determining.
The pope stayed in the most modest suite in the Quirinal and he never used the
gardens of the papal palaces,81 moreover he never visited Castel Gandolfo. He was sat-
isfied with the spiritual legitimation, the other forms of power representation were
regarded unnecessary. True, in 1683, his regulations against the French fashion, games
and carnivals did not meet with great success.82 His nephew, Livio Odescalchi did not
get any offices and revenues, however he inherited the popes total share from the family
wealth. Typically, in the Curia, this deal was considered as the disfavour of Livio. Inno-
cent XI did not fill the positions and offices of the cardinal nephew, neither of the other
positions of the nephews the first time in the seventeenth century , which not only
meant the first step towards the change of the administration, but it also contributed to
the success of the financial reform program by its annual savings of some 100 thousand
scudi. Notably, the profit of annually more than half million scudi, which was (also) spent
on the liberation of Hungary, became complete only with this sum.
According to a detailed account, the following sums were released per position of the
nephew: the legate of Avignon: 6,072; the chief intendant of the Papal State: 4,140 (these
two offices were not dissolved but merged into the office of Cybo secretary of State with-
out any allowances); the general of the Church: 13,725 scudi; the general of the fleet: 7,490;
commander of the Castle of Sant Angelo: 1811; the luogotenente of the fleet: 2,481; the
captain-general of the guards: 3,600; the luogotenente of the guards: 2,160; the governor
of Benevento: 4,200; the Feldzeugmeister of the troops (maestro di campo generale delle
soldatesche): 4,100; the castellan of Ascoli: 300. In addition, there were 9,000 scudi saved
up by the reform of the cavalry, 19,532 scudi from the papal relatives allowances in kind
(bread, wine, wax, etc.) and 3,000 scudi from their medicines. 5,000 were not supposed
79
Menniti Ippolito, Il tramonto, 94110; [Idem], Innocenzo XI, 373.
80
With the list of certain names: Menniti Ippolito, Innocenzo XI, 384.
81
Their description with beautiful illustrations: David R. Coffin, Gardens and Gardening in Papal Rome,
Princeton 1991.
82
Ago, Hegemony over the Social Scene, 237241.

to be paid for the receptions organized by the cardinal nephew. The lack of the nephew
in the army of Marca and Romagna yielded all in all 3,000, in the fleet 10,000. Later,
Innocent filled some offices; the general of the Church earned as a professional soldier
only 750 scudi comparing to Mario Chigis 1,125 scudi.83
After three years of reign, in 1679 with a bull, Innocent XI wanted to legally and
definitely abolish the system based on relational privileges and he desired to lean on the
whole College, or rather on the consistory, instead. His effort was supported by De Luca
in his pamphlet of Discorso apologetico per riparo dell Antica Autorit e Decoro del Sacro
Colleggio de Cardinali. Moreover, he was supported by his secretary of State, more zelanti
cardinals and the general of the Jesuits.84
However, the official issue of the regulation could not have been accomplished yet.
Some members of the Sacred College, with the leadership of Decio Azzolini, opposed
the idea of the pope and stood up for the absolute papal authority.85 The more and more
conservative members of the squadron volante feared the functioning of the Curia from
the radicalism of the Odescalchi Pope and his closer surroundings; moreover, they were
unable to become estranged from the centuries-old cultural heritance of nepotism and
its administrational foundation. In the centre of their argumentation they stated that
the nephews serious duties were rightly coupled with various privileges. However, in
spite of the newer and newer doubts, the zelanti group, which was organized under the
pontificate of Innocent XI and significantly strengthened by the appointments of 1681,
desired to continue the popes initial efforts.86
The endeavours of Innocent XI, concerning the final arrangement of the question
of nepotism, were doomed to failure. One of the keys of the reforms which could have
eliminated the one-sidedness of the absolutist decision making could have fallen into
the hand of the College of Cardinals in vain since the former squadrons preferred the
decade-old, tried opportunities. With the leadership of Ottoboni and Albizzi cardinals,
the Holy Office initiated an inquiry against the closest colleagues of the pope, against
Petrucci, who was created cardinal in 1681, and De Luca, with the accusation of the actual
heresy, the quietism.87 Their third fellow, the later canonized Gregorio Barbarigo one
of the chief favourites of the conclave of 1691 urgently returned to Venice.88
The smaller nepotisms still wanted to find legitimacy under the shade of the papal nep-
otism.89 However, Innocent XIs endeavours were by no means fruitless. Innocent XIIs
83
In wider context: Menniti Ippolito, Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 126163.
84
Giovanni Battista Scapinelli, Il memoriale del p. Oliva S.J. al card. Cybo sul nepotismo (1676), Rivista di
Storia della Chiesa in Italia 2 (1948) 262273.
85
Azzolinis opinion is conveyed by Rodn, The Problem of Papal Nepotism 144149 and 150157.
86
Signorotto, The Squadrone Volante, 187 and 204206.
87
Ibid., 203211. On De Lucas role in the fight against nepotism: Lauro, Il cardinale Giovanni Battista de
Luca, 457519.
88
89
Ibid., 2021 and 130139.

The Decline 159
regulation of 1692, which abolished the institutional form of nepotism for good, was
based on the draft of his bull.90
Innocent XII: Romanum decet Pontificem
The accomplishments of the second successor of the Odescalchi Pope required the last
swing of the pendulum of nepotism. Notably, on the conclave of 1689, the conservative
faction won. Pietro Ottoboni, crowned as Alexander VIII, restored the earlier neglected
curial offices and the allowances of the nephews. He aimed at a strong Church, which
not only was based on a theological but also on an invulnerable legal basis, whose most
important provider was the increasing activity of the Inquisition. Alexander VIII could
not accept his predecessors social and structural reforms since in his view, they would
have affected the central and leading role of the Curia.91
His nephew, Antonio his father, Agostino Ottoboni was the brother of the pope be-
came the general of the Church and the commander of the papal troops, his son, Pietro
Ottoboni became the cardinal nephew, the vice-chancellor, the legate of Avignon, etc. More-
over, the position of the secretary of State was filled by a relative, namely by the son of
the popes sister, Giovanni Battista Rubini. In parallel to the restoration of nepotism as
opposed to his predecessor he reduced the taxes, liberalized the corn trade, abolished the
meat and flour tax, in order to avoid epidemics, he issued a regulation on the cleanliness of
the streets. He might have been the last art collector pope. He preferred the manuscripts
and unique books, therefore he obtained the library of Queen Christina and the well-
known Altemps; moreover he was deeply concerned about the newly founded Arcadia.92
However, Alexander VIIIs anachronistic policy was already out of date. As far as the
total abolishment of nepotism was unfounded around the 1670s, after two decades, its
total rehabilitation proved to be unrealizable. As the Papal State after the final turns of
the liberating wars against the Turks could not play a significant role in the European
politics, the State could not afford, either, the enrichment of newer and newer papal dy-
nasties. The nepotism of the Ottobonis which lasted only for two years between 1689
and 1691 and cost 700 thousand scudi, which was one third of the Apostolic Cameras
income contributed to the final settlement of this question.
The breakthrough was the dominancy of the cardinals, appointed by Innocent XI, on
the conclave of 1691. The name choice of the fifty-six-year old crowned Antonio Pigna-
telli expressly indicated the policy of the new pontificate. Innocent XII, as one of his first
actions, sent the draft of his predecessors bull, consisted of older and modified points,
to the members of the College of Cardinals. The lines of the cover letter explicitly referred
90
The draft is thoroughly analysed: Menniti, Innocenzo XI, 375379.
91
See the earlier quoted literature on the Ottobonis.
92
Petrucci, Alessandro VIII, 392393; about the Ottoboni-collection, kept in the Vatican: J. Bigami Odi-
er, Premires recherches sur le fonds Ottoboni, Citt del Vaticano 1966.

to the prestige of the blessed memory.93 At this time, there was nobody in the College
who dared to oppose the pope. With the breakthrough of the zelanti in the conclave, the
old curial world, whose roots derived from the triumphal ideal of the Curia trionphante
in the first half of the century, was doomed to vanish. Their remained representatives,
though, tried to raise some objections without any success; their action fell through due
to the resistance of the chief reformers, datarius Panciatichi and his deputy, Sagripanti.
Cardinal Giovanni Franceso Albani, the later Clement XI, had a particular role in the
preparation of the papal regulation. As the guard of Innocent XIs drafts, he contrib-
uted to the success with making available the earlier text.94
The bull Romanum decet Pontificem was issued after a one-year long preparation, on
23 June 1692. In his introduction, the pope not only referred to the regulations of the
councils, but also to the canonical norms which regulated the benefices of the prelates
and to the fundamental principles of justice and wisdom which were to be taken into
consideration while governing the Roman Church. The first chapter of the bull min-
utely names the target persons, namely the pope, his successors, their siblings, nephews,
relatives, either blood-relation, or adopted ones. Moreover it declares that they can-
not acquire an income by any rights from properties, money, heritable or inheritable
monti, from venal offices and any of their wealth, benefits or rights which belonged to
the Apostolic See and Chancery furthermore, from any shares and revenues, allow-
ances and benefices of the Apostolic Dataria, Chancery and the Secretariat of Briefs, the
Church spoliums and the Apostolic Palace. The second point entrusts the pope with
the providence of his poor relatives according to his conscience. The third point banned
the offices of the nepotes: the legation of Avignon, the chief-intendancy of the Papal State,
the generality of the Church, the governorships of the two guards and the fleet, the cas-
tellanies of the Castle of Sant Angelo, Ancona, Perugia and Ascoli, the governorship of
Benevento, etc., etc. In addition, it specifies that in case of emergency if any of the mili-
tary positions should be reinstated, it can only be given to a professional person.95 If a pa-
pal relative chose Church career, he could not be bestowed more income than those who
had similar ranks. Only that relative who was created cardinal by the pope for the sake
of his personal merits was an exception to the rule. The fourth point determined his
93
Our Holy Father resolved to execute the plan of the pious Innocent XI to publish a bull on nepotism
94
Menniti Ippolito, Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 94110 and 110116; Gisondi, Innocenzo XII, 6784.
95
The abolition of the nephews military offices resulted in an annual saving of 80 thousand scudi. The
command of the papal army was taken over by those cameralistic officials who controlled the military ex-
penses from the beginning of the century. Their names were from this time commissario delle armi and
commissario del mare. The structure of the papal army was the same at the end of the eighteenth century as
it had been in 1667. Georg Lutz, Das ppstliche Heer im Jahre 1667. Apostolische Kammer und Nepotismus,
rmisches Militrbudget in der frhen Neuzeit, AHP 14 (1976) 169217. In Italian: Lesercito pontificio nel 1667.
Camera Apostolica, bilancio militare dello Stato della Chiesa e nepotismo nel primo evo moderno, Miscellanea in
onore di Monsignor Martino Giusti 2 (CAV 6), Citt del Vaticano 1978, 3995.

The Decline 161
annual income in 12 thousand scudi. The last three clauses embraced the regulation on
the obligation of oath concerning the execution and observance of the bull.96
This regulation was soon followed by another one, on 23 October 1692, which con-
tinued the abolition of unnecessary offices, like the auditor of the Apostolic Camera,
the body and chair of the clergy and the treasurer.97
The polemic on nepotism yielded fruit. Even if it was not completely eliminated
from the life of the Curia, its official form ceased to exist. At the beginning of the cen-
tury, its institutional traces were preserved only by the papal dynasties feudal estates.98
96
With the note of the bulls publications Menniti Ippolito, Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, loc. cit.;
Gisondi, Innocenzo XII, loc. cit.
97
Ibid. On the vanishing of nepotism more: Prodi, The Papal Prince, 91101.
98
According to a survey, composed under Clement XI, the Borgheses had 28, the Barberinis 15, the Pamphi-
lis 14 feudo minore, not to mention the authority and fiscal immunity which belonged to them. Menniti
Ippolito, Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 7172.

V
The Decision Making
of the Holy See and its Main Institutions
The two main characteristics of the decision making of the Holy See in the early modern
period the absolute papal power that maintained all the decisions of great importance and
the departmental ministries, namely the establishment of the congregations, which took
precedence over the general European development were already mentioned several times.1
While, out of the reformed ancient institutions, we were already introduced to the Camera
Apostolica, which dealt with the revenues of the Papal State, and the Dataria Apostolica, which
was responsible for the granting of Church benefices and the related various financial matters
and concessions; we have not inspected the function and structure of the congregations, and
other dicasteries. However, for the evaluation of the chapter on the history of Church admi-
nistration and politics, the knowledge of these institutions is as indispensible as the acknow-
ledgement of the chief economical, social and financial processes. In the background of certain
popes personal decisions, the judgement of their pontificate and the reaction of the Papacy or
the Curia Romana, there was and is always a rather complicated and complex organism which
influences, moreover embodies the decision making to a large extent.2
Offices and the Tribunals
In the first place, out of the central institutions of medieval origin, the Cancellaria
Apostolica, which dealt only with the issue of the apostolic letters, the bulls with golden
and leaden seal should be mentioned.
1
Obviously, in this chapter I could not embark on analysing the papal Curia in every detail. The task would
require a distinct monograph. In spite of the fact that there is an abundance of international secondary litera-
ture and the research concerning the offices was boosted, to outline a real picture, one should face the crowd of
statements contradicting themselves. Below, I will not mention the related and very useful entries of the lexicons
of great importance separately. For instance: Lexikon fr Theologie und Kirche IVI, hrsg. v. Josef HferKarl
Rahner, Freiburg 195719612; Dictionnaire Historique de la Paput d. par Philippe Levillain, Paris 1994;
Dizionario degli Istituti di Perfezione, a c. d. G. PelliciaG. Rocca, particularly vol. VIII (Roma 1988), 182258.
2
On the important directions of the development: Delumeau, Political and Administrative Centralization,
287296; Partner, Il mondo della curia, 222224; and Prodis two basic works that were cited in the Introduction.

164 The Decision Making of the Holy See and its Main Institutions
From the thirteenth century, the chief official was the so-called vicecancellarius,
though, in reality it was a cardinal who was considered a real chancellor. From 1532,
his titular church was the San Lorenzo in Damaso that was incorporated in the splen-
did palace of the Chancery, which could also serve as a diaconal and presbyterial title
depending on the rank of the vice-chancellor. The actual head and director of the
office was the reggente della Cancelleria (regens-locumtenens Cancellariae); the commit-
tee of twelve members of the apostolic protonotaries, which enjoyed privileges from
15851586, oversaw the preparation and completion of the papal documents. (The papal
notaries, who were not only in curial service, are to be differentiated from the limited
college.) The drafts were sketched out by the abbreviators, the ornamented versions,
written on parchment, were composed by the grossators. From the fifteenth century,
the seventy two members of the college of the abbreviators constituted three classes:
the twelve abbreviatori di Parco maggiore made the drafts, the twenty-two abbreviatori
di Parco minores duty was to settle the fees of the documents issue and to prepare the
first fair copy. The thirty-eight abbreviatori de prima visione compared the drafts with
the original.3 The large crowd of the grossators did not have an exact number of people.
The works were directed by the rescribendarius, appointed by the vice-chancellor, with
the assistance of the distributor notarum grossandarum and the computator. The lat-
ter one controlled the imposed fees and the official copies, registered by the registra-
tores. (The registers survived in three distinct series, kept in the Vatican Archives;
the Registri Vaticani consists of 2,020 volumes, the Registri Avignonensi 349 and the Regis-
tri Lateranensi 2,487.) Before the bull was supplied with a leaden seal by the bullatores
or the sigillatores in the Uffizi del Piombo,4 it had had a final legal and formal control
by the corrector litterarum apostolicarum or the Audentia litterarum contradictarum, led
by the uditore delle contradette.5
3
The granting of the offices, six from the first class, fifteen from the second and third class belonged
to the vice-chancellor. The holders of these venal offices, as we have already highlighted, did not per-
form effective work. Menniti Ippolito, Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 153; Pellegrini, Corte di Ro-
ma, 553.
4
The granting of 101 out of the 104 (which cost 2,050 scudi per person) collettori del piombo belonged to
the Datary, one to the confraternity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, one to the Saint Jacob hospital, and one to
the converted nuns. Menniti Ippolito, Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 153.
5
The archontology of the cardinal vice-chancellors, apart from the Hierarchia Catholica see more, Paul
Maria Baumgartner, Von der Apostolischen Kanzlei, Kln 1908, 99141 and the Appendix; on the im-
portant officials and processes: Frenz, Die Kanzlei der Ppste, 181233 and 57180; moreover Paulius Ra-
bikauskas, Die rmische Kuriale in der ppstlichen Kanzlei, Roma 1958; on the series of the registers: Pritz,
Supplikensignatur und Briefexpedition an der rmischen Kurie, 95149 and 157206; Martino Giusti, Studi
sui registri di bolle papali (CAV 1), Citt del Vaticano 1968, 196 and 97122; and Lajos Psztor, La Curia
Romana e i regsitri di bolle papali, SR 17 (1969) 319323; on the regulations, changes and the occasional canon-
ical significance of the inner process: Emil Gller, Die Kommentatoren der ppstlichen Kanzleiregeln vom
Ende des 15. bis zum Beginn des 17. Jahrhunderts, AKK 84 (1905) 441460 and 85 (1906) 2034 and 259265;
on the withdrawal of the Chancery in the modern period: Peter Herde, Audientia litterarum contradic-
tarum. Untersuchungen ber die ppstlichen Justizbreve und die ppstliche Delegationsgerichtsbarkei vom 13. bis
zum Beginn des 16. Jahrhunderts I (BDHIR 31), Tbingen 1970, 174180; comprehensively and with further
abundant literature related to the Middle Ages: Re, La Curia Romana, 277291 and 598601. See more in
the notes at the Secretariat of Briefs.

Offices and Tribunals 165
Beside the Chancery, the character of the Sacra Poenitentiaria Apostolica, which was
responsible for the questions of conscience, was rather judicial, jurisdictional than ad-
ministrational.6
The Apostolic Penitentiary, directed by the cardinal penitenziere or the penitenziere

maggiore, was led in practice by the so-called reggente official. The staff was formed
by the datario, some correttore, teologo, canonista and two-two procuratore and scrittore
(the number of the latter ones was twenty-four and twenty-seven before Trent), moreover
by a sigillatore. The various confessors of the penitenzieri minori were under the control
of the major penitentiary, like the confessor colleges of the Franciscans in the Lateran,
of the Dominicans in the Santa Maria Maggiore and of the Jesuits that were restored
on 22 February 1659 by Alexander VII (In apostolicae dignitatis) in Saint Peters Ba-
silica. As it was not definite that out of the various marital sins, the irregularities and
the secret committed sins: casi occulti, etc. papal absolutions, which were of conscience
or which bore a relation to the canon law, Church discipline and theology, consequently,
in the seventeenth-eighteenth century, the Penitentiary had a conflict of competence
against the Dataria and the Roman Inquisition. Its attempt to extend and regain its
authority led to further and further restrictive papal regulations. These did not affect
its rights related to the papal indulgences, though, the degree of their employment was
withdrawing comparing to the Middle Ages. The dignity of the cardinal penitentiary
was regarded as an entail of the nephew until the middle of the seventeenth century.
The Sacra Romana Rota, which received cases mainly from the territory of the Papal
State by the sixteenth century and with whose influential judges we met earlier, can be
reckoned among the tribunals.
The Sacred Roman Rota, the oldest papal court, which originally dealt with the ju-
dicial trials conducted in the Church, also handled the secular cases from the fifteenth
century. Its tasks were sometimes taken over by local courts due to the secular ban on the
appeals forwarded to Rome and the privileges given to the States by the Holy See. With
the strengthening of the papal centralism after Trent, its functions practiced through-
out the universal Church were replaced to the courts of the nunciatures.7 The efficiency
of the Rota was increased by the reform of Pius V which simplified its process, though,
its significance was further reduced by the fact that the congregations often had judicial
in addition to their administrational and executive functions, therefore, several trials for
6
Ludwig SchmuggePatrick HerspergerBatrice Wiggenhauser, Die Supplikenregister der ppst-
lichen Pnitentiarie aus der Zeit Pius II (14581464) (BDHIR 84), Tbingen 1996, 421 (history and compe-
tence). 2256 (process); Karl August Fink, Das Archiv der Sacra Poenitentiaria Apostolica, Zeitschrift fr
Kirchengeschichte 83 (1973) 8892 and Tamburini, La riforma della Penitenziaria, 110129; on the inner
and the external forums problems: Antonio Mostaza, Forum internum - forum externum (en torno a la
naturaleza jurdica del fuero interno), Revista Espaola de Derecho Cannico 23 (1967) 253331; more litera-
ture: Schmugge et al., Die Supplikenregister der ppstlichen Pnitentiarie, 243252; Re, La Curia Romana,
261273 and 596597. The archontology of the chief poenitentiarius can be found in the monograph of Emil
Gller on the history of the office: Die ppstliche Pnitentiarie von ihrem Ursprung bis zu ihrer Umgestaltung
unter Pius V III, Roma 19071911, II, 112 and in the Appendix.
7
See below the subchapter dealing with the nunciatures.

example the controversies among the churchmen were conducted there. The twelve
auditors, who led the work of the Rota, were obliged to be qualified in law and to take
a public exam. From Martin V and from the sixteenth century, the Spanish king could
delegate two members, whereas the French king and the emperor could delegate only one
member to the body. The practice remained in the seventeenth century, as well, though,
the non-Italian judges hardly had to deal with trials from their own country. However,
in the field of diplomacy and curial clout, they could achieve priceless deeds for certain
States and local Churches. (Bologna, Milan, Venice, Ferrara and Ravenna won similar
rights in the sixteenth century, Perugia in the seventeenth century. There were two
places held for Rome.8)
The Signatura Iustitiae operated as the general forum of appeal primarily of the
Rota, sometimes of smaller ecclesiastical courts, moreover, it decided on the possibility
of appeal beforehand.9
As a result of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatures institutional devel-

opment, from the fifteenth century, the Signature of Justice being separated from
the Signatura Gratiae, which will be detailed later independently accepted cases also
in the first instance. The unique name can be traced back to the papal signatura, which
was written on the petitions handed in for the sake of the unusual, supreme judgement
(mercy). In spite of the separation, the officials of the two offices - who parted from
the Apostolic Chancery, the often quoted referendaries were the same (referendarii
utriusque Signaturae [Apostolicae]). From Sixtus V, there were a hundred of them. Out
of them, there were few who had real, voting function (referendarii votantes), though, as
we already know, the prestige of the title was worth more. At the head of the Signatura
Iustitiae there was the cardinal-prefect, whose deputy was the auditor who led the office.
8
On the Rota, the most fundamental: Emanuele Cerchiari, Capellani Papae et Apostolicae Sedis Auditores
causarum sacri palatii apostolici seu Sacra Romana Rota ab origine ad diem usque 21 septembris 1870 IIV, Ro-
mae 19191921; on the process: Hermann Hoberg, Inventario dellarchivio della Sacra Romana Rota
(sec. XIVXIX) (CAV 34), a c. d. Josef Metzler, Citt del Vaticano 1996, 1550; and Christina Bukow-
ska-Gorgonis work which should be followed in its methodology and choice of subject: Causae Polonae co-
ram Sacra Romana Rota XVXVII saec. Explanatio processuum et regesta documentorum, Roma 1998; further-
more Gnavi, Carriere e Curia Romana: Luditorato di Rota, 161202; and Hermann Hoberg, Die Antritts-
daten der Rotarichter von 1566 bis 1675, RQ 48 (1953) 211224; Blaas, Das kaiserliche Auditoriat, 4857; Ago,
Carriere e clientele, 22; the archontology of the Rotas deans from 1612: Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staats-
handbcher, 169; in conclusion and with more literature Re, La Curia Romana, 243259 and 592596. In more
detail in Hungarian Pter Tusor, Pzmny bboros olasz rejtjelkulcsa. C.H. Motmann Residente dUnghe-
ria. (A rmai magyar agenzia trtnethez), [The Italian Cipher Key of Cardinal Pzmny], Hadtrtnelmi
Kzlemnyek 116 (2003) 535581, 539542.
9
Bruno Katterbach, Referendarii utriusque Signaturae a Martino V ad Clementem IX et praelati Sig-
naturae supplicationum a Martino V ad Leonem XIII, Citt del Vaticano 1931, viixxxviii; Ago, Carriere
e clientele, 21; Re, La Curia Romana, 227231 and 591592; on the practice of handling the requests: Frenz,
Die Kanzlei der Ppste, 9397.

Offices and Tribunals 167
Apart from the significant courts, the abundance of smaller courts played a role in
the life of the Eternal City and the Papal State. For instance, the Roman governor,10
the camerlengo, the cardinal vicar,11 the Roman magistracy, the governor of Borgo,
the senator of Rome, the cardinal nephew as chief-intendant, the rector of the Sapi-
enza, the general of the Papal State, the auditor of the Chamber, etc. run tribunals.
Not only does the conclusion of the courts procedure in criminal and civil cases
cause a problem for the succeeding generations, but also the contemporaries were
hardly familiar with it.12 Paul V attempted to refine the efficiency of their function
with his bull of 1612.13 After a half century long break, in 1676 for the same reason,
Innocent XI established a committee (Congregazione per la Riforma dei Tribunali) with
the leadership of De Luca, which achieved results primarily in the reorganization of
the cameralistic auditors court. Innocent XII invited the best experts to the con-
gregation. The bull Romanus Pontifex (17 September 1692) was born as the fruit of their
labour. The smaller courts were united in a central court (Gran Curia Innocenziana)
in the Palazzo di Montecitorio by the regulation. The process became simpler, faster
and cheaper; several lawyers, agents and solicitors expensive work was rendered un-
necessary, moreover many privileges ceased to exist.14
The judicial reform did not affect the judicial character of the congregations, mainly
of the Inquisition.
10
On his role: Niccol del Re, Monsignor Governatore di Roma, Roma 1972; the most accurate archon-
tology from 1628: Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 169.
11
The cardinal vicars performed the duties of the Pope as the bishop of Rome, they were usually of the
most immediate papal confidants. Their archontology: Annibale Ilari, I Cardinali Vicari. Cronologia biblio-
grafica, Roma 1962; about the functioning of their office: Christoph Weber, Der Vicegerente des Vikariates
von Rom im 17. Jahrhundert und seine grte Plage. Ein Beitrag zur Verfassungsgeschichte der Kurie, ZSSRG
Kan. Abt. 80 (1994) 301354; Niccol del Re, Il Vicegerente del Vicariato di Roma, Roma 1976, 935, a newer
archontology on the period 5163; Domenico Rocciolo, Il tribunale del cardinal Vicario e la citt. Brevi
note tratte dallopera di Nicol Antonio Cuggi, RMC 5 (1997) 175184; their latest range of titles: Weber,
Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 175; on their role in the organization of the religious and spiritual
life: Domenico Rocciolo, La costruzione della citt religiosa: strutture ecclesiastiche a Roma tra la met del
Cinquecento e lOttocento, Roma, la citt del papa, 267394.
12
Irene Fosi, Sudditi, tribunali e giudici nella Roma barocca, RMC 5 (1997) 1940; Alessandra Camera-
no, Senatore e governatore. Due tribunali a confronto nella Roma del XVI secolo, RMC 5 (1997) 4166; Peter
Blastenbrei, I Romani tra violenza e giustizia nel tardo Cinquecento, RMC 5 (1997) 6779; Alfredo Ciri-
nei, Bandi e giustizia criminale a Roma nel Cinque e Seicento, RMC 5 (1997) 8195; Giampiero Brunelli,
Nobili soldati e giustizia nello Stato della Chiesa (15601605), RMC 5 (1997) 97115.
13
Simona Feci, Riformare in antico regime. La costituzione di Paolo V e lavori preparatori (16081612), RMC
5 (1997) 117140; Beatrice Cirulli, LAffresco della riforma dei tribunali nelle sale Paoline della Biblioteca
Apostolica Vaticana: una proposta di lettura, RMC 5 (1997) 141153.
14
Stephano Tabbachi, Le riforme giudiziarie nella Roma di fine Seicento, RMC 5 (1997) 155174; Ago,
Innocenzo XII, 397399.

The System of the Congregations
The fifteen organized and reorganized congregations which were announced in

Sixtus Vs bull Immensa aeterni Dei on 22 January 1588 were by no means the final num-
ber. The realised basic structure of the Curia and the nature of the departmental min-
istries remained almost unchanged until (Saint) Pius Xs reform of 1908. According
to the regulations of Sixtus, the congregations had to consist of at least three cardi-
nals with some exceptions , in many cases, which were completed with other prelates
of the papal court. With, for example, the higher officials of the Dataria and the
Apostolic Palace, and the members of various colleges: the auditors of the Rota, with
protonotaries, consistorial lawyers and other officials, who took only part in the prep-
aration of the decisions.
The sources from the period do not always call the cardinal, who headed the congre-
gation, prefect. In such cases, when the pope did not act as chairman, they mention the
senior cardinal (cardinalis antiquior). The official work was coordinated by the secre-
tary who usually belonged to the prelates ; only the important congregations of
independent infrastructure had lower, subordinate employees (clerks, drafters). The
cardinals could call in their personal secretaries; even in the sessions, which were or-
ganized in the palace of the senior cardinal or the cardinal prefect until the middle
of the seventeenth century, until Innocent Xs related regulation; in the case of cer-
tain congregations they were held regularly in fixed times, in other cases according
to the event.
The cases for trial reached the congregation in three ways. Either the pope or his
colleagues ordered the debate of a question or another office, a congregation could
refer the case, or the case went directly to the congregation. For this, the petitioner
had to be aware of the Curias new, inner plan of work. According to its significance
and the occasional-permanent authorization received from the pope, the congregations
could publish their resolution of the discussed case individually, or in most cases after
a papal approval in the form of a decretum, or of an attested certificate in the case of
licentiae. It often happened that the resolution, which was compulsorily put down in
the reticent registers (acta, decreta), was announced only in the form of a letter, more-
over, to which an enclosed letter was attached, which was signed by the prefect and
the secretary, rarely only by the latter. If a separate papal document was issued after
the congregations statement, the name of the office, which took part in the prepara-
tion, had to be indicated.15
15
On the basis partly of the related chapter of Sixtus Vs bull (Declaratio facultatum praedictarum cong-
regationum), partly of my experience in researching in the Vatican Secret Archives and of the below
cited data.

The System of the Congregations 169
Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and

Universal Inquisition (Sanctum Officium)
In 1588, out of the nine to ten congregations16 that provided the effective governing
of the universal Church the most prominent and oldest (Suprema Congregazione) was
the Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition (Sacra Congregazione
della Romana ed Universale Inquisizione), established on 21 July 1542 with the bull Licet
ab initio by Paul III.17 With its establishment the Papacy published its first before the
Council of Trent institutional answer for the challenges of the changed political, social
and religious relations after the Middle Ages. It was created by the strict and consistent
mentality which was one of the fundamental characteristics of the Catholic revival and
was also embodied in the unique discipline of the Jesuits. The new office neither con-
tinued the work of the defunct (Dominican) inquisition, nor can a parallel be drawn
between it and the State-subordinated Portuguese and Spanish inquisition, which mainly
provided the religious homogeneity of the society.18 The institution, which is addressed
as the bulwark of Christianity, owned the most far-reaching rights, basically it was
the confidant of the popes spiritual and Church-teaching function. Its authority was
being broadened in the course of time.
It had a doctrinal, judicial and Church administrational authority over the whole
Catholic world and over everybody, be it a clergyman or layman of any origin or rank.
Its competences were: 1. to investigate, cite, prosecute and judge, moreover to create defi-
nitions concerning faith and morals, like heresy, schism, apostasy (apostasia), theological
mistakes; occultisms (magic arts, black art, astrology, predictions, prophecies, witch-
craft, etc.); various abuses, like unfounded saint and miracle cults, the celebration of mass
without ordination, the abuse of sacraments, poly- and bigamy, homosexuality, etc. 2. to serve
exemptions, absolution from the irregularities (heretic origin, lack of the canonical age)
that hindered the embracing of orders, the breach of the religious vows and oaths, and
the automatic excommunication due to breaking of the prohibitions written in the bull
16
The main elements of the Sistine reform were outlined already under Gregory XIII. However, from
the conception of the only twelve planned cardinal congregations, the ones for the control of the Dataria
and the papal foreign policy were not established. The text of the plan is published: Ludwig von Pastor,
Geschichte der Ppste im Zeitalter der katholischen Reformation und Restauration. IX: Gregor XIII (15721585),
Freiburg im Breisgau 1925, 902903.
17
In Latin: Sacra Congregatio Romanae et Universalis Inquisitionis; the office had many other name variants,
the most official, yet hardly spread term (from 1588): Sacra Congregatio Sanctae Inquisitionis haereticae pravi-
tatis; however, there occurred many other name variations in the period: Sacra Congregatio Sancti Officii,
Sacra Romana ed universale Inquisizione, Suprema Sacra Congregazione del SantOffizio, or just simply Sanctum
Officium, SantOffizio, SantUffizio. In contrast to the dicasteries of medieval origin, I prefer the Italian
version concerning the institutions from the early modern period, by emphasising the contrast between these
two fundamentally different periods of the history of Papacy despite all continuities.
18
The monographic elaboration of the latters function: H. Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition, London 1965;
and additional data: Pauline Croft, Englishmen and the Spanish Inquisition 15581625, The English Historical
Review 87 (1972) 249268.

In Coena Domini, which was read to the communities on Holy Thursdays and two other
times a year;19 moreover it relegated the faculties of all. 3. finally, to censor books,
to prohibit or authorise their reading.20
In the conduct of the latters scope of duties, the congregations work was helped by
the Sacred Congregation of the Index (Sacra Congregazione dellIndice), which was created
in 1571 and dealt specifically with compiling the list of the prohibited books in a way of
post- (repressiva) and sometimes previous (praevia) censorship.21
19
The bull reflecting the universal needs of the reform Papacy, which played an important role many times
during the discussed period and went through many corrections due to the amendments of Sixtus V and
Gregory XIII, consisted of twenty-one points. These were (1.) the heretics and their supporters; (2.) the ap-
pellants to the ecumenical council; (34.) the pirates and maritime freebooters; (5.) the ones who imposed
unfair taxes; (6.) the forgers of the apostolic documents; (7.) the ones who gave war aids to infidels and here-
tics; (810.) the ones who hindered and taxed the travel and pilgrimage to Rome; (11.) the ones who insulted
or charged somebody with the commission to insult the cardinals and prelates; (12.) the ones who hindered
the appeals to Rome; (13.) the ones who turned to secular authorities from the Church tribunals (namely the
ab usu appellants) and the ones who practiced the placetum regium; (14.) the ones who dared to hinder and
revise the judgements of the Apostolic See and the enforcement of the privileges given by it; (15.) the ones
who called the clergymen to a secular court; (16.) the ones who hurt the episcopal authority; (17.) the ones
who usurped and arbitrarily seized the Church rights and benefices; (18.) the ones who charged the clergy-
men and benefices without papal permission; (19.) the ones who dared to prosecute the clergymens criminal
cases; (20.) the ones who attacked the Papal State; and finally (21.) against the robbers of the Apostolic Palace.
Karl Pfaff, Beitrge zur Geschichte der Abendmahlsbulle vom 1618. Jh., RQ 38 (1930) 2376.
20
Hermann H. Schwedt, Die rmischen Kongregation der Inquisition und des Index und die Kirche im Reich
(16. und 17. Jahrhundert), RQ 90 (1995) 4373, especially 49; about the scientific expectations after opening the
archives of the Office in February 1998: Lapertura degli archivi del SantUffizio romano, a cura dAccademia
nazionale dei Lincei, Roma 1998; and with numerous statistics based on the research already in the ar-
chives of the Inquisition: V. Frajese, Le licenze di lettura e la politica del SantUffizio dopo lIndice Clementino,
LInquisizione e gli storici, 179220; M.P. Fantini, Censura romana e orazioni: modi, tempi, formule (15711620),
LInquisizione e gli storici, 221244; Peter Schmidt, De sancto Offico Urbis. Aspekte der Verflechtung des
Heiligen Offiziums mit der Stadt Roma im 16 und 17. Jahrhundert, QFIAB 82 (2002) 404489; Re, La Curia
Romana, 8994 and 578579; the even earlier monographical analysis of the Offices history: R.A. Miller,
The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (Canon Law Studies 184), Washington 1975; John Tedeschi,
Il giudice e leretico. Studi sullinquisizione romana (Vita e Pensiero, Cultura e Storia 13), Milano 1997, especially
93124. 125152. 153198; on the historical research, role and especially the judgement of the Roman Inqui-
sition, latest: Andrea Del Col, Osservazioni preliminari sulla storiografia dellInquisizione romana, Identit
italiana e cattolicesimo. Una prospettiva storica (Studi Storici Carozzi 37, a c. d. Cesare Mozzarelli), Roma
2003, 75137, especially 109122, and more [Idem], LInquisizione romana: metodologia delle fonti e storia is-
tituzionale, TriesteMonte Valcellina 2000. In parallel and temporarily the congregation also performed
Church administrational duties, like the partial control of the missions until 1622, among which also those
that were sent to the Ottoman Hungary.
21
Both offices dealt with censorship which undoubtedly supplied the extensive control, yet, this sort of
overlapping caused problems in function until Benedict XIV regulated the order of procedure in detail. Her-
mann H. Schwedt, Der rmische Index der verbotenen Bcher, HJ 107 (1987) 296314; Re, La Curia Romana,
325329; on the function of the Index in practice more: Gligliola Fraquito, Lapplicazione dellindice dei
libri proibiti di Clemente VII, ASI 159 (2001) 1, 107149.

The Sacred Congregation of the Index which met occasionally twice a month,
though, in 1629 only once, in 1644 only once a year consisted of sixteen-thirteen car-
dinals, sixtwenty-four other members: consultors and officials. By 1644, the Domini-
can dominancy ceased to exist in the excessively increased number of the officials. In the
second half of the century, the number of the cardinals became stable around twenty,
however, the number of other members reduced to only two.22
Concerning the effect of the Inquisition and the Index on the Roman and Italian
scholarly, cultural life, we can conclude that it left a rather wide scope for action in
many fields. The activities of these offices did not concern the literary and poetical life
(the establishment of the first Roman permanent theatre in 1670 was not hindered);23 they
only had an impact on the questions that threatened the canonical, dogmatic building
of the Church, the secular and spiritual rights and interests of the clergy. In such cases,
not only did they preclude the publicity but the further debates were also adjourned.24
Comparing to other contemporary judicial proceedings, at the Inquisition the rights of
the accused were taken into more consideration than at other courts. The anonymous
impeachments were not handled. At least two witnesses were required to support the
charge, yet the accused were not allowed to know their names for the sake of witness
protection. The interests of the accused were protected by an appointed counsel (advo-
catus reorum), which was typical in England only from 1836. Torture was moderately
employed, exclusively in such cases when they were sure that the accused lied. The
confessions, given during the interrogation, were only valid if the accused corroborated
them later. The arrest could have been ordered only after a thorough inquiry. Between
1542 and 1761 there were all in all one hundred executions in Rome, by the order of the
Inquisition, the most famous was of Giordano Bruno. Above all, it should be highlighted
that the verdicts of the Inquisition could not be interpreted word for word. The eternal
custody meant only three years in many cases.25
The structure of the Holy Office differed from the other congregations usual hier-
archy of the cardinal prefect, cardinal and prelate members, secretary and the scribes.
It did not have a prefect since usually the pope acted as chairman. The senior cardinal
(unus ex inquisitoribus) was the administrative leader, from the eighteenth century as a
cardinal secretary. In direct subordination, a Dominican commissar26 led the proceed-
ings, whose role was being taken over by the assessor who controlled the administra-
22
Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 197. 241 and passim.
23
Cf. Andrea Penna, Il pimo teatro pubblico di Roma. Le vicende del Teatro Tordinona nel XVII secolo,
SR 46 (1998) 337368.
24
Georg Lutz, Rom im 17. Jahrhundert. Bemerkungen zu einer Neuerscheinung (Massimo Petrocchi, Roma nel
Seicento [Sotria di Roma 14], Bologna 1970), QFIAB 54 (1974) 539555, 551552 (the article criticises Petrocchis
work which was cited by us many times due to its data and comprehensive character and complements
it with numerous important aspects); U. Baldini, Le congregazioni romane dellinquisizione e dellIndice e le
Scienze, dal 1542 al 1615, LInquisizione e gli storici, 365372.
25
Cf. Bireley, The Refashioning of Catholicism, 9699.
26
Their archontology from 1621: Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 167168.

tion, which office became posto cardinalizio namely it involved the red hat from the
beginning of the eighteenth century. The work of the cardinal inquisitors was assisted
by the body of the consultors. Its members were Roman theologians and canonists; their
suggestions (votum) served as a basis for the resolutions concerning theology and censor-
ship. The congregation could occasionally employ the so-called qualificators, experts to
decide whether the debated question was false, mistaken, scandalous or belonged to the
heretic teachings (proposizioni false, erronee, scandalose, ereticali).27
According to the data of the elenchus of 1629 and 1644, the sessions of the Holy Of-
fice were held three times a week: on Monday in its own palace without the cardinals,
on Wednesday in the convent of the Dominican Santa Maria Sopra Minerva with the
cardinals and on Thursday in the Sacred Palace with or sometimes without the pope.
All in all, there were nine-twelve cardinals, eighteen-thirteen prelates (the general of the
Dominicans belonged to them, the magister of the Sacred Palace and the assessor) and
the consultor and official (socius commissarius, summista, fiscalis, from 1644 the suboffi-
cialis, notarius and the procurator reorum who was appointed for the accused), led by the
commissary. The structure was the same in the second half of the seventeenth century,
however, the elenchi had already separated the prelate members from the consultors, more-
over in the 1660s and 1670s the number of the members reached the twenty-five twen-
ty-five members in the case of cardinals or other members.28
In spite of the fact that the authority of the congregation was universal and its juris-
diction was practiced in many fields in all the catholic world, real inquisitional activity
was pursued only in Malta and Italy, especially as the forum of appeal of the local inqui-
sitions and as the effective tool of the papal centralization after Trent.29 Its existence in
Spain and Portugal was partly unnecessary; partly it met insurmountable barriers until
the end of the seventeenth century. France and other States did not allow its operation,
though, the original plans consisted of this possibility. Its inquisitional activities were
limited by the Italian States, as well, for example Venice delegated its own officials to
the tribunals.30 The official view to distant areas was provided only by the apostolic
27
Schwedt, Die rmischen Kongregationen, 48. The analytic processing of the congregations meetings
(related to the trial of Galilei) with the archontology of the cardinal members and with their participation in
the work of the Office from the period between 1611 and 1642: Pierre-Nol Mayaud, Les fuit congregatio
Sancti Officii in Coram de 1611 1642. 32 Ans de Vie de la Congrgation du Saint Office, AHP 30 (1992)
231289; see more P. Simoncelli, Clemente VIII e alcuni provvedimenti del SantUffizio: De Italis habitantibus
in partibus haereticorum, Critica Storica 13 (1976) 129172; and the Appendix.
28
29
A case-study about the period before Trent: A. Santosuosso, The moderate Inquisitor. Giovanni della
Casas Venetian nunciature 15441549, Studi Veneziani n.s. 2 (1978) 119210; On Malta: A.P. Vella, The Tri-
bunal of the Inquisition in Malta (Royal University of Malta Historical Studies 1), La Valetta 1964.
30
On the local inquisition subordinated to the Holy Office as the most effective tool of the papal central-
isation in Italy: Linquisizione romana in Italia nellet moderna. Archivi, problemi di metodo e nuove ricerche. Atti
del seminario internazionale Trieste, 1820 maggio 1988 (Pubblicazioni degli Archivi di Stato, Saggi 19), Roma
1991; Adriano Prosperi, Tribunali della coscienza (Inquisitori, confessori, missionari), Torino 1996, 135210;
and M. Fripo, Tribunali della coscienza in et tridentina, Studi Storici 38 (1997) 355382. The rural inquisitions

book-commissary (commissariatus apostolicus librorum) in Frankfurt, which was in the

subordination of the nunciature of Cologne.31 The direction of the Holy Offices oper-
ation is illustrated by the figures, published and remained in the Casanate collection,
according to which, only 1.4% of the resolutions of around 1680 and from one and
a half centuries back , namely twenty-five from 1742, was related to the empire.
The idea of the establishment of inquisitional representations in Vienna, Graz, Prague,
for those Italians who stayed in the Empire, remained only on paper.32
The Congregation of Rites, of the Council,

the Consistorial and other Sistine Congregations
In the line of the congregations of Church function the second was the Segnatura di
Grazia (Sacra Congregazione della Segnatura di Grazia), which was established from the
ancient office which had already passed its competences to the Dataria.33
The granting of the smaller-bigger ordinary graces, as we saw, was the task of the
Dataria. The Signature of Grace, which was also competent on the external forum,
could not be regarded as a tribunal in its original form, either, since the cases were judged
exclusively by the ex bono et aequo. In its congregational form, on the model of the Roman
Inquisition, it was directly subordinated to the pope (Signatura Sanctissimi, its cardinal-pre-
fect held only the title). It dealt with the non-appealable religious and secular verdicts
and judged them by supreme royal and papal grace (via gratiae), namely, in contrast to
the Dataria, it granted extraordinary graces (grazie straordinarie). In the second half of
the seventeenth century, it had sessions only once-twice a year, its members were the
cardinal penitentiary, the cardinal prefects of the Signatura Iustitiae and the Secretariat
of Briefs, the datary (if he was a cardinal), apart from them, the auditor of the Camera,
an auditor of the Rota and a cleric of the Camera. Only that prelate who had already been
practicing this function for three years at the sister office, operating in tribunal form
could get in the twelve referendari votanti.
The third Sistine ministry was the Consistorial Congregation (Sacra Congregazione
per lErezione delle Chiese e per i Provvedimenti Concistoriali). As its name indicates, it pre-
pared the decisions that traditionally remained for the cardinals consistory. According
documents are the basis of the works of the Italian microstoria (Carlo Ginzbrug, Giovanni Levi) with priceless
documentary value, on which, see more: Tedeschi, Il giudice e leretico, 3546 and 4768.
31
Heribert Raab, Apostolische Bcherkommissare in Frankfurt am Main, HJ 87 (1967) 326354; Rotraut
Becker, Die Berichte des kaiserlichen und apostolischen Bcherkommissars Johann Ludwig von Hagen an die R-
mische Kurie (16231649), QFIAB 51 (1971) 422465.
32
Schwedt, Die rmischen Kongregationen, 51 and 57.
33
Re, La Curia Romana, 231234; on the officials of both Signatures: Katterbach, Referendarii utriusque
Signaturae, 234331; on the basis of the breves of appointment more precisely: Giuseppe Beltrami, Notizie su
Prefetti e Referendari della Segnatura Apostolica desunte dai Brevi di Nomina, Citt del Vaticano 1972, 29119;
the archontology of the prefects: ibid, 13.

to its double function, on the one hand, it consulted about the establishment, dismem-
berment and justification and manner of the union of the dioceses; it debated whether
the employment of a coadjutor or an auxiliary bishop, the consistorial benefices burden
with pension, was necessary. On the other hand, originally its task should have been
the last examination of the suitability of the bishop-nominees before the consistorys
final decision on their consecration. In practice, it happened only if a special problem oc-
curred, mostly around the election of the chapters or the appointment of bishops by the
monarchs. Its meetings were held relatively rarely and randomly in spite of its Church
administrational and curial rank. However, its decisions proved to be determining, they
had serious consequences for the local Churches at times.34
The root fallacy of the older secondary literature is to put an equal sign between
the function of the congregation and the cardinal consistory, although, despite the order
of Sixtus, the congregation did not automatically examine all the appointments of the
bishops, the donation of the pallium, neither did the canonical verbals go directly to it.
At the beginning of the century, the congregation that occasionally gathered (iuxta con-
tingentiam) had eight-ten cardinal and five prelate members; from the 1650s there were
fifteen-twenty cardinals, the number of the prelates was steady; however, in the 1680s
the number of the cardinals as well as the prelates was about fifteen. From 1644 its secre-
tary was identical with the secretary of the College of Cardinals, notably with Giuseppe
Fanfanelli, then with Agostino Favoriti in the 1650s and 1660s.35
The fourth, the Sacred Congregation of Rites and Ceremonies (Sacra Congregazione
dei Riti e delle Ceremonie) was erected to align the external forms of the divine services
and worships with tradition and the laws of Church. The preservation of the old sacred
rites (veteres ritus sacri) in the divine services, prayers, administration of the sacraments
and in other liturgical activities; the revival of the services disappeared from practice,
or the restoration of the still existing ones; moreover, the renewal and correction of the
liturgical books fell within the competence of the congregation, which was regarded
as the embodiment of the papal liturgical centralization and uniformity after Trent.
The other main scope of the congregation was the process of canonization of saints,
beatifications and the supervision of the observation of their feasts celebration. Further-
more, the organization and supervision of the papal ceremonies, the planning of the
proper reception of the monarchs, prelates and their delegates visiting Rome, the set-
tlement of the precedence debates over processions and other events came within the
activity of the new office.
34
Its Latin name: Congregatio pro erectione ecclesiarum et provisionibus consistorialibus; Congregatio rebus
consistorialibus praeposita. Louis Jadin, Les actes de la Congregation Concistoriale concernant les Pays Bass, la
principant de Lige et la Franche-Comt 15931797, Rome 1935; Tihamr Vany, Das Archiv der Konsistorial-
kongregation in Rom und die kirchliche Zustnde Ungarns in der zweiten Hlfte des 18. Jahrhunderts, Festschrift
zur Feier des zweihundertjhrigen Bestandes des Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv I, Wien 1949, 151179 (I thank
Elrd Borin for its copy); and Re, La Curia Romana, 113125 and 580581.
35

As regards its licences, the Congregation of Rites should be considered among the
most significant institutions of the period. It had influence over the fostering of the lit-
urgy and the cult of saints and the whole Catholic revival, based on the regulations of
the Council of Trent, furthermore over the supervision of the diverse rites on differ-
ent continents. The control over the papal services provided influence on the life of the
Curia, however, this competence was shortly withdrawn and entrusted to a distinct
congregation (Sacra Congregazione del Ceremoniale)36 for the sake of eliminating the var-
ious battles for positions and confusions occurring at the end of the sixteenth century.
After the establishment of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith
in 1622, it had authority only on the Latin liturgy. Several cases, which belonged origi-
nally to its competence (like the liturgical faculties), ran through the more prestigious
congregations related closer to the local Churches,37 and directly through the Secretariat
of Briefs. Its duties were increased by the breve Coelestis Hierusalem of Urban VIII in
1634, which declared that public ecclesiastical honour could not be bestowed on anybody
without the previous approval of the Holy See. The liturgical and canonizing duties
supplied, not as frequently as expected, a Church-administrational role that outgrew
the borders of Italy to the dicastery, which had regular sessions and was small at first
(five cardinals, one secretary and some consultors) but later became more and more ex-
panding apparatus due to those officials and lawyers who participated in the arrangement
of the canonizations influenced by various political and inner Church interests, which
were becoming more complicated and expensive.38
36
Visceglia, Il cerimoniale come linguaggio politico, 130133.
37
Especially through the Propaganda and the Inquisition. Cf. for example M. Gotor, La riforma dei processi
di canonizzazione dalle carte del SantUffizio, LInquisizione e gli storici, 279288; A. Malena, Inquisizione,
finte sante, nuovi mistici. Ricerche sul Seicento, LInquisizione e gli storici, 289306.
38
The analysis of the history and function of the congregation, known as the Congregatio pro sacris ritibus
et caeremoniis, and later just Sacra Rituum Congregatio or Congregazione dei Riti: Frederic Richard McMa-
nus, The Congregation of sacred Rites (Canon Law Studies 352) Washington 1954, 2338. 4566. 6771. 91116;
on the official procedure ibid, 117130; furthermore Wiktor Gramatowski, Il fondo liturgico pi antico
dellarchivio della S. Congregazione dei Riti (15881700), AHP 13 (1975) 401424; the evaluation of the can-
onisations: Lutz, Rom im 17. Jahrhundert, 548; conclusions with further literature: Re, La Curia Romana,
Roma 1970, 135148 and 435442; Lajos Psztor, Guida delle fonti per la storia dellAmerica Latina negli
archivi della Santa Sede e negli archivi ecclesiastici dItalia (CAV 2), Citt del Vaticano 1970, 339340. Many
sub-studies dealing with the history and function of the congregation: Congregazione per le Cause dei Santi.
Miscellanea in occasione del IV centenario della Congregazione per le Cause dei Santi (15881988), Citt del Va-
ticano 1988, especially: Giovanni Papa, La Sacra Congregazione dei Riti nel primo periodo di attivit, 1352;
Charles Lefebvre, Relationes inter Sacram Rituum Congregationem et Sacram Romanam Rotam, 5359; Ja-
roslav Nemec, Larchivio della Congregazione per le Cause dei Santi (ex-Congregazione dei Riti), 339352. On its
role in the life of a local Church: Pter Tusor, A magyar Egyhz s a Sacra Rituum Congregatio a katolikus
megjuls korban (A kongregci megalaptstl 1689-ig) [The Hungarian Catholic Church and the Sacra Rituum
Congregatio During the Catholic Revival (From the Establishment of the Congregation to 1689)], Magyar Egy-
hztrtneti Vzlatok-Regnum 11 (1999) 12, 3364; [Idem], Magyar szentek liturgikus tisztelete s a rmai
Sacra Rituum Congregatio a korai jkorban [The Liturgical Worship of the Hungarian Saints and the Roman
Sacra Rituum Congregatio in the Early Modern Period], Szentjeink s nagyjaink Eurpa keresztnysgrt
(Miscellanea Ecclesiae Strigoniensis 1, ed. by Margit Beke), Budapest 2001, 107115.

The congregation was constituted by twenty-three twenty-five cardinals in the sev-

enteenth century; at first its sessions were held on every second Saturday in the senior car-
dinal prefects palace. The other members of five-eight, sometimes thirteen among whom
there was permanently the devils advocate (promotor fidei) and the papal sacrista are di-
vided into two groups by the elenchi: the praelati and the magistri caeremoniarum of four
members. According to the data of 1644, in January, May, and September, the regular
general sessions could have been held in front of the pope. On these sessions, the engrossed
decision making was assisted by an auxiliary group of varying number, there were usually
religious experts, as well as the magister of the Sacred Palace, the assessor of the Holy Office,
three Rota-auditors, a protonotary and sometimes the personal theologian of the pope.39
In the line of the Church congregations the Index was followed by the Sacred Cong-
regation of the Council (Sacra Congregazione del Concilio di Trento). It was formed into an in-
dependent dicastery in 1564 (with the motu proprio, starting with Alias Nos nonnullas) from
the immediately created cardinal committee after Trent. Its first prefect was the later
canonized Charles Borromeo. Its tasks, which were still valid in the seventeenth century,
were circumscribed by Sixtus V. As the pope was responsible for interpretation of the
dogmatic decisions of the Council, its authority was confined to the general and con-
crete interpretation of the Church disciplinary and reform regulations and to the control
of their observance. Its answers (positiones) given to the requests throughout centuries
constitute some thousands of volumes. (On the basis of their content, the execution of
the Council submitted exclusively to the control of Rome and the arisen problems could
be perfectly recognizable.) The cardinals of the congregation supervised the local coun-
cils observance, their regulations, furthermore originally they oversaw the compliance
with the obligation of residence, though, in 1636 this was entrusted to a smaller author-
ity (Sacra Congragzione della Residenza dei Vescovi) within the congregation by Urban
VIII.40 The regulations of the Sacred Congregation of the Council directly in the name
of the pope (nomine Pontificis), made merely in these territories, prove an extensive ad-
ministrational, legislative and judicial authority.41
39
Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 203. 252. 275. 295296. 346. 490491.
40
On the foundation and function of the Congregation of Residence, which will occur later concerning
Church policy: Agostino Lauro, La curia Romana e la residenza dei vescovi, La societ religiosa nellet
moderna. Atti del convegno studi di storia sociale e religiosa Capaccio-Paestum, 1821 maggio 1972, Napoli
1973, 869883.
41
On the authority and the plan of work of the Sacra Congregatio pro excecutione et interpretatione concilii
Tridentini: G. Varsnyi, De competentia et procedura Sacrae Congregationis Concilii, La Sacra Congregazione
del Concilio. Quarto Centenario dalla Fondazione (15641964). Studi e ricerche, Citt del Vaticano 1964,
51161; Sebastianus Tromp, De cardinalibus interpretibus S. Concilii Tridentini annis 15641600, Apollinaris 27
(1974) 95106; Re, La Curia Romana, 149162. 582583; on its documents: La Sacra Congregazione del Concilio,
395476. Another outstanding outline, which emphasises the congregations decisions force of canonical case-
law and touches upon the problems of competence related to the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation
of Faith after 1622: Richard Puza, Die Konzilskongregation. Ein Einblick in ihr Archiv, ihre Verfahrensweise
und die Bedeutung ihrer Entscheidungen von ihrer Errichtung bis zur Kurienreform Pius X (15631908), RQ 90
(1995) 2342; on the archontology of the prefects and secretaries Niccol del Re, I cardinali prefetti della

The analysis and commenting of the reports which summarized the results of
the dioceses visits, and covered the local religious and Church relations (relationes status
dioecesis) presented on the occasion of the diocesan bishop or his (usually sent from
home) representatives ad limina visit meant the most effective and regularly practiced
administrational licence. The method and frequency of the reporting was regulated by
Sixtus V on 20 December 1585. The bishops from Italy, Dalmatia and the Greek islands
complied with their obligation, sworn by their oath before their consecration, in every
three years, the ones from Spain, France and the Empire (and Hungary) in every four
years, the ones from other countries in every five and the ones from overseas every ten
years. Through the interpretation of the relations composed by definite formal cri-
terions, yet, diverse in their content and extent and the suggestions, orders given by
the answers for them, the cardinals of the congregation could exercise direct influence
on the function of the dioceses.42
Similarly to the Rites, it was summoned every second Saturday in the senior cardinals
palace; the peculiarity of its structure was that it lacked a prelate member, apart from
its nineteen twenty (in the first half of the century), then twenty-three twenty-five
cardinals, it had only one secretary.43
The Congregation for Bishops and Regulars (Congregazione dei Vescovi e Regolari) was
originally two institutions in the system of Sixtus, but they were merged from 1602. Out of
these two institutions, only the monastic was newly established, since the episcopal had
already been functioning from 1576. Its task was to control the newer, as well as the reformed
male- and female orders activity, the keeping of the pastoral duties of the bishop, more-
over to settle the frequent controversies judicially. Consequently, its competences ex-
cept of the authentic interpretation of the regulations of Trent overlapped the Sacred
Congregation of the Councils, which might have been made necessary by the abundance
of the Italian cases. Until the middle of the seventeenth century, the Italian peninsula
was the main theatre of the congregations activity.44 Beside the twenty-six thirty-two
Sacra Congregazione del Concilio dalle origini ad oggi (15641964), Apollinaris 27 (1974) 107149; the same can
be found La Sacra Congregazione del Concilio, 265307, on the age 270280; Pietro Palazzini, Prospero
Fagnani, Segretario della S.C. del Concilio e suoi editi ed inediti, La Sacra Congregazione del Concilio, 361382,
377380 (Appendice I: Elenco dei Segretari della S. Congregazione del Concilio). See the Appendix.
42
On the technical details of the visitatio liminum and further literature, see Vicente Crcel Ort, Estudio
histrico-jurdico sobre la visita ad limina Apostolorum, 21212; an also exemplary publication on the religious re-
lations of the direct environment of the Eternal City: Le diocesi suburbicarie nelle visitae ad limina dellArchivio
Segreto Vaticano (CAV 22), a c. d. Maria ChiabConcetta RanieriLuciana Roberti, Roma 1988; and in
the Hungarian connection for instance: Pter Tusor, Lippay Gyrgy egri pspk (16371642) jelentse Fels-Ma-
gyarorszg vallsi helyzetrl (Archivio Santacroce) [The Report of Gyrgy Lippay, the Bishop of Eger (16371642)
on the Religious Situation of Upper Hungary], Levltri Kzlemnyek 73 (2002) 199241, especially 199201.
43
44
Its name variants: Sacra Congregatio pro consultationibus Regularium; Sacra Congregatio pro consultationibus
episcoporum et aliorum praelatorum; and unificated: Sacra Congregatio negotiis et consultationibus Episcoporum
et Regularium praeposita. Re, La Curia Romana, 330334.

cardinals, there was only one secretary, and similarly to the Sacred Congregation of the
Council it did not have prelate members.45
The Sacra Congregazione della Stamperia Vaticana was the last in the line of the Church
congregations, which was established in 1588 and directed the press of Vatican, which
primarily published the Bible (not only the Vulgate, but the original Hebrew and Greek
texts, as well), the regulations of the ecumenical councils, the writings of the Church
Fathers and the liturgical books (the Roman missal and the breviary), etc. with a very
wide circulation.46 Its functioning must have been short-lived since the Typographia Va-
ticana was merged with the press of the Camera in 1610.47
The Sacra Congregazione dellUniversit di Roma was on the borderline of the Church
and secular congregations, though, it is usually arranged among the latter ones. Apart
from the older papal university, the Studium Urbis, namely the Sapienza, it controlled the
Greek, Maronite College and the College of the Neophytes (Neophytorum) in Rome and
originally the universities of Paris, Bologna and Salamanca. According to the optimist
vision of the deed of foundation, Oxford would have belonged to it.48
The dicasteries, which were competent exclusively in the administration of the Papal
State, assisted the work of the departments of the Apostolic Camera with similar duties.
Separate congregations dealt with the: 1. corn supply of the Eternal City (Congregazione
dellAbbondanza dello Stato Ecclesiastico);49 2. papal navy (Congregazione dellArmata Na-
vale); 3. inquiry of the complaints about the over-taxing of the papal dependants (Cong-
regazione per Sollevare dagli Aggravi lo Stato Ecclesiastico); 4. building of roads, bridges,
aqueducts, and their permanent repair (Congregazione delle Strade, dei Ponti e delle Acque);50
5. examination of the civil and criminal procedures conducted in the territory of the
Papal State (in manorial and governmental courts), with the controversies of the secular
offices and officials, moreover, with the chief questions of the Papal States administration
(Congregazione della Consulta di Stato). The fundamental structure of the known author-
ity was determined by seven-eight departments (ponenza), which worked according to
45
46
Sacra Congregatio pro Typographia Vaticana. Re, La Curia Romana, 344345.
47
Francesco Barberi, Libri e stampatori nella Roma dei Papi, SR 13 (1965) 433456, 445.
48
Sacra Congregatio pro Universitate Studii Romani. It seems that its establishment did not succeed, since
there is no track of it from the seventeenth century. Its role was mainly taken over by the Sacred Congregation
for the Propagation of Faith. It is also uncertain whether it affected the life of the Jesuit Collegium Romanum
that represented a newer university generation. Nevertheless, the latest secondary literature does not mention
this. Mario Fois, Il Collegio Romano: Listituzione, la struttura, il primo secolo di vita, RMC 3 (1995) 571599.
49
Congregatio pro Ubertate Annonae Status Ecclesiastici. Reinhardt, berleben in der frhneuzeitlichen
Stadt, op. cit.; [Idem], Die Prfekten der rmischen Annona, 98115.
50
Congregatio pro Classe Paranda et Servanda ad Status Ecclesiastici Defensionem; Congregatio pro Status
Ecclesiastici Gravaminibus Sublevandis (or more Congregazione dei Sgravi); Congregatio pro Viis, Pontibus et
Aquis Curandis; Re, La Curia Romana, 338339. 340. 341343; Prodi, Lo sviluppo dellassolutismo nello Stato
Pontificio, 108111. The activity of the Cameras similar department was way more determining than its lat-
ter role. Daniel Sinsi, La presidenza delle Strade ed il suo Archivio nel XVIII secolo, RMC 2 (1994) 491502,
491495, 491492, n. 1. and 2.

territorial division. Their work was aligned by a secretary who reported on the cases of
prime importance to the cardinals. His colleagues of younger prelates oversaw the ad-
ministration of justice, the keeping of order and, partly, the public health.51
The Newer Congregations

The Sacra Congregazione de Propaganda Fide
There were already some examples for the reorganization and fusion of the institu-
tions after their establishment according to the system of Sixtus, which prove the systems
capacity of living and functioning and its organic development. Only Urban VIII, until
1642, established six congregations of permanent character, furthermore he reorgan-
ized many others fields of activity. In the spirit of the Jubilees preparation, in 1624, he
founded the Congregazione della Visita Apostolica, the jurisdiction of which affected only
the Roman archdiocese. The Congregazione dei Confini, which was established in 1627,
protected the integrity of the Papal State; besides, it was responsible for the settlement
of the local legations, the provinces and sometimes feudal estates border disputes, and
partly for the control of the public health, which was taken over by the Congregazione
di Sanit after the plague in Northern Italy. Apart from the Residency Congregation,
which controlled the bishops obligation of residency and the ad hoc Congregazione
di Portogallo, which was established to handle the Church administrational results of
the Portuguese politics changes , the Sacra Congregazione dellImmunit Ecclesiastica,
founded in 1626, had exceptional significance.52 The cardinals of this Congregation of
Immunity endeavoured to solve the permanent, unusually heated canonical problems
with Venice 16271638, with Portugal 16361643, with Spain 16381642 and with the
Spanish Flanders and Naples-Sicily 16361642. Due to the strict actions of the dicastery,
the pope imposed an interdict on Lisbon and the Republic of Lucca from August 1639
to December 1640 and from 2 April 1640 to 31 March 1643.53
Concerning the governance of the Papal State, the most significant was the Congre-
gazione del Buon Governo, established in 1592, which step by step evolved into the govern-
ment authority of the Papal States central administration.54 Its gradual strengthening is
51
In Latin: Congregatio pro consultationibus negociorum Status Ecclesiastici. This central administrative body:
quasi internal- and judicial ministry is discussed by Carocci, Lo Stato della Chiesa, 108112; Prodi, Lo svilup-
po dellassolutismo nello Stato Pontificio, 111112; Ago, Carriere e clientele, 20; Re, La Curia Romana, 346350.
52
According to its first name: Congregatio Controversiarum Iurisdictionalium.
53
54
On the institution that performed administrational duties and could be called as internal ministry by making
decisions of great importance: Armando Lodolini, LAmministrazione pontificia del Buon Governo, Gli Archi-
vi Italiani 6 (1919) 181236 and 7 (1920) 319, especially 197215; Elio Lodolini, LArchivio della S. Congregazi-
one del Buon Governo (15921847). Inventario (Pubblicazioni degli Archivi di Stato 20), Roma 1956; Carocci,
Lo Stato della Chiesa, 108112; Prodi, Lo sviluppo dellassolutismo nello Stato Pontificio, 112114; with the precise
model-like presentation of the everyday life of the city- and the province administration: Stader, Herr-
schaft durch Verflechtung, 81167, especially 115118 and 151167; furthermore Re, La Curia Romana, 351355.

shown by the fact that it could extend its jurisdiction over all manorial territories only by
the beginning of the eighteenth century, more than a hundred years after its establish-
ment. Similarly to the Consulta, various numbers of departments, which were estab-
lished according to territories, controlled the governors, the local urban and manorial
governments,55 mainly their administrative and financial activity. However, it did not
have authority over Rome, the legations (Avignon, Urbino, Romagna, Bologna, Ferrara),
Velletri and Castel Gandolfo, were under the sole leadership of the Roman governato-
re, the cardinal legates, the dean of the College of Cardinals and the Apostolic Palace.
The line of the similar exemptios could be continued with the territories related to the
administration of the Camera (such as Tolfa); until 1692 with the governorships of the
nepotes (Benevento, Borgo, the Castel SantAngelo); moreover, the three patriarchal basilicas
(Lateran, the Vatican and the Santa Maria Maggiore) and their surroundings were also
under the separate control of their cardinal archdeacons. As the number of the legations
reduced by the seventeenth century (for instance, the legation of Patrimonio [Viterbo],
Campagna e Marittima, Umbria and Marca ceased to exist and the one of Perugia grad-
ually died out), the most important leaders of the provincial administration became the
governors. The governorships were divided into two main groups. The most distin-
guished were prelate offices (governi di prelati). In 1701, their number was twenty-three
and there was a prelate-governor at the head of Ancona, Citt di Castello, Fano, Fermo,
Loreto, Montalto, Orvieto, Perugia, Rieti, Spoleto and Viterbo. Thirty-five towns and
their surroundings for example, Albano, Anagni, Assisi, Castiglione del Lago, Civita
Castellana, Massa, Orte, Sutri, Terni, Tivoli, Todi were governed by only those who
had a university degree. Among these so-called governi di dottori, those which were dis-
tinguished were given appointment in the form of papal breve (governi di breve), and those,
for which the authorization could have been won from the Consulta (governi di patente).
The latter ones were only di cappa nera, namely, they did not obtain the violaceo cassock.56
In the line of the newer congregations, a separate dicastery was obtained by the no-
bility of the Papal State and their properties; by the building and maintenance of the
Saint Peters Basilica;57 concerning the church, by the festivals and relics; by the control
55
Ago, Carriere e clientele, 14 and 20.
56
The complicated structure of the papal provincial administration is introduced by: Christoph Weber,
Legati e governatori dello Stato Pontificio (15501809) (Pubblicazioni degli Archivi di Stato, Sussidi 7), Roma
1994, 3253 (this introduction is followed by the compilation of some thousand pages about the data of certain
legations, governorships and the archontology of the legates and governors); and [Idem], Die Territorien des
Kirchenstaates in 18. Jahrhundert. Vorwiegend nach den Papieren des Kardinals Stefano Borgia dargestellt, Ds-
seldorf 1991, 1778 (furthermore on the division of competence of the Sacra Consulta and the Buon Governo
at the beginning of the eighteenth century: 92100 and 101111. on the ones with exempt administration:
7991. certain territories data: 115392); see more Pastura Ruggiero La reveranda Camera Apostolica, 2025.
A case-study: Andrea Gardi, Lo Stato in provincia. Lamministrazione della Legazione di Bologna durante il
regno di Sisto V (15351590) (Istituto per la Storia di Bologna. Collana Studi e Ricerche, n.s. 2), Bologna 1994,
on the role of the Sacra Consulta and the legates: 7379 and 195240.
57
Congregazione sopra i Baroni dello Stato ecclesiastico, Congregazione della Reverenda Fabrica di San Pietro.
Re, La Curia Romana, 370371. 358360. 432434.

of the friars conditions of life; the guidance of the Indian and Chinese missions,58 and
twice by the control of the appointments of the bishops. The Sacra Congregazione dellEsa-
me dei Vescovi, which was founded by Clement VIII, then the Sacra Congregazione sopra
lElezione dei Vescovi, which was temporarily established by Innocent XI to support his
reform program,59 belonged to those congregations which were established since the
already existing Consistorial Congregation could not properly perform their duties.60
Instead of mending the set and rigid old structure, in such cases, the Curia rather
preferred the establishment of a newer institution, or office. Apart from the consider-
able specialization, this was the other main attribute of the curial reform of the early
period. However, the reason why the above mentioned two congregations could not
extend their authority over their territories should be searched somewhere else: due to
the lack of the infrastructural and financial conditions, due to the scale of the duty,
to the fixation of the established mechanisms or to the unfortunate personal constitu-
tion of the congregation.
In spite of its original competence it seems , the congregation for inspecting bish-
ops in the seventeenth century examined only the suitability of the bishops appointed
by free papal bestowal (libera collatio). The meeting of the ten-thirteen cardinals and
five-eight prelates (one of them conducted the task of the secretary) was usually held in
front of the pope, in the Sacred Palace at a given time. In 1644, they met once a week,
on Monday or Friday mornings if the pope did not commanded otherwise , as the
pope wanted to listen to the nominee in person. The elenchus of 1644 divided the prelate
members into two groups (examinatores in Iure Canonico examinatores in Theologia).61
In contrast to the congregations established to control the bishop appointments, an-

other new institution, the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, the
Sacra Congregazione de Propaganda Fide, which was founded for the central guidance of
the mission organization, proved to be far more lasting, moreover, it rose among the
most prominent curial institutions. The new congregation was organized on 6 January
1622 and it already began its operation eight days later. (The founding bull Inscrutabili
Divinae Providentiae was only issued by Gregory XV on 22 June 1622.) In its structure,
it slightly resembled the Buon Governo, since certain cardinals dealt with the missionary
problems of the given regions of the world. Their congregational membership was not
confined to render on the letters and reports from their territories, or to participate in
the decision making but it included the activity of experts, moreover patrons. The in-
58
Congregazione delle Indulgenze e delle Reliquie, Congregazione della Visita Apostolica, Congregazione sullo
Stato dei Regolari, Congregazione della Cina e delle Indie Orientali. On these Re, La Curia Romana, 367369.
376379. 364366. 374375. 380381. On the contemporary Italian problems of the Church immunity: Agos-
tino Lauro, Il Giurisdizionalismo pregiannoniano nel Regno di Napoli. Problema e bibliografia (15631723)
(Sussidi eruditi 27), Roma 1974.
59
The curial elenchi did not mention it, neither its members.
60
Re, La Curia Romana, 356357 and 403404.
61

stitution of thirteen cardinals, two prelates and a secretary, acquired authority over the
guidance of the pastoral, missionary activity among partly the overseas natives, partly
among the European Protestants, as well as among the Catholic fragments mainly by
monks but usually by secular priests. Out of the thirteen regions, eight were European.
The control of certain regions was entrusted to the nuncios or to the patriarchal vicars,
which made the maintenance of relations with the missionaries easier.62
After the initial thorough inquiry, the Propaganda established new Church hierarchy
in a rather short while, where the traditional Church organization either did not operate
or not efficiently enough. Its elements were the missionary stations, prefectures, and
moreover apostolic vicariates. Under certain circumstances, the apostolic administrators,
who were consecrated (titular) bishops, directed the pastoral work. The only superior
of the monks and secular priests, who participated in the mission organization, was the
congregation. Their superiors in the order, the diocesan bishops, could not, or could
only by the approval of the Propaganda, give orders to them. It caused several conflicts,
mainly during the first decades of the century, however, according to the original aim
of the Roman missionary highest authority it strove to rely on the existing local author-
ities if there were any , moreover, the initial reception was remarkably favourable.63
The Propaganda was obliged to collaborate with other curial institutions in cer-
tain cases. In the field of the spiritual authorization of the missionaries, it had to con-
sult with the Holy Office, concerning the establishment of new bishoprics and the new
bishops entering service, with the Consistorial Congregation; in the event of legal and
disciplinary problems, with the Congregation for Bishops and Regulars. Its authority
was absolute in the respect that no other dicasteries of the Holy See could freely practice
their jurisdiction over the territories under mission organization without its permission.
62
This congregation belongs to the most researched institutions of the Holy See (cf. the content of the
Introduction). On the establishment Metzler, Foundation of the Congregation De Propaganda Fide, 79111; on
its activity in Western Europe for instance: B. Jacqueline, La Sacre Congrgation De Propaganda Fide et
la France sous le pontificat de Grgoire XV, RHE 66 (1971) 4682; on its activity in Central and Northern Eu-
rope especially: Hermann Tchle, Acta SC de Propaganda Fide Germaniam spectantia. Die Protokolle der
Propagandakongregation zu deutschen Angelegenheiten 16221649, Paderborn 1962; Georg Denzler, Die Pro-
pagandakongregation in Rom und die Kirche in Deutschland im ersten Jahrzehnt nach dem vestphlischen Frieden.
Mit Edition der Kongregationsprotokolle zu deutschen Angelegenheiten 16491657, Paderborn 1969; Hermann
Tchle, Die Protokolle der Propagandakongregation zu deutschen Angelegenheiten 16571667. Diasporasorge unter
Alexander VII, Paderborn 1972; Kollmann, Acta Sacrae Congregationis, op. cit.; the prefects and secretaries
of the congregation: Nikolaus Kowalsky, Serie dei cardinali prefetti e dei segretari della Sacra Congregazione
de Propaganda Fide, Euntes docete 15 (1962) 161197; in conclusion and with further literature: Re, La Cu-
ria Romana, 185203 and 584591; Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide memoria Rerum, I1, xviixxii;
another outline: Pizzorusso, Agli antipodi di Babele: Propaganda Fide, 489495.
63
Cf. Amadeus Reuter, De iuribus et officiis Sacrae Congregationis De Propaganda Fide noviter constitutae
seu de indole eiusdem propria, Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide memoria Rerum, I1, 112145. The con-
gregation directly after its establishment required information and suggestions from the local hierarchies
about the religious situation and the possibilities of missionary work. (The answers can be found in volume
6696 of the Vaticani Latini series in the Vatican Secret Archives.)

The congregation, which at first had a session three times a month in front of the
pope (coram Sanctissimo), assembled only twice according to the curial elenchus of 1629.
These sessions were held by turns at the residence of the pope and in the palace of the
cardinal prefect, at a given time. At that time, the congregation had fifteen cardinals and
beside the secretary, three other prelates (a protonotary apostolic and two referendarii),
apart from them, there was also a Carmelite.64 However, one and a half decades later,
even twenty cardinals could consult on the actual questions of the mission organization;
on Monday in the papal residency, on another occasion in the impressive palace of the
congregation built by Bernini then enlarged by Borromini, nearby the Spanish em-
bassy, on the Piazza di Spagna. The participation rate was never complete, as well as the
papal presence comparing to the beginning grew rare. Among the prelates, the pre-
vailing assessor of the Holy Office had appeared by this time, who was to ease the work
relations between the two offices. Throughout the century, the thirteen regions were
altered; certain important territories sometimes obtained two cardinal relatores.
The number of the Propagandas cardinals was at its peak in 1657. At this time, it had
thirty members, though, by the end of the century it reduced to twenty twenty-two,
which later became stable. The number of the prelates basically did not change, in the
second half of the century the iudex sacrae congregationis appeared, which indicates that
the congregations jurisdictional character over the missionaries developed.65
The question is what explains the success of the individual missionary highest au-
thority in opposition to numerous other newly founded congregations? Why was it est-
ablished only in the course of the Baroque Papacy and why could it gain such influence
in the Curia so as to call its cardinal prefect as the red pope from the end of the seven-
teenth century? (The elenchi of the seventeenth century indicated the name of the pre-
fect only in the case of this congregation.) Apart from the idea of the defence of faith,
represented by the Roman Inquisition, the spread of Catholicism was also a central no-
tion of the Tridentine reform Papacy. The background of this idea was created by the
theoretical and practical missionary activity of the new and reformed orders, especially
by the Jesuits, Capuchins, Carmelites, the Minorites and Observant Franciscans, etc.
In this respect, we could hardly speak about a radically new challenge. By the pressure
of the Jesuit general, Francesco Borgia, Pius V established two cardinal committees in
1568 to convert the German Protestants and the people in the Indies; however, their
activities lasted only until 1569. Similarly, the appointed cardinal delegations of the fol-
lowing decades were not lasting. The committees, which were led by the well-known
committed Giulio Antonio Santoro,66 established for the advancement of the orthodox
64
Reuter, De iuribus et officiis Sacrae Congregationis De Propaganda Fide, 112145; Weber, Die ltesten
ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 201202.
65
Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 250. 274. 293. 343. 488489.
66
The illuminating biography of the prelate in high esteem who had the chance to accede to the papal throne:
G. Cugnoni, Autobiografia di monsignor G. Antonio Santori cardinale di S. Severina, ASRSP 12 (1889) 327372

union the one founded for the direction of the Abyssinian missions in 1594 and the
ones established for the control of the Greek Rites in 1599 also proved to be ephemeral.
However, the congregation called De Propaganda Fide, which was founded in 1599 to
the control of every mission: North-European, American, African, Indian and Japa-
nese was of institutional character. Its cardinals, though, assembled on 14 August
1600 for the last time. Until 1622, only the missionary secretariat, organised on its ruins
in 1604, worked on. Its legal successor could variously employ its experience and data.67
The failure of the attempts to establish a central Church administrational body
to control the missions is rooted in many reasons. Undoubtedly, the opposition of the
Roman centres of the religious orders and the Holy Office, which had already been in
charge of the missionary work, played a role in this, which had to be faced also after
1622. Contrary to other orders, the Propaganda could not seize control over the Jesuit
missions, and led to frequent conflicts with the Inquisition, especially in the first decades.
Not only did the Office adhere to its licences, but due to its character, it represented a
more apologetic attitude than the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, which
was far more flexible and much better aware of the local relations.68
The opposition of the biggest Catholic colonizer monarchy, Spain, is regarded as the
other reason for the failures. On the basis of the earlier received authorizations from
Rome, the Spanish Monarchy could supervise not only the traditional hierarchy but the
majority of the overseas missions, as well. Its opposition, however, did not reduce in the
seventeenth century. The Propaganda had to deal with many conflicts with the colo-
nial powers together with Portugal which had, in the meantime, become independent
again as well as with the Austrian Habsburgs, concerning the Church administrational
affiliation of the Hungarian territories under Turkish rule.69
The reason for the successful establishment and undiminished curial central role of
the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith in the seventeenth century should
be searched for in the change of the Papacys relations with the States. The traditional
Church structures could not have been withdrawn from the secular control, not even
after Trent. At the beginning of the disintegration of the collaboration, for the sake of
and 13 (1890) 151205; furthermore [Idem], Gli scritti del cardinale Giulio Antonio Santoro ( 1602) penitenziere
maggiore ed inquisitore generale, AHP 36 (1998) 107136; Filippo Tamburini, Giulio Antonio Santoro cardinale
penitenziere ed inquisitore generale. Ricerche sulla sua biblioteca, RQ 95 (2000) 5493.
67
Josef Metzler, Wegbreiter und Vorlufer der Kongregation (Vorschlge und erste Grndungsversuche einer
rmischen Missionszentrale), Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide memoria Rerum, I1, 3878; several
sources on the mission organizations to America before the formation of the Propaganda: America pontifi-
cia primi saeculi evangelizationis 14931592. Documenta pontificia ex registris et minutis praesertim in Archivio
Secreto Vaticano existentibus IIII (CAV 2712 et 38), ed. by Josef Metzler, Citt del Vaticano 19911995.
68
Giuseppe Metzler, Controversia tra Propaganda e S. Uffizio circa una commissione teologica (16221658),
Pontificia Universitas Urbaniana Annales 19681969, Romae 1969, 4762.
69
Ignacio Ting Pong Lee, La actitud de la Sagrada Congregacin frente al Regio Patronato, Sacrae Con-
gregationis de Propaganda Fide memoria Rerum, I1, 353438; Metodio Carobbio Da Nembro, Patronato
e Propaganda nel Brasile, Ibid., I2, 667690; Metzler, Ppstlicher Primat als pastorale Verantwortung und
missionarischer Auftrag, 373386.

the first signs of the tendency to the development of a national State Church control-
led by a secularized power, Rome immediately launched the establishment of a Church
administration which was subordinated only to it.70 According to its first instructions,
through the institution which emphasised the exemption from politics and violence
the Papacy could comply with its pastoral commitment more freely and completely.71
The opportunities of the Church administrations reformation given by the program
of Trent had already been exhausted by the beginning of the seventeenth century; new
constitutional frameworks were needed for the further period of the Catholic reform.
It should be highlighted that the establishment of these was not foreign to the curial
way of thinking, at all.
Our picture of the congregations would be incomplete without analysing the systems
drawbacks, as well. The congregations with administrative licences and proper appa-
ratus undoubtedly enhanced the efficiency and performance of the State- and Church
administration. Like in every bureaucratic system, the risk of the endless division was
also present here, since the above mentioned offices were the only important and more
stable ones. The curial elenchus of 1629 lists more than sixty, the directory and register
from 1644 list more than seventy congregations! This data represents a bewildering
number, even if we know that many of them were not of institutional character, which
is proved by the fact that there is no document maintained about them, moreover, their
function was based exclusively on other institutions infrastructure.72 They usually dealt
with only an exceptionally narrow field, such as with the control of the Cameras or the
Penitentiarys functioning, the granting of smaller Church benefices, the collection of
the spoliums, the issue of the monti, with the supervision of the minting, the prisons and
the Johannites.73 While the existence of the chosen and detailed congregations can be
revealed in the seventeenth century, contrary to the earlier ones, the committees, deal-
ing with the unique order of knighthood of early modern period, the Militia Christia-
na, with the reform of the Camaldoleses (and other orders), or with the Spanish affairs
70
The change in the political situation is also highlighted by: Pietro Chiocchetta, Il mondo politico e
religioso allinizio del sec. XVII, Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide memoria Rerum, I1, 314.
71
The history of the European and overseas mission organization: Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda
Fide memoria Rerum, I2, 3374 (Attivit della Sacra Congregazione in Europa) and 377795 (Attivit della
Sacra Congregazione nellOltremare).
72
In his so often cited work Niccol del Re does not even mention them among the dissolved offices
(dicasteri sopressi).
73
Computorum Cameralium Congregatio, Rationum Cameralium Congregatio, and in 1644 the Cameralis
Congregatio; Signatura Poenitentiariae Congregatio (this also had generalis and particularis versions); Concursus
Parochialium et Aliorum Ecclesiasticorum Beneficiorum Congregatio, Spoliorum Congregatio, Montium Con-
gregatio, Monetarum Congregatio, Visitatio Carcerum Congregatio, Religionis Sancti Ioannis Hierosolymitarum
Congregatio etc. Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 187209 and 210265. The system resulted
in dual control in many cases. The congregations that controlled economic activities were mainly made up
of clerics of the Camera, which meant that the old system efficiently resisted the attempt to alter and cut its
authority. Weber, Senatus Divinus, 219.

and with the Patriarchy of Aquileia, could not be found in the papal State calendar in
1644. However, the body, which discussed the problems of the Electorate of the Palatine
during the Thirty Years War, was still functioning at this time.74 In the place of the
extinct offices, newer and newer ones were established under the Barberinis, including the
arrangement of the orphans, etc.75 Naturally, these congregations are considered consul-
tative bodies, which prepared the decisions and did not make them. Despite their names,
they were such committees that should be called commissios. In the sixteenth century
we had already seen examples of them; for instance, the Congregatio Germanica, which
followed the German religious affairs with attention, or the less-known Congregazione
dUngheria, which supervised the allocation and employment of the military subsidies
against the Turks in Hungary at the turn of the sixteenth and seventeenth century.76
In the second half of Urban VIIIs pontificate, literally, there was not a papal decision
which previously would not have been discussed by a committee. If need be, concerning
political as well as Church administrative affairs, for the solution of a concrete task a
particular (particularis) congregation within an already functioning congregation was
designated. These are not mentioned by the curial elenchi, neither do they speak about
the most influential quasi-council of State, which was constituted by a couple of cardinals
and was occasionally summoned to discuss the most important foreign and inner affairs,
i.e. about the Congregazione dello Stato, which was founded for the sake of the protest
against the Peace of Westphalia and existing from the pontificate of Clement VIII, not-
ed. By 16301640, the overgrowing system had slowed down the decision making mech-
anism to such an extent that it reached the limits of its functioning. Sometimes certain
cardinals were members of even ten or twelve congregations. It is true that many out
of the smaller congregations held their meeting with only one or two cardinals, some
of them, like the one dealing with the Spanish affairs, with the monti and minting were
constituted only by prelate members.
Under all circumstances, it is obvious that the cardinals could not effectively partic-
ipate in all their congregations. Therefore, it often happened that due to the changes
of the participating members the same dicastery made its decision in an absolutely
different personal constitution, which hardly served the consistent decision making.
Naturally, it was rare when a cardinal perhaps prelate was a member of every im-
portant congregation; there were only four or five such cardinals among them. (Usually,
this closer circle of the popes was invited to the Congregazione dello Stato.) For example,
the former nuncio of Vienna, Giovanni Battista Pallotto was a member of nine congrega-
74
Militiae Christianae Congregatio, Camaldolensium Haeremitarum Congregatio (and Reformationis Fratrum
Minorum de Observantia Congregatio), Hispaniarum Negociorum Congregatio, Aquileae Patriarchatus Congre-
gatio, Palatinatus Congregatio. Cf. Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 187209 and 210265.
On the Militia Christiana: E. Sastre Santos, Un memorial sobre la orden de la Milicia Cristiana en el Archivo
de Propaganda Fide, Hidalga 29 (1981) 10251064.
75
Orphanorum utriusque sexus Congregatio etc. Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 246 and 251.
76
Of the latter one I came across only the Italian name variant in the sources. On the German Congre-
gation see more, Krasenbrink, Die Congregatio Germanica, op. cit.

tions in vain, since he could not join the Holy Office. Even if it was not exclusively typical,
it often happened that certain cardinals made their way only in the congregations re-
sponsible for Church administration (despite the fact that they often owed their careers
to their venal office),77 the others in the State administration. The six congregations of
Girolamo Colonna, who was not celebrated by the Hungarian bishops, were all of Church
function: he was the member of the Council and Rites from 1629, then from 1644 the
Ceremonial, the Bishop and Regulars, and of the Segnatura di Grazia, finally from 1657
until his death in 1666 he was a member of the Inquisition, as well. (He could not, how-
ever, become a member of the Propaganda.78)
The closer circle, which participated in the important decision making, can be easily
identified in every pontificate. Under Gregory XV, for example Giovanni Battista Agucchia
secretary of State, who came from Bologna, from a patrician family, Cardinal Scipione
Cobeluzzi (secretary of Briefs, the member of the Inquisition and the Propaganda), who
lived in the Sacred Palace, Cardinal Francesco Sacrati datary, Giovanni Battista Bandini
(the prefect of the Congregation for Bishops and Regulars), Aloysio Capponi, Pietro Dona-
to Cesi, Domenico Ginnasi and Roberto Ubaldini (the prefect of the Congregation of the
Council) could be mentioned.79 In the early years of Urban VIIIs pontificate, the members
of this closer circle were Millino, Ginetti, Borromeo and Cardinal Bandini and Zacchia.80
Under Alexander VII, besides Rospigliosi secretary of State, Cardinal Corradi, the datary
and the prefect of the Congregation of Immunity, Giulio Sacchetti and the Jesuit Pallavi-
cini, furthermore on an informal basis two other monks: the Jesuit general Oliva and
the Oratorian Virgilio Spada,81 under Clement IX, only Azzolini and Ottoboni had an
advantageous role.82 Under his successor, Cardinal nephew Paluzzo Albertoni-Altieri and
apart from the two other following secretaries: Federico Borromeo and Francesco Nerli,
the popes friend, Gaspare Carpegna datary and Camillo Massimo, then Alessandro
Crescenzi chief major-domo influenced the decisions, as far as the strong nephew allowed.83
Under Innocent XI perhaps due to the lack of a family background the body that
could enforce its claims was far larger. There were among them Agostino Favoriti, from
1682 Lorenzo Casoni ciffre-secretary, Johann Walter Slusius secretary of Briefs, the often
mentioned Giovanni Battista de Luca as (also) the head of the memorial-secretariat, then
Alderano Cybo secretary of State who unusually enjoyed French pension , Giovan-
ni Maria Lancisi datary, furthermore Gregorio Barbarigo bishop of Padova (especially
at the beginning of his pontificate), the Oratorian monk, Mariano Sozzini, who was
considered to be the soul of the general reforms, the discalced Carmelite general, Carlo
77
Weber, Senatus Divinus, 2021.
78
Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 136 and 102.
79
Koller, Gregorio XV, 296.
80
Hook, Urban VIII., 229230. The members of the Congregazione dello Stato in 1633: Bernardino Spada,
Zacchia, Gessi, Pamphili, Verospi, Antonio Barberini; in 1641: Spada, Pamphili, Pallotto, Francesco Barber-
ini, Antonio Barberini, Sacchetti, Lanti, Bentivoglio, Roma. A striking fluctuation among the members is
noticeable in the meantime. Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 282283.
81
82
83

Felice da Santa Teresa, the papal confessor, Ludovico Marracci and his chamberlains:
Sante Fiamma, Tiberio Quadri (also his barber), Camillo Muggiaschi and Carlo Antonio
Prosperi. All of them were nearly absolutely new in the central Church administration,
most of them remained in the background, at least they did not collect splendid titles.84
Under Innocent XII, the situation is similar, only the person of the officials changed in
most cases. Fabrizio Spada embodied the secretary of State, Bernardino Panciatichi the
datary, Giovanni Francesco Albani the secretary of Briefs (all of them were cardinals),
the secretary of the royal letters became Mario Spinola, the cifras Vincenzo Ricci, the
memoriales Agostino Fabroni; the sottodatario was Giuseppe Sagripanti, the papal auditor
was Ansaldo Ansaldi, the chief major-domo Ercole Visconti and the chief chamberlain
became Baldassare Cenci. Most of them were unknown names, without a patron or a
relational background to be supported.85
As a result of the cardinals over-employment, the role of the secretaries who coordi-
nated the effective activity in many cases not even from the background was more
appreciated. While they were from the popes vassals in the first half of the century, and
their prestige was supported by their titles in the Sacred Palace, as a protonotary, refe-
rendary, from 1650s they were rather from the titular bishops or archbishops. However,
pluralism can be detected also in their case. For example, Francesco Ingoli, who played
an important role in the creation of the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the
Faiths profile certain assumptions say that the survival of the repeatedly established
institution is considered on his merit, which is an obvious exaggeration and performed
also in the trial against Galilei, from 1629 to 1649, until his death, was also the secretary
of the Sacra Congregazione del Ceremoniale.86 The secretary of the Congregation for Bish-
ops and Regulars, Prospero Fagnani worked as the prelate member of the Consistorial
Congregation and the actual referendary of the Signature in 1629.87 The record among
the congregational secretaries is held by Francesco Paulucci, who apart from being the
secretarius of the Congregation of Immunity and the Council between 1629 and 1657,
he also engaged in the work of the Consistorial Congregation and the Inquisition as a
prelate from 1644.88 In order to become indispensable in many fields, one did not nec-
essarily have to be a cardinal or a secretary. Pietro Francesco Rosso, who expressed his
opinion also in the questions of nepotism, was at the same time the advocate of the consis-
tory, the Camera at the preparation of the canonisations and the devil. Between
1620 and 1674 he called on twenty-three institutions, including the Holy Office. It often
84
85
Ago, Innocenzo XII, 396. The majoritys dates of the tenure of office can be found in the Appendix.
86
Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 120. Apart from the above cited works, on the life and
key role of Ingoli, who started his real career as the tutor of the Ludovisi Popes nephews: Josef Metlzer,
Francesco Ingoli, der erste Sekretr der Kongregation, Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide memoria Re-
rum, I1, 146196; Grisar, Francesco Ingoli ber die Aufgaben des kommenden Papstes, 289292.
87
Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 109. On the life of the secretary who was one of the
most noted contemporary canonists: Palazzini, Prospero Fagnani segretario, 361382. His fundamental work:
Ius canonicum seu commentaria absolutissima in quinque libros Decretalium, Romae 1661.
88
Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 138.

happened that he had a title in five or six congregations at the same time; above all, he
had also time to question the rights of the Hungarian kings concerning the filling of
the bishoprics in lengthy essays.89
In the old curial structure, not only can we find examples of pluralism spanning
over generations, mainly to increase prestige and incomes among the families of the
popes and cardinals, but also in the line of the congregational officials. One of the typi-
cal prelate-dynasties was the Bottonis. Prospero Bottini, who worked in the papal court
from 1659 to 1712, until his death, belonged to the decisive body of the Annona, as well
as of the Congregazione dei Baroni, dei Monti, delle Visite alle Carceri, dell Immunit, del-
la Riforma degli Statuti del Clero Romano (of the former one, only in 16761679); from
1670 he was a member of the Consistorial Congregation and the canonizing division of
the Rites (16741679). Apart from these, from 1676, as a cameralistic auditor he visit-
ed the sessions of the Congregazione Criminale, dei Conti, dei Confini, dei Parrochi, della
Prefettura Cittadina, della Riforma dei Tribunali, degli Spogli, delle Reliquie, della Visita
Apostolica, di Avignone, del Governatore Criminale dellUrbe, del Criminale del Vicario and
as a proper prelate member, the sessions of the dei Riti. From 1682, he participated in
the sessions of the Inquisition and the congregation dealing with the examination of
the bishops and from 1701 with the case-crimes (cause criminali). In addition, he was
the canon of the Lateran and the Saint Peter, the legal counsel of the Camera and the
titular archbishop of Mira. His nephew, Giovanni Battista Bottini, who died in 1708,
earlier than Prospero, won admission to almost all of these offices as the assistant of his
uncle. Even Lorenzo Prospero Bottini, who was born in 1737, could become a consis-
torial counsel and the referendary of both Signatures under Clement XIII. The other
typical case is of the Cencis, the Azzolini-clients. Between 1640 and 1740, through four
generations, they held administrative and judicial offices in the government of Rome,
and had cameralistic clerical positions.90
The decision making, which became more and more complicated accompanied by
the troubles of the Pamphili period, resulted in the change, according to which the de-
cisions of great importance were sometimes made by evading the competent congrega-
tions, which could have supplied useful information. As a result of the criticism coming
from outside and inside, the simplification and correction of the system became urgent
by the middle of the seventeenth century. One of the main elements of the institutional
reform, which was urged by the members of the squadron volante, was the dissolution of
the smaller congregations. According to the register and directory of the papal offici-
als, published more often from the 1660s, the number of the congregations was around
forty.91 However, as a consequence the number of cardinals of certain congregations was
significantly swollen, in general to twenty-five persons. Although, by the 1680s there was
89
Ibid., 147.
90
91
See the registers and directories of the curial officials from 1657, 1661, 1667, 1668, 1670, 1674, 1676, 1679,
1682, 1684, 1686, 1688, though, they were more succinct than the earlier elenchi from 1629 and 1644: Weber,
Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 266544.

a reduction in the number of members in some cases, the institutional pluralism could
not have been eliminated in case of either cardinals, or the prelates, as it is perfectly il-
lustrated by the example of the Bottinis.
Apart from the restoration of the congregations actual and effective role, the other
emphasised factor was to enhance the quality of work. Alexander VIIs apostolic decree,
published on 16 June 1659, regulated all those moral, practical and educational (for in-
stance, he enlarged the number of such offices that required a doctoral degree in both
laws) preconditions that were essential to hold an office in the Holy See. The inner
working system and inwardness of the curial offices, along with the circumscription
of the prelates career, remained determinant century-long, like the reforms of Sixtus,
as well as Innocent.92
There is a positive effect of the Barberini periods over-bureaucratisation up to this day.
Urban VIII established the archives of the College of Cardinals beside the Vatican Secret
Archives, founded by Paul V; he terminated the validity of the mentioned (vivae vocis
oraculo) papal regulations; moreover, he commanded that only such cases could have
been discussed by the consistories that had earlier been presented, furthermore the
high-ranking officials also had to deliver the official documents. These regulations called
way more favourable sources into existence for the present historical research than the
previous decades.93
The Papal Secretariat of State
It is a matter of a crucial question how the well-known absolute papal power and
authority could become effectual in the congregational turmoil after Trent. Several con-
gregational assemblies was held in front of the pope, where the heads of the prominent
offices gave an account of their work in an audience on a weekly or monthly basis. It is
obvious that the popes were able to control their decision-making only with the help of
a direct personal apparatus. If we recollect those prelates, who gained determining de-
cision-making influence in the course of certain pontificates, not only could we see that
there were more and more heads of diverse papal secretaries occurring among them, but
these positions were filled by more and more prestigious people.
92
Rodn, Cardinal Decio Azzolino and Squadron Volante, 47 and 9192.
Prmsi Levltr [The Archives of the Primate], Esztergom, Archivum Ecclesiasticum Vetus, n. 154/5 (The
93
original decree of Urban VIII of 11 December 1631: Revocatio concessionum vivae vocis oraculo); and Remigius Ritz-
ler, Die archivalischen Quellen der Hierarchia Catholica, Miscellanea Archivistica Angelo Mercati (ST 165), Citt
del Vaticano 1952, 5174; [Idem], Per la storia dellarchivio del Sacro Collegio, Mlanges Eugne Tisserant V (ST 235),
Citt del Vaticano 1964, 299338, 303308. The regulation meant an outbreak concerning mainly the doc-
uments of a charter character that was verified by a notary. As we can see later related to the Secretariat of
State, only a slow and gradual evolution occurs concerning various files and governmental documents. On the
details of the procedure of the consistory, see below, the related sections of Chapter VI.

The Papal Secretariat of State 191
Absolutism, as a form of administration, could not depend on the strength or we-

akness of the monarch, since there did not exist other functional system in the early
modern period. As a consequence, such a governmental system had to be evolved which
could, if need be, replace or help the work of the monarch. The minions emerging
from the inner struggles of the State assemblies proved to be dead ends of the devel-
opment, moreover their legacy remained to be unsettled. That Cabinet, which could
deal with foreign affairs without being controlled by other State offices, had the future
throughout Western Europe, namely diplomacy was the monarchs royal prerogative
since the Middle Ages. The chief secretaries later the secretary of the flourishing
offices leant on this central administrative background and by using their position of
trust they extended their influence on other parts of the State affairs. As a result of this
process, a new, indispensable title was born, the so-called primus minister.94
The Establishment of the

Personal Administration of the Popes
This sort of development took place at the earliest time and in the clearest form in
the papal court. In the Roman Curia the title of secretarius, who arranged the secret
correspondence of the pope and headed an individual office, independent even from
the Chancery in the course of the rule of Pope Pius II (14581464), appeared in 1338.95
In relation to the development of the diplomatic representations and permanent lega-
tions, the scope of duties of the differently called officials and institutions (segretarii seg-
reti-domestici, segretarii in capite, segretarii maggiori, segretario nelle cose di Stato) started
to thrive by the sixteenth century. The specialization in the relations of certain coun-
tries was noticeable already under Leo X.96 By 1605, when the term of Segreteria di Stato
first appeared, the secretary of this office and other secretaries were already the higher
prelates of the Curia, notwithstanding their state as officials and their commitments.
On the wage scale they strictly followed those officials who had the title of cardinal.97
94
The general European tendency is detailed and illustrated by more examples: Andreas Kraus, Der Kar-
dinal-Nepote Francesco Barberini und das Staatssekretariat Urbans VIII., RQ 64 (1969) 191208, 191195.
In Krauss interpretation the Western European attributive does not cover the German territories, since the
secret council that led the imperial diplomacy did not have a separate apparatus so the diplomatic documents
were expedited by the Imperial and the Austrian Court Chancery. Ibid., 195.
95
Andreas Kraus, Die Sekretre Pius II. Ein Beitrag zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des ppstlichen Sekretariats,
RQ 53 (1958) 2580.
96
Cf. Andreas Kraus, Secretarius und Sekretariat. Der Ursprung der Institution des Staatssekretariats
und ihr Einflu auf die Entwicklung moderner Regierungsformen in Europa, RQ 55 (1960) 4384, 6378. Here
Kraus presents a more detailed picture about the parallels between the Middle Ages (4363) and the early
modern period (7884). See more Prodi, Lo sviluppo dellassolutismo nello Stato Pontificio, 115127.
97
Ludwig Hammermayer, Grundlinien der Entwicklung des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats von Paul V. bis
Innozenz X. (1605 bis 1655), RQ 55 (1960) 157202, 165, note 15.

The salary of the papal officials between 16051655 is constant: the cardinal nephews
official salary was 87,50 scudi, the cardinals, who supervised the Secretariat of Briefs, was
80, the cardinal secretary of the Consulta was 40, the same amount as that of datarys and
the cardinal secretary of States was 29. Only for comparison: the secretary of the Ritus
got 3 scudi, the secretary of the Congregation of the Council got 7 and the secretary of
the Propaganda got 6. This sum was granted from the spese del maggiordomo. The oper-
ating cost of the Secretariat of State, including the vice secretaries salary (sostituti), was
monthly 100110 scudi, which was covered by the depositeria generale.
The position of the cardinal secretary of State was absolutely confidential. He had
free access to the pope, nonetheless, he was not obliged to accept the command of any-
body but the Pontiffs, moreover, the secretary was let into all the State secrets. On the
basis of the abstracts, his task was to report on the accounts of the nunciatures to the
pope. In addition, he was to open the letters coming from the monarchs, the prelates
and the noblemen addressed to the pope. In many cases, he made decision on the fu-
ture of the arriving data and cases whether they had to be announced to the pope or
directly forwarded to one of the congregations, or offices. According to the significance
of the case, the measures towards the answer containing the decision were taken by
himself or by the order of the pope, be it a letter of the Secretariat of State signed
by the cardinal-nephew, or a breve. Not only did he make notes on the papal audiences
but on those congregational assemblies, as well, where the pope was the chairman. More-
over, on a regular basis he negotiated with foreign deputies and delegations. As the secret
correspondence (ciffre), which was utilized more and more often by the congregations
and other offices (especially by the Dataria), was only operating through the Secretariat
of State, the cardinal secretary of State had a wider and wider view on the mechanism
of the decision making of the Curia. On the other hand, he did not have the right to
order the congregations, with the exception of owning a direct command of the pope.
He could only influence the decisions of the ministries, if he was a prelate member.
In the Congregazione dello Stato his duty was only to take the minutes until the end of
the seventeenth century, he did not have the right to vote.98
The role of a technocrat in the papal decision making involved the development and
strengthening of a central, powerful position within the Curia, which depended only
on the pope. There were several circumstances in Rome which contributed to this rapid
development in Western European relation, for example, the relative advancement of
the central office, led by the papal secretary, is not negligible. The Secretariat of State,
due to the various Church administrational tasks of the papal diplomacy, could play a
coordinating part in the offices and congregations of a religious as well as secular char-
acter, owing to the reports of the Papal States legations. Even if the congregations could
directly keep in touch with the deputies and provinces.
98
Kraus, Secretarius und Sekretariat, 6378; Hammermayer, Grundlinien der Entwicklung des ppstlichen
Staatssekretariats, 159166; Kraus, Der Kardinal-Nepote, 191195; and on the basis of the knowledge gained
by the introduction of the Secretariat of States function.

Above all, owing to the withdrawal of the consistory, there was a lack of a State as-
sembly within the papal administration, which could oversee all the fragments of the
State affairs. A ministerial governmental system was established, where all the compe-
tences were shared. The establishment of this system, occurring in the early times of the
Curia, was not only based on the realisation of a more efficiently functioning structure;
in spite of the growing dominance of the Italian factor, the Curia had always been and
remained an international institution; some of the cardinals had international relations,
nonetheless, interests. The need for a modern papal absolutism and sovereignty naturally
resulted in the elimination of its risk. As the Papacy was partly an elective monarchy,
based on universal grounds, the structure and development of the Roman court de-
spite the similarities differed from the structure of the other European States. Apart
from their more natural organization, in the case of the Holy See the diversification
was more considerable according to the liaison with other countries. Consequently,
in the new system the cardinals were able to see only the little fragments of the whole
picture; the information to the trustworthy cardinals was often provided by the new
centre: the Secretariat of State.99
The development of the secretary of States independent power position was threat-
ened only by the cardinal nephew. Comparing to the Western-European offices col-
leagues, he was in a favourable situation since the cardinal nephews were not hardened
in political battles like the French, English, Spanish or Viennese favourites. Their se-
lection relied on relational basis; one of their functions as we saw was to establish a
papal dynasty. Although both of them had free access to the pope, but the nephew, who
usually held the vice-chancellor title lived in the Palace of the Chancery, the secretary of
State in the Sacred Palace, or in the Quirinal. If the cardinal nephew personally wanted
to report on a certain case to the pope for which he had the right , he could do it only
on the basis of the extract made by the Secretariat, and as we highlighted, a command to
the secretary of State could have been given only by the pope, consequently, the nephew
could not, though, he was the formal leader of the papal diplomacy. However, in con-
trast to his Western-European colleagues, the nephew had legally entrenched functions.
A firm nephew, under his less active uncles reign, could fill his rather theoretical aut-
hority with actual meaning and could create an individual decision making position.100
The pope the cardinal nephew the secretary of State: they head the power, they
form the heart of the decision making. If the cardinal nephew became the alter-ego of
the pope, similarly the secretary of State became the alter-ego of the nephew; and if the
cardinal nephew was the primary official of the Curia, then the secretary of State became
the second in rank, as well.101 Their prevailing relation, whether they were working for
or against each other, was of determinant significance.
99
Kraus, Secretarius und Sekretariat, 6378; Visceglia, Fazioni e lotta politica nel Sacro Collegio, 43.
100
Kraus, Der Kardinal-Nepote, 191195.
101
Menniti Ippolito, Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 3032 and 4250.

The absolute papal exercise of power could have been completely autonomous, only
if the pope had examined the incoming letters personally. It is obvious though, that
none of the popes could become absorbed in every detail of the sea of official documents.
Paul V, who was elected at the age of fifty-three, read the files until the end of his life,
naturally only the most important ones. The sixty-seven-year-old ill Gregory XV as
one can deduct from the poor data of his short pontificate basically, had to rely on his
colleagues. His handwriting never occurs on the authentic documents. In the first decade
of his pontificate Urban VIII, who acceded to the throne at the age of fifty-eight, got
involved in the procedure actively, however, between 1635 and 1644, there is no note by
him on the drafts of the Secretariat of State. Innocent X, who was crowned at the age of
seventy, controlled the cases with unique energy; however his men were entrusted with
the arduous daily work of the documents.
As a consequence, even with variable significance the role of the direct colleagues: their
influence, qualification, preferences and the analysis of the concrete procedure is essential
to acquaint and get acquainted with the papal decision making. Yet, the conditions of
research are not too favourable. Several aspects of the personal relations cannot be recon-
structed; there no official regulations remained; apart from some retrospective descrip-
tions of the plan of work, the most important source-bank is supported by the Secretariat
of States documents. The identification, categorisation and statistical analysis of various
manuscripts, though through laborious work, supply useful information.102 This method
helps to get to know the function of the institution that could influence by means
of its coordinating role in the legations, nunciatures and the Curia the governing of
the Papal State as well as the development of the European politics and the formation
of the regional aspects of Catholicism in the early modern period.103
102
Hammermayer, Grundlinien der Entwicklung des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats, 159166 and 178181. As fol-
lows, I am dealing only with the relations in the seventeenth century in more detail, in fact, by focusing on
its first half due to the opportunities given by the secondary literature; therefore, the later period has to be
shown only as an outlook. A rather trustworthy, however sketchy picture is available about the secretariat of
Clement VIII. Its data go far to support the above mentioned, though, the situation was more complicated
to a certain degree owing to the two cardinal nephews (Pietro and Cinzio Aldobrandini: Il Cardinale di San
Giorgio). See on all: Jaschke, Das persnliche Regiment Clemens VIII, 133144; Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruk-
tionen Clemens VIII., I, xliixlix; and Zdenk Kristen, Intorno alla partecipazione personale di Clemente
VIII. al disbrigo della corrsipondenza politica. Contributo alla storia della segretaria di Stato pontificia, Bolletino
dellIstituto Storico Cecoslovacco in Roma 1 (1937) 2952.
103
No information on the organizational function of the Secretariat of State can be gathered from the re-
ports of the nuncios which has become the focus of research for a long time and from the content of the
instructions. The principles of the unique method, relying upon a graphological basis, were elaborated by
Konrad Repgen (Die Hauptinstruktion Ginettis, 250287). However, it should be mentioned that Zdenk
Kristen, in his previously cited work, drew his conclusion by a similar method about Clement VIIIs extensive
governmental techniques. On the significance and opportunities of the research of the Secretariat of State:
Kraus, Zur Geschichte des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats, 516; and Georg Schreiber, Das ppstliche Staats-
sekretariat, HJ 79 (1960) 175198, 177186. On the indispensability of the continuation of the research which
came to a standstill in the 1970s, in special consideration of the Secretariat of States key role in the central

The Secretariat of State in the

Borghese and Barberini Era
When Paul V was crowned, in 1605, it seemed that the position of the secretary of State
finally became firmly established, since one of the first provisions of the relatively young
pope was to create Cardinal Erminio Valenti as the head of the Secretariat. Gregory XIII and
Leo XI had already abandoned employing the nephew and the position was filled by a
cardinal, true, under the latter popes short pontificate, only for three weeks. (Tolomeo
Gallio was the secretary of State of Gregory XIII, not only did Leo XI not appoint his
nephew as cardinal, but on his death-bed his confessor, who urged him to do so,
was changed, as well.104) The Borghese Pope, however, quickly restored the old, tried
and trusted tactics of power division. There were two offices within the Secretariat
from August 1605 to 1609, both of which were controlled by the cardinal nephew, Sci-
pione Caffarelli-Borghese. The office led by Lanfranco Margotti dealt with the cases
of the Italian legations and the Latin countries, while Marzio Malacridas handled the
Northern territories. Flanders, Switzerland, the Empire, Hungary and Poland belong-
ed to these.105 Naturally, not only did the division of tasks concern the processing
of the incoming letters, but also the outgoing commands and answers. The operation of the
two offices was sharply separated. There is no trace of intervening in each others com-
petences, or employing the others staff.106
Malacrida left the Secretariat in 1609, his scope of duties was taken over by Giovan-
ni Battista Confalonieri, though, already in an inferior position. Margotti headed both
divisions in one person. In 1610, he became a cardinal, with which he again attained the
strengthening of the secretary of States position within the Curia. However, Margotti
died in 1611.107 Under the successors, Porfirio Feliciani and Giovanni Battista Perugino,
the double system was restored, though, with not an effectual result at this time.
The offices elaborated on the Northern and Latin documents together. Graz, Cologne,
Prague, Vienna, Turin, Florence, Naples and Malta were under Perugino. Around his
control of the Catholic Confessionalisation: Andreas Kraus, Die Geschichte des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats
im Zeitalter der Katholischen Reform und der Gegenreformation als Aufgabe der Forschung, RQ 84 (1989) 7491.
104
Sanfilippo, Leone XI, 275276.
105
This rather mapped the division of work of the Aldobrandini period, where Cinzio managed the control of
the German States, Sweden, Poland, Transylvania, the Switzerland and Italy; while Pietro Aldobrandini France,
Spain and Savoy. Cinzio formally kept a check on his section in the Secretariat of State even after November
1598, when the proper licences of the cardinal nephew were already Pietros. Nevertheless Clement VIII did not
vest them with real authority of decision making. Jaschke, Das persnliche Regiment Clemens VIII, 133144;
Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Clemens VIII., I, xliixlix; Kristen, Intorno alla partecipazione personale
di Clemente VIII, 2952. Borromeo, Clemente VIII, 253254.
106
Josef Semmler, Betrge zum Aufbau des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats unter Paul V., RQ 54 (1959)
4080, 4052.
107
Many of the documents of his function as the secretary of State were unprecedentedly published some
one and a half decades later: Lanfranco Margotti: Lettere scritte per lo pi nei tempi di Paolo V a nome del Signore
Cardinale Borghese, raccolte e pubblicate da Pietro de Magistris, Romae 1627.

death, in 1613, there was a common complaint about the chaos of his department.108 Paul
V learnt from this case, therefore, until 1621, he entrusted only Feliciani who is mainly
called monsignor Vescovo di Foligno in the sources with the leadership of the Secretariat.109
All through the Borghese pontificate, the personal work of the secretaries was char-
acteristic. Between 1605 and 1609, Margotti, himself, wrote the 80% of the outgoing let-
ters, which percentage obviously reduced under Malacridas leaving, and the controlling
function strengthened, like also under Feliciani. There often occur the interpolation
and correction of Paul V on the files. The pope especially revised a great many of the
ciffre-minutes, moreover, partly he himself wrote them. The handwriting of Scipione
Borghese mainly occurs on the letters coming from legations of Papal State, mostly in
16051609. He did not take part in the elaboration of the answers, in fact, after 1612 he
was almost completely compelled to relinquish actual leadership of the office.110
As opposed to him, Ludovico Ludovisi actively got involved with the work of the
Secretariat. Despite his youth, he always enjoyed satisfactory prestige in the Curia.
In company with Giovanni Battista Agucchia, he arranged almost everything. His
scope for action was limited by their occasional, though more and more vivid rivals,
furthermore by the fact that he could never make a decision of real importance without
the popes approval.111
In the second half of Urban VIIIs pontificate, a quite unique situation arose. Pope
Barberini regularly participated in the work of the Secretariat between 1623 and 1632,
the most important documents were examined by himself. The office was led by the
meticulous Lorenzo Magalotti between 1623 and 1628, then by Lorenzo Azzolini until
1632. Urban VIII was aware of the significance of this position; Magalotti became a car-
dinal already in 1624. At first, the young Francesco Barberini stood aside from the cases.
Until 1626, the nuncios addressed their report to the brother of the pope, to the elder
Antonio. According to the Venetian legates, in the first year, the young cardinal nephew
could not speak on any subjects on the papal audiences. However, afterwards, he livened
108
Semmler, Betrge zum Aufbau des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats, 5663; Stefan Samerski, Das Ppstliche
Staatssekretariat unter Lanfranco Margotti 1609 bis 1611. Das Provinzprincip als notwendiges strukturelles Fun-
dament zur Etablierung des Kardinalstaatssekretariats, RQ 90 (1995) 7484.
109
Semmler, Betrge zum Aufbau des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats, 6480.
110
Josef Semmler, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat in den Pontifikaten Pauls V. und Gregors XV. 16051623
(RQ Supplementheft 33), RomFreiburgWien 1969, 1144. 4748; [Idem], Betrge zum Aufbau des ppst-
lichen Staatssekretariats, loc. cit.; and in conclusion, with many false statements that can be corrected on the
basis of Semmler: Hammermayer, Grundlinien der Entwicklung des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats, 166168.
The archontology and detailed biography of the officials and employees can be found also at Semmler:
Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 108 (Feliciani: 115; Malacrida: 118; Perugino: 121; Margotti: 119); the full analysis
of the Secretariat of States documents from the Borghese period: Emich, Brokratie und Nepotismus. 54115.
111
Semmler, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 4748 (On Agucchia 109); and Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruk-
tionen Gregors XV, 185221.

up. There were some occasional clashes with Magalotti.112 Intriguingly, the more and more
active cardinal nephew could smoothly collaborate with Azzolini. The sweeping change
was realised in 1632, when Pietro Benessa, the former sostituto, came to be the director
of the office for two years. He was the man of Barberini. Owing to him, the nephew
became not only the titular, but actual head of the Secretariat. The reinforcing proc-
ess through the activity of Margotti-Magalotti and Feliciani-Agucchia which tended
towards the nephews loss of power and the strengthening of the secretary of State im-
mediately broke. Barberini threw himself wholeheartedly into official work. One third
of the drafts were written by him (almost five hundred) and he himself corresponded
with a string of European princes.113
Urban VIII, however, did not want to let the leadership go, to lose the direct super-
vision of the cases and he was not willing to depend on his nephew, either. Therefore,
despite the wish of his nephew, he appointed Francesco Ceva as secretary of State in 1634.
At the same time, the positions that Barberini obtained between 1632 and 1634 could not
have been shaken. He employed the two years, when he dominated the correspondence
with the nuncios, princes and prelates, to establish his own secretariat, from where he
arranged the correspondence directly, in proprio.
This type of correspondence is not new. The lettere di proprio pugno was the estab-
lished form of diplomacy in the early modern period. In this way, sovereign princes or
their representatives could write to sovereign princes. (Sometimes even to their depend-
ants, however, conversely not.) The diplomatic private correspondence meant that the
letters reached the monarchs with the circumvention of the administration. They were
usually holographic or written by a personal secretary; they did not have a countersign
from the chancellor, but only the seal of a signet ring. They were always delivered even
without a separate note or mark.
In practice, the addressee of the letters to the Secretariat was always the cardinal
nephew. While it did not result in any special processes in the case of royal private
consignment, however, in the case of nuncios with smaller apparatus, it did. They fur-
nished the letters, addressed to the cardinal patron with a separate marking instead of
distinctive formal signs. This was the proper in proprio classification mark indicated on
the outside. Naturally, not only could they appeal to him in this way, but the cardinal
nephew, himself could employ his own secretariat in official cases. The addressee, later
duly had to answer also in proprio.114
112
On the unique techniques of Magalotti to exclude the young nephew: Andreas Kraus, Das ppstliche
Staatssekretariat unter Urban VIII. 16231644 (RQ Supplementheft 29, Forschungen zur Geschichte des pp-
stlichen Staatssekretariats 1), RomFreiburgWien 1964, 1012.
113
Kraus, Der Kardinal-Nepote, 197205; Hammermayer, Grundlinien der Entwicklung des ppstlichen
Staatssekretariats, 168171; on the secretaries of State of the Barberini period: Kraus, Das ppstliche Staats-
sekretariat, 6270 (on the situation of the cardinal nephew and his relation to the Curia and the secretaries
of State more 919, and on the relations of Urban VIII to the nephew and the secretaries of State: 28).
114
For instance, on the private secretaryships of Scipione Borghese see: Emich, Brokratie und Nepotismus,
263332. A certain rivalry already occurred between them and the Secretariat of State, though, the division

Not only is the increase of such letters the new feature under Francesco Barberini,
but the secret correspondence received an individual form. The border between the
Secretariat and the private office was completely merged between 1632 and 1634. Barbe-
rini kept both under his control, the administrative head of the Secretariat, Benessa di-
rected the private office, as well. It changed in 1634, since the proprio-office evolved into
an independent office. Rota-auditors, congregational secretaries took part in its work.
However, Barberini through the ciffre-secretary, Antonio Feragalli who actually
organised the proprio-secretariat could still oversee the Secretariat.115 Above all, it also
greatly contributed to the liberation that the private office of the nephew, beside the
private secretaries, it had had an official division earlier (secretario dambaschiate o de me-
moriali), which primarily coordinated the nephews functions in the administration of
the Papal State.116
What was the proportion and relationship that the sharply different in proprio process
bore to the per la secreteria process? With full knowledge of the contrasts, it is a naive idea
that there was any division of duties between them. In 16341643, the proprio-secretariat
drafted 8,400 letters, out of which 4500 were written by Barberini himself. Cevas office
did only 3,000. The proprio-secretariat partly was parallel in connection with the cor-
respondents of the Secretariat, partly it exclusively had contacts with all the monarchs,
noblemen and prelates over the Alps: like with the Habsburg court in Vienna and Hun-
gary, or with Malta and the English papal agent. Special attention was dedicated to the
extraordinary legates, the last representatives of the Capuchin diplomacy117 (Alessandro
dAles, Arsenio dellAscensione). Moreover, the in proprio correspondence with legates and
the extraordinary legates sent out in connection with the peace congress of Cologne is
lengthy, of which crux was in the relations and peace policy with the European powers.118
The purpose was, obviously, to keep certain information secretly from Ceva. Ma-
zarin, extraordinary nuncio of Paris, was often commanded to report on problems of
substance only to Barberini and not to Ceva. It is still a matter of question whether this
duality, namely Barberinis detailed, Cevas incomplete informing, occurred in every
nuncio alike. The double guidance apparently caused troubles, the unsettlement of the
cases and their untraceable character. The diplomats of the Holy See, for instance, started
to write their reports in two copies, or it also happened that if Cevas order proved to be
of duties would have been the original goal as it is shown by the regulation and division of the correspond-
ence with the clients in official function (Patronagekorrespondenz) in 1616. Ibid., 290303 (more detail,
analysis: 333393 and 396414).
115
On the function, staff of the proprio-secretariat with thoroughness, Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat,
2937 and 224245; cf. more [Idem], Amt und Stellung des Kardinalnepoten, 242243. The dual purpose of
the Latin secretariat, which concerned mainly the foreign affairs and belonged to the Secretariat of State,
is being discussed later.
116
Cf. with note 114.
117
The zenith of the Capuchins political role was represented by the secret legations of P. Giacinto da Ca-
sale at the beginning of the 1620s. Cf. Albrecht, Die auswrtige Politik Maximilians, 2225. 6669. 7376.
94101. 110113 etc.; [Idem], Die deutsche Politik Papst Gregors XV., 1931. 4982, especially 2021.
118
Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 2937 and 224245.

adequate, Barberinis was not sent by Feragalli, etc. The intervention of Urban VIII, how-
ever, meant a temporary division of competences in 16381639, yet it proved to be only
a short interlude.119 One of the further causes of the papal decision makings slackening
in the 1630s can be found in this doubling of the Secretariat.
The two secretariats working beside each other remained until 1643, the death of
Ceva. He was succeeded by Barberinis own obliged man, Giovanni Battista Spada. Apart
from Cevas to be sure his cardinal appointment was also hindered. Spada exclusively
worked according to the commands of his patron. All these were made possible by the
decline of the popes health. In his last year, his nephew was the sole leader of the curial
decision making. The tried and trusted stopgap measure, the independent form of the
proprio-secretariat became unnecessary.120
The Strengthening of the

Cardinal Secretary of States Position
Camillo Pamphili, the nephew of the new pope, did not possess the energy, nor the
willingness of Barberini. Innocent X, as a result of the general protest against the nep-
otisms overgrowth, officially returned to the earlier and from that time continuous tra-
ditions, embodied by Margotti and Magalotti. Giovanni Giacomo Panziroli, who was
created cardinal in 1643, was placed to the head of the Secretariat. Although the office
nominally remained under the control of the nephew, Camillo Pamphili caused few diffi-
culties. In January 1647, when he resigned and got married, the influence of the secretary
of State was not hindered any more. From this time, the nuncios and legates, besides,
princes and prelates directly addressed their letters to him, and the commands and an-
swers were always provided by his own signature. Mainly due to his illnesses, Panziroli,
however, could not live up to the opportunities given by the office. The actual part of
the work was entrusted to his deputies: Gaspare Simeoni, Francesco Nerli and the ciffre-
secretary Decio Azzolini. Moreover, in the autumn of 1650, the appointment of the
newer nephew, Camillo Astalli-Pamphili, was partly due to his advice, plainly because he
could hardly bear the brunt of total responsibility. From late 1650, Panziroli was hardly
active, his death in September 1651 liberated the Secretariat from a year-long crisis.121
Instead of the ambitious Decio Azzolini, Innocent X chose Fabio Chigi who had
far-reaching diplomatic experience. His relations to Astalli were without problems,
in fact when the new nephew fell victim to intrigues in 1654, he attempted to save him.
After Astalli was deposed, the system of 16471650 was restored; Chigi was the addressee
119
On numerous official practices and what attitude Ceva had to them, Kraus, Der Kardinal-Nepote, 197205.
120
Ibid.
121
Hammermayer, Grundlinien der Entwicklung des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats, 171178; the career of
the main officials ibid., in the notes; and Alberto Serafini, Le origini della pontificia segreteria di Stato e la
Sapienti Consilio del B. Pio X, Apollinaris 25 (1952) 168239, 202203.

of the letters, what is more, he filled his office with more content than his predecessor.
He established a well-operating system for arranging the documents with an excellent
staff, which, though, did not work fast but reliably. Everything was supervised by the
secretary of State. From August 1652, all the reports of the nunciatures had his remarks,
notes, answer-drafts and commands to other competent offices. His election to pope
gave an entirely new light to his office.
When his successor, Giulio Rospigliosi was not even a cardinal, the nuncios still
addressed their letters to him, this time he was not named by his name or his ecclesias-
tical title, but by the title of the segretario di Stato.122 In 1667, Rospigliosi acceded to the
throne of Saint Peter, as the second secretary of State, which meant the final stabilization
of this position. Cardinal nephew Flavio Chigi had absolutely no influence on the con-
trol of the central papal decision making, neither had his successor, Giacomo Rospigli-
osi. Under Clement X, Pauluzzo Albertoni-Altieris attempt to restore the power of the
cardinal nephew caused only a temporary halt. In spite of the fact that not only did Alber-
toni-Altieri obtain the titular licence of control, but he also widely practiced it ignor-
ing the shaping rights of the secretary of State , in the person of Decio Azzolini, then
Federico Borromeo and Francesco Nerli, the position of the secretary of State was always
filled by a cardinal. On the other hand, Alderano Cybo, as we saw, did not have to tackle
such problems, the activity of secretary of State Giovanni Battista Rubini as a nephew
proved to be an intermezzo.123
Similarly and in connection with the abolition of nepotism, the arrangement of the
cardinal secretaries of States judicial state in 1692 did not confirm a steady124 but an ir-
resistible process. From that time on, the existence of the modern cardinal secretary
of States position who had a key role in the papal administration, sometimes accom-
plishing crucial acts was undiminished in the legal sense. Its birth was attributed to the
result of a development having had a sudden change after the Barberini pontificate due
partly to the functional troubles of the Pamphili-nepotism.125 The essence of this could
be summarized by the fact that to assure the functional activity of this curial top office,
neither a nephew, nor a system of clients was necessary, like in the earlier decades.126
122
Ibid. and Antonio Menniti Ippolito, Note sulla segreteria di Stato come ministero particolare del Pon-
tefice Romano, La corte di Roma tra Cinque e Seicento, 167187, 180183. On the earlier discussed diplomatic
and curial career of Chigi also separately: Albert, Nuntius Fabio Chigi und die Anfnge des Jansenismus, 948;
Repgen, Die Finanzen des Nuntius Fabio Chigi, 230231.
123
Serafini, Le origini della pontificia segreteria di Stato, 203205; the archontology of the secretaries of State:
Walter Wagner, Die Bestnde des Archivio della Nunziatura Vienna bis 1792, RHM 2 (19571958) 82203,
8384; Menniti Ippolito, Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 3957; and in the Appendix.
124
Hammermayer, who deals with the question, puts the emphasis on the evenness of development from the
middle of the century, while Menniti Ippolito in many of his related works and in the cited places on the
dynastical crisis of the Pamphilis, and he regards the strengthening of the secretaries of State as only a tem-
porary occurrence. His viewpoint is adopted by Signorotto, The Squadrone Volante, 194198; and Rodn,
Papal Nepotism, 131132.
125
Menniti Ippolito, Note sulla segreteria di Stato, 183187.
126
Emich, Brokratie und Nepotismus, 414432.

The Official Procedure
A similar tendency could be noticed concerning the establishment of the Secretariats

official structure, its plan of work. The main characteristics had already crystallized by
the first half of the century and consolidated from the secretariat of Chigi. (Considerable
reorganization became due only at the beginning of the nineteenth century.127) The staff
of the office was created by some ten-twelve members, four deputies in general and
secretaries and scribes.128 Under Paul V, when there were two secretaries of State, the
apparatus was halved, Margotti had all in all six subordinates, out of which two were
sostitutos. (The proprio-secretariat, contrary to this, doubled the number of its mem-
bers.) The staff could deal only with a narrow domain, only the secretary of State had
an overall view of the cases.
The high-ranking officials of the Secretariat of State could make progress in the
echelon from the clients of the nephew, a nuncio or a cardinal, and they came usually
from a Central or Northern Italian patrician family. There are quite a few exceptions,
the Dalmatian Benessa was from Ragusa, Lanfranco Margotti was from a poor family
from Parma, while Panziroli was the son of a Roman tailor. The high-ranking officials
could be the canons of the Saint Peter Basilica and the Santa Maria Maggiore, until the
beginning of the seventeenth century, there were few bishops and cardinals among them.
One could not join the episcopate from here in the earlier times, neither to the world of
diplomacy. However, the fact that one was a member of the popes family meant a great
prestige itself. (At that time, the nuncios were from such families that had some sort of
relationship with the target countries.) The only exception might be Agucchia, who be-
came the nuncio of Venice under Urban VIII for a short period of time. In many cases,
there is little to know about the subordinate officials, the registers hardly mention their
names; sometimes they have only a marking number according to their handwriting.
They must have been glad if they survived a shift of the secretary of State, since in each
pontificate the whole apparatus was changed from the mercenary pen-pushers to the
secretary of State, as well.
The role of the clerks was only of a technical nature, according to Feliciani, it was not-
hing else but scribbling and producing copies (scrivere le lettere e fare le copie). The most
important task of the sostitutos and secretaries was the assistance to the secretary of Sta-
te at the abridgement of the incoming letters. The aim of the extract, the estratto, was
twofold: the oral information of the pope, and the supply of the useful and small details
to the other curial offices, congregations, which took over the case. Its significance was
that in the later practice, only this abstract was used not the original text. Therefore,
the role, the personal initiatives and practical common sense of the persons who made
127
Cf. Josef Gelmi, Die Minutanten im Staatssekretariat Benedikts XIV. (17401758), Papsttum und Kirchen-
reform, 537562; Lajos Psztor, Per la storia della Segreteria di Stato nellOttocento. La riforma del 1816,
Mlanges Eugne Tisserant V (ST 235) Citt del Vaticano 1964, 209272.
128
Hammermayer, Grundlinien der Entwicklung des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats, 195.

the abridgement could not be negligible; however, the whole procedure was imbued with
improvisational circumstances. Within the estratto written on the covering or on a
separate slip that was attached back to the letter, which was the method mainly under
Paul V , there were the notes on the cases pursuance, arrangement and the remarks
of the offices. Not only did the data, names contain useful information but their writ-
ten form, as well. Apart from the drafts, it could be traced back from these papers who,
which official, secretary of State, or the pope himself dealt with the content of the let-
ter. These documents were important even if they were only estratto in capite extracts,
which indicated only the time and place of the dating and the person and rank of the
sender. The same could be spared on the ricevuta note, which indicated the date of the ar-
rival, and the risposta note, which outlined the content of the answer containing the
decision, notes.129
What was a typical procedure like? As it was already mentioned, the dispaccio ad-
dressed to the pope and the cardinal nephew was received by the secretary of State.
He, or by his command the official answered for the given region and nunciature pre-
pared the estratto in the Barberini era, there was not such division of competence among
the sostitutos and secretaries, since everybody dealt with everything , the secretary of
State, often in pencil, composed the main points of the probable command and answer.
Then, on the daily audience he orally reported to the pope. After the decision making,
the competent official, or depending on the emphasis of the case the secretary of
State completes the answer in the form of a draft (minuta). In certain cases the secretary
of State presented it to the pope or to the cardinal nephew, if they demanded or could
demand it. Afterwards, a subordinate prepared the fair copy. The finished document
was always signed by the nephew, naturally, if the necessary number of documents was
collected. Magalotti and Feliciani employed a messenger, whereas Agucchia always vis-
ited Ludovisi personally. Finally, the sheaf of papers were returned to the Secretariat,
and every secretary put the command and answer completed by them into an envelope
without getting an insight into the others. The elaborate procedure was immediately
simplified, when the secretary of State obtained the function of the nephew: he received
the letter, opened it and made the necessary decisions, reported them to the pope then
signed the answer.130 The more organised administration of the second half of the sev-
129
Semmler, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 1144; Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 186200;
Hammermayer, Grundlinien der Entwicklung des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats, 181186. The staff of the
papal Secretariat of State, their concrete duties are known mainly from the time of Urban VIII. On the
sostituti: Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 105109. on the secretaries 109126. on the notaries 127137.
A contemporary description of the secretaries duties: Andreas Kraus, Die Aufgaben eines Sekretrs zur
Zeit Urbans VIII. (1623), RQ 53 (1958) 8992.
130
Semmler, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 1144; Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 186200;
Hammermayer, Grundlinien der Entwicklung des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats, 187; and also Kraus,
Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat im Jahre 1623, 112. The secretaries of State could sometimes sign if, for in-
stance, the nephew was ill. Obviously, the Proprio-office, which was directly controlled by the nephew,
meant a simplified procedure, which, however, could not eliminate the drawbacks of the rivalry with the
Secretariat of State.

enteenth century relied upon this change. Naturally, if the pope or the cardinal nephew
personally got involved in the paperwork, the tasks were accomplished faster also in
the earlier years.
The correspondence with the nunciatures during the period went almost exclu-
sively in the form of ciffre. The letter was first sent to the ciffre-secretariat, which
was subordinate to the Secretariat of State, to be deciphered. The fair copy signed
by the nephew was nothing but a long row of a combination of numbers; therefore,
if he had not joined the procedure of the decision making, he could not have gained
useful information from these. On the other hand, the ciffre-secretary, who received
the prebend of Saint Peters Basilica and performed the encryption with two subordi-
nates, had knowledge of many State secrets. However, he could not intervene in the
cases until the middle of the seventeenth century , the official documents always
had to be returned to the secretary of State. From the second half of the 1500s to Paul
V, the position was in the hand of the Argentis, under Urban VIII in the hand of
the Feragallis.131
The letter sent to the Secretariat of State, of which the language was not Italian, had
a different way. In the subordination of the office, there were two divisions to accomplish
this task. As the monarchs and prelates of the Mediterranean countries wrote in their
mother tongue, the abridgement was the duty of the segreteri traduttori delle lettere e scrit-
ture Francese, Spagnuole e Portughese. In addition, they translated into Latin the other
letters of importance to the papal politics, for instance the French royal edicts, the res-
olution of the parliament, laws and Gallican publications. The letters in Latin addressed
to the pope and the cardinal nephew (from the emperor, the Polish monarch, the ec-
clesiastical Electors, from the prelates, noblemen of the transalpine countries: German
States and Hungary, etc.) were processed by the segreteria delle lettere latine.132 The replies,
written in Latin and signed by the cardinal nephew, of the Secretariat of State based
on the draft of the secretary of State in the cases of great importance were also proc-
essed here, whether they be personal letters or only an enclosed letter of a papal breve.
In many cases, these official copies did not contain information of substance either,
their conveyance was entrusted to the nuncio, who conducted the delivery. If we glance
back to the operation of the proprio-office, we can see that this duty was shifted to there,
while after their dissolution under the cardinal secretaries of State these subdivisions
did not revive. Their tasks were accomplished by the staff of the Secretariat of State.133
Especially in the case of the secretariat of the Latin letters it can be stated that its
separation was not necessary concerning work organization, since the sostitutos always
had a good command of Latin. The reason rooted obviously in the unique role of the
131
Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat im Jahre 1623, 113114; Hammermayer, Grundlinien der
Entwicklung des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats, 187189; Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 146168
and 201217.
132
On the maintained documents from the Borghese period: Emich, Brokratie und Nepotismus, 152179199.
133
Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat im Jahre 1623, 114116; [Idem], Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 138145.

nephew. The letters from the nunciatures were clearly addressed to the pope, the neph-
ew was only a titular addressee. Why? We have already expressed the answer: the pope
was a sacred person, not only his manifestations, but the opportunities to reach him were
also limited, formalized. Partly, this is the case also with the letters from the monarchs to
Rome. The pope received a more solemn letter, often with a reference that the important
details were mentioned in the letter to the cardinal nephew. Actually, this also served the
information of the pope, the letter was handled by the Secretariat of State. In many cases
for instance, a smaller wish or grace , however, through official channels, though not
in proprio, the personal assistance, intervention of the nephew is asked. (As a reminder,
he was truly the most influential cardinal in the Curia due to his other functions. That is
another matter that despite his theoretical authorities, he could not achieve independent
full powers next to the pope.) The separation of the official letters addressed indeed to the
nephew could be settled by the secretary of the Latin letters. In a way that he always had
to be from the closer clients of the cardinal nephew as well as he had to follow the com-
mands of the secretary of State.134 While Margotti and Magalotti though, they led the
Secretariat of State as cardinals never received an enclosed letter, Panziroli, Chigi and
their successors did, even if there was a cardinal nephew, in which case, they received a
similar letter. By the second half of the seventeenth century, the Latin secretariat was
not at the nephews, who had fallen almost absolutely into the background, disposal any
more, which unambiguously shows the altered power relations.135
The last and purely technical stage of the procedure was the dispatch of the docu-
ments. The open and coded instructions, letters, breves or other documents sent to a
nuncio sometimes to the other addressee composed together a so-called pieghi. Until
1623, a separate outgoing register was composed about these parcels, however, from that
year on, only the lists preserved with the documents maintained.136 The sheaf of docu-
134
servitore non dal secretario in capite, al quale subalternato, et al quale manda a rivedere tutte le sue
minute, ma dal sig. cardl. nepote del Papa Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat im Jahre 1623, 114116.
135
The Latin secretariat, which might have been reorganized only in the eighteenth century, had abso-
lutely different duties: response-breves, drafts of the papal manifestations, moreover between 1762 and 1852,
the evaluations of the Congregation of the Council about the episcopal reports were prepared here. Ibid. and
Psztor, Guida delle fonti, 125127.
136
The process is not equivalent to the registration of the content of the documents which was a task of
distinct scribes and usually differentiated from the daily procedure. The drafts were prepared and arranged
as registers only under Paul V. (Hammermayer, Grundlinien der Entwicklung des ppstlichen Staatssekreta-
riats, 187). The deficiencies of the registration and the filing of the original drafts and documents are circum-
stantially written about by Kraus (Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 250259). The principle means the main
problem, according to which the document is the possession of the official who prepared it, though its val-
idity decreased and the papal regulations more and more prohibited it could not be completely eliminated
in the seventeenth century. Moreover, under certain pontificates the governmental files were considered as
private by the family of the Pope and the majority of the documents went to the archives of the family like
under the Borgheses and Barberinis and remained there until the twentieth century, since the family was
above the State. Due to the insufficiency of the registration this sometimes caused severe difficulties; to find
out the antecedents of certain questions the papal administration had to ask for the permission of the for-
mer popes family. This situation gradually improved from the middle of the century, since more and more
original documents, especially the arriving ones, can be found in the fond of the Secretariat of State in the

ments was dispatched by the secretary responsible for the forwarding from the Secretariat
of State to the maestro delle Poste. The postmaster had earlier announced the exact time
of the departure, by which time the pieghi had to be ready. The parcels to which the
consignment of other offices, congregations were attached or at the Secretariat of State
or at the post were dispatched on definite routes to the nunciatures. Papal couriers
run between Rome and Ferrara, they covered the distance in approximately four days.
Letters were sent partly to Florence, as well, though, the customary postal service was
employed which ran between RomeGenoaMilanLyon. Therefore, certain letters to
Florence arrived sometimes within two, three, four or even five days. The RomeLyon
line reached also Turin, the route took fifteen days. The courier of Naples required one
day, whereas the post three or four.
Venice had a unique situation. It took the couriers four-five days to go through the
direct route, then from here the parcels were sent to Vienna, Warsaw, Cologne and
the Flanders by the local nuncio. The consignment reached Vienna within seventeen
twenty-one days, Warsaw within twenty-five thirty-five days, although, in winter it
took more than forty days. The way to Cologne took in general twenty-four days, so-
metimes seventeen-twenty, in winter about thirty-five; yet in 1624, when a direct cour-
ier was also employed here, it took only twelve-thirteen days. Apart from the weather,
military activities played an important role. The route to Brussels took thirty-four days.
Correspondence to the Switzerland was through Milan, through its Roman agent and it
did not take more than two weeks. The dispatch of the documents to Paris was naturally
through Lyon, from here the French royal post brought the letters to the capital every
five days. From Lyon back, one week the post went from Milan to Rome, on the other
week from Venice to Rome. Consequently, Rome received letters from here, as well as
from Vienna, every week. The distance between Rome and Paris could be covered with-
in three, in winter, four weeks.
While there was a post and courier sent to Lyon and Venice on every Tuesday, pro-
viding the regular weekly correspondence with the nunciatures more often with the
Italians , to Spain only two times a month. In case of necessity, the sea route of Genoa
was used. Depending on the weather, it could take nineteen, but seventy-nine days,
as well, in general it was twenty-five thirty days. Towards Portugal and the Iberian
collectors the nunciature of Madrid mediated.
In case of emergency, corriere espresso was employed, mainly for the networking with
the extraordinary nuncios. The expenses of this type of dispatch were really high, the
employment of an express messenger between Rome and Paris cost 360 scudi, not that
Vatican Archives. Cf. Emich, Brokratie und Nepotismus, 100115; on the proper archives of the Secretariat
of State, for instance: Psztor, Guida delle fonti, 73; apart from the Borghese and the Barberini collections,
which are located in the Vatican, on the important documents about the Secretariat of State in the seven-
teenth century, see Stefan Samerski, Akten aus dem Staatssekretariat Pauls V. und Gregors XV. im Archiv
des Kardinals Alderano Cybo (16131700) in Massa, AHP 33 (1995) 303314; Wolfgang Reinhard, Akten aus
dem Staatssekretariat Pauls V im Fondo Boncompagni-Ludovisi der Vatikanischen Bibliothek, RQ 62 (1967) 94101.

the usual post-, or the courier service would have been much cheaper. The employment
of the extraordinary messengers was limited due to the doubled postal issue.
According to the contemporary customs, it was a tried and trusted matter to send
the copies on another route; they used code-addresses, however, in the midst of wars
they could not avoid the loss of the letters, or their fall into the hands of the enemy.
The collaboration with the delegates of the foreign countries was regular; they mutu-
ally used each others couriers, which enabled the parties to gain profound insights, not
necessarily through legal means.137
The Relations with the Secretariats of Briefs and Other Curial Offices
The activity of the Secretariat of Briefs to Princes (Segreteria dei Brevi ai Principi) was
closely and functionally linked to the Secretariat of State. As opposed to its name, it led the
conventional papal correspondence not only with the monarchs, but also with everybody
else. Its leaders were well-known Latinists all over Europe. Under Paul V, Pietro Strozzi,
under Gregory XV and Urban VIII Giovanni Ciampoli, Francesco Herrera, then Gaspare
Simeoni and under Innocent XI, Mario Spinola filled this position. They were usually
the canons of Saint Peters Basilica.138 The breves, which were written on a fine film, sealed
with a ring of the fisherman (sub annulo piscatoris) and starting with the name of the pope,
though, signed by the countersigning secretary, were sometimes based on the draft of the
secretary of State. Mainly if they reported on the substantial papal decisions, be political,
ecclesiastical or the comment on a congregational resolution. If their content shrouded in
solemn tone did not contain more than sheer formality (congratulations, acknowledge-
ment, recommendation, condolence), the smooth Latin asserted itself without limits.139
According to description, which was prepared for the information of Magalotti, of

Cristoforo Caetano, the former sustituto, the breves sealed with a ring of the fisherman
were merely formal. The phrasing of the in proprio papal letters was the task of the sec-
retary of State. These letters to the emperor, monarchs, cardinals, princes and others
were written by the pope himself in urgent and severe cases. According to the descrip-
tion of Caetano, the signature of the pope was not on these breves, either, however, it is
distinguished from the lettere di complimenti in the way that this was not sealed with
the ring of the fisherman, but with the seal having the papal coat of arms on it (il sigillo
137
Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 246250; Pierre Louis Surchat, Die Nuntiatur von Ranuccio
Scotti in Luzern 16301639. Studien zur ppstlichen Diplomatie und zur Nuntiaturgeschichte des 17. Jahrhunderts
(RQ Supplementheft 36), FreiburgRomWien 1979, 3032; Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat im Jahre
1623, 112 and 115119. The detailed account of the expenses spent on extraordinary nuncios under Gregory
XV (within two years it swallowed a sum that was equivalent to the yearly budget of the nunciature of Paris,
that was the largest such institution): Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Gregors XV, 231.
138
Their rather incomplete archontology from Sixtus V until the second half of the eighteenth century:
Serafini, Le origini della pontificia segreteria di Stato, 215217; and in the Appendix.
139
Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat im Jahre 1623, 113.

piccolo dacciario collarme del papa).140 From Urban VIII this formal distinction ceased to
exist. From this time, the epistulae ad principes sealed with the ring of the fisherman also
contained papal statements for instance details related to the Thirty Years War and in-
formed about Church decisions which were mainly favourable events made by the pope
or by a congregation. Especially, if the significance of the case and the interests of the
person made it expedient, or there was already a request originally titled to the pope.141
Under Paul V, except the first years, the Secretariat of Briefs to Princes was com-
pletely dependent on the staff of the Secretariat of State. Later it received independent
personnel, yet in 1653, when Decio Azzolini who headed the ciffre-secretariat from
1644 seized also this secretariat, then he became a cardinal the following year, which
meant a rivalry between him and the secretary of State, Chigi. After having been elected
to pope, Chigi abolished the relative independence for good.142
Despite the close relations, the publishing office of the central papal administration
controlled by a cardinal prefect,143 the Secretariat of Briefs (Segreteria dei Brevi) never
belonged to the bonds of the Secretariat of State. The documents were countersigned and
the work was controlled by the secretary of Briefs ( under Paul V, it was Cardinal Scipione
Cobeluzzi called il Cardinale di Santa Susanna after his title; under Urban VIII it was
Volpiano Volpio, then Marco Aurelio Maraldi from 1627 to 1651) with the assistance of
a deputy and six-seven scribes in 1623.144 The plenary indulgences and altar privileges
(to let the one travelling bring a mobile altar); the exemptions from the obligation of
residence; furthermore, the permissions to transfer the pensions and to free wills, and
to ordain faculties extra tempora were issued here.145 Namely, all those legal papal docu-
ments, which had less solemn form than the apostolic charters, bulls146 and were issued
140
A papal private letter written with his own hands, in the same form as the other breves from Pius V: Jos
Ignacio Tellechea Idgoras, El papado y Felipe II. Colleccion de breves pontificios. I: 15501572. II: 15721598,
Madrid 19992000, I, 199206. According to the evidences of the enclosed facsimile, there is truly a paper
headed seal with the family coat of arms.
141
Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat im Jahre 1623, 113, and on the basis of my own research.
142
Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat im Jahre 1623, 107108; Hammermayer, Grundlinien der Ent-
wicklung des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats, 189191; Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 169185; The doc-
uments of the Secretariat of Briefs to Princes from the sixteenth century were already published in the form
of a short regesta: Epistolae ad principes. I: Leo X Pius IV (15131565). II: Pius V Gregorius XIII. (15661585).
III: Sixtus V Clemens VIII. (15851605) (CAV 2829 et 41), ed. by Luigi Nanni, Citt del Vaticano 19921997.
143
The title, with some exception, was regarded as an entail of the nephew. In the 1670s such appropriation
ceased to exist, and from the end of the century all three Segretaria Palatina (namely besides the Secretariat
of Briefs, the Secretariat of the Letters- and Requests) were headed by a cardinal, by a cardinale proseg-
retario. The development is parallel to the secretary of State. Serafini, Le origini della pontificia segreteria
di Stato, in some places.
144
Ibid., 210214; see the Appendix.
145
Their list in the memorial of Caetano: Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat im Jahre 1623, 108109.
146
In form they hardly differ from the Epistulae ad Principes, there is often the greeting of the addressee
at their beginning, in other cases the form of the Ad futuram (perpetuam) rei memoriam. Their thorough
diplomatic description: Frenz, Die Kanzlei der Ppste, 5868; and Karl August Fink, Untersuchungen ber
die ppstlichen Breven des 15. Jahrhunderts, RQ 43 (1935) 5586; and with more literature (especially from Pau-

on the supreme level with minimal or negligible dues in the course of the appeal to the
successor of Saint Peter.147
The competence of the Secretariat of Briefs, developed by the second half of the six-
teenth century, like the Datarias, linked to the conferring of the ordinary papal graces
(grazie ordinarie), and with the exception of the questions related to the non-consistorial
benefices, it often got involved in them. Its administration was more simple, faster and
cheaper, since it did not employ the mass of the venal office owners. (Apart from the
registers, kept from 1586, the dues of the Secretariat of Briefs are preserved by the vol-
umes of the libri di cassa.148)
While under Clement VIII, the secretary of State dealt with the easiest appeals, is-
sued according to the rules of the stylus curiae and required formal procedure,149 at latest,
by the Barberini era this duty was shifted to a separate secretariat (Segreteria dei Memo-
riali). The head of this office either gave an account on the contents of the document
to the pope and after his approval, the Secretariat of Briefs could issue the related breve,
or forwarded the case to the competent congregation, or to the Dataria depending on
the content of the request and the person of the petitioner. As a consequence, he acted
in the same way like the secretary of State did, concerning the letters without the form
of a request. However, we cannot have doubts, the records written in the form of a
memorial and were important in terms of diplomacy still stayed under the authority
of the secretary of State.150
lius Rabikauskas) primarily on the contemporary more spread use of the bull: Michael F. Feldkamp,
Bullen von Nuntien und Legaten: Zum Sprachgebrauch des Terminus Bulle in der Frhen Neuzeit, RHM 3435
(19921993) 133138. See more the outstanding book of Thomas Frenz: I documenti pontifici nel medioevo e
nellet moderna (Littera Antiqua 6, a c. d. Sergio Pagano), Citt del Vaticano 1998.
147
Psztor, Guida delle fonti, 4446.
148
The problems of competence were arranged only in 1745 quite similar to the Index-Inquisition by Be-
nedict XIV. Ibid., 4446.
149
Secretario nostro intimo et libellorum supplicum sive memorialium relatori, was the address of Statilis Pau-
lini secretario domestico in a papal ruolo. Jaschke, Das persnliche Regiment, 136. The curial styles character-
istics of the form and content in the case of incoming as well as outgoing documents , which were firmed
in the fifteenth century and will be mentioned later, are detailed by Frenz, Die Kanzlei der Ppste, 5868.
150
The official character of the Secretariat of the Requests was strengthened only by the beginning
of the eighteenth century (cf. n. 143.). On its function briefly: Psztor, Guida delle fonti, 122124; Kraus,
Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 42; and on the archontology of the secretaries Serafini, Le origini della pon-
tificia segreteria di Stato, 206210; and more in the Appendix. Serafini calls the attention to the important
difference between the more ancient supplicatio which was more defined in its form and subject; besides,
it was legally prepared by the curial officials and with the knowledge of the process, it was to be handled
to the Datary and the memoriale which was more informal and varied in its terminology and subject;
besides it related not only to religious but to secular matters. The memoriale officially requested not only a
legal act but sometimes political and Church administrational decisions (206207), as a consequence, at the
same time the memoriale could be a simple request, or a memorandum finishing with a demand or a claim.
(This latters version without a request is the discorso-opinio.) The analysis of the request forms role in the
early modern period especially in respects of the diverse congregations (Buon Governo, Sacra Consulta), with

Also in such cases, which were sent to and from the congregations and demanded
papal legal acts, the Secretariat of Briefs prepared the letter.151
The draft of those breves, which meant the end of the congregational decision making,
formed a considerable part of the Secretariat of Briefs drafts of more than a thousand
volumes. At the back of these documents, the complete procedure was usually indicated
and the congregational resolutions and the notes of the congregational secretaries could
be found in the supplement. Through the thorough analysis of this material that has not
been accomplished yet, a more precise picture could be given about the popes personal
participation in the Church administration, since on the breve-drafts as opposed to the
diplomatic documents and bulls , the signature of the pope can always be found, moreover,
from 1625 in a rather unique form: the popes used the initial letter of their previous name.
For example, Urban VIII: Pl. M. [Placet Maffeus], Innocent X: Pl. Io. [Placet Ioannes].152
Concerning the cases belonging to the competences of the Dataria if the issue of a
bull was not necessary the papal breve was composed originally by the segretari apos-
tolici. In 1678, their body was incorporated into the Dataria by Innocent XI.153
It is understandable that also the private petitioners with the exception of the non-con-
sistorial benefices granting, which constituted the bulk of the compositional taxes tried to
avoid the Datarias expensive and complicated mechanism. Namely this was the follow-
ing. The spedizioneri apostolici rewrote the petition according to the right curial form, the
datarius then the prodatarius signed it and presented to the pope. After an oral concessum,
the Ufficio delle Date indicated the proper form of grant on the supplication, the datarius
and the prodatarius then two auditors signed the document, the praefectus missarum in-
dicated the tax paid for the granting of the benefice, then after having paid this sum,
it was forwarded to the Ufficio del Registro to have it registered. Finally, the petition was sent
back to the spedizioneri apostolici, who upon certain conditions started to arrange the issue of
the breve or bull through the Chancery or the segretari apostolici led by the magister brevium.154
some typological, administrational relations: Irene Fosi, Sovranit, Patronage e Giustizia: Suppliche e lettere
alla corte Romana nel primo Seicento, La corte di Roma tra Cinque e Seicento, 207241.
151
Jaschke, Das persnliche Regiment, 138; Psztor, Guida delle fonti, 112119; Paulius Rabikaus-
kas, Die Grndungsbulle des lateinischen Bistums Smolensk und andere diesbezgliche Papsturkunden (1636),
AHP 12 (1974), 207233, 221222.
152
Ibid.
153
On the segreteri apostolici: Psztor, Guida delle fonti, 7173. The breves, which were prepared by them,
constituted a separate series, these are called Brevi Lateranensi. Ibid. 5456. On the other characteristics of
such breve-expedition Frenz, Die Kanzlei der Ppste, 164180. Apart from this so called brevia gratiosa, the
spectant ad Iustitiam extra Curiam, namely the ones that were issued by the (both) Signature and of which
drafts were formed by the praefectus brevium Signaturae Iustitiae, should be mentioned. Weber, Die ltesten
ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 219.
154
Storti, La storia e il diritto della Dataria Apostolica, 243247; Frenz, Die Kanzlei der Ppste, 97103;
Pritz, Supplikensignatur und Briefexpedition an der rmischen Kurie, 7 32 and 5094. The mechanism of
the latter one will be seen in detail in Chapter VI with reference to the bulls of the consistorial benefices.

The significance of the Segreteria dei Brevi in the papal administration was not only
supported by the fact that, due to the less tight competence limits, the cases of routine
won immediate action, depending on the decision of the pope, on Church administra-
tional and pastoral aspects, or that they meant the final stage of the congregational
decision making in many cases. The permissions (indulta) given to the cardinals and
others and the ecclesiastical and secular authorizations (brevi di facolt) of the papal leg-
ates, nuncios and other officials were issued here.155 Not only the motu proprios, which
were formally similar to the breves, can be found in the register-volumes of the Secre-
tariat of Briefs but also the drafts and copies of the bulls issued from an own initiative.
(The technical formation of the these documents was the task of a separate official, the
abbreviatore di Curia.156) The essence of the per viam Curiae expedition of bulls was the
safety, simplicity and promptness. The most solemn papal initiatives of general Church
administrational and theological importance could not have been compiled at the Chan-
cery, which employed a populous crowd of officials, and did not need to jolt through
the stages of the traditional procedure. The papal decision making could not have been
the captive of its own bureaucracy. Another circumstance explains why the bulls of the
papal relatives, cardinals, nuncios, titular and missionary bishops, archbishops as well
as others that had papal permission were registered at the Secretariat of Briefs. At the
so-called per viam secretam procedure, apart from the promptness, the main aspect was
the evasion of the duties, namely to hinder the Curia from imposing a tax on itself.
It is not accidental that in the preparation of such documents only a special official from
the Dataria Apostolica (this office collected the bull-fee of the consistorial benefices),
the scrittore segreto participated.157
Consequently, there is a rather close connection between the per viam Curiae and
the per viam secretam procedures, the genuine difference was not in the manner of the
mechanism but in the row of the issue of the documents. Whereas in the first case, the
dispositional, constitutional papal bulls were issued, in the second case, the ones with
some kind of priority were presented. The course of the simplified procedure was the
following. After the abbreviatore or the scrittore segreto prepared the draft according to
the criteria of the bull, it was registered at the Secretariat of Briefs, then after the sig-
nature of the vice-chancellor (cardinale summatore) in the first case and the deputy of
the vice-chancellor (cardinale sottosommatore) in the second case as well as of their rep-
resentative, only the task of the preparation of the draft with a typical majuscule, leaden
seal and its supervision remained to the Apostolic Chancery. (On the original version,
there were only the signatures of the vice-chancellor or his deputy, and of the abbrevia-
tore or the scrittore segreto, whereas on the bulls, which announced the appointment of a
cardinal, all the present cardinals on the consistory had to sign the document.158) We will
155
Also on basis of the Caetano list of 1623. Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat im Jahre 1623, 108109.
156
On the abbreviatore di Curia: Psztor, Guida delle fonti, 5762; Frenz, Die Kanzlei der Ppste, 227228.
157
On the scrittore segreto, Psztor, Guida delle fonti, 6264.
158
On these two simplified processes Rabikauskas, Die Grndungsbulle des lateinischen Bistums, 213215;
Frenz, Die Kanzlei der Ppste, 162164; Pritz, Supplikensignatur und Briefexpedition an der rmischen Kurie,

examine how big relief these procedures meant comparing to the normal proceeding in
the next chapter, where we analyse the bull-issue of a consistorial benefice. After having
been published by means of the printing press of the Apostolic Camera, the fair copy of
the by own initiatives as decrees issued papal breves and bulls, was placed in the traditional
repository of the papal charters, in the Castle of Saint Angelo (Archivum Arcis). As the
contemporaries met these papal documents only in this form, moreover, the outside marks
of form disappeared, the use of the breve and bull rather merged. The only difference was
the initial form of Servus servorum Dei and the final sub annulo piscatoris phrases lack,
above all, there was a strong blend of the two genres also within the Secretariat of Briefs.159
Therefore, it is not accidental that the documents sent to the Secretariat of State often
bore the rescritto (a mons. Maraldi, parli a Sua Santit) indicating their forward to the
Secretariat of Briefs. It often happened that the papal decision was directly forwarded
to the secretary of the papal breves with the document (Sua Santit inclina alla grazia).
The issue of the mentioned authorisation of the nuncios meant a more official connection;
in case of illness, the secretary of the papal breves often substituted the secretaries of the
Briefs to Princes (never the other way around), furthermore, the breves were forwarded
to the important addressees through the Secretariat of the State and the nunciatures.160
Apart from the Secretariat of Briefs, on the estrattos, most of the references in con-
nection with the questions concerning the Church benefices, the different kind of mar-
riage and ordination dispensations were to the Datary; then in regard to its close re-
lations to the nunciatures and the Propaganda; furthermore to the Holy Office, the Con-
gregation of the Council, of Immunity, for Bishops and Regulars and partly to the Rites
and the Consistorial Congregations; in connection with the State administration, to the
Consulta and the Confini. Furthermore, the Secretariat of State supplied besides the con-
gregation dealt with State affairs the background apparatus of the occasional cardinal
particular congregations (of which most prominent members got involved directly into
the work of the office) that worked out all the important papal manifestations, like con-
cerning the bull In eminenti, which first denounced Jansenism in 1643.161
227250; the concise synthesis of the curial processes and expeditions of bulls: [Idem], I documenti pontifici,
7191. See the information in Chapter VI.
159
Cf. Feldkamp, Bullen von Nuntien und Legaten, 133138; Rabikauskas, Die Grndungsbulle des lateinischen
Bistums, 215; Frenz, Die Kanzlei der Ppste, 5868.
160
Obviously not all the private petitioners were forwarded, only those into of which preparation one of
the nunciatures or the Secretariat of State got involved, or special Church administrational interests required
it. Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat im Jahre 1623, 109111; Hammermayer, Grundlinien der Entwick-
lung des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats, 199200; Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 4042 and 5557.
161
That is why the handwriting of the cardinals Gessi, Pamphili, Sacchetti, Bagno, Durazzo, Pallotto,
Verospi, Ginetti and Bernardino Spada from the second half of Urban VIIIs pontificate could survive
on the files. Spada the uncle of the secretary of State could keep his influence later as well, as a
matter of fact Chigi owed his appointment as a secretary of State to him. (See the cited places in the
following note.)

It has already been mentioned that all curial offices and congregations dispatched the
non-enciphered (in piano) letters in their own names, and the answers were also directly
forwarded to them. However, this does not mean that the Secretariat of State would
not have played the role of a mediator in such cases, at least towards the nunciatures.
As it has often come to light, there were numerous letters sent to the Secretariat of
State from the nuncios, princes, prelates partly addressed to the cardinal nephew,
later to the secretary of State, partly directly to the pope , the subject of which partly
or wholly belonged to the competence of other offices, or of which they should have
been aware. How could they solve the problem then, if the case after the necessary
consultations could not have been settled locally and immediately: by an order given
to the nuncio, by a letter, note of the nephew or the secretary of State, by a letter
and/or a papal breve?
At the beginning they forwarded the original letter, though, with the note that it
should be returned. However, Magalotti sent only copies. Yet, occasionally the sending
of the original letter was necessary to enable the given office to take the measures often
after having it consulted with the pope. The secretary of State often required only the
sketching of the answer, or a representative of his asked for an oral report. Moreover, it
often happened that the secretary of the given office was employed to prepare the draft
of the Secretariat of States answer, or also the papal reply breve. Therefore, one can
find many drafts of the Secretariat of State written, for example, by Francesco Ingoli
or Francesco Paolucci. The above listed congregations could be identified most often
according to the references to their secretaries.
Similarly to the congregational secretaries, the handwriting of the auditors of
the Rota often occurs on the drafts of the Secretariat of State, like Cornelio Arrigo
Motmanns, who also composed a breve written to the emperor. This, however, did
not mean a formal connection to the tribunal. The auditors were employed as legal
experts. Concerning the relations to the other offices, a unique tendency could be
noticed. While the first secretaries of State of Urban VIII, Magalotti and Azzolini
endeavoured to settle more and more cases, Benessa and Ceva more often forwarded the
letters to the congregations, moreover, the act of replying was also entrusted to them.
As a consequence, the role of the congregations in the 1630s strengthened partly due
to the weak secretaries of State and the time of the decision making was lengthened.
As opposed to the inner logic of the bureaucracy, the Secretariat of State accomplished
the limitation of its own influence, endeavouring to share its responsibility. However,
this tendency paradoxically increased its coordinating role among the curial offices.162
162
Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat im Jahre 1623, 109111; Hammermayer, Grundlinien der Entwick-
lung des ppstlichen Staatssekretariats, 196199; and the fullest picture of all the offices: Kraus, Das ppstliche
Staatssekretariat, 3861.

The Apostolic Nunciatures 213
The Apostolic Nunciatures
The strings of the Roman Curias complicated administration were pulled by one
power: by the pope and his direct colleagues, who constituted a uniform, well-operating
unity in the period. What is more, not only did they govern a State but the universal
Church, as well. The nuncios who were accredited to the Catholic States and super-
intended the local Churches as papal lateral-legates (legatus a latere) represented the
Papal State and the Apostolic See at the significant powers in the important provinces
of the spiritual empire, in one person. Their role was multifunctional: it was rather of
mediatory and executive character than decision making. However, they had a certain
influence on the central decision making with their information, though; they were
rather suitable for the enforcement of Romes statement and for the representation of
its interests. They enjoyed more independence through their Church administrational
licences: jurisdiction, visitations and dispensations. They shared the characteristic feature
of the early modern Papacy: the indivisible duality of the one body, two souls. They
were diplomats and prelates at the same time.163
In the historical development of the nunciatures, there are five separated phases. Fir-
stly, the founding phase in the first decades of the sixteenth century. The first perma-
nent nuncio, Angelo Leonini, was accredited in 1500 in the court of the Doge of Venice.
In this period, the French, Spanish and Italian nunciatures were established. Only occa-
sional legations were sent to the Switzerland, to the imperial court, to Hungary, to Poland
and to Portugal, these cannot be regarded as genuine legations yet.
The strengthening of the new administration was owed to Leo X, who, by following
the mercantile example of Florence, made an effort to spread the representative system
throughout Europe. His endeavour was supported by the development of the econom-
ical relations and by the ideal of the anti-Turkish European union. A new motif was
that the authority of the nuncios did not cease to exist with the death of the pope, but
they continued to work as the legates of the Apostolic See. Such cessation of the personal
linkage implies explicitly the institutional character. This process was realized by the
middle of the sixteenth century, already under Paul III, the nuncios had a key role in
maintaining the contact with local Churches, which was mainly due to the papal effort
to preserve religious unity.
The main task of the nunciatures after Trent was the encouragement of the practical
realization of the Tridentine reform-regulations. In the early developed State Churches:
in Spain, France and Venice mainly with the continuous influence on the central power;164
in the German States, with the establishment of the Jesuit college system, with arrang-
163
Cf. Lutz, Glaubwrdigkeit und Gehalt von Nuntiaturberichten, 273276; Prodi, Lo sviluppo dellassolutismo
nello Stato Pontificio, 128137.
164
It should be noted that the newer researches, already in Spain, emphasise the direct role of the nuncios,
namely they were keen on reforming the womens and mens orders, rather than the local episcopacy, more-
over with great efficiency. Agostino Borromeo, La nunziatura di Madrid, la Curia romana e la riforma
postridentina nella Spagna di Filippo II, Kurie und Politik, 3563.

ing councils and announcing the regulations, with the reform of the chapters and orders
and with the establishment of priests seminars. It was until the moment when the re-
stored German episcopacy, which was the key of the reforms durability, took over their
quasi-ordinarius duties at the beginning of the seventeenth century. The reform-nuncios
initiated the education of the relevant works of the canon law at universities and col-
leges. As a consequence Romes legal claims became known and accepted in a wider
circle. They closely collaborated with the Jesuits, however, later, the Franciscans and
Capuchins came to the fore.165
The fourth phase is characterised by the dominance of the political role in the first
half of the seventeenth century; namely the role of the bigger nunciatures (Vienna,
Madrid and Paris) in the power loss of the popes during the Thirty Years War, or the
peace conferences and the lot of the extraordinary nuncios sent to mainly these courts
for the sake of mediation. For example, the reform-nunciature of Grazs scope of duties
was restricted mostly to the defence against the Turks and to the handling of the Uskoks
problem at the Adriatic and to the protection of the archducal lines interests in Graz on
the field of the Habsburg dynastical politics.166
Decades after the Peace of Westphalia, the political activity, with the exception of the
organization of the anti-Turkish union, fell into the background; however, the Church
administrational functions without the elements of the confessionalisation came to the
fore again. There was no substantial change until the Congress of Vienna of 1815,167 yet
it should be mentioned that from the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Italian
nunciatures (Florence, Naples, Savoy and Venice) had already operated in the tension
165
Two other examples that have not already been cited, though, they are closer to us: Jochen Khler,
Der Beitrag der Prager Nuntiatur zur Festigung des Katholizismus in Ostmitteleuropa, HJ 93 (1973) 336346;
and partly Georg Lutz, Die Prager Nuntiatur des Speciano 15921598. Quellenbestand und Edition seiner
diplomatischen Korrespondenz, QFIAB 48 (1968) 369381.
166
Johann Rainer, Die Grazer Nuntiatur 15801622, Kurie und Politik, 272284.
167
Apart from Anton Piepers pioneering work (Zur Entsehungsgeschichte der stndigen Nuntiaturen,
Freiburg im Breisgau 1894, the most lasting are the first two chapters, 164) the first two comprehensive
and still classical monograph of the history of the nunciatures with the archontology of certain nuncios:
Henry Biaudet, Les nonciatures apostoliques permanentes jusquen 1648 (Annales Academiae Scientiarum
Fennicae BII1), Helsingfors 1910, 1438. 3966 and especially 110246; Liisi Karttunen, Les noncia-
tures apostoliques permanentes de 1650 1800 (Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae BV3), Genve 1912,
the continuation of the archontology until 1690: 160; recently, from the aspect of canon law: Knut Walf,
Die Entwicklung des ppstlichen Gesandtschaftswesens in dem Zeitabschnitt zwischen Dekretalenrecht und Wiener
Kongre (11591815) (Mnchener Theologische Studien III, Kanonistische Abteilung 24), Mnchen 1966,
especially 7686 and 110186; and Pierre Blet, Histoire de la Reprsentation Diplomatique du Saint-Sige des
origines laube du XIXe sicle (CAV 9), Citt del Vaticano 1982, especially 175384. On the reform nuncia-
tures separately: Burkhardt Schneider, Die Jesuiten als Gehilfen der ppstlichen Nuntien und Legaten in
Deutschland zur Zeit der Gegenreformation, Saggi Storici intorno al Papato (Miscellanea Historiae Pontificiae
21), Roma 1959, 269303; Reinhard, Katholische Reform und Gegenreformation in der Klner Nuntiatur, 865;
Wittstadt, Atilio Amalteo, 695711; Hubert Jedin, Nuntiaturberichte und Durchfhrung des Konzils von
Trient, QFIAB 53 (1963) 180213, especially 210213; Burkhardt Roberg, Das Wirken der Klner Nuntien
in den protestantischen Territorien Norddeutschlands, RQ 84 (1989) 5173.

of the sharpening relations of the State and the Church, which became a general char-
acteristic within a century.168
The number of the nunciatures reduced to eleven, after Gregory XV dissolved the
nunciature of Graz in 1622 considering that the archducal court ceased to exist there and it
mostly completed its reform-mission , which had been established by Gregory XIII in 1580.
The number twelve was restored only in 1670 due to the development of the Collettoria
di Portogallo into a nunciature. According to their geographical distribution, there were
four papal legations in the territory of Italy and there were eight in the other States of
Europe, not including the similar offices of the inquisition of Malta and the legation
of Avignon.169
The strengthening of the inner structure of the papal diplomatic legations may be
reckoned at the first decades of the last and longest phase. However, one cannot mention
total standardisation owing to the different traditions, licences and tasks. The nunciature
of Paris, for instance, never had a separate chancellor (or abbreviator), since his tasks
were accomplished by the uditore, and in France the papal legates could never exercise
judicial appellate functions.170 In the second half of the seventeenth century, a typ-
ical papal foreign representation had the following structure (the numbers refer to the
ranks of the employees, the ones marked with a star did not belong to the proper staff):171
168
Stefano Andretta, Le nunziature in Italia nei secoli XVI e XVII, Kurie und Politik, 1734.
169
Koller, Gregorio XV, 294295; Ago, Carriere e clientele, 1921.
170
Cf. Michael F. Feldkamp, Eine Verwaltungsreform an der Nuntiatur in Wien Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts,
QFIAB 71 (1991) 482508, 486490.
171
The table is on the basis of the works of Michael F. Feldkamp, Die europischen Nuntiaturen in der frhen
Neuzeit unter besonderer Bercksichtigung der Luzerner Nuntiatur, Zeitschrift fr schweizerische Kirchen-
geschichte 88 (1994) 2748, 45 and Urban Fink, Die Luzerner Nuntiatur 15861873. Zur Behrdengeschichte
und Quellenkunde der ppstlichen Diplomatie in der Schweiz (CAV 40 = Luzerner Historische Verffentlichun-
gen 32), LuzernStuttgart 1997, 125. The nunciature of Madrid significantly differed from this model due
to the integration of the collectory. Its graph: Michael F. Feldkamp, Die Tribunal- und Gebhrenordnung
der Nuntiatur Madrid aus dem Jahre 1611, AHP 30 (1992) 363384, 368. While the reports of the nuncios
early on became the focus of historiography, the research of the nunciature itself started only in the past few
decades, therefore many questions are unsolved. On all of these in detail, by emphasising the knowledge of
the inner procedure: Helmut Goetz, Die Nuntiaturberichte des 16. Jahrhunderts als Komplementrquelle zur
Geschichtsschreibung, QFIAB 53 (1963) 214226, 214216. Some newly published case-studies that supplemented
and solved many problems: Michael F. Feldkamp, Die Erforschung der Klner Nuntiatur: Geschichte und
Ausblick. Mit einem Verzeichnis der Amtsdaten der Nuntien und Administratoren (Interimsverwalter) der Klner
Nuntiatur (15841794), AHP 28 (1990) 201283; Surchat, Die Nuntiatur von Ranuccio Scotti, op. cit.; Fink,
Die Luzerner Nuntiatur, op. cit.; Michael F. Feldkamp, Die Rechnungsbcher aus der Abbreviatur der Kl-
ner Nuntien Lucini, Bellisomi und Pacca, Vierteljahrschrift fr Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte 78 (1991)
8196. A systematic research related to institutional history has launched concerning certain nunciatures.
Michael F. Feldkamp (Hrsg.), Studien und Texte zur Geschichte der Klner Nuntiatur. I: Die Klner Nun-
tiatur und ihr Archiv. Eine behrdengeschichtliche und qullenkundliche Untersuchung. II: Dokumente und Ma-
terialien ber Jurisdiction, Nuntiatursprengel, Haushalt, Zerimonielle und Verwaltung der Klner Nuntiatur
(15841794). III: Inventar des Fonds Archivio della Nunziatura di Colonia im Vatikanischen Archiv (CAV 3032),
Citt del Vaticano 19931995; Giuseppina Roselli, LArchivio della Nunziatura di Venezia 15501797 (CAV 42),
Citt del Vaticano 1998; and from earlier: Jose Maria Marques, Indices del archivo de la nunciature de

NUNCIATURE
NUNCIO
TRIBUNAL CHANCERY COURT
(Tribunale Signatura) (Abbreviatura Archivum) (Famiglia)
1. Uditore 3. Chancellor 2. Chief-chamberlain
4. Personal secretary (maestro di camera)
6. Vice-chancellor 5. Chaplain
7. Notary 8. Major-domo (maestro
di casa)
9. Chamberlain
10. Servant
Scribe 11. Messenger
12. Cook
13. Coachman
14. Stablemen
15. Cleaners
16. Purchasers
Iudex commissarius* Copysts*
Lawyers, agents*
The office was headed by the nuncio as the sole-leader of all responsibilities.
The basic rules of the secular diplomacy applied to him as well, namely, he had to
operate according to the detailed instruction that he received at the beginning of his
function; he had to send a report every week, after his average four-year-long serv-
ice, he had to report on his experience gained during his service in a closing-relation
(moreover, he had to prepare a long-winded survey also at the beginning of his actions
to prove the validity of his instructions); and he would not accept any personal favour
in the target country.172 Comparing to the secular legations, it is a striking difference
that due to the lack of the dynastical continuity, the new pope usually changed the
nuncios, who belonged to the important officials, to his own confidants, therefore, the-
re was a more significant rotation among them than among their secular colleagues.
The pope chose them; the nephew had only the right of suggestion.173 The diplomats
of the European powers were from the string of the aristocrats, their origin and their
Madrid. I: 16641754, Roma 19751976 (Instituto espaol de historia eclesiastica). According to the information
of the colleagues of the Vatican Secret Archives, such elaboration of the nunciature of Vienna is in prog-
ress, which is unavoidable since Walter Wagners earlier work (Die Bestnde des archivio della nunziatura
Vienna, 82203) is hardly complete. In case of the nunciature of Graz, the continuation of the engrossed and
thorough research is hindered by the fragmentary character of the sources. Johann Rainer, Quellen zur
Geschichte der Grazer Nuntiatur 15801622, RHM 2 (19571958) 7281.
172
Cf. Rainer, Die Grazer Nuntiatur, 289.
173
Kraus, Amt und Stellung des Kardinalnepoten, 242243.

previous way of life supported their orientation in politics and in the court life, further-
more, their wealth provided the establishment of the necessary representation. It rarely
happened concerning the nuncios, at least from the seventeenth century. Legal studies,
then curial official work behind a desk, legation to an ecclesiastical province were not
exactly diplomatic schools, apart from the inner curial plots. The nunciatures belonged
to those few offices of the Holy See of a secular character that were not venal.174
Another peculiarity was that only a small part of the nuncios were from the terri-
tory of the Papal State. In many cases, the representatives of the given pontificates pol-
itics abroad were such diplomats who were born either in Milan or in South Italy and
considered to be Spanish subjects, or their family estates and benefices were out of the
Papal State. Consequently, they were more partial towards a local party than the pope
who represented neutrality ex officio. This was, however, inevitably interwoven into the
tone and emphasis of their reports. An aristocrat from Venice, for instance, could never
be the representative of his State in such country, where he had interests. On the other
hand, from Paul III, the nuncios were consecrated bishops heading their own diocese,
besides, from the seventeenth century, they were more and more solely titular arch-
bishops. Namely, they were members of the hierarchy; therefore they were totally at
the mercy of their patron, the pope, not only in their office but in social and economic
respects. This defencelessness obtained legal approval under Pius IV in 1565, when the
pope forbade the nuncios, under pain of excommunication, from having benefices, titles,
or especially accepting recommendation for the red hat. This, however, remained to be
only a dead letter. Moreover, as it is going to be seen, an absolutely opposite tendency
became noticeable. The nuncio returning to Rome rendered a great deal of service to his
former post, especially if he entered the College of Cardinals by the recommendation of
a monarch. The experience, impressions gained there proved to be determining for his
whole life, like it is shown by the striking example of Ippolito Aldobrandini, who had a
very successful Polish legation behind him or of Maffeo Barberini, the former nuncio
of Paris, who became pope.175 (It also became symbolic later that the young prelate Bar-
berini could not travel to Hungary where as a commissarius generalis, he should have
controlled the spending of the papal aids given to the anti-Turkish war in November
1595 due to the illness of his protonotary uncle, who paved the way for his career.176)
The nuncios were directly subordinate to the Secretariat of State, from where they
received the key of a cipher used during their missions, the direction of their activities,
the most important agendas and the chief-instruction, which indicated the strategy to
174
Lutz, Glaubwrdigkeit und Gehalt von Nuntiaturberichten, 262265. A thorough analysis of a complete
pontificates bench of nuncios with certain careers: Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Gregors XV, 222231
and 232334.
175
Lutz, Glaubwrdigkeit und Gehalt von Nuntiaturberichten, 265266. An excellent analysis with the
prosopography of 50 ordinary nuncios, who were active in Paris in 15141700, with introducing their career
before and after their legation: Bernard Barbiche, La nonciature de France aux XVIe et XVIIe sicles: les
nonces, leur entourage et leur cadre de vie, Kurie und Politik, 6497.
176

be followed and covered the most essential information about the target post. Its prep-
aration was the task of the Congregazione dello Stato in the seventeenth century.177 The chief-
instruction was usually amplified by several smaller discussions on a partial problem.
The orders of certain offices and congregations constituted other appendixes, after 1622
permanently written by the Propaganda.178 As opposed to the Secretariat of State, the
nuncio was not obliged to keep in touch with these offices weekly. The frequency of the
contacts depended on the number and gravity of the timely cases. There were numerous
cases of such character, since certain nuncios authority usually surpassed the domain of
the diplomatic accreditation. The jurisdiction of the nuncio of Warsaw covered Prussia,
Lithuania, Russia, the Baltic States and the whole Scandinavia; the Viennese covered
Austria, Bohemia and Hungary (and Croatia), as well as Transylvania, Moldova and
Wallachia; the Venetian Krajina and Gorizia. The territorial jurisdiction was increased
by the role in the mission-organisation given by the Congregation for the Propagation
of the Faith. As a consequence, the nunciature of Venice, for instance, was in touch
with Dalmatia and the whole Balkan.179
The preparation of the reports and the administration of the nunciatures corre-
spondence with the target countrys secular and ecclesiastical persons, besides, with other
nunciatures were the duty of the chancellor. The personal paperwork of the nuncio was
arranged by the personal secretary. (Until the middle of the seventeenth century, the
two positions were normally filled by one person.) In the dispacci sent to the Secretariat
of State, obviously the political programme was dominant; however, in the judgement
of the nuncios role it could easily lead to disproportion, since the direct contacts with
other curial offices. Several documents relating to Church administration and finance
should be sought in the archives of the Congregation for Bishops and Regulars, the Prop-
aganda and the Dataria.180 The most important fundamental rule of the composition of
177
The significance of the chief-instructions concerning the given nuncio or pontificate is shown by their
systematic publication and thorough methodological elaboration that has started lately. However, their critical
study emphasises that the nuncios obtained the delicate political commands especially orally. Mainly Georg
Lutz calls the attention to this: Das Papsttum, die Christenheit und die Staaten Europas 15921605, ixxxii (Vor-
bemerkungen des Herausgebers) and Le ricerche internazionali sulle nuntiature e ledizione delle istruzioni generali
di Clemente VIII. (15921605), LArchivio Segreto Vaticano e le ricerche storiche (a c. d. P. Vian), Roma 1983,
167180. I have cited the published volumes of the chief-instructions many times.
178
See for instance the supplements of Gaspare Matteis, nuncio of Vienna, instruction of 1639: Repgen,
Die rmische Kurie und der Westflische Friede, I1, 400401.
179
Not only the southern part of the present Austria (Styria and Carinthia) belonged to the nunciature of
Graz until 1622, but also Krajina (present Slovenia) and the coast of the Adriatic which was under Habsburgian
rule. On the territorial authority of certain nunciatures: Almut Bues, Acta Nuntiaturae Polonae. Zur Er-
schlieung einer Quellengattung fr die osteuropische Geschichte, Zeitschrift fr Ostforschung 41 (1992) 386399;
on the nunciature of Warsawa separately: Jan Kopiec, Zur Geschichte der Apostolischen Nuntiatur in Polen,
RQ 88 (1993) 134155, 135137 and 138147.
180
The statement does not hurt the truth of the declared thesis, namely the role of the nunciatures in
the confessionalisation more and more withdrew from the turn of the sixteenth and seventeenth century.

the nuncios reports was that in order to ease their Roman processing similarly to the
instructions, orders of the Secretariat of State about each case a separate letter had to be
written. The other element is that it was forbidden to convey news from the territory
where another papal legation operated.181
The mechanism of obtaining information was regulated by a general order in 1639,
according to which, only trustworthy news could be forwarded to Rome. It was the task
of the secretary of the nunciature to go to the court every day and gather current news
from ministers and their confidants, yet also the nuncio was obliged to participate in this
activity more and more often. The secretary had to collect the circulating newsletters
(avvisi), newspapers in the court; one should spare no pains announced the caution of
the Secretariat of State. Special attention had to be paid to the military actions and on the
events happening in the army, where it was advantageous to keep a personal informant.
This was hardly a difficult goal to attain, since in the early modern period numerous
Italian, officers served in every European army.182 Not to mention the postmasters, who
could occasionally supply rather useful information and not just about the arrival and
departure of the messengers. There was an accurate list of the informants at the nuncia-
tures, they weekly complied the news and filtered the recurrences. Even if every mistake
and distortion could not be corrected, they tried to supply precise details: names, dates.183
The fact that the nuncios were members of the hierarchy supplied such an informa-
tion background and communicational channel that it was beyond the secular diplomatic
representations reach. Usually a special relation linked them to the confessors of the
monarchs. The all-round opportunity of command to the local Church and its infor-
mation was the characteristic of the papal diplomacy. Nevertheless, the reports of the
nuncios despite their well-informed sender , comparing to the report of the legate of
Venice, were hardly informative. They had a particular, solemn, rhetorical style; their
drafting was impersonal. The nuncio did not only represent the defence of the political
interests, like his secular colleagues. His spiritual role, similarly to the pope, fettered his
manoeuvring and the style of his drafts.184
181
Konrad Repgen, Zur Diplomatik der Nuntiaturberichte. Dienstvorschrift fr das Abfassen von Avvisi aus
dem Jahre 1639, RQ 49 (1954) 123126; Goetz, Die Nuntiaturberichte, 215216; Feldkamp, Studien und Texte,
I, 9096. 106115. 127128; Fink, Die Luzerner Nuntiatur, 132135 and 141143; Surchat, Die Nuntiatur von
Ranuccio Scotti, 2729 and 3940; furthermore Feldkamp, Die Tribunal- und Gebhrenordnung, 378383.
182
Cf. Brunelli, Soldati del papa, 7180.
183
See the literature cited in note 181.
184
This ideological factor always has to be considered in the utilization of the nuncios reports as historical
sources and one has to read between the lines more than in case of the secular diplomatic documents which
were more clear and plain. Lutz, Glaubwrdigkeit und Gehalt von Nuntiaturberichten, 267273; Goetz,
Die Nuntiaturberichte, 225226. On the historiography of the reports publication, on their methodological
problems, the places of the nunciatures documents and their diplomatics, latest: Georg Lutz, Die Nuntiatur-
berichte und ihre Edition, Das Deutsche Historische Institut in Rom 18881988 (BDHIR 70, hrsg. v. Reinhard
ElzeArnold Esch), Tbingen 1990, 87121; Henricus Damianus Wojtyska, De fontibus eorumque inves-
tigatione et editionibus. Instructio ad editionem. Nuntiorum series chronologica (Acta Nuntiaturae Polonae 1),
Roma 1990, 382 and 173190. On the most significant national publication series from Hungarian point of

Not only did the nuncio have to follow the events locally, but at home, as well.
He was obliged to take care of his estates, benefices, especially if he was a diocesan bish-
op. Through his Italian relations, relatives and agents he was up-to-date concerning the
affairs of Rome, which was required and necessary for his own career.185
Apart from the preparation of the reports, the chancery also performed the con-
sular duties of the nunciature. There were money transfers arranged not only for the
papal subjects but also for other Italians, furthermore, orientation and recommendation
was given here. In Vienna, for example, usually the officials, musicians of the imperial
court, soldiers and merchants employed the services of the papal legate and sometimes
returned them with precious news.186
view, see Heinrich Lutz, Nuntiaturberichte aus Deutschland. Vergangenheit und Zukunft einer klassischen
Editionsreihe, QFIAB 45 (1965) 274324; and the bibliography of certain volumes, see KollerSchmidts
bibliography quoted in the Introduction. The other stands up of a couple of volumes which are the result of
the Czech researches between the two world wars: Johannis Stephani Ferrerii nuntii apostolici apud imperatorem
epistulae et acta. I1: 1604 Ian.Iul. (Epistulae et acta nuntiorum apostolicorum apud imperatorem 15921628,
3), ed. by Zdenk Kristen, Pragae 1944; Antonii Caetani nuntii apostolici apud imperatorem epistulae et acta.
I: 1607. II: 1608 Ian.Mai. III1: 1608 Mai.Aug. (Epistulae et acta nuntiorum apostolicorum apud impera-
torem 15921628, 4), ed. by Elena Linhartova, Pragae 193219371940. (This series has got a mysterious
volume that is quoted by Kristen as well as Linhartova without its date of publication, though, I have
not come across it anywhere else: Philippi Spinelli nuntii apostolici apud imperatorem epistulae et acta 15981603
I [Epistulae et acta nuntiorum apostolicorum apud imperatorem 15921628, 2], ed. by C. Stloukal.) The
bibliography of the German and other reports of the nuncios until 1978 is referred to by the dissertation of
Felicitas Rottstock: Studien zu den Nuntiaturberichten aus dem Reich in der zweiten Hlfte des sechszehnten
Jahrhunderts. Nuntien und Legaten in ihrem Verhltnis zu Kurie, Kaiser und Reischsfrsten (Minerva-Fachserie
Geisteswissenschaften), Mnchen 1980, 1142. A complete analysis with statistics and diagrams on the basis
of the cited bibliography in the Introduction: Peter Schmidt, 100 Jahre Forschung zur ppstlichen Politik und
Diplomatie (15001800). Ein wissenschaftsgeschichtliches Panorama, Kurie und Politik, 395412. Lately, Wolf-
gang Reinhard gave voice to his conspicuous pessimism concerning the historical utility of the reports:
Nuntiaturberichte fr die deutsche Geschichtswissenschaft? Wert und Verwertung einer Eiditionsunternehmens,
Kurie und Politik, 208225.
185
On the role of the nuncios own Roman agents, not only related to the private but also the official rela-
tions (the financing of the legation, gaining affirmation, correspondence to certain congregations): Fink, Die
Luzerner Nuntiatur, 138140; Feldkamp, Studien und Texte, I, 125126; Repgen, Die Finanzen des Nuntius
Fabio Chigi, 230232. The representative of Chigi, the later secretary of Briefs Stefano Ugolinis example
shows that despite the random payments, how a successful career can be attained by the curial representa-
tion of certain nuncios.
186
With numerous examples about the mid-1630s: Rotraut Becker, Aus dem Alltag des Nuntius Malatesta
Baglioni. Nichtdiplomatische Aufgaben der Wiener Nuntiatur um 1635, QFIAB 65 (1985) 307341, 323340; on
the archontology of the important officials from the seventeenth and eighteenth century: Feldkamp, Eine
Verwaltungsreform an der Nuntiatur in Wien, 504508. On the nunciature of Vienna Alexander Koller,
Le diplomazie Veneziana e pontificia presso la corte imperiale nella seconda met del Cinquecento (Centro Tedesco
di Studi Veneziani Quaderni 52), Venezia 1998; Donato Squiccarini, Die Apostolischen Nuntien in Wien,
Vatikanstadt 1999; Imtraut Lindeck-Pozza, Das Gebude der Apostolischen Nuntiatur in Wien, Beitrge
zur Neueren Geschichte sterreichs 20 (hrsg. v. H. FichtenauH. Koller), Wien 1974, 160175.

The nuncio practised his faculties through his deputy, the uditore, who acted as a
temporary agent at a change of legate.187 He had a threefold scope of duties. On the one
hand, by means of the authorizations of the nuncios as a papal side-legate, he deliver-
ed the dispensations from Church regulations for the petitioners. The nuncio adopted ten
such faculties, which were originally within the competence of the Holy Office: 1. ab-
solution of the sin of heresy, 2. the permission of the prohibited books reading, 35. dis-
pensation from various marital obstacles (kinship, impotency, violence), 6. various ir-
regularities (for example obstacles of consecration) and the dispensation of the delictum
occultum, 7. dispensation from the vows, 8. absolution of the excommunication on ac-
count of the realization of what in the bull In Coena Domini consisted, 910. permission
of the extra tempora priest ordination and the ordination that was performed one year
earlier as it was ordained.188
After Innocent XIs reform of the taxes, at the nunciature of Luzern an ordination of
dispensation of age cost twenty-eight forints, an extra tempora sixteen, a marital dispen-
sation five forints, while the latter one cost ten forints at the local bishop that possessed
these faculties. If the poverty was proved, the fee was ignored.189
The uditore also concluded the legal actions taken to the nunciature. At the exempt cases,
namely at the Church institutions, bodies withdrawn from the authority of the dioce-
san bishop, in the first instance; otherwise after the court of the ordinary and the metro-
politan, in the third instance. These latter ones were usually settled via an acting judge
(iudex commissarius), which meant in practice that an episcopal court or an archiepis-
copal chief-court which had not participated in the process yet was appointed to
judge the case.190
The third task of the uditore was to conduct the examination of the national Churches
bishop nominees suitability, the so-called already mentioned concerning the curial
centralisation canonical proceeding (processus informativus). The decrees of the Coun-
cil of Trent,191 then the constitution of Gregory XIV (1591)192 and the amplification of
187
Cf. Fink, Die Luzerner Nuntiatur, 126127 and 128131; Feldkamp, Studien und Texte, I, 95106;
on the various classifications of the papal legates (legatus missus, ordinarius, de latere, natus, and nuntius
ordinarius-extraordinarius, pronuntius, internuntius etc.), and on their contemporary authority and relations
with the local ordinaries and secular powers in terms of canon law: Walf, Die Entwicklung des ppstlichen
Gesandtschaftswesens, 187202. 203211. 211275.
188
Fink, Die Luzerner Nuntiatur, 103107; Feldkamp, Studien und Texte, I, 6873.
189
Cf. Maier, Die Luzerner Nuntiatur, 530532. The researches have not solved the problem as far as
I am concerned why the locals turned directly to Rome for dispensation, mainly in the case of marital
affairs, though, the nuncio did have a faculty for such matters.
190
Feldkamp, Studien und Texte, I, 97106. 120122; Fink, Die Luzerner Nuntiatur, 128131. Not only
does the secondary literature not explain it clearly, but as we are learning it in Chapter VI the criteria
of the appeals to the nunciatures and directly to Rome were also unobvious.
191
Sess. XXIV, decr. de reform., cap I: Norma procedendi ad creationem episcoporum et cardinalium.
192
Onus Apostolicae Servitutis 15 May 1591 Bullarium Romanum [Bullarium Romanorum Pontificum
collectio] IXIV, Romae 17391744, IX, 419424.

Urban VIII of 1627193 were not new. They developed an already existing tradition. The com-
pulsory questions raised to the witnesses bore great similarity to the medieval anteced-
ents.194 One part of them related to the nominees birth, origin, age (points 24.), con-
secration as a priest, his pastoral work, belief, morals (58.), knowledge and academic
qualification (910.) and his Church administrative suitability (1113.).195 In case of the
transfer to another diocese, in ten points his main pastoral work was examined. The other
set of the questions were pointed to the size of the episcopal see, its inhabitants, parishes
and spiritual life (1.10.), the state of the cathedral, its equipment (2.57.), the chapters
and other benefices, the incomes and residence of the bishop (4.89.), furthermore,
to the seminar, the metropolitan see to which the diocese belonged, its extension and the
duration of the vacancy (3.1113.). The verbals mark the place, the time of the exami-
nation, the age, the occupation of the witness and his relationship to the nominee and
the origin of his information. In the supplement, there is the creed signed by the new
bishop, the text of the oath and often the documents of birth, education, ordainment
and appointment.196
The Council of Trent and the papal orders brought changes concerning the merits
of the contents punctuality, form and execution. The results of the examination had to
be certified in the form of a notarial document, and the conduct was usually the duty of
the local papal nunciatures. The competence of the metropolitan and provincial council
was mentioned at the Council, but the canonical process conducted for the filling up of
the episcopal sees remained the right of the Curia.197
It seems, the conciliar idea of conducting the process locally was not only a theoretical
opportunity. In France, under Henry III and IV, mainly the archbishops and bishops of
the diocese conducted the process that obviously was not regarded as acceptable by the
Holy See, since the canonical examination of the royal appointment was also in the hands
193
Si processus Bullarium Romanum, XIII, 581588.
194
The outline of the medieval antecedents with the related literature and the detailed review of a Hungarian
related early trial: Pter Tusor: Eszterhzy Kroly knoni kivizsglsi jegyzknyvei a Vatikni Levltrban
[The Verbals of Kroly Eszterhzys Canonical Investigation in the Vatican Archives], Eszterhzy Kroly Emlk-
knyv (ed. by Bla Kovcs), Eger 1999, 2342, 23 and 39, note 6.
195
The thirteen points were increased with a fourteenth, which related to the providence worthy of a
bishop. The addendum was needed for the sake of the titular bishops who could not enjoy the benefices of
their diocese. Such a survey of 14 points is published by Ludwig Litzenburger, Der Informativproze des
Mnchener Hofbibliothekars Casimir Haeffelin, RQ 50 (1955) 239240.
196
The question points can be found at the beginning of most of the verbals. See their publication at the
above cited papal decrees. Due to the variety of the questions, the verbals can serve as an excellent source for
historical research. Only an example: Pter Tusor, Pzmny Pter processus inquisitionisa az Aldobrandini
hercegek frascati levltrban [The Processus Inquisitionis of Pter Pzmny in the Archives of the Aldobrandini
Princes in Frascati], Egyhztrtneti Szemle 4 (2003) 1, 321.
197
Alfred A. Strnad, Processus inquisitionis Ecclesiae Viennensis. Materialen zur Geschichte des Frst-
bistums Wien aus dem Vatikanischen Geheimarchiv, Festschrift Franz Loidl zum 65. Geburtstag IIII (Sammlung
aus Christentum und Kultur Sonnerband 13, hrsg. v. Viktor Fiedler Elisabeth Kovcs), Wien 19701971,
III, 267290, 267268.

of the bishops appointed by the crown. In 1610, the French clergy itself proclaimed the
unreliability of the verbals fabricated like this.198
By all means, the fact, that unlike in the Middle Ages, there was a chance to the
conduct of the process even from outside Rome with the exception of mainly Italian
or missionary bishops, who received papal donation contributed to a great extent to
the wide spread of this practice. The cases, technically arranged by the uditores, became
the field of the regular formal relations between the nunciatures and the local Churches,
though, with many problems.
In the inner hierarchy of the nunciature the uditore was not followed by the chan-
cellor, who performed administrative duties, but by the chief-chamberlain, who direct-
ed the household of the nuncio. This shows how essential the representation was, of
which contemporary requisites were applied, including the practice of the diplomatic
bestowing. The full board and lodging of the papal legation of twenty-thirty persons
was provided for by the major-domo. According to the Viennese data of the 1630s, the
dress materials, as well as the majority of the food were transported from Italy for an
inconceivably abundant number, for some eighty persons.199
This solution seems illogical only for the first glimpse. As we have seen, the sum
from the central budget assigned to the sustenance of the papal legations can hardly be
considered high. Apart from his superior, only the uditore received a salary from the
Apostolic Camera, the supply of the staff was the task of the nuncio, which, however,
was not covered even by the taxes from the dispensations. The proportion of the rep-
resentative needs depended on the person, the lack was retrieved by the incomes and
harvest of the benefices and estates at the nuncios disposal. The investment evolved
remunerative by a lucrative bishopric or the red hat, therefore, in the best possible case,
the debts, received from home or locally, could be paid off by the end of the service.
The indebtedness was not rare at all. Neither was the bankruptcy of the nuncio due to
an unexpected disfavour or a change of pontificate.200 The nunciature of Paris had the
biggest annual budget, under Gregory XV; it was some annual 3,600 golden scudi, which
was followed by the Viennese of 2,400.201
The unique financing explains that the stuff of the papal legations was not only
of Italian origin almost with no exception, but from the uditore to the stablemen they
were the people, confidants of the nuncio, who appeared in many posts by following
their superior. Due to this fact, the staff of the nunciatures, belonging to two groups
(the famiglia nobile or the alta and the famiglia bassa), could participate in the diplomacy
198
Joseph Bergin, The Making of the French Episcopate 15891661, New HavenLondon 1996, 62.
199
Becker, Aus dem Alltag des Nuntius Malatesta, 312317.
200
Lutz, Glaubwrdigkeit und Gehalt von Nuntiaturberichten, 266267; Goetz, Die Nuntiaturberichte, 214215;
Fink, Die Luzerner Nuntiatur, 108123; Feldkamp, Studien und Texte, I, 7379; the detailed analysis of the
nuncios budget and organizing techniques: Repgen, Die Finanzen des Nuntius Fabio Chigi, especially 232234.
201
Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Gregors XV, 230.

of the Holy See in possession of essential foreign service experience. Not only did they
perform through politics, but also through Church politics and Church administration,
furthermore by the connections with the local Churches.202
202
Feldkamp, Die europischen Nuntiaturen in der frhen Neuzeit, 3335; Fink, Die Luzerner Nuntiatur,
136137 and 144150; Feldkamp, Studien und Texte, I, 8587 and 116120; Surchat, Die Nuntiatur von Ra-
nuccio Scotti, 3839; the contemporary presentation of the nunciatures staffs duty from 1611, true, about the
papal nunciature of Madrid which differed from the usual in its structure: Feldkamp, Die Tribunal- und
Gebhrenordnung, 370377.

VI
The Roman Church Administration,
Church Politics
Some Theses and Examples
As compared to the official Church structure and life of the late Middle Ages, the un-
deniable and impressive success of the execution of the reforms laid down by the Council
of Trent and the heated theological debate of the turn of the century, the reform of the
traditional orders and the establishment of newer ones, furthermore, the synchronisa-
tion of the folk religion and the cult of the saints with the Roman regulations created
some incredible vitality in Rome as well as in the local Churches.1 The gradual break-
ing of the impetus, which became striking under Urban VIII, left a deep mark on the
life of the Church. The vigorous formalization; the force of the believers to adhere to
the disciplines; the limitation of the religious life to legal and ritual dimensions and
the refusal and suppression of external and internal criticism began with the exclusive
effort to preserve, which was accompanied by the rejection of every innovation.2
The rigidity of the Churchs inner life and spirituality at least in relation to the Church
administration is most spectacularly symbolized by the adversities of todays so-called
Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
It was founded by Mary Ward in 1609. The realization of the lay apostolate was
its aim, in a way that the order avoided every type of the enclosure in its life style.
In the 1620s, the stormily spreading female Jesuit order which was settled be-
sides Italy, also in England, France, in the German States, moreover, in Hungary
(Pozsony) experienced a firmer and firmer refusal from the Curia. In the 1620s, Rome
was unable to integrate such a radically new initiation. The reason for this was rooted
in the traditional conception of a woman and in the clinging adherence to the tradi-
tional judgement of the womans part, which could picture a proper role for them only
in the household or behind the enclosed walls of the cloister. The other reason can be
found in the decision mechanism of the Roman Curia, which could make final decisions
1
2

226 The Roman Church Administration and Church Politics
even on the basis of one-sided and incomplete information. On the other hand, many
denunciations about the nuns arrived in the Eternal City. In Italy, the communities of
the order were suppressed by the Congregation for Bishops and Monks already in 1625,
in the other territories of Europe the decision of the Propaganda in 1630 reached the
same result. Francesco Ingoli, who regarded the destruction of the female Jesuits as his
moral obligation, played an important role in the creation of the Congregation for the
Propagation of the Faiths decree.
This decision meant that in the 1620s the highest Church authority unhesitating-
ly stifled the initiation that was not only bearable but also necessary in the life of
the Church. Apart from its novelty, the main fault of the initiative was the rein-
terpretation of certain social conventions. The permission of the order in 1642 was
realised only in a less effective form of an enclosure. The suppression proves that an
inflexible way of thinking, which stuck to the legal regulations, dominated in the
Roman congregations.3
The consequence: the impossibility of the personal religious practice within the
Church unavoidably involved the development of Jansenism in the seventeenth cen-
tury, which endeavoured to fulfil the natural spiritual needs, then the Quietism and
the confrontation with them. While this latter did not, for some two centuries Jan-
senism became one of the gravest inner problems of the Church after Trent. Cathol-
icism, which was increasingly confined to a defensive position, could less and less rep-
resent an independent point of reference or have the initiative in the religious-spir-
itual processes which emerged in the age of confessionalisation. In the seventeenth
century a new and great crisis of the European spirit occurred.4 The sentence of
Galilei was exemplary in this respect. The conviction of the scientist in 1633 shows
the general climate change.
The Roman Inquisition put the book of Copernicus, which outlined heliocentrism,
on the Index already in 1616; however, Cardinal Bellarmino only personally warned
Galilei not to represent the theory of the Earths motion. By 1633, the action which was
not more than a personal notice at the time of which sting was tried to be taken out
by Paul V with a long, restful conversation became a trial commenced with the im-
peachment of heresy and the force to withdraw the theory.5
3
The detailed history and evaluation with supplying the important sources by Joseph Grisar: Maria
Wards Institut vor rmischen Kongregationen (16161630) (Miscellanea Historiae Pontificiae 27), Rom 1966,
on the Propagandas process: 227448.
4
5
The publication of the trials material is of outstanding significance (ASV Misc., Arm. X, vol. 204):
I documenti del processo di Galileo Galilei (CAV 21), a c. d. Sergio M. PaganoAntonio G. Luciani, Citt
del Vaticano 1984, 61216, and the introduction: 150. On the latest explored detail with the latest literature:
Francesco Beretta, Un nuovo documento sul processo di Galileo Galilei. La lettera di Vincenzo Maculano
del 22 Aprile 1633 al cardinale Francesco Barberini, Nuncius. Annali di Storia della Scienza 16 (2001) 629639;
[Idem], Galileo Galilei und die rmische Inquisition (16161633), Inquisition, Index, Zensur. Wissenskulturen
der Neuzeit im Widerstreit (hrsg. v. Hubert Wolf), Paderborn 2001, 151158.

Some Theses and Examples 227
It is a sheer accident, though a symbolic coincidence, that the first volumes of Gali-
leis work Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo arrived to Rome in the same days
when the Barberini pontificate experienced its deepest political crisis due to the Borgia
protest. Urban VIII, as a cardinal, belonged to the admirers of Galilei. They were in
continuous correspondence from the beginning of their relations, from 1611. During the
procedure of 1616, Barberini did his utmost to protect him. It is partly due to his help
that heliocentrism, which was incompatible with the teachings of the Holy Bible, was
declared heretic during the procedure, Galilei was only to avoid the theory of the Earths
motion. Barberini, who had a literary vein, praised the astronomical discoveries of the
expert in his panegyric, published in 1620, and in return, three years later, Galilei by be-
ing generally approved offered his polemic work Saggiatore to the newly elected pope.
Urban VIII was at ease in the company of the scientists. It happened, for instance,
that he undertook astronomical researches with Tommaso Campanella in a sealed room
of the Quirinal, however, the pope issued condemnatory regulation against those astrol-
ogers who he regarded incompetent, for example against Orazio Morandi in April 1631.
Galilei was seen at least six times in the spring of 1624, which might have encouraged
him to examine again the theory of Copernicus, however, only from a mathematical
point of view and with regard for the orders of the Church. In this spirit and with the
consent of Urban VIII, Galilei presented his work Dialogue to the strict censors of Rome
in 1631. He received permission after having included a passage about the omnipo-
tent power of God over the rules of nature and universe by the earlier request of the
pope in July 1631.
After all these, it was a great surprise that the pope had the circulating volumes of
the Dialogo published in JulySeptember 1632 confiscated, moreover, Galilei was called
before the court of the Roman Inquisition. It is still a matter of question what the rea-
son for this sudden turn was. Urban VIII might have been hurt by certain ideas of the
book, or he was more likely to be convinced: the sole purpose of the work had been
nothing else but to popularize the already condemned heliocentrism. It seems he gave
credit to the document from the papers of the trial of 1616 which was not legally val-
id, in fact it could have been forged that categorically forbade the expert to insist on
the question in any form.
During the trial, by the encouragement of the previously more open and curious
pope, the Holy Office pronounced disbelieving Galileis new science, which rested
upon empiric bases, and strengthened the exclusively traditional attitude which en-
joyed determining superiority on a philosophical as well as a theological level in the
post-Tridentine Church.
This case shows plainly that at the time of the Catholic reforms halt, due to the
intransigent protection of the absolute papal authority and the less circumscribed pa-
pal infallibility (infallibilitas), a split occurred between the immanent, scientific and the
religious, transcendent way of thinking for centuries. The opposition of theology and
the secular sciences; of faith and knowledge formed an unbridgeable gap between the
laymen and the clerics for a long time. Not only did it cut off the way of the Protes-

tant intellectuals, who were more and more unsatisfied with their Churchs chaotic cir-
cumstances, towards Catholicism, but it also led to the extreme anticlericalism of the
Enlightenment.6
The fate and survival of the Tridentine reforms in the seventeenth century are
characterised by apart from the stabilizing of the Church lifes spirituality and men-
tal horizon the interference of the decisions related to the inner life of the Church
and the political-financial interests. Those aspects won a determining role which had
hardly anything to do with the field of faith. The actions could influence the course of
events positively as well as negatively. As it was discussed in wider connections, thanks
to the successes of the Counter-Reformation the Catholic secular princes mainly in
Central Europe strengthened their power basis through their military and political
actions. However, in parallel, Romes universal claims revived in Church as well as polit-
ical fields, moreover they increased. Yet, these two ways of mutual and complementary
development obviously involved the possibility of clashes. As for the European powers,
the main lines of force and impulses of the conflicts were the demand of the inner and
external sovereigntys maintenance as opposed to the Church, which constituted a State
within a State, and the universal papal claims, which threatened their State sovereignty;
as for the local Churches, they were the enforcement and protection of the traditional
privileges against the secular States and the advowees. In Romes view, the protection
and enforcement of its universal authority had weight: not only over the secular States
and advowees, but also over the Church hierarchy within certain countries.7
The clashes between the State and Church, the Papacy and the European States
were primarily of judicial nature and derived from the Church and secular legal aspects,
which competed with each other. They originated mainly from the codification of the
ecclesiastical rights, privileges against the State and the Church doctrine of the late six-
teenth century. Despite the obvious change, there was certain continuity in the history
of Papacy, this is true for the relations with the States and local Churches even more.
In spite of the radically new traits of the Catholic confessionalisation in the early modern
period, the elements of the legal development of the late Middle Ages are determining
throughout the early modern period.8
It cannot be denied that the enforcement of the State interests was considered an-
ti-curial manifestations in Rome. As far as the secular side was concerned, the efforts of
the popes were regarded as unbearable extravagance and unbounded abuses. On the occa-
sion of the clashes concerning secular law and canon law, the Holy See often found itself
in a precarious position, especially when it had to face the State and the local Churchs
6
Lutz, Rom und Europa, 142143; Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 696697; Lutz,
Urbano VIII, 307.
7
Lutz, Rom im 17. Jahrhundert, 542; Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Gregors XV, 6466.
8
This means the necessary outline of the concordats written in the conciliarist period and the legal cus-
toms which were not laid down in detail. On the relations of the canon and secular law: Prodi, The Papal
Prince, 5978.

The Inner Life of the Papacy and the Church 229
close coalition of interests, like in France.9 It is obvious that these conflicts affected
the field of politics, moreover, they strongly influenced Romes political and diplomat-
ic relations to the European States and the national Churches, however, they never
caused such an exclusive result for which they could be held as exclusive and significant
reasons. The relations were rather determined by the mutual influences and the result
of the interests and values temporary state, like it is shown by the occasional changes
of Richelieus Gallican politics. The clashes concerning constitutional law and canon
law never touched upon religious questions, neither did they have consequences on
the religious life itself. The State influence, intervention into the Catholic teachings,
into the preaching, services and the liturgy were a really sporadic occurrence in the
seventeenth century.10
The Inner Life of Papacy and the Church
The transition between the quiet standstill of the spiritual confessionalisation dur-
ing the pontificate of Clement VIII and its break under Urban VIII similarly to the
papal politics shows an uneven picture. The cessation of the reforms impetus became
more and more visible by the 1610s. The continuation of the non-fading debate over
grace in public or in publications was forbidden by the decree of the Holy Office
on 1 December 1611.
The de auxiliis debate was already generated by Luis Molina ( 1600) in his writing Con-
cordia liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis, which was published in 1589. In this work, the Span-
ish Jesuit who was supported by Francisco Surez and Miguel Vzques proclaimed
the reconcilability of human liberty and divine foreknowledge in contrast to the Cal-
vinist predestination. According to Molinas doctrines, at the moment of human deci-
sion, which is foreseen by God, the previously bestowed preventive grace evolves into
helping grace, the sufficient grace turns into efficient grace, or not in particular,
depending on the choice of the human being. After Saint Thomas, his opponent, the
Dominican Domenigo Baez ( 1604) and along with him most theologians believed
that through the helping grace God himself provoked the human free will to reach the
given free action from the state of possibility. This does not restrict the liberty of the
human being, since God, besides the action, provides its liberty, as well. This question
was not solved even by the long row of public Roman debates. It almost happened once,
though, Clement VIIIs sudden death hindered Molinas sentence. In the summer of
1607, Paul V tried to finish the theological controversies by a useless modus vivendi,
9
Or in Savoy: Achille Erba, La Chiesa sabauda tra Cinque e Seicento. Ortodossia Tridentina, gallicanesimo
Savoiardo e assolutismo ducale (15801630) (Italia Sacra. Studi e Documenti di Storia Ecclesiastica 29), Roma
1979, 2332. 3353. 261282.
10
Lutz, Rom im 17. Jahrhundert, 543; the important data of the Church administration, politics and reli-
gious life: Petrocchi, Roma nel Seicento, 92134.

according to which both parties could profess their teachings without accusing the other
of being a heretic.11
The pamphlet of Giacomo Antonio Marta, which was published in London in 1613,
was neither permitted to circulate.12 By the order of the Secretariat of State, the nuncios
collected the volumes with unbelievable effectiveness by proving the refinement of the
censorships techniques in parallel to the printing. The promptness was not accidental,
since the pamphlet was the gravest attack against Camillo Borgheses Papacy. Neither
his, nor Clement VIIIs election was considered legal by Marta, namely two other car-
dinals, Toschi and Santoro had already gathered the majority of the votes. Moreover,
the Italian authors called Paul V a heretic. In his view, the pope abused the incomes of
the Dataria in favour of his nephews, which is nothing else in his argumentation but
simony, the inner form of heresy. Moreover, he urged the convocation of an ecumenical
council, since he was of the opinion that the pope scandalized and upset the Church.
That is to say, Paul V hurt Venice, Milan, Florence, Lucca and Naples, he let the bishops
pay the debt of their families from their benefices, he overlooked the corrupt practices
of most cardinals and their brothers, furthermore, he bestowed most of the benefices
to his nephew, not to mention the fact that he appointed mainly young and ignorant
cardinals with the hope that they would support their establishing dynasty for long.
In particular Marta named, for instance, Maffeo Barberini.13
Although, the well-built up work supported by many quotations was practically
forgotten by 1615, due to the efficiency of the censorship, it bears eloquent testimony to
the reform spirits perceptible course of fermentation. This change was also felt by the
papal court, nevertheless Paul V, as an answer to the criticism of Cardinal Baroni and
especially Cardinal Bellarmino about the slackening of the reforms, considered the can-
onization of Carlo Borromeo (1 November 1610),14 the ideal prelate of Trent; further-
more, the conclusion of the Roman rites reform, which derived from Trent. The con-
stitution Apostolicae sedi which was published in 1614 and controlled the order of the
administration of the sacraments, funerals, blessings and processions can actually be
reckoned the close continuation of Clement VIIIs Pontificale Romanum of 1596 and the
11
Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 679682. A brilliant summary of the debate over grace with
thorough international bibliography in Hungarian: Mikls ry, Pzmny kegyelemvitja a grazi egyetemen
[The Debate over the Grace of Pzmny at the University of Graz], Pzmny Pter emlkezete. Hallnak 350.
vforduljn (ed. by Lszl Lukcs Ferenc Szab), Rma 1987, 998, 1014.
12
Supplicatio ad Imperatorem, Reges, Principes, super causis Generalis Concilii convocandi contra Paulum Quin-
tum Wolfgang Reinhard, Papst Paul V. und seine Nuntien im Kampf gegen die Supplicatio ad Impera-
torem und ihren Verfasser Giacomo Antonio Marta 16131620, ARG 60 (1969) 190237.
13
The author (15591629), who was from Naples and studied law in Padua, had lived earlier in Rome as
the agent of the English government with annual charges. He belonged to the strict critics who cultivated
good relations with Venice and worked behind the scenes without publicly breaking with the Curia. After
the publication of his work, he was cajoled to Rome and to Cologne by Nuncio Albergati, and they tried to
arrest him there. They did not succeed. Marta did not return to Italy until the death of Paul V, he was called
to Pavia or Mantua in vain; he died in 1629 during the bloody siege of the latter town. Ibid.
14

Caeremoniale Episcoporum of 1600.15 The Borghese Pope found the effective cure chiefly
in the increase of the inner controlling mechanisms. In his regulation Rituale Romanum
of 20 June 1614 he ordered the Roman parish priests to lead the status animarum. It is
true, the survey, which was handed down at the secretariat of the cardinal vicar, about
the believers taking the Eucharist at Easter became general in all the Roman parishes
only from the middle of the century, similarly to the increased control over science,
culture and everyday life.16
Under the circumstances of the reform spirits languishing at the beginning of the cen-
tury, the vigour of Gregory XV, who was the first to succeed Saint Peter from the alum-
ni of the Jesuits, seems unbelievable. There were more proofs for this during his short
pontificate he was mainly driven by the consideration of Church policy such as the
thirteen ordinary and eight extraordinary nuncios appointment; important and sym-
bolic canonizations; furthermore the establishment of the Propaganda regardless of
the grudge of the Secretariat of State, the Congregation for Bishops and Regulars, the
Inquisition, the Spanish and Portuguese crown. The Ludovisi Pope also inscribed his
name upon the pages of the Curias history and of Church history with acknowledg-
ing the Piarists as a religious order with solemn vows (18 November 1621)17 and with the
regulation of the order of the conclaves.
The interference of the great powers, especially Spain and France, into the course
of the papal elections was already tried to be hindered by Cardinal Federico Borromeo
and Roberto Bellarmino with many plans. According to their notion the bull of 15 No-
vember 1621, Aeterni Patris Filius, permitted three methods of election: 1. per scrutinium,
namely the election twice a day in writing, until gaining two-thirds of the votes; 2. per
compromissum, which meant the decision of a certain group of the cardinals in case the
scrutiny was not successful; 3. per quasi inspirationem, which meant the election without
previous agreements in a spontaneous way by acclamation. In this way, the pope forbade
certain cardinals exclusion from the papabiles. However, with not much success, as it is
shown by Azzolinis handwritten pamphlet of 1670, Aforismi sul conclave.18 All the same,
the process that was regulated also in its ceremonial details by the bull of 12 March
1622, Decet Romanum Pontificem remained fundamentally unaltered until Pius X.19
15
Maron, Die nachtridentinische Kodifikationsarbeit, 114115.
16
Reinhardt, Paolo V, 290291; Eugenio Sonnino, Le anime dei romani: fonti religiose e demografia storica,
Roma, la citt del papa, 329364.
17
Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 687692; Koller, Gregorio XV, 294295296.
18
The work, which introduces the personality of Azzolini and voices some good advice and regularities,
describes the contemporary nature of the papal conclaves. Consequently, if one was excluded from the can-
didates by the cardinals, he would be excluded all the while, since it could not be easily forgotten, especially
if he became a pope after all. Furthermore, the candidate who had been too close to the former powers men
had to be excluded, especially if they had gained many enemies during their reign, yet that candidate also
had to be disregarded who was too young or he had not been a cardinal for long, no matter if his friends and
supporters would take his omission as an offence. Signorotto, The Squadrone Volante, 203.
19
The last significant modification is related to John Paul II, who repealed the per compromissum as well
as the per quasi inspirationem processes with his regulation of 22 February 1996, Universi Dominici Gregis.

In the course of these years, the more and more self-contained deepening of the dis-
ciplinary actions via the strengthening of the papal central power accompanied by rigid
severity in the religious life could hardly be experienced. However, by the middle of
the decade its smaller signs could be noticed; for instance in the regulations (16231626)
that resulted in increasing the severity of the obligation of residence. The clearly polit-
ical dimensions, namely the removal of the inner curial opposition, were achieved by
the bull Sancta Synodus Tridentina (18 December 1634), then by the establishment of the
Congregation of Residence in the middle of the 1630s. Besides the already discussed symp-
tomatic cases, further negative examples could be listed (like the unfair persecution and
humiliation of the Piarists by the Holy Office in 1642), however, efforts of rationalization
can also be noticed in many regulations, even though they possessed certain drawbacks
of over-regulation.
Such examples were the revision and unification of the various authorizations given
to the nuncios and missionaries, whose chief means were the part-congregation (super
facultatibus missionariorum) within the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith.
Besides, Urban VIII recomposed in detail the Roman breviary and the martyrology
during 16291631. A considerable part of the corrections was constituted by setting the
ancient hymns to the classical style and metre in almost a thousand places. The pope or-
dered the universal Church to use them in April 1643. The revision of the Roman missal
(1634) and pontifical (1643) was in so far as notable. The Congregation of the Index and
Rites regulated the worship of the saints with decrees: they banned the local cults that
could not have been confirmed sufficiently and they made the conditions of canoniza-
tion significantly severe, of which first motions were bound to the Curias permission.
The execution of certain canonizations for such small national Churches, like the Hun-
garian, became equal to impossible. It is by no surprise that under Urban VIII, there
were only two canonizations. The thirty-eight beatifications were only seemingly high:
twenty-six of them were constituted by the missionaries who died as martyrs in Japan
at the same time.20
The fact that the Barberini Pope cancelled fifteen feasts from the liturgical calen-
dar with his bull of 22 December 1642 by no means can be described as a self-contained
endeavour. While this regulation of his quickly became practice, another one, which was
issued in March of the same year (though it was made public only in June 1643), brought
about graver consequences and left a heavy heritage to his successors. The bull In eminenti
condemned Cornelius Jansens, the bishop of Ypres, work of Augustinus, which appeared
in 1640. The focus of his treatise fell on the doctrine of grace. He showed an inclination
towards the Protestant sola gratia, he believed in the limitedness of free will. He was char-
Ambrogio M. Piazzoni, Storia delle Elezioni Pontificie, Casale Monferrato 2003, 208211; Koller, Gregorio
XV, 294295; cf. also Nussdorfer, Civic Politics in the Rome, 228252 and [Idem], The Vacant See: Ritual and
Protest in Early Modern Rome, The Sixteenth Century Journal 18 (1987) 173198.
20
Lutz, Urbano VIII, 308; Fabijan Veraja, Le cause di canonizzazione dei Santi. Commento alla legislazione
e guida pratica, Citt del Vaticano 1992, 2122.

acterised by strong rigorousness, rare communion, and at the same time, by deep piety.
However, the In eminenti did not list theological arguments. He was content only with
citing the revised (during 16251641) papal regulations, which forbade the earlier debates
on the doctrine of grace.21
The most significant Church investments of the age are to be linked to mission organi-
sations. The Propaganda could move into its own palace in November 1633, where a sepa-
rate printing office was set up (Typographia Poliglotta). The college (Collegio Urbano), which
was founded by the pope in August 1627, also operated here; its main task was to educate
the priests coming from and returning to the missionary territories. Between 1637 and
1639, due to the generosity of the popes brother, the Capuchin Antonio, some thirty-five
novices lived in this institution, to which a church designed by Bernini was added in the
meantime. It was led by the Theatines from 1641. Its role was outstanding, even if the
majority of the missionaries were not taught within the bounds of the institution but in
the colleges of certain States and in the central institutions of the orders.22
In spite of the great investments, in the 1630s, Rome had to face serious difficulties in
the rather blooming missionary fields. Despite the twenty-one papal regulations, the Span-
ish and Portuguese did their utmost to prevent the activities of the Propaganda in Latin
America and Asia. For instance, in 1634, the pope divested the Spanish crowns so-called
vicariato reale of all of its spiritual authority and he appointed apostolic vicars who depended
directly on Rome. Urban VIII had more opportunity to restrict the monarchs advowsons
after the split of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns in 1640. They were approved only in
the fully colonized territories, and the pope more and more favoured the activities of the
French missionaries (especially the Capuchins), mostly in North America and Africa. How-
ever, the Portuguese independence bred disadvantageous consequences for the Apostolic
See, since the steady Dutch expansion in Asia from 1636 cut off the former Portuguese
colonies from its missionaries.
The increasing rivalry of the orders also did damage to the mission work. Due to their
closer relations to certain European Catholic States, the rivalry was partly of political ori-
gin (for instance, the Dominicans were the followers of the Spanish, the Capuchins of the
French crown), and it had partly natural basis. It sharply emerged in the Far East, where
after the monopoly of the Jesuits, all the other orders won a chance of missionary work
from 16301633. Already by 1641, the healthy competition turned into a sharp theological
21
Albert, Nuntius Fabio Chigi und die Anfnge des Jansenismus, 4984. 85204 and passim (on the In emi-
nenti 166202); Konrad Repgen, Francesco Barberini, Hugo Grotius und die rmische Vorgeschichte der Bulle
In eminenti, RQ 58 (1963) 105132; Cogner, Das kirchliche Leben in Frankreich, 2663; Pierre Blet, Louis
XIV et les Papes aux Prises avec le Jansnisme, AHP 31 (1993) 109192 and 32 (1994) 65148 [abstract in Latin];
Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 699702.
22
In more detail: Giovanni Antonazzi, La sede della Sacra Congregazione e del Collegio Urbano, Sacrae
Congregationis de Propaganda Fide memoria Rerum, I1, 306334; Villy Henkel, The Printing-office of
the Congregation, Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide memoria Rerum, I1, 335349; Maksimilijan
Jezernik, Il Collegio Urbano, Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide memoria Rerum, I1, 465482; Piz-
zorusso, Agli antipodi di Babele: Propaganda Fide, 495518.

and pastoral conflict between the occasional Dominican-Franciscan coalition and the Soci-
ety of Jesus owing to the enculturative liturgical methods which let the local tradition
have free scope of the successors of Saint Francis Xavier that were applied in China. The
conflict can also be traced back to that general problem, which despite the continuous
endeavour developed from the insufficient preparation of the missionaries about the lan-
guage, habits and tradition of the target area. This not only covers the overseas cultures
and ethnic groups but also the contemporary European borderlines. In these territories,
namely in Dalmatia, Hungary, Ireland, Moravia and Bohemia, the modernisation of Cathol-
icism under the pontificate of the Barberini Pope achieved noticeable results, which were
due to the existence of the local hierarchies and their activities. As opposed to this, the lack
of the bishops in the overseas territories hindered the completion of confessionalisation or
threatened its durability.
Finally, the last obstacles in the way of mission work also occurred at the border of
Europe where Catholicism met the orthodoxy. The several ritual, liturgical, etc. similar-
ities between the ones united with Rome (Ukraine, Ruthenian, Serbian) and the autoceph-
alous communities caused permanent doubts about theology, which resulted in the con-
stant interference of the Holy Office. There was a special confession of faith which meant
an effective aid. This was prepared for the unified priests, bishops and metropolitans by
Urban VIII and later adopted his name.23
By the middle of the century, there occurred important and favourable changes though
they did not show new dimension in the more and more disadvantageous trends. For this
once, one should not reckon the expansion of the missionary work, though, under Inno-
cent X, the activities of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith carried on spread-
ing,24 of which the most lasting example is the settlement of the Capuchins in Congo and
Angola. It is more striking that the political defensive ensuing during the Thirty Years
War in parallel to the appearance of the squadron volante was replaced by an increasing
Church administrational inclination to act. After having given up the possibility of the lost
bishoprics, benefices retrieval in the territory of the Imperium, Innocent X concentrated
on the increase of the inner Church lifes intensity. In his encyclical letter of 4 April 1652,
the pope encouraged the German bishops to summon councils where they could deepen
the adoption of Trents regulations. His endeavour was acknowledged by successes like the
Catholicisation of the Duke of Hesse in the same year, which could, to a certain degree,
make him forget the lack of Ferdinand IIIs support. The emperor got involved in a long
debate with the Apostolic See concerning the establishment of the bishoprics of Litomice.
Namely, the Consistorial Congregation did not approve of the monarch appointing the
bishop of the new diocese on his founders rights.25
23
24
25
Poncet, Innocenzo X, 331332; Denzler, Die Propagandakongregation in Rom, 133144 and 165172.

The Jubilee, which was announced by the bull of 4 May 1649, Appropinquat dilectis-
simi filii, can be also interpreted in relation to the Thirty Years War. It cast light on the
celebration of the warfares end as the spiritual antithesis of the Holy Sees political protest.
The last Jubilee of the early modern period met with undeniable success. The mass of the
pilgrims in Rome proved that the Papacy for the Catholic believers remained a primary
reference point even after Westphalia.
On the other hand, with numerous regulations, the Pamphili Pope strove to rational-
ize the activity of the religious orders that were accounted the spearhead of Catholicism.
He circumscribed the abbots order of succession in the monastic orders, besides, united
many societies and dissolved others. His most enduring reform, which concerned the Italian
religious communities, was lead by Prospero Fagnani and an extraordinary congregation.
The pope tried to make their activity fruitful by many breves and bulls (Inter Caetera,
17 December 1649, then Instaurandae regularis disciplinae, 15 October 1652). The some 2426%
of the 6238 Italian monasteries was dissolved (according to the data from 1650). The ma-
jority of them were mendicant orders. The efforts of rationalization crossed the border of
Italy, since they made their influence felt in Poland and Spain by the contribution of the
Polish primate and the nuncio of Madrid. However, in Italy the pope was to withdraw
due to the opposition of the orders, and many States, especially Naples and Venice, and
he left some cloisters (Ut in parvis, 10 February 1654). The orders, though they were una-
voidable, present well the obstacles of the regulation, which was realized in a legal way
concerning the inner life of the Church. The pruning of the overshoots finally hindered
the further developments of the orders. The members of the orders, who substituted for
the insufficiency of the pastoral work in many parishes, mostly became estranged from
the circulation of the dioceses life.26
Innocent X had to face such a considerably greater resistance in Flanders, in the home-
land of Jansenism, that in the enforcement of the In eminenti he had to ask the collabo-
ration of the secular power. However, he rejected Philip IVs suggestion of deploying the
force of arms, just like he felt the placet, which was issued in the form of a decree by the
governor Archduke Leopold Wilhelm. Finally, the Holy Offices reproving resolution of
6 October 1650 proved to be enough for the withdrawal of the Flemish Jansenist prelates
(Jacques Boonen, the archbishop of Malines and bishop of Gand).
The book of Antoine Arnauld about frequent communion (De la frquente communion) gen-
erated greater commotion in France. The heart of the debates over the doctrine of grace
located in Paris at the Sorbonne. For examining the Jansenist theses, the pope established
a committee of cardinals on 12 April 1651. Among its members, there was datary Cecchini,
his loyal man, and as an expert Albizzi, the assessor of the Holy Office. The more known
experts like Maculano and Lugo, however, were not invited. As a result of the committees
work, which held a session twice a week, the bull of 9 June 1653, Cum Occasione was pub-
lished. This strongly dogmatic treatise wanted to put a full end to the harmful influence
of Jansenism within the Church and five theses of Arnauld were condemned heretical.
26

Although all the Catholic monarchs supported the pope: the French, the Spanish monarch
and also Ferdinand III, the Holy Office then censured a bulk of Jansenist works with its
resolution of 23 April 1654, the bull did not attain its goal, moreover, it became a source of
conflicts for centuries. It is true however, in the course of the following decades apart
from the written defence of Arnauld from March 1654 the Jansenists employed only
passive resistance,27 from which Rome tried to profit.
Along with the contribution of his two most immediate colleagues, Albizzi and Pal-
lavicini, Alexander VII endeavoured to eliminate the undesirable doctrines from the life
of the Church with two further bulls (Ad sanctam beati Petri Sedem, 16 October 1656 and
Regiminis apostolici, 15 February 1665). Yet, the second treatise expressly added oil to the
flickering flames and gave rise to repeated debates over the infallibility of the pope among
the followers of the thesis who increasingly moved from the Low Countries to France.
The publication of the Index in 1664 which collected the censured and illicit works
published between 1601 and 1662 also served the repression of the Jansenist publications
and partly the Gallican.28
The strict resolutions of the Chigi Pope were counterbalanced by the undiminished
successes on the fields of mission organisations. As opposed to his predecessor he was in-
clined to reconsider the standpoints of the Jesuits in China. In his resolution of 23 March
1656 he approved certain elements of the Chinese rite, for instance the ones related to the
veneration of the ancestors. Although, his regulations were announced on the assembly of
the missionaries in Canton in 1668 and were confirmed by his successor, Clement IX in
1669, in point of principle he did not take a stand on the actual judgement of the Chinese
rite adjusted to the local peculiarities. As a consequence, the problem reappeared a few dec-
ades later and the enculturation attempt did not become a model, but it was forbidden at
the beginning of the eighteenth century.
The case of the Chinese rite also raised the question of the liturgical language. Already
Paul V permitted the translation of the Holy Bible into Chinese and other Far-Eastern
languages and their use during the services in his decree of 27 June 1615, Romanae sedis
antistes. Yet, the privilege did not become practice due to the complete lack of the native
clergy. Alexander VII ignored the decisions of his predecessor and he entrusted a con-
gregation, led by Albizzi, with the re-examination of the question. Personally, he would
have showed an inclination towards the concessions, though, he confirmed the decision
of the committee with his breve of 12 January 1661. The resolution focusing especially
on the European territories described the translation of the Bible and ritual books as
undesirable, at the same time, it maintained the popes earlier dispensation, which was
to be renewed every seven years (Super Cathedram, 9 September 1659). Fortunately, the
concession let the native clergy in China pray certain parts of the breviary in vernacular.
The proportion of the locally born priests remained negligible, yet the increase of their
27
28

number was of strategic importance. All three apostolic vicars of the Far-Eastern mission-
ary hierarchy, which was established in 1658, were of French origin.29
Despite the occasional inner problems of the missionary work and the complications
caused by the spreading Jansenism, the Church administration of the Chigi Pope was de-
termined by a silent and precise bureaucracy and the same moderation characterised his two
successors. In their case, the consolidation within the new trends which prevailed around
16201630 might be mentioned. Clement X continued the reform of the religious orders
introduced by Innocent X. With his constitution of 11 April 1668, Iniuncti, he reorganised
the Congregazione sullo stato dei Regolari, of which task was to observe the religious disci-
plines and to control the financial basis of the cloisters. Concerning the preaching and the
administration of the sacraments, the relations between the regulars and the ordinaries of
the dioceses were regulated by his successor with his constitution Suprema magni patris-
familias (21 June 1670) to prevent growing local conflicts. Louis XIVs interests to deal with
the question contributed to the birth of the regulation in 1669. The pope proclaimed the
absoluteness of the highest Church forum in vain, the French monarch, with the support
of the French parliament, rejected the employment of Clements regulations in France.
The Congregazione delle Indulgenze e delle Reliquie was established by Clement IXs
In ipsis pontificatus nostri primordiis motu proprio to revise the indulgences granted by the
Apostolic See and to check the genuineness of the relics representing the object of the cult,
furthermore to ensure the worthy satisfaction of the requests for relics coming from the
Catholic world. The Altieri Pope also tried to prevent the abuses related to the relics by
circumscribing the certifications order of publication (Ex commissae nobis, 13 January 1672).30
His predecessors resolution of 17 June 1669 also aimed at the elimination of the irregu-
larities. This treatise forbade the missionaries, or rather all clergymen living on the mission-
ary fields, from pursuing any mercantile activities. There were concessions made only in
the case of extreme peril of subsistence.31
The Church administration of the two Clements was not only characterised by reorgan-
isations and prohibitions but also by exemplary conduct, in the spirit of which one should
mention the beatification of Rose of Lima and Peter of Alcantara, then their and Francis
Borgia, Pius V and John of the Crosss canonisations.32 The same can be told about the
acts done in favour of handling the crisis caused by Jansenism. Namely, Alexander VIIs
bull Regiminis apostolici ordered the French bishops and all members of the clergy to cer-
tify the adoption of the Roman statement with their signature. Louis XIV helped to en-
force the regulation, mainly in order to enlarge the unity of the French Church and by
means of which to exercise power over it. As many bishops (of Alet, Pamiers, Angers and
29
Rosa, Alessandro VII, 340341; on the history of mission organisation in the second half of the seven-
teenth century: Josef Metzler, Die Kongregation in der zweiten Hlfte des 17. Jahrhunderts, Sacrae Congre-
gationis de Propaganda Fide memoria Rerum, I1, 244305.
30
The wider aspects of the Baroque cult of relics: Genoveffa Palumbo, Lassedio delle reliquie alla citt
di Roma. Le reliquie oltre la devozione nello sguardo dei pellegrini, RMC 5 (1997) 377399.
31
Osbat, Clemente IX, 355356; Clemente X, 364.
32
Ibid.

Beauvais) were willing to fulfil the obligation of signature only with reservations, after
having carried on long negotiations and an examination of a cardinal committee, instead
of excommunication, on 2 February 1669 Clement IX addressed an indulgent breve (pax
Clementina) to them. His motion, however, did not yield the expected result; although it
was given a tremendous reception in France, at the same time it was regarded as the sign of
the Apostolic Sees weakness.33 Under all circumstances, the debates over Jansenism under
Clement X did not begin again mainly due to this gesture.
In the course of the above mentioned events, Miguel Molinos, the most successful
spiritual leader of Rome, started his career by enjoying the support of such clergymen and
laymen as Benedetto Odescalchi and Christina, Queen of Sweden, who did not foresee
how dangerous consequences their protgs activities would have in the near future.34 His
earlier patron, also as a pope, proved to be quite patient with Quietism, which was linked
to the Spanish priest. This mainly Italian trend was related to Jansenism to some extent,
though, its followers believed in contemplation tending to asceticism and in the primacy of
the prayers, in contradiction to the partaking of the sacraments and penitential practices.
On the one hand, Molinoss work Guida spirituale published in 1675 achieved a roaring suc-
cess, on the other hand, it drew the Jesuits attention, who were the primary experts of the
spiritual exercises after Saint Ignatius of Loyola. In his treatise,35 Paolo Segneri thoroughly
and severely criticised Molinoss doctrines. However, the positions of the Spanish priest seem-
ed firm for a lengthy amount of time. In his book, recommended to Cardinal Secretary
Alderano Cybo, Pietro Matteo Petrucci the bishop of Iesi from 1681 protected Molinos
to such a degree that Segneris work was soon put on the Index.
Finally, Molinoss fall came to pass quite unexpectedly for all. As a result of the denun-
ciations of his moral behaviour, the Holy Office committed him for trial on 18 July 1685.
Although, neither the pope, nor Cardinal Azzolini believed in his guilt, after having exami-
ned more than a thousand letters addressed to his disciplines, in 1687 the Inquisition de-
clared sixty-eight of his theses heretical, which Molinos was to solemnly renounce on 3 Sep-
tember. Then, Innocent XI who was reluctant up until that moment and expressed
his sympathy by appointing Petrucci as cardinal in 1686 also condemned his doctrines.
The bull was published on 20 November 1687. Neither could Petrucci, the confidant of
the pope, escape his fate. A committee of cardinals adjured him to ask for absolution of
his erring, which he satisfied on 17 December 1687 and retired from his offices. Under
Alexander VIII, he could not either lead the diocese of Iesi, his partial rehabilitation was
realised in 1695.36
During the evaluation of the cycle of events, which stirred up the inner life of the
Roman court, the possible inexperience of the Odescalchi Pope in theology was raised,
33
Osbat, Clemente IX, 355356; Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 703706 and 707711.
34
35
Concordia tra la fatica e la quiete nelloratione, Firenze 1680.
36
The monographic analysis of the subject: Massimo Petrocchi, Il quietismo italiano, Roma 1948.

but it was also speculated that Molinos as well as Petrucci did not inform the pope about
their genuine views, or the advisers of the pope, Favoriti and Casoni were not on top of
things. However, in the background of the process against Quietism Albizzi and Ottobo-
ni, namely the conservative wing, which centred round the Holy Office and was openly
against the personal and curial reforms of the pope, can be suspected. Thanks to their ex-
perience gained from the Northern Italian Pelagian heretics in the middle of the century,
they steadily discovered the unuttered theological obstacles of the Quietists methods.
By digging rather deep with the examination of the correspondences material, they could
present a front not only against them but indirectly against the pope, as well. It is by no
surprise that around 1680, rumour often had it that the Inquisition founded a committee
for controlling the religious views of Innocent XI.37
Surprisingly, on the field of theology the pope did not endeavour to solve the problems
radically, neither in the case of Quietism. He was said to take the cardinal appointment of
Antoine Arnauld into consideration to keep the Jansenists within the community of the
Church.38 His most direct colleagues openly sympathized with the French and perhaps with
his doctrines, as well. It was hardly accidental that Innocent XI immediately condemned
sixty-five Laxist theses for the request of the University of Leuven. Outlawing the mar-
ginal trend, which professed the radical free will, also indirectly favoured the Jansenists.
Namely, in contrast to Laxism that considered the obedience of the laws omissible even
in case of the smallest doubt, they stood up for the strictest interpretation of the rules in
the field of moral philosophy. However, Rome never announced its standpoint related to
the moral probabilitys doctrine represented mainly by the Jesuits, which allowed the dis-
regard of the rules only in well-grounded cases.39
The Odescalchi Pope proved more active on the field of propagation of faith than in
theological questions. The regular-missionaries, who used to be subordinated only to their
superiors in the order, were obliged to vow obedience also to the apostolic vicars who repre-
sented the missionary hierarchy. At first Louis XIV forbade the French missionaries this,
namely it was against the Gallican liberties, however, later he agreed for them to take the
oath as long as they mentioned that the act was realised by royal permission. The French
were not the only to cause trouble. In Canton, the Franciscans as well as the Dominicans
refused the papal regulation. The Spanish regulars regarded the oath to a French vicar
expressly as betrayal. The Portuguese also shared this opinion. As a consequence, the ex-
tension of the Propagandas jurisdiction had to be reduced. They simplified the formula
of the oath, besides; they tried to create such missionary regions where the regulars were
37
Menniti Ippolito, Innocenzo XI, 385386; Gianvittorio Signorotto, Inquisitori e mistici nel Sei-
cento italiano. Leresia di Santa Pelagia (Annali dellIstituto storico italo-germancio, Monografia 11), Bologna
1989, 247278 and 305321 (La politica dellinquisizione nel secolo XVII).
38
That is actually a fact that the secretary of State of the pope corresponded with the French. Renato
Mori, Il cardinale Alderano Cibo e il suo carteggio con A. Arnauld, SR 12 (1964) 3450.
39
Cf. latest Pietro Stella, Dibattiti dottrinali e giubileo dallantilassismo al benignismo alfonsiano (16501825),
RMC 5 (1997) 501521.

from the same order. Yet, the disadvantages of the double congregational as well as or-
derly control could not be done away with, they could be only moderated.
For the sake of the development of the missionary work, beyond structural reforms,
the pope endeavoured to cultivate good relations with the monarchs of Congo and Persia,
furthermore with the leadership of Tonkin and Siam. From the latter country, an official
delegation visited the Eternal City in 1688, where they were welcomed solemnly. In addition,
the pope took measures to the advancement of the orthodox union, to the elimination
of the Angolan slave-trade and the initiation of the mission among the Egyptian Copts.
The establishment of the Manilan and Guatemalan Dominican universities became the
most lasting and the foundation of the new Brazilian dioceses.
The basis of the enormous expansion of the papal mission organisation under Innocent XI was
the grandiose report made by the secretary of the Propaganda, Urbano Cerri in 1678, which
depicted the religious situation of certain regions in detail.40 During the global extension
of the propagation of the faith, naturally, also the European territories attracted attention.
According to the statistics of Cerri, out of 128 million inhabitants there were 74.7 million
Catholic, 27 million Schismatics and 23 million were Protestant. For the reduction of the
latter groups number, the pope saw a chance especially in Germany; though, in order to
attain this goal he was loath to make any concessions, neither dogmatic nor moral.41
Innocent XI demonstrated sternness, which could be compared with his genuine po-
litical statements, only in the deepening of the clergys inner discipline. He bestowed time
and energy on the selection of the Italian bishop nominees, furthermore, on the deter-
mination of the consecrations criteria as a priest and on the control of their observance.
He also proved to be adamant towards the regulars. He had Cardinal Barbarigo visit the
convent of the Franciscans, which was located on the Roman Aracoeli and served as the
field for various abuses and misbehaviour, besides, he paid special attention to the Lom-
bard and Tuscan Dominicans and to the Polish Cistercians.42 He laid emphasis also on
the stopping of the pensions renewing spreading, on the reinterpretation of the bishops
function, on its strengthening, which temporarily became weaker as a result of the more
and more severe conflicts with the local secular powers. The limitation of the pensions
practice had already launched under Alexander VII, under Clement IX a part-congrega-
tion examined the possibility of the bull In Coena Dominis restriction, which provided the
basis of the conflicts around the Church immunities and privileges. Formally, the content
of the bull was never accepted by the secular powers. In the second half of the seven-
teenth century, there existed the danger that it would be completely abolished, especially in
the territories of Naples and Milan. This problem concerned the role of the bishops as well
40
Relazione dello stato della Congregazione, e Missioni di Propaganda Fide, fatta alla San. Mem. di PP. In-
nocenzo XI
41
Menniti Ippolito, Innocenzo XI, 386387; cf. more Metzler, Die Kongregation in der zweiten Hlfte
des 17. Jahrhunderts, 244305.
42

as the nuncios interests, especially their role in protecting the Church-estate.43 The part-
congregation, however, did not make decisions on the merits which led to the further
deepening of the crisis by the 1670s, partly as a result of the French regale-extensions en-
forcement and partly of the publications criticising Rome. The Curia was accused of not
aiding the prelates in the fulfilment of the extreme expectations. (In this topic, Antonio
Gaeta wrote his Discorso which was published in Milan in 1671.44)
These problems, along with the dysfunctional elements within the Curia, were strain-
ing to be solved by the reformer zelanti, the well-known G. B. De Luca, who was regard-
ed as the inspirer and later leader of the cardinals. After having analysed and methodised
the existing situation in various works, the outstanding canon lawyer, with great deter-
mination embarked on the efficient reformation of the Curias inner structure by ad-
justing to the altered circumstances of the previous century.45 The Holy Office and the
former squadrons, who were called the Cardinals of the Curia (cardinali di Curia)46 at
that time, rigidly opposed his In Coena Dominis reform, moreover they tried to repel the
attack against the so-called patentati in 1680. They were those laymen, who enjoyed such
privileges from the Inquisition as the carrying of arms. De Lucas work about these men
highlighted the unavoidable cutting of the Inquisitions influence and tribunal authority
in the territory of the Papal State.47
The work of the popes confidant in the Congregazione particolare della regalia was ex-
plicitly branded as pro-Gallican by the Ottobonis, since it had leanings towards the division
of the secular and spiritual jurisdiction, which had been inconceivable in Rome a couple
of decades earlier.48 However, these attacks did not dampen De Lucas spirits. His reform
activities covered the dissolution of the unnecessary bodies49 and the reform of justice50,
apart from the question of the diplomatic immunity, the fiscal duties and abuses, such as
being in default on the allocations for repairing the roads.51 (We have already met many of
these elements.) Some of the reforms achieved immediate success, such as the dissolution of
43
On the Church reforms: Signorotto, The Squadrone Volante, 206207; Claudio Donati, Roma pon-
tificia ed episcopati dItalia nella seconda met del XVII. secolo: aspetti e problemi, Gregorio Barbarigo patrizio
veneto vescovo e cardinale nella tarda controriforma, 107127.
44
45
See the content of Chapter V.
46
By the 1670s only Azzolini, Ottoboni, Imperiali, Borromeo, Omodei and Gualteri were alive of them,
Albizzi temporarily withdrew. The two leaders were still Azzolini and Ottoboni, they had powerful influ-
ence and routine, their activities were characterised by political independence again. By the pontificate of
Innocent XI, there remained only three of them; they also had determining positions, though with striking
anti-reformism. Signorotto, The Squadrone Volante, 201203 and 204206.
47
The title of his writing: Sopra luso de Patentati e Ministri del S. Offizio nello Stato Ecclesiastico On his
work Congregazione particolare per la riforma dei patentati: Lauro, Il cardinale Giovanni Battista de Luca, 523712.
48
49
Lauro, Il cardinale Giovanni Battista de Luca, 411453.
50
Ibid, 265345; and in conclusion, with the comprehensive description of De Lucas activities: Aldo Maz-
zacane, Giambattista de Luca e la compagnia duffizio, Fisco, religione, Stato nellet confessionale, 505530.
51
Lauro, Il cardinale Giovanni Battista de Luca, 349408.

the segretari aposolici, while others succeeded only after a long decade, like the question of
nepotism, which could be looked upon as the veterinary horse of the Innocentian reforms.
Not only did Innocent XI and De Luca strive to obtain the Churchs spiritual resto-
ration but they also tried to transform the State itself. Beyond the institutional reforms,
they wanted to replace the virtues of the Humanist good governor with the autocracy
of the iustitia, which did not tolerate any abuses, any unwarranted privileges. The clash
between the reformers virtues and the establishments corruption was not individual
at all, namely it caused vehement political conflicts in numerous European capitals at the
end of the seventeenth century. In the Roman court, the sacred character of the power
gave a unique accent to this feud.52
Naturally, the circumstances were not so simple, since the guiding principle of the
Conservatives was none other than the complete intransigence in the protection of the
Churchs teachings and discipline. The attitude of Alexander VII was not of a moralist,
nor of a doctrinaire, but of a jurist, who intended to fully preserve the ancient, precious
heritage. Under these circumstances, his utterance which remained in the interpretation
of the French delegate, the Duke of Chaulnes: he disapproves everything that happened
under Innocent XI and he would reprove them 53 became totally understandable, like
the significant increase of the Inquisitions influence under the flying two years of the
Ottoboni Pope. Apart from the total neglect of Petrucci, not only a lot of newer Laxist
teachings were put on the Index on 24 August 1690, but the teachings of the theologians
at the University of Leuven, which were in the context of penance, justification, baptism,
the Church authority and the cult of the Virgin Mary, were destined for the same lot
on 7 December.54
In contrast to this, Innocent XII continued where his second predecessor had to stop,
for instance in the work of the clerical and religious lifes regulation. In the course of the
process, led by many dicasteries (Congregazione della Disciplina Regolare, del Concilio, sulla
Disciplina Ecclesiastica, dei Vescovi e Regolari), besides the refinement of the liturgical rules,
the smallest details of the way of life, public behaviour and appearance were circumscribed;
compulsory and regular spiritual exercises were ordained for the clergy of Rome, then
the whole of Italy. The special attention was demanded by the considerable increase of the
priests in the second half of the seventeenth century, yet, as a result of the regulations the
numerus clausus, which was initiated by Innocent X for the regulars, could be rescinded.55
52
Ago, Hegemony over the Social Scene, 242246.
53
54
Petrucci, Alessandro VIII, 392.
55
Gisondi, Innocenzo XII, 103110; Ago, Innocenzo XII, 399402. Certain works attribute the increase
of the clergy of which data were already seen to the intensified demand of the lower circle of the society
for local prestige. As a consequence, the turn of the course from the late eighteenth century to the early
nineteenth century is explained not only by the dechristianisation or by the changed standard of living after
the Industrial Revolution, but also by the change of the ecclesiastical prestiges social sympathy. Stella,
Strategie familiari e celibato sacro, op. cit.

The Relations with the National Churches, States 243
The completion of the clergys and the nepotistic Curia reform and the dissolu-
tion of the unnecessary tribunals made the popes gently pragmatic but deeply penetrating
reorganisations widely trustworthy in the Roman society. Besides its obvious advantages,
the significance of the social institutions development can be found here, as well. The
extension and modernisation of the hospital system, directed by the Oratorian Francesco
Marchesi and the Jesuit Baldigiani whose most noteworthy venture was the construction
of the apostolic hospital next to the Lateran were also preceded by a serious theoretical
establishment, of which results were published in 1693.56
Similarly to his predecessors, Innocent XII also had to face the problems of the mission
organisation and Jansenism. His attitude was determined by the manner of shunning the
conflicts. When the apostolic vicar of Fukien, Charles Maigrot upset the question of the
Jesuits Chinese rite with his report, the pope was satisfied only with issuing an elevated
answer breve, which encouraged the maintenance of mutual understanding. Yet, he did not
support Maliness anti-Jansenist archbishops effort, either, who wanted to increase the sever-
ity of the vows text that was imposed by Alexander VII on the French and Dutch clergy.
As far as the Roman Inquisition was concerned, Cardinal Girolamo Casanate who was
famous for his library dealt with this question in 1694. Similarly to the debate over grace
in the previous century, he thought it more prudent to command silence in this matter.
The Jansenist debate moved also within the walls of the Apostolic Palace to a certain
extent. Tyrso Gonzalez Jesuit general who expressed his strict moralist opinion in his
treatise Fundamentum theologiae moralis was attacked by who else, but by Paolo Segneri, as
the court preacher of the pope. The debate evolved into a discord within the order, namely
despite their general, the majority of the Jesuits opposed all such utterance that could be
related to Jansenism. In 1694, the committee of five cardinals, which was to examine the
question, finally took Gonzalezs side, who by the way, enjoyed the support of Vienna and
Madrid, as well.57 The temporary dissension of the Society of Jesus was hardly the last act
of the spiritual tempest generated by the bishop of Ypres for fifty-four years. The foresee-
able future brought about the most implacable papal refusal ever.
The Relations with the National Churches, States
Crown-cardinals and the Royal Patronage and Supremacy
Beyond all questions, throughout the seventeenth century concerning the issue of
Jansenism and the more successful mission organisation, owing to its more adaptable state-
ments the Papacy had freer scope to meet the various challenges, than in the next dec-
ades. However, the restructuring of the relations with the States and national Churches
56
Istruzioni e regole degli ospizi generali; La mendicit provveduta collospizio pubblico Gisondi, Innocen-
zo XII, 95102. 131140. 179199; Ago, Innocenzo XII, 397399.
57
Ago, Innocenzo XII, 402; Gisondi, Innocenzo XII, 103110.

meant an unsolvable problem not only due to the new trends indicated by reason and
secularisation, marginalisation of power but to the deeper historical roots of the con-
nections. The majority of the cases in Romes contact to the local Churches involved
political dimensions: the appointment of the national cardinals and the bishops, the grant-
ing of benefices and pensions, the Church taxes paid to the Holy See, furthermore the
bestowal of dispensations and spiritual empowering, the reform of the regulars and priests
and the maintenance of the local liturgical characteristics can be listed here. The most
acute problem was obviously the appointment of the national cardinals58 and the filling
of the episcopal sees.
Just like every important question, the method of the non-curial cardinals appoint-
ment being still valid in the early modern period was rooted in the late medieval Con-
ciliarism. On the so-called reform councils, Konstanz, Basel-Ferrara-Florence (14311449),
there were strong efforts to have the College of Cardinals institutionally control the
papal authority.59 The body was coveted to be divided into a minor permanent council,
which would have represented all the particular Churches according to their members.
At the Council of Constance the concordats, reached with the important States (Span-
ish, French, German), said that the number of the cardinals could cross the limit of
twenty-four, only if the new cardinal was from such country that did not yet have a
representative in the papal conclave. The Council of Basel declared the internationalism
of the College of Cardinals in a separate resolution (sess. XXIII). To increase the effi-
ciency of the Church administration, it stated that every State should be represented in
it and the number of the cardinals having the same nationality could not surpass the
one third of the colleges number.60
In practice, these regulations did not restrain the popes from creating the cardinals,
though; Eugene IV acknowledged and broadened the licences of the body in his bull
(Non mediocri). Moreover, they strengthened the influence of certain countries (and not
the local Churches) over the selection of the College of Cardinals. There are data already
from the thirteenth century about what role certain significant Christian countries played
in the appointment of new cardinals. In 1294 Celestine V (1294) might have been the
first to create two cardinals upon Charles II of Napless (12851309) recommendation.
In the fourteenth century, this habit was gradually spreading, in direct ratio with the
withdrawal of the medieval papal universalism and certain States strengthening. The
struggle between Boniface VIII and France, chiefly the latters victory, meant the actual
turning point. At first, France had the most determining influence over the selection
of the College of Cardinals, as well as over the Papacy itself. In addition, in the four-
teenth century, other monarchs roles can be revealed, such as the emperors, the Ara-
58
About the lacks of the international research in this field: Weber, Senatus Divinus, 1213.
59
On the Conciliarism recently: Aldo Landi, Concilio e papato nel rinascimento (14491516). Un problema
irrisolto, Torino 1997.
60
In more detail with further literature: Tusor, A magyar koronabborosi s bboros protektori intzmny[The
Institution of the Hungarian Crown-cardinal and Cardinal Protector], op. cit.; [Idem], Purpura Pannonica, op. cit.

gon, English and Hungarian monarchs, furthermore the Dukes of Mantua and Bavaria.
At that time, however, the popes of stronger character, like Urban V (13621370), could
completely emancipate themselves from the secular pressure. The influence over the
cardinals appointments of the States, or with contemporary terminology, the crowns
widened by the fifteenth-century, especially from its second half. From this time onwards,
besides the above mentioned States, the Crown of Portugal, Aragon, Castile (later Spain)
and Poland, and the Dukes of Burgundy and Milan, moreover a republic, Venices
constant efforts could be detected. What is more, from the turn of the fifteenth and
sixteenth century on, apart from the great powers there were newer ones, especially
Italian duchies, who claimed the nomination of cardinals, like Tuscany, Urbino, Savoy,
Ferrara, moreover Scotland, furthermore in the sixteenth century certain non-ruling
dukes (Doria, Guise, Bourbon) and the Swiss cantons also appeared. Naturally, the se-
lection of the unfittests danger was coded in the institution of the crown-cardinals.61
The pope could exclusively choose from the national nominees, if he had choice at all,
in particular, the Church and secular interests rarely met.
The parallel between the spread of this practice which became general from the
1400s and the development of the Royal Patronage and Supremacy (ius supremi pat-
ronatus) over certain dioceses is striking. (After the occasional attempts to control the
papal granting, the capitular elections became general from the Gregorian times and based
on the papal reservations.62) Its establishment was also partly due to the Conciliarism.
The right of patronage this became the terminus technicus of the secular law prac-
ticed in the filling of the bishoprics enabled the States to control certain dioceses heads
(and incomes).63 Yet, the creation of the papal conclaves selection directly enabled the
influence over the central Church administration and the formation of the Holy Sees
61
Ibid.
62
Their development is discussed by: Klaus Ganzer, Papsttum und Bistumsbesetzungen in der Zeit von
Gregor IX bis Bonifaz VIII. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der ppstliche Reservationen (Forschungen zur Kirch-
lichen Rechtsgeschichte und zum Kirchenrecht 9), KlnGraz 1968.
63
On the historical periods of the filling of the bishoprics: Richard Potz, Bischofsernennungen. Stationen,
die zum heutigen Zustand gefhrt haben, Zur Frage der Bischofsernennungen in der rmisch-katholischen
Kirche (hrsg. v. Gisbert Greshake), MnchenZrich n.d., 1735; Gerhard Hartmann, Der Bischof: seine
Wahl und Ernennung. Geschichte und Aktualitt (Grazer Beitrge zur Theologiegeschichte und Kirchlichen
Zeitgeschichte 5), GrazKlnWien 1990, 1325; Hans Jrgen Brandt, Zwischen Wahl und Ernennung.
Zu Theorie und Praxis der mittelalterlichen Bischofsbestellungen im Spannungsfeld von regnum und sacerdotium,
Papsttum und Kirchenreform. Historische Beitrge. Festschrift fr Georg Schwaiger zum 65. Geburtstag
(hrsg. v. Manfred Weitlauf Karl Hausberger), Erzabtei St. Ottilien 1990, 225233 (further analysing lit-
erature in these summaries); and Adolf Kindermann, Das landesfrstliche Ernennungsrecht, Leitmeritz
1933, 8591; and Pter Erd, Egyhzjog a kzpkori Magyarorszgon [Canon Law in Medieval Hungary],
Budapest 2001, 200213 (The relations of Hungary and the Apostolic See under Sigismund); [Idem], llam
s egyhz jogi kapcsolata a Mohcs eltti Magyarorszgon [The Legal Relations Between State and Church
in Hungary Before the Mohcs Disaster], tjaidon. nnepi ktet Jelenits Istvn 70. szletsnapjra (ed. by
Sndor BazsnyiFerenc Horkay HrcherEndre Tzsr et al.), Budapest 2002, 569578. Cf. the regulations
(sess. xii; sess. xxiii) of the Council of Basel about the elections of the chapters and the papal reservation,
Conciliorum Oecumenicorum Decreta, 504505.

policy. From another perspective: from the fifteenth century, the secular powers did
not only enforce their authority to make the suitable (for them) persons prelates, but
they could hinder the pope to favour their subjects with the highest dignities as well
as to influence the inner power relations. Moreover, the monarchs themselves tried to
strengthen their confidants national and international positions by obtaining the cardinal
appointments.64 This dual inner and foreign political attempt of the secular powers
occurs in the selection of their nominees. Among the crown-cardinals there were some
who lived in Rome as well as in the given country, who travelled to the Eternal City
only in case of important events, like conclaves.
The Holy See could not help agreeing to the secular filling of the Church benefices
in written agreements. It assigned the right of the bishoprics filling to certain monarchs
in concordats65 negotiated and concluded at reform councils, then in the fifteenth-six-
teenth century. Already in the fifteenth century, apart from obtaining the control of
these Church benefices, these monarchs could increase their authority in more fields, for
instance in the State permission over the announcement of the papal regulations (place-
tum regium), and concerning the restriction of the appeals sent to Rome, of the annates
and other Church fees. At the end of the fourteenth century, England and in the 1400s
Sicily, France, Castile, Naples and Hungary introduced the placetum regium. Already
in the fourteenth century, there were English parliamentary resolutions that set limits
on the Roman appeals, the payments, the papal granting of the English benefices and
the activities of the papal tithe collectors were restricted by other acts.66 Above all, there
were many monarchs who acted as main initiators and main forces of the Church life
and the religious orders long reformation at the end of the Middle Ages.67
However, the Papacy, more or less, consistently enforced the gradually forming state-
ment of the canon law that the royal establishment and providence especially in the
case of the dioceses, let alone the smaller benefices could not go with the right of pa-
tronage, since the bishoprics could not have an advowee. According to the canon law, the
secular factor could play a part only in the first out of the three stages of the benefices
filling designation of the person, the concession and the installation into the benefice
(designatio personae, concessio tituli, introductio in possessionem). The others are part of the
institutio canonica, the ecclesiastical filling of the given benefice. In case of advowson,
the patron has absolute competence in designating the person and only has to present
64
For example, the cardinalate of George dAmboise, Thomas Wolsey, Melchior Klesl, Armand-Jean de
Richelieu, Giulio Mazarino, Giulio Alberoni, Andr de Fleury and other chief ministers had two advan-
tages in the political point of view: their title placed them behind the monarch, therefore they got rid of the
everyday problems of the usual rival of the aristocracy; in persona only the pope administered justice over
them, which served as a certain safety in case of their fall. Reinhard, Le carriere papali e cardinalizie, 271272.
65
See the content and literature of the Introduction.
66
Bireley, The Refashioning of Catholicism, 73.
67
The most recent on this by Manfred Schulze, Frsten und Reformation. Geistlische Reformpolitik welt-
licher Frsten vor der Reformation (Sptmittelalter und Reformation [n.R.] 2), Tbingen 1991. While Rome
only resigned to it, the Protestant solution expressly sanctified the State influence.

(praesentatio) the nominee to the higher ecclesiastical authority. Besides all these, apart
from the maintenance commitments, he has other rights, such as the utilization of the
vacant benefices incomes.
In case of a bishopric, or a consistorial benefice, the pope has the sole privilege; by a
concordat, or by indultum, the secular factor could only gain the privilege of nomination
(nominatio). Yet, obviously, not everybody had it, only the sovereign monarchs could
possess this right and only over their territory. In justified cases, the nominee could be
rejected by the pope. The nominatio regia is a personal privilege, which is not the due
of the State but the prevailing monarch. From the ecclesiastical point of view, not only
does the successor of Saint Peter give a confirmation to the royal appointment, but, like
in the case of the libera collatio, he is responsible for the filling of the bishopric (provi-
sio) and allows the secular authoritys assistance only at the designation. Only in case of
capitular election (electio) with certain canonical validity could one talk about the papal
confirmation in case of consistorial benefice.68
The canonical position became definite by the end of the sixteenth and the begin-
ning of the seventeenth century. Prior to that, Julius II and Clement VII acknowledged
the presentational rights of Charles V (15161556) over the Spanish bishoprics, yet the
pope refused it from Henry VIII (15091547).69 The still existing uncertainty, concern-
ing the canon law offered a large scope for the strengthening of the secular opinion,
based on the philosophy of the patronage. There were supporters of this idea already in
the Council of Trent, however, they defined their position against those prelates, who
regarded the royal assistance explicitly as an abuse (abusus) despite the papal privileges.
The disadvantageous consequence of the two counter-legal opinions was that not only
did the opposing parties encumber the filling of the already existing bishoprics, but
they also threw obstacles in the establishment of new bishoprics way, as it is proved by
the example of the re-catholicized Bohemia (besides the already mentioned Leitmeritz
(Litomice), also Kniggrtz (Hradec Krlov) and Graz.70 Here, after the long lasting
negotiations, a modus vivendi came into existence, which stated that the right to appoint
the new bishops was in the hand of the emperor, though he could practice this by the
grace of the Apostolic See and not by his own right.71
68
Kindermann, Das landesfrstliche Ernennungsrecht, 2740. 8794; Potz, Bischofsernennungen, 3435;
Hartmann, Der Bischof: seine Wahl, und Ernennung, 2830. The analysis of the ecclesiastical and secular
legal development in connection with the advowson in the early modern period: Jrn Sieglerschmidt,
Territorialstadt und Kirchenregiment. Studien zur Rechtsdogmatik des Kirchenpatronatsrechtes im 15. und 16.
Jahrhundert (Forschungen zur Kirchlichen Rechtsgeschichte und zum Kirchenrecht 15), Kln 1987, 53126
and 127222. In case of smaller benefices where the sovereign existence was not questioned by the Church
, the discussion was mainly about the degree of the circa spiritualia certificates of the advowee.
69
The popes inconsistency determined by political powers with its negative effects are reminded by
Brandt, Zwischen Wahl und Ernennung, 233.
70
Cf. Johann Rainer, Projekte zur Errichtung eines Bistum Graz, RHM 67 (19621964), 113136; Den-
zler, Die Propagandakongregation in Rom, 122152.
71
Kindermann, Das landesfrstliche Ernennungsrecht, 104133; Trisco, Debate on the Election of Bishops,
270275; and in the former noted places. Between 15921667, there were only twenty-three establishments

In the case of cardinal promotions, similarly concrete concession cannot be found for
long. There were only a couple of instances in the eighteenth century, when the right
of recommending a cardinal was put on record by the Apostolic Sees acknowledgement.
This happened in accordance with the modern absolutisms extension, which, by this
time, had succeeded in employing its own view in relation to the bishoprics and expressed
its statement the most extremely ever.
Although, soon after Konstanz King Sigismund of Luxembourg (13871437) endeavour-
ed to fill the related passages of the concordats which spoke in general terms and were
created on the Council with real content, yet despite the plans of the reform councils
of the fifteenth century and their resolutions, formally and de iure there was nothing
to control the papal competence in creating cardinals. The utterance of the demand
for the College of Cardinals internationalism within the frame of the legal practices
development that was implicitly noticed and de facto acknowledged by Rome (despite
its occasional prohibitions and protests), furthermore gradually prevailing at latest from
the pontificate of Pius IV led to the crystallization of the secular powers influence.
The sporadic effectiveness of the legal practice, namely whether the pope satisfied a
royal recommendation for the appointment of a cardinal (commendatio, which is called
nominatio in the seventeenth century, similarly to the appointments of the bishops),
or not, depended especially on the Italian and European political relations. This contin-
gency became the source of the marked conflicts and the more lasting problems than
the debates around the right of patronage.
The related paltry literature uses the term of law accepted from the fifteenth cen-
tury in the case of the emperor, France, Spain, Portugal and Venice, though, the ex-
pression of consolidating legal practice better suits the reality. Note that, as opposed
to the right of patronage, the popes were in possession at the appointment of cardi-
nals. Although, in practice, they did have to yield to the more and more firming formal
framework that was not yet compulsory for them, until the eighteenth century, they
succeeded in declining the occasional canonical reception of the legal custom that
were to be codified and interpreted as common law. Also in this case, they acknowledged
it only as a new privilege.
However, it should be emphasised that the Holy See, concerning the filling of the
Church benefices, legally accepted the nominatio in the form of supplicatio-commenda-
tio-postulatio and in the form of appeal (ad instantiam). In compliance with the secular
legal attitude, this nominatio was practiced more and more as praesentatio, the presenta-
tion of the patron. Henceforth, Rome rarely denied the institutio canonica. On the other
hand, within the framework of the commendatio-supplicatio-postulatio and practiced as ad
instantiam, the (until the age of absolutism) non-accepted right of appointing a cardinal
taking place, mainly in Italy. HC IV, 389. Another case study on the process and obstacles of the dioceses
foundation: Matteo Sanfilippo, Tra curia di Roma e corte di Francia: la fondazione della diocesi di Qubec
(16311674), La corte di Roma tra Cinque e Seicento, 481507.

always prevailed as nominatio. Namely, in the field of the appointment of cardinals, the
popes free right of deliberation remained, yet, as a matter of fact, it was more than the
fulfilment of an appeal. It is clearly proved by the Habsburgs practice of appointing a
cardinal; by surpassing the earlier practices, from the middle of the seventeenth century,
they differentiated between the official nominatio and the extraordinary (extra ordi-
nem) commendatio, which was handled parallel in favour of another person or persons,
though it could not express prejudice against the primary nominee.72
As a consequence, the secular powers could not achieve the positive law for long.
However, they could force on of their wills: Rome was not able to create their subject
a cardinal without their contribution. The development and nature of the crown-car-
dinals appointments legal practice show a rather close connection with the so-called
right of exclusion (ius exclusivae). That is to say, although, the European States, more
precisely the great powers could not succeed in making their nominees popes on the
conclaves, they could effectively bar the undesired person from being elected from
the seventeenth century up to 1903.73
Naturally, the constitution of the cardinal factions at the conclaves was greatly de-
termined by the political background of the cardinals, namely to which monarch they
owed their galerus. Moreover, the secular influence over the central Church administra-
tion within the scope of the crown-cardinals legal practice obviously culminated on the
conclaves. After all, the organization of the cardinals factions was a remarkably complex
process, motivated by certain interests.74
The development of the well-known in petto appointments, which were practiced several
times in the discussed period, is also closely related to the crown-cardinals legal practice.75
Certain States, notably, constantly pestered the popes with their nominees. Their bound-
less demands, though, had to be limited; every party (including also the curial apparatus)
was to be regarded. In many cases, this was, naturally, impossible therefore occasionally
the popes had to appoint the cardinals in secret to avoid diplomatic complications.
The fact that the secular monarchs could totally control the Church career of their
subjects led to a unique consequence. Politically absolutely independently, the popes could
appoint cardinals only from their own subjects. This circumstance fully contributed to
the Sacred Colleges Italianisation of the early modern period.76
72
Tusor, A magyar koronabborosi s bboros protektori intzmny [The Institution of the Hungarian
Crown-cardinal and Cardinal Protector], op. cit.; Tusor, Purpura Pannonica, op. cit.
73
On the development and use of the ius exclusivae, which was never accepted by the canon law: Ludwig
Wahrmund, Das Ausschlieungsrecht der katholischen Staaten sterreich, Frankreich und Spanien bei den Papst-
wahlen, Wien 1888, certain cases outline until the end of the seventeenth century: 50167, on the develop-
ment of law: 190217.
74
Visceglia, Fazioni e lotta politica, 3791.
75
Cf. P.A. Kirsch, Die reservatio in petto bei der Cardinalscreation, AKK 81 (1901) 421432.
76

While the crown cardinals legal practice became general through centuries in the
midst of permanent political-legal disputes, the legal and consolidated form of the nation-
al interests representation as a modus vivendi was realised by the so-called cardinal
protectors. The institution of the protectorate, which spread after some preliminaries in
the fifteenth century, afforded the possibility for certain States to officially entrust an
already existing member of the College of Cardinals with espousing their Church (and
often political) affairs within the Curia. The person of the cardinal protector was not
necessarily equal to the ones who, besides often being away from Rome, were appointed
at the monarchs desire, however, the secular powers wanted to achieve this goal and
sometimes they could. After the initial prohibition, their State commission was officially
acknowledged by the Holy See in the second half of the fifteenth century. In contrast
to the crown-cardinals, the cardinal protectors who meant to obtain this position to
increase their influence in the Curia owed less loyalty towards their secular employer.
Their activity became an organic part of the curial process, for instance in the obtain-
ment of the papal confirmation of the appointed bishops (more precisely their provision)
and in conducting the canonical investigations of late Middle Ages.77
The possibility of recommending a cardinal concerned the person of the monarch

and not his country or countries. (Plainly speaking, one monarch always had only one
credit to appoint even if he recommended more persons apart from the fact that
he ruled two, three, etc. such States that separately had been able to take the opportunity
of this legal practice.) This was the sole reason that the Hungarian monarchs right of
cardinal nomination which was even claimed by Ferdinand I (15261564) vanished
after the personal union of the imperial and the Hungarian crown in 1556. After long
debates, the restoration of this question was managed under Maria Theresa (17401780),
who being a woman, could not become an emperor.
There was another practice that almost became as fixed as the previous; at first the
new pope managed the appointments according to his interests, and then the second
occasion was the crowns, when the political balance was taken notice. Afterwards,
the creations happened in a mixed way, depending on the actual power relations:
an obvious curial promotion was usually followed by a process where the State nomi-
nees were also taken into consideration. The foreign political orientation of certain
popes could result in the complete upset of the proportions. The occasional negligence,
especially if it was coupled with the one-sided support of other States, caused the
77
The monographic analysis of the protectorates institution with the archontology of the cardinal pro-
tectors: Joseph Wodka, Zur Geschichte der nationalen Protektorate der Kardinle an der rmischen Kurie
(Publikationen des ehemaligen sterreichischen Historischen Instituts in Rom 4I), InnsbruckLeipzig
1938; on the question recently: Martin Faber, Frhneuzeitliche Kardinalprotektorate. Ein Projekt, RQ 94
(1999) 267274; Olivier Poncet, The Cardinal-Protectors of the Crowns in the Roman Curia during the First
Half of the Seventeenth Century: the Case of France, Court and Politics in Papal Rome, 158176; Platania,
La Polonia nelle carte del cardinale Carlo Barberini Protettore, 3860. The protectors right of conducting a
process remained also in the discussed period, though its measure decreased.

gravest diplomatic conflicts in the second half of the seventeenth century, under the
pontificate of Clement X, Innocent XI and their two successors. At present time, it is
unbelievable how the baroque monarchs handled the given appointments beyond their
interests, they treated these cases as personal matters of prestige and as the measure of
their international representation. After having won the assistance of their monarch,
certain nominees had had to wait and have their nomination renewed for decades long,
by the time the popes as opposed to other nominees of the same nationality decided
on them. However, there are many examples for such instances when the ambitions
were not accomplished.
This was caused by the fact that certain countries frequently nominated Italians to
strengthen the curial representation of their interests. They were often inclined to fight
a long struggle of prestige for the promotion of the nuncios, staying in their country.
In significant nunciatures like Vienna, Madrid and Paris this became regular from
the middle of the seventeenth century. Yet, among the cardinals, who became appointed
by the force of the State, one can find many papal descendants, curial officials. If the
given effort appealed to Rome, it gave free way surprisingly fast, though, if not, Rome
gave the stiffest and steadiest answer of denial and paradoxically national nominees were
required to be put up from the Curia. Until the pontificate of Urban VIII, this was often
published in the form of a breve; or they wrapped themselves up in deep silence. In the
case of the nuncios, such persons were entrusted with the mission, who had already been
chosen for promotion, and in this way, the monarchs limits were filled with papal
nominees, true, some rapport with the recommending State evolved also in this way.
This also shows that the College of Cardinals nationality ratio of five to one for the
Italians in the early modern period does not coincide with the crown-cardinals. Here
the rate was more considerable; it might have been 5:2 or even more, especially if one
considers that more Italian States played a role in this field.
Finally, another unique paradox is notable. The increase of the crown-cardinals
rate under certain pontificate did not necessarily mean the weakness of the given pope.
On the contrary, it proved the stability of the pontificate, its wide European horizon
and the firmness of the Papal States international position; namely it could present such
numerous gestures to certain secular monarchs as Gregory XV and Innocent XI. In the
seventeenth century, the least crown-cardinals were appointed around the Peace of
Westphalia, when Rome lost its influence over the European politics. However, the for-
mer statement is not valid for the eighteenth century at all. After the War of the Span-
ish Succession, the Holy See had hardly any scope of action among the European powers,
which interpreted their influence over the selection of the College of Cardinals distinctly
as a privilege (praerogativa).78
78

The Threads of Connections
In the chapter dealing with the nunciatures, we could already observe that the legates,
which had a role of crucial importance in the relations between the Holy See and cer-
tain States in the early modern period, did not only administer Romes representation
in the diplomatic field, but they also got involved in the organisation of the particular
Churches with their Church administrational licences. As we are seeing some concrete
examples, the smooth collaboration was greatly hindered by the fight of competence
between the local hierarchies and the nuncios. Further tensions were generated by the
fact that the papal legates also often took a hand in the management of the local clergys
troublesome Roman businesses. Moreover, they wanted to more and more control the
connection between the national Churches like the German, French and Spanish and
the central Church administration. However, in those cases which required petty or
more complicated official work and did not reach the higher level of decision making
the nuncios also themselves avoided the official way, since they employed their own
Roman clientele, the services of their private agents.79 As a result, the establishment of
an individual, direct curial representation which played as important a role in the re-
lations with the Holy See as the nunciatures was not only the national States but the
particular Churches rudimentary interests.
This purpose was already served by the institution of the cardinal protectorate; then
in parallel to the nunciatures, certain States diplomatic missions at the Holy See gradually
developed. Their scope of duties was mainly of Church policy character. The concrete
administration: the delivery of their letters and appeals, the obtainment of permissions,
absolutions, privileges in the form of bulls, breves and congregational resolutions , the
necessary money transfers, etc. had to be solved by the local hierarchies. The form of these
was various. Similarly to the medieval times, occasional legates or temporarily or per-
manently employed Italian or home agents sent to Rome were engaged. Only in case
of necessity, the professional solicitors of the Dataria or the Chancery were occasionally
employed. The positions of the college of hundred administrators, the so-called gian-
nizzeri, belonged to the venal offices, out of which twenty-five were sold by the vicar
of Rome.80
The most developed variant was naturally the permanent agent. In return for sal-
ary, not only did he accomplish the administration work of one or more bishops, but
he almost constantly reported on the important curial, Roman and Italian events, as
well. His role, curial integration and his circle of acquaintance were of primary impor-
tance. He pursued his activities in cooperation with the given curial officials (mainly
with the Rotas traditionally non-Italian auditors), with the delegate at the Holy See
and the cardinal protector. The numerous unsolved questions are not rooted in politi-
79
Cf. Lutz, Glaubwrdigkeit und Gehalt von Nuntiaturberichten, 267268.
80

cal-legal-Church administrational matters, but in the tiny but significant obstacles of

this collaboration.81
The most essential and painstaking, revolving task of the local Churches Roman
representation was obviously the procuring of the papal provision related to the consis-
torial benefices, especially the filling of the episcopal sees. The process can be recog-
nizable not only regarding the Roman court, but for instance in the case of France it
was also specific to States. The complicated structure of the Curia became more tangible
via these phases of the process.
The first step had to be done by the State. Beside the royal granting document,
a uniform letter was composed for the pope. According to canon law, this was a proper
nomination or presentation before the pope. The document, which was signed by the
monarch and completed with the addressed letters to the cardinal nephew, to the Sec-
retariat of State, to the cardinal protector of France and sometimes to relevant curial
prelates, was forwarded to the common French agent of the Bench of Bishops. These
were forwarded to the French delegate, who also received an official notice, in special
cases a separate recommendation or instruction about his duties, how to solve the oc-
81
Already Hubert Jedin called the attention that the exploration of the agents reports and the instructions
sent to them is essential for understanding the mechanism and problems of the relations. In contrast to the
nunciatures, the launch of the systematic researches can hardly be mentioned due to the adverse sources, at
least in the sixteenth-seventeenth century. (The same is true for the function of the legates of the Holy See
and the cardinal-protectorates; see the cited literature.) Hubert Jedin, Propst G.B. Barsotti, seine Ttigkeit
als rmischer Agent deutscher Bischfe (16381655) und seine Sendung nach Deutschland (16431644), RQ 39 (1931)
377425, 377379; Hermine Khn-Steinhausen, Die Korrespondenz Wolfgang Wilhelms von Pfalz-Neuburg
mit der rmischen Kurie (Publikationen der Gesellschaft fr rheinische Geschichtskunde 48), Kln 1937, 183;
Alessandro Bastiaanse, Teodoro Ameyden (15851656). Un Neerlandese alla corte di Roma (Studin van het
Nederlands Historisch Instituut te Rome 5), s-Gravenhage 1967, 99135, especially 100110 (Agente giu-
ridico del re cattolico e dei principi tedeschi); Wilfrid Brulez, La crise dans les relations entre le Saint-Sige
et les Pays-Bas au XVII.e sicle (16341637), Bulletin de lInstitut Historique Belge de Rome 28 (1953) 63104;
the documents of the agents are frequently used by Friedhelm Jrgensmeier, Johann Philipp von Schnborn
(16051673) und die Rmische Kurie. Ein Beitrag zur Kirchengeschichte des 17. Jahrhunderts (Quellen und Ab-
handlungen zur Mittelrheinischen Kirchengeschichte 28), Mainz 1977; sometimes Bergin, The Making of the
French Episcopate, op. cit.; T.A. Birrels article almost completely rests on the reports of the Roman English
agents: English Catholics without a Bishop 16551672, Recusant History. A Journal of Research in post-Ref-
ormation Catholic History in the British Islands 4 (1958) 142178 (vol. 4, n. 4, Jan. 1958); on the question
of the Roman representation in the Hungarian relation, a preliminary outline: Pter Tusor, A magyar
pspkk els rmai gensei [The First Roman Agents of the Hungarian Bishops], Vigilia 67 (2002) 338342.
On the characteristics of the Roman avvisi, which served as a basis for the communication of the agents:
Mario Infelise, Gli avvisi di Roma. Informazione e politica nel secolo XVII, La corte di Roma tra Cinque e
Seicento, 189205; furthermore, on the diaries, which were similar to them, and about Romes role as a centre
of the news: Tullio Bulgarelli, Il giornalismo a Roma nel Seicento, Roma 1988; S. M. Seidler, Il teatro del
mondo. Diplomatische und jorunalistische Relationen vom rmischen Hof aus dem 17. Jahrhundert (Beitrage zur
Kirchen- und Kulturgeschichte 3), Frankfurt a. M. 1996; and with further literature Piereth, Bericht aus
Rom, 324326. The latest international researches emphasise the importance of such researches and they
deal with the problem at least on phenomenological level. Irene Polverini Fosi, A proposito di una lacuna
storiografica: La nazione tedesca a Roma nei primi secoli dellet moderna, RMC 1 (1993) 4556; Lutz, Roma e
il mondo germanico, 449456.

curring problems. As long as the delegate did not handle the nominatio to the pope on
his audience, the case could not be discussed by the consistory.82
From the 1610s, almost every document of nomination or presentation was ac-
companied by an appeal for the decrease of the annates, which could be attained rather
easily with the corruption of the royal secretaries. However, Rome constantly denied the
allowances granting to the French. Already in 16071608, Paul V cited the exhaustion of
the papal treasury as a reason. The endeavour to increase the reduced Church revenues
was already palpable.83
In parallel, the nominee had to ask for the conducting of the canonical examination
at the nunciature. Until the middle of the century, the prepared verbal had to be over-
seen and signed by the oldest cardinals of the three orders of the College of Cardinals.
They formed a distinct congregation (Capitum Ordinum Congregatio); the dean and
chamberlain of the College of Cardinals, the first cardinal priest, the first cardinal deacon,
the camerlengo, the vice-chancellor and the chamberlain of the College were its members.
The background apparatus was formed by the secretary and chief auditor (racionator) of
the College of Cardinals. According to the elenchus of 1629, its sessions were held in the
Sacred Palace, in the rooms beside the consistory, dum fit dictum Consistorium. There are
same data from 1644, though, instead of racionator the procurator is indicated, and be-
sides the oldest members of the two lower orders, the name of the praesens in Urbe also
occurs. Namely, occasionally there were different persons asked to verify the process.84
Afterwards, the abstract of the process was composed in the protectors secretariat
of the office, and before the first consistorial presentation (praeconisatio) its copies were
to be sent to all cardinals who stayed in Rome.85 One of the copies was examined by the
82
Frederick J. Baumgartner, Change and Continuity in the French Episcopate. The Bishops and the Wars of
Religion 15471610 (Duke Monographs in Medieval and Renaissance Studies 7), Durham 1986, 2728; Bergin,
The Making of the French Episcopate, 64 and 431435.
83
Ibid.
84
Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 191192 and 233234.
85
It cannot be precluded that the cardinals confirmation of verbals was only based on the previously pre-
pared abstract. The institutio canonicas Roman process until the expedition of the bulls is thoroughly intro-
duced in much detail by Hieronim Fokciskis fundamental work: Le relazioni concistoriali nel Cinquecento,
AHP 18 (1980) 211261. Fokciski primarily focuses on the system before Trent, when it was the task and
absolute right of the cardinal protector to conduct the process and not only to prepare the consistorial pres-
entation on the evidence of the abstract about the hearing of the witnesses. Fokciski elaborates these
summaries (relationes consistoriales) not only did the relations have a resource value in case of a lost proc-
ess, but the ones from the earlier period speak volumes with diplomatic profoundness. It seems, however,
that with regard to the formal criteria he unfoundedly sharply differentiates between these relations and
the documents of the praeconisatio-propositio (after Trent, it was the basis of the double presentation), which
were prepared from the verbals of the canonical examination. As it has already been mentioned, the majority
of these examinations were conducted at the nunciatures. Those from the second half of the sixteenth
century which had Polish relations were also published by setting an example for the Hungarian research.
Cf. Propozycje konsystorialne w XVI. wieku (Omwienie. Teksty polskie) (Studia Ecclesiastica 18, Historica 11,

popes personal auditor. He was the one from whom the pope could gather information
about the qualities of the nominee and about the state of the vacant diocese.
The existence of the uditore di Nostro Signore can be traced back from Gregory
XIII, its role was distinguished at the liberae collationis and the in partibus infidelium ap-
pointment of the bishop, and after the regulation of Innocent X of 1650 in both. His
gaining ground shows the tendency among the popes to directly control the nominees
examination. While in the seventeenth century, it meant to be a great honour if the
presentation was done by the pope himself and not by the cardinal protector (or at the
appointments of liberae collationis or the in partibus infidelum the appointed cardinal from
the Propaganda, for instance, if the case was related to the missions), in the eighteenth
century this became general. The additional task of the auditor in consultation with
the secretary of the consistory was to put the praeconisatio and the propositio on the list
of the succeeding consistorys agenda. In accomplishing its tasks, its deputy, who was
specialised to these sorts of cases, the sostituto del concistoro, assisted more increasingly.86
The sophisticated and by the 1620s more and more stable mechanism was truly su-
itable for sifting the occurring problems. These could be routine: for instance, the sup-
porting of the bishop from the pension, namely from the allowance, or other benefices
maintenance, the nominees exemption from hindrances of qualification or origin; or they
could be extraordinary: for instance, the legal or formal objections to the nomination.
The intervention of the Consistorial Congregation became appropriate only in such cases.
As a result, the procedure slowed down, or even vanished.87 If the preconisation was
conducted without any complication, the competent cardinal (protector) could make the
second proposal (propositio consistorialis), already on the following consistory, by giving a
reading of the processs summary. The acceptance accompanied by signing the date of
this proposal meant the papal provisions confirmation. The decision was recorded by con-
cise consistorial decrees filed in various registers, namely by verbals (acta).88
Fontium Textus 2), Rzym 1994. I reflect on Fokciskis certain statements and assumptions (for instance,
exactly who prepared the abstract, whether the agent participated in it, or not), furthermore on the question
how the verbal got to Rome from the nunciatures, etc. in my monograph about the history of the Hungarian
representation in Rome.
86
Lajos Psztor, Il sostituto del concistoro ed il suo archivio, AHP 5 (1967) 355372; [Idem], Guida delle
fonti, 185192.
87
Sanctissimus dixit alias solere dari memorialia per diem antequam ecclesiae praeconizentur, et hoc fuisse decre-
tum antiquum et renovatum a felicis recordationis Gregorio XIII. suo praedecessore. Ideo adverterent, ut darentur
praedicto tempore statuta memorialia, alias non permitteret reverendissimis dominis protectoribus et aliis reve-
rendissimis dominis cardinalibus, ut praeconizzarent, et multo minus ut proponerent ecclesias, quarum memorialia
praefata non tradiderunt. See the below cited consistorial sources.
88
Pritz, Supplikensignatur und Briefexpedition an der rmischen Kurie, 150156. There are three such series
remaining in the archives of the Sacred College: Acta Vicecancellarii (the verbals of the consistories were of-
ficially prepared by the vice-chancellor); Acta Camerarii (the series of the colleges chamberlain); Acta Mis-
cellanea; in addition, there was the Acta Congregationis Consistorialis which was compiled for the Consistorial
Congregation (these should not be mistaken for the actas of the congregations sessions), and the Acta Consis-
torialia kept by the sostituto del concistoro. Their various copies can be found among many cardinal families

On 17 September 1625, Urban VIII ordered the establishment of the Sacred Colleges
archives, and prior to this on 15 August, he took measures to bring the processes, prop-
ositional and other documents here.89 According to his resolution of 2 December 1626,
the propositional cards had to be signed by the reporting cardinal, and its text had to be
forwarded to the pope and the cardinals two days before the consistory.90 As this hardly
became practice, he applied sanctions on 22 March 1627: Sanctissimus decrevit, ut de caetero
propositiones pridie praeconizationis transmitterentur, alioquin ecclesia minus proponeretur.
On the other hand, he ordained that any supplementary cases (various graces, absolu-
tions) had to be discussed in the Consistorial Congregation and not on the consistory,
which was confirmed on 5 July 1627 by calling the cardinal relators attention to focus
only on the state of the diocese and the nominee in the presentation.91 The other source,
which presents the consistorial decree of 22 March 1627, talks about the revival of the
older papal regulations.92
After the consistorial actions, the cedula consistorialis, which was composed by the
utilization of the propositional scripts data, served as a basis for the issue of the bull of
appointment more precisely the litterae consistoriales , which was verified by the car-
dinal-vice-chancellors transcription (controcedula consistorialis).93 The above mentioned
steps were followed by the preparation of the provisional bulls draft; these bulls were
addressed to the nominee, the community, the clergy and the cathedral chapter of the
diocese, furthermore, to the metropolitan, the bishops who served the consecration, the
local representative of the secular authority and the monarch who made the nomination.
No matter how surprising it is, this was not the assignment of the Apostolic Chancery
but of the spedizioneri apostolici, who functioned subordinated to the Apostolic Dataria.94
documents, such as in the Barberinis. The majority of the original consistorial decrees and verbals are in the
Miscellanea of the Vatican Archives (Arm. XIIXIII. XV). Germano Gualdo, Sussidi per la consultazione
dellArchivio Vaticano (CAV 17), Citt del Vaticano 1989, 348353 and 359361.
89
Archivio Segreto Vaticano (ASV), Archivio Concistoriale, Acta Miscellanea, vol. 28, fol. 17v and 19r;
Remigius Ritzler, Die archivalischen Quellen der Hierarchia Catholica, 5174; [Idem], Per la storia dellarchi-
vio del Sacro Collegio, 303308.
90
ASV Arch. Concist., Act. Misc., vol. 28, fol. 62v63r.
91
Ibid., fol. 65r and 70v.
92
Ibid., fol. 69rv.
93
The analysing representation of this type of source: Lajos Psztor, Le cedole concistoriali, AHP 11 (1973)
209268. By the help of graphology, Psztor implies that these documents were also prepared by the office
of the cardinal protector and the agents sometimes took part in this, as well. I will touch upon the problems
again in the Hungarian relation. I would like to put emphasis only on the fact that the basis of the cedulas
content could not only be the propositional document but if there was the decree of the Consistorial
Congregation, which allowed the pluralism, the pension, etc., since the bulls, in contrast to the remarks of
the consistory, mention these questions, as well.
94
In contrast to the current researches, from the eighteenth century, not only did the per viam secretam/Curiae
go through the Dataria, but the normal process (per viam Cancellariae), as well, which is clearly shown in
the conference material of the bench of bishops in Nagyszombat, 1639 (see Szzadok 134 (2000) 434 and
cf. Psztor, Guida delle fonti, 46). The reason may be found in the fact that the incomes of the Church were
treated in this office, a considerable amount of which was from the consistorial benefices. As the practical
paper work which earned less profit, but more smaller benefices donations , namely, the composition of

Then, the draft was sent to the Chancery, where the scrittori apostolici made the fair
copy, which was checked by the Ufficio del Computatore e Rescribendario and registrated in
the Ufficio del Registro. The Ufficio del Tassatore defined the duty of the issue. The sum
of it was made up of the definite fee of the done stages and the ones in progress. Their
payment together with the annates went in the Dataria. The signature of the vi-
ce-chancellor and one of the abbreviatori del Parco maggiores prelates could not be put
onto the bulls again in the Chancery , until, the prefetto delle componendes confir-
mation had not been shown to the authorized spedizionere apostolico and the revisore dei
conti degli spedizioneri had not accomplished the examination of the bills.95 Only after
the signing could the document be provided with the pendent leaden seal in the Ufficio
del Piombo. However, the procedure did not come to an end with this. The ready-made
bull was sent back to the Dataria, to the authorized spedizionere apostolico, who had to
ask the issue of the official duplicate, which was countersigned by the sottodatario in the
Ufficio dei Trasunti.96 The forwarding of the documents, which canonically enabled the
consecration of the bishop and his inauguration to the benefice to which the vow of
obedience taken to the monarch always belonged could only happen after this process.
The consignment of the bulls was the task of the agent, just as was the coordination
of the procedure running between the offices and the administering of the payments.
This latter one was ranked as especially well-organised in the French relation. In France,
there were more banks which specialized in such cases (banquiers expditionnaires en cour
de Rome). With an institutional nature, they provided the financial background of the
process in the curial filling of the Church benefices. Among others, in Paris, Lyon and
Toulouse they were at the French clergys disposal. The newly appointed bishop used a
Parisian banker of solid capital, moreover, from the middle of the seventeenth century,
he had the bankers compete for the better offer. They prepared a detailed contract.
They made rules for possible events, such as what would have to be done if the actual
expenditures differentiated from the previous plan. The bishop repaid the unique loan
with interest from his dioceses incomes. Before the papal provision, namely, he did not
the donation certificate was accomplished here, it was obvious that the bulls of the consistorial benefices,
which required more attention though, it was not in their competence were also phrased by the trained
officials of the Apostolic Dataria. On the other ways of forwarding the bulls (for example, the expeditio per
Cameram whose foundation was necessary to avoid the publicity of the Chancery and to save expenses and
the per viam correctoris.): Frenz, Die Kanzlei der Ppste, 132161; [Idem], I documenti pontifici, 7191. (All of
these procedures are related to the stages of the long preparation and the phrasing. In case of consistorial
benefices, which required special knowledge of calligraphy the parchments with majuscule were finally
composed in the Chancery.)
95
In case of bulls of non-consistorial benefices, the signed bull was again checked by the custode delle suppli-
che and the maestro del registro, whether there was a difference between the contents of the bull and the licensed
request. As in the case of consistorial benefices, the basis of the phrasing was not the supplication but the
controcedula consistorialis. The bull could be compared with this document, however it is not mentioned by
the secondary literature.
96
The process is described by: Sorge, La storia e il diritto della Dataria, 244247; and the per Cancellariam
section in more detail: Frenz, Die Kanzlei der Ppste, 105132.

enjoy the benefices of his diocese and the sums paid for the Curia were much higher than
he could have paid from his already existing smaller benefices. There was not always
a private fortune, either.
For instance, in 1645, Henri de Bthune de Maillezais who was appointed to the archi-
episcopal see of Bordeaux, also invited tenders for covering his expenses of his papal pro-
vision and keeping the abbey of Maulon. According to the contract of January 1647, the
sums were estimated at 26,960 livres, and finally the actual expenditures became about
22,000 livres. He had to pay 12,507 livres only for expediting the bulls of appointment
to the archiepiscopal see of Bordeaux, including the annates and the duties. The other
considerable part of the sum was spent on the expenses of the banker and the agent,
furthermore on the duty of the cardinal protector. The latter cost the 15% of the anna-
tes in the French relation, namely at the beginning of the 1620s, the propina of which
legitimacy was questioned also by the Gallic Church was approximately 2,4003,900
from the tax of 2730,000 livres.97
Similarly to the above mentioned, the obtainment of the archiepiscopal pallium was
a particular procedure where such a simplified process, like in the case of bulls, the per
viam secretam expedition, was not provided by a legal option. The secret way was fa-
voured by the nominees, not only due to its inexpensiveness, but to its speed. Owing
to the counter-interests of the curial officials until the middle of the century this
advantage was granted only in a very justified case.98
Apart from the appropriate financial background, the clue to the smooth conduct
of the institutio canonica was the Roman representation: the establishment of the syn-
chronised collaboration of the agent, the cardinal protector and his office, as well as of
the State delegate. Naturally, this can true for the other fields of the relations of the
particular Churches and the Apostolic See. Despite the strict, fiscal view of the Curia
in the 20s, 30s of the seventeenth century their activities were not without problems.
However, one can witness a lasting consolidation also in this field thanks to the inner
professionalization from the 1650s, to the gradual reforms, which shaped the compliant
Curia on the basis of the Sistine system by purging it from the functionless, archaic
elements. Even if the events of Romes relations to the important State Churches do not
support this statement in all cases.
97
Bergin, The Making of the French Episcopate, 6465; Clergeac, La Curie et les bnfices, 213223 (and 225243);
the French cardinal protectors consistorial tasks are shortly summarised by: Poncet, The Cardinal-Protec-
tors of the Crowns, 167; a not too detailed, but comprehensive case study: Stefan Samerski, Die Ernennung
Richelieus zum Bischof von Lucon: ein kurialer Normalfall oder die Stilisierung eines politischen Genies, RQ 89
(1994) 111132, on the process itself: 120124. 129131.
98
I am going to deal with the donation of the pallium, which embodied the plenitude of pontifical office,
and with the other details of the secret papal confirmation in another essay, in connection to the publication
of the canonical examinations verbals of Pter Pzmny. A short historical outline from the Ancient times
to the donation of the palliums to the metropolitans of the Eastern rites: Giorgio Orioli, La collazione del
pallio, Nuntia (Pontificia Commissio Codici Iuris Canonici Orientalis Recognoscendo) 3 (1976) 8896; and
Clergeac, La Curie et les bnfices, 208212 and 279280, n. 26.

Rome and the Spanish, French, German Catholicism
The purest Catholic State Church formation of Western Europe developed in Spain.99
The Patronato Real over the Spanish Church as well as other manifestations of the royal
control over religion, like the Spanish inquisition, rooted rather in the reconquista than in
the Conciliarism and were realised under the Catholic monarchs, Ferdinand V (14791516)
and Isabella I (14741504). In the year of the inquisitions establishment, in 1478, the
two monarchs summoned the Council of Seville, which against Romes will adhered to
the State control over the greater benefices of the country. The reasons were political:
the public role of the prelates, their social influence and the doubtful and exposed situa-
tion of the Church estates by the borders. Sixtus IV, however, did not accept the new
situation legally, but in practice he did so if he agreed with the royal nominees.100
While in Seville, the question of advowson was not dealt with in connection with
the filling of the benefices only the royal right of supplication, in 1493, both terms ap-
peared. Four years later, in 1497, the royal legal claims, the Patronato and the Presenta-
cin, which comprised all Spanish benefices, were phrased by the legal generation living
in the euphoria over Granadas surrender.101 As a matter of fact, in connection with three
dioceses, Granada, Canarias and Puerto Real, this had already been acknowledged by
Innocent VIII in his bull Orthodoxae fidei by using the term of plenum ius patronatus
et praesentandi personas idoneas Sedi Apostolicae (the full right of the advowson and the
suitable persons introduction to the Apostolic See) on 13 December 1486.102 A compre-
hensive concordat was drafted only under Charles V, in 1523 and 1530. The compromise,
as it had already been mentioned, allowed Spain the legal practice of advowson over all
bigger Church benefices. In the meantime, in 1508 after the first bishop appointments
of 1504 Julius II guaranteed the Patronato Real de las Indias, namely the legal institution
of advowson over the colonies, in his bull of 28 July, Universalis Ecclesiae. In return, the
Spanish crown provided the financial background of the Church system in the Indies. 103
Only the Consejo de Indias was competent in the appointments and founding colonial
bishoprics, which established all in all twenty-nine bishoprics in America until 1620.104
Due to the tardiness of the Roman procedures, similarly to the Hungarian one, a prac-
99
Aldea, Iglesia y estado, 5763.
100
Bireley, The Refashioning of Catholicism, 7475; see also A. M. Rouco-Varela, Staat und Kirche im
Spanien des 16. Jahrhunderts, Mnchen 1965.
101
Aldea, Iglesia y estado, 65105, especially 98105; the monographic elaboration of the Spanish royal
patronage and supremacy: Martin L. Gutirez, El privilego de nombramiento de obisops en Espaa, Roma
1967; cf. also Clemens Bauer, Studien zur spanischen Konkordatsgeschichte des spten Mittelalters. Das spanische
Konkordat von 1482, Gesammelte Aufstze zur Kultur-Geschichte Spaniens 11 (1935) 4397.
102
Aldea, Iglesia y estado, 99, more quotations from the bull: n. 107.
103
Kindermann, Das landesfrstliche Ernennungsrecht, 8990 and 97104; Enrique Dussel, Die Bischofs-
ernennungen in ersten Jahrhundert des Patronats in Latein-Amerika (15041620), Concilium 8 (1972) 538542;
in more detail: Pedro Leturia, Der Heilige Stuhl und das spanische Patronat in Amerika, HJ 46 (1926) 171.
104
Dussel, Die Bischofsernennungen, 539.

tice spread: before obtaining their bulls, the bishops appointed by the monarch could take
possession of their dioceses and some pastoral functions by showing the royal document
of appointment (Real Cdula de ruego y encargo) to the viceroy.105
The preparation of the Spanish appointments was the task of the Consejos para Cas-
tilla and the La Cmara del Real Patronato. The document of nomination for the pope,
the so-called postulate, was issued after the royal decision making. The disapproved
nominees had to be filtered out by the nuncio, who was even in the second half of the
seventeenth century reluctant to conduct the canonical examination (where the witnesses
were selected without much attention).106
Owing to the compromise, formally the Spanish Church was free from the State
taxes; however, under Philip II 20% of the State revenues were of Church sources; partly
from the cruzada, from the tax imposed by the popes in the fourteenth century for sake
of the reconquista then the anti-Ottoman wars. This tax was the Spanish version of the
papal tithe taken over by the State. The other source was the subsidio, which had to be
paid after almost all the Church benefices. The third source was the excusado, which was
established by the confirmation of Pius V in 1567 and was paid off by every parish for
aiding the battles in the Low Countries. In 1574, the archbishop of Toledo complained
that Philip II appropriated the half of the Church revenues and he did not differ from
the Lutheran princes at all in this field.107
The Church immunity and the privileges could not be totally enforced in Spain, either.
In civil and criminal proceedings the monarch had jurisdiction over the clergy and the
crown was allowed to supervise the verdicts of the Church tribunals. The administra-
tion had already invalidated the Church cases appeals to Rome.108 The lack of political
conflicts in the age of the Tridentine reform Papacy did not mean that the violation of
the Church privileges would not cause disagreements. In Milan, for instance, a rather
tense relation evolved between the archbishop of the city and the Spanish governor.109
If we remember, in the first half of the seventeenth century, the Congregation of Im-
munity had a lot to do in the Italian Spanish territories, which did not change in the
next decades, either. The degree of the church asylums practice was in the centre of the
conflicts of Milan and Naples. The secularizing Spanish State in the decline more and
more often attacked the bull of Gregory XIV, which circumscribed the right of asylum
(Cum alias, 24 May 1591). The decisions of the part-congregation, which was convened
105
Ibid., 540 (the sociography of the bishops: 540541); see on the development of the American Church
system also Josef Metzlers Introductio, America Pontificia, I, 945.
106
Jos Mara Marques, La Santa Sede y La Espaa de Carlos II. La negociacin del nuncio Millini 16751685,
Anthologica Annua 2829 (19811982) 138398, 220226. The practice of Lombardy considerably differed from
the Hispanic system. Agostino Borromeo, La corona spagnola e le nomine agli uffici ecclesiastici nello Stato
di Milano da Filippo II a Filippo IV, Lombardia Borromaica, Lombardia Spagnola 15541659 III (Biblioteca
del Cinquecento 63, a c. d. Paolo PissavinoGianvittorio Signorotto), Roma 1993, 553578.
107
108
Ibid.
109
Borromeo, Clemente VIII, 257.

by Clement X to examine the Spanish objections, were not found satisfactory in Madrid,
as a consequence the local clashes, naturally, affected the higher connections, as well.110
In 1678, under Innocent XI the relations cooled to such an extent that the pope took
the breaking of diplomatic relations into account due to the series of disregard of the
clergys rights. In 1687, he did not dare to excommunicate the officials of Naples on ac-
count of introducing the so-called Monarchia Sicula privileges, the century-long abuses
in terms of canon law. Later Innocent XI backed down because of his cardinals advice,
in return for which the collection of the tithes (decima Turca) imposed on the Spanish
clergy became possible for the Holy League. A more significant result was generated by
the Spanish inquisitions subordinating under the Holy Office in 1681, which inquisition
had degraded almost into one of the executive bodies of the secular administration.111
The multiplying infringements of the law was supported by the fact that in Spain
the ideology and practice of the direct and indirect royal potestas over the Church had
already developed, namely the subjects of the crown could turn to the Apostolic See
without limitation solely in spiritual matters. It was a result partly of Urban VIIIs hos-
tile policy, the papal nepotism and the curial fiscality of the first half of the seventeenth
century, and partly of both parties uncompromising attitude to protect their own in-
terests.112 True, Spains statement, which was proclaimed under the Thirty Years War
and aimed at protecting religion and maintaining the fellowship with the Apostolic
See despite State interests, was not without propagandist elements, and the relations
with the emperor weighed more despite the inner and external problems. The ambig-
uous neutrality of Urban VIII in the European Church politics inflicted a wound on the
Spanish Catholicisms loyalty to Rome.113
It also made matters worse that the grievances of the Spanish Church were not nursed
even after repeated negotiations (Gravamina Ecclesiae Hispanae). The long memorandums,
which were handed in by the bishop of Cordoba, Domenico Pimentel, who negotiated
in Rome in 16341636, and by Juan de Chumacero, councillor of State, demanded the
suspension of the Datarias abuses. They raised objections on three main fields, aga-
inst matrimonial dispensations, the granting of the Spanish Church benefices and the
issue of the necessary documents and their burden with pensions. There were also com-
plaints against the nunciature of Madrid, since it had taken many diocesan jurisdictions.114
In spite of these unsolved questions, the State positions obtained under the Spanish
hegemony proved to be unswerving in the Iberian Peninsula and in the Italian Spanish
territories in the seventeenth century. The case was somewhat different overseas. The
root of the problem was the same as had already been mentioned and not only under
Urban VIII the Spanish claimed all the Church appointments and any papal decree,
110
111
112
Aldea, Iglesia y estado en la Espaa, 209214.
113
The three fundamental pillars of the Spanish politics in a rather different interpretation: ibid., 1154.
114
Ibid., 112206, especially 122.

including the decisions concerning the mission organization, could be enforced only in
agreement with the Spanish royal council. Rome could not question the right of nomina-
tion and presentation, acknowledged in the concordats over the American and Philippine
bishoprics; however, it often rejected the royal nominees by referring to personal objec-
tions and incompatibility. It is typical data: between 1511 and 1620, out of 292 nominees
there were 243 who received their bulls. On the other hand, the non-Spanish subjects,
who led missionary works, faced obstacles. As we could experience in connection with
the Propaganda, the situation strained by almost continuously heated debates despite
the occasional attempts to arrive at an agreement did not become settled, neither at
the time, nor in the future. It would have had a boomerang effect for Rome, if it had
bestowed any right to control the well-built missionary system on the Spanish crown.
The problem was eased by the temporary lessening of the missionary work in the second
half of the eighteenth century.115 Basically, the same difficulties occurred with Portugal,
which formed a separate circle of questions after the dissolution of the personal union.116
In contrast to Spain, the French relations were characterised by a developed ideolog-

ical background. The bases of Gallicanism were laid down by the Pragmatica Sanctio of
Bourges (1438) by Charles VII (14171461) with the effective collaboration of the Uni-
versity of Paris. This already characterised the so-called liberties of the French Church
from Rome. The concordat rested on conciliar foundations, it proclaimed the superiority
of the ecumenical council over the pope. It greatly restricted the judicial appeals and the
measure of the taxes paid to Rome, furthermore it reduced the influence of the Holy See
over the Church appointments, finally, it settled the rights of the capitular electors and the
patrons in filling the benefices. The renaissance French-papal relations were also enlivened
by the Italian inner politics. After their Italian invasion of 1494, the French employed the
weapon of Conciliarism even more vividly. With the support of Louis XII (14981515),
a council which failed soon was summoned in Pisa in 1500.117
The consolidation of the relations was signified by the Concordat of Bologna in 1516
between Leo X and Francis I (15151547). It was in force until the French Revolution and
it supplied the Papacy a kind of bulwark against the movements broken out in Germany.
Francis I renounced the conciliar point of view stated in the contract of Bourges, with
which the threat of the French schism vanished.
115
Dussel, Die Bischofsernennungen in ersten Jahrhundert des Patronats in Latein-Amerika, 540541;
for further details Lee, La actitud de la Sagrada Congregacin frente al Regio Patronato, 353438.
116
On this and especially on the negotiations between 1675 and 1678 with their documents: Giuseppe Sorge,
Santa Sede e Corona Porthogese. Le controversie giuspatronali nei secoli XVII e XVIII (Occidentale e Oriente
Christianit 1), Bologna 1988. In his introductory work, Sorge intensively studies the papal privileges of the
sixteenth century, which established the Portuguese Padroado: La polemica giuspatronale tra la S. Sede e la
monarchia Portoghese nella seconda met del secolo XVII (1565, 1521).
117
Baumgartner, Change and Continuity in the French Episcopate, 1026; Bergin, The Making of the French
Episcopate, 4456.

In 1516, the French king received the right of appointment over 93 bishoprics out of
113 and over 527 abbeys. (Henry IV tried to increase their number with Metz, Toul and
Verdun in vain.) Additionally, they were coupled with the advowson over several smal-
ler benefices on the basis of various privileges and tradition. Naturally the bulls for the
consecration, the taking possession of the benefices and the canonical institution were to
be applied from Rome. The monarch was obliged to arrange the succession within six
months. However, the Pope could deny the confirmation of the appointment, if he had
objections to the nominees age, way of life and his studies according to the regulation,
one had to be a magistrate or licentiate in theology and canon law. It sometimes happen-
ed, for instance in the case of Ren Benois, who was appointed to the bishop of Troyes
in 1593 by Henry IV, though, he had been the author of a Bible translation condemned
by the Church. The concordat gave another three months for the further royal nomi-
nation. In this case, however, the Curia never rejected the nomination. In the sixteenth
century, the pope himself appointed only fourteen French bishops. In the course of the
civil war, there were capitular elections here and there, as well.118
In Bologna, the French Church administration was totally and legally controlled by
the crown. In 1594 Pierre Pithou rightly claims that, in practice, the French king is rather
the head of the French Church than the pope. The influence of the monarchs was limited
only by the popular institution of the resignatio in favorem and the permutatio, namely the
swap among the bishops of the dioceses. This was more or less true for the system of the
coadjutor-appointment (usually, the employment of a deputy with right of succession),
which was bound by a royal confirmation. Besides, it delayed the personal residing of the
diocesan bishops before it had become general, it already had the new monarchs hands
tied in enforcing his personal policy, and moreover, it constantly generated the disapprov-
al of Rome until the 1630s. The influence of the local land lords in filling the episcopal
sees can be sometimes observable. They acquired the possibility partly through medieval
privileges, partly through royal transfer of rights. As the concordat did not provide the
benefices of the French prelates who died in the Curia, if they had not obtained the de
non vacando in Curia exemption, in accordance with the canon law, the Holy See filled
these dioceses, like in Lyon in 1626. Paris prevented these occurrences by limiting the
French clergys way to Rome.
As a result of the compromise, the French bench of bishops evolved into a royal clien-
tele already in the sixteenth century. The monarchs practiced their right of appointment
with the so-called Conseil de Consciences interpolation. The granting document, the bre-
vet de nomination was prepared here, of which uniform text was amplified by the short
praise of the nominee. Until 1620, it was also often indicated, through whose good offices
(en faveur de) the promotion was obtained.119 Despite the contribution of the Council of
Ibid.; and Pierre Blet, Le concordat de Bologne et la rforme tridentine, Gregorianum 45 (1964) 241279.
118
Ibid.; and J. M. Hayden, The Social Origins of the French Episcopacy at the Beginning of the 17. Centu-
119
ry, French Historical Studies 10 (1977) 2740; M. Greengrass, Aristocracy and Episcopacy at the End of the
Wars of Religion in France: the Duke of Montmorency and the Bischoprics of Languedoc, Miscellanea Historiae

Conscience, the decision did not always lie upon salutary grounds, which is proved by
the string of shameful and scandalous appointments; for instance, in 1648 Beaumanoir de
Lavardins, who became the bishop of Mans though he was a known atheist.120
Francis I made the concordat acceptable for the Holy See by allowing in a sepa-
rate concession the payment of the annates annulled by the Council of Basel and the
Pragmatica Sanctio of 1438, which did not become popular among the French clergy in
the early modern period, yet, it was regularly settled after an attempt to stop in 1561.
The question of the annates became one of the central topics of the French-papal relations
crisis of the 16391640s. The bishops did not demand the cancellation of the duties, but
their moderation. They proclaimed that the French Church benefices were estimated
more considerable than, for instance, the Spanish. The essence of the problem was that
the curial officials did not impose this unique tax on the basis of the real incomes, but on
the registers of the Apostolic Camera, which reflected medieval conditions.121
The French-papal relations in the early modern period were not only burdened by
problems of practical nature. In spite of the agreement of 1516, the concept of the in-
dependent Gallican Church occasionally reoccurred. This could be the reason why the
regulations of the Council of Trent were pronounced in France only in the clergys as-
sembly of 1615, which had been preceded for half a century by certain plans favouring a
reform that would have been realised within selective, local frames and with royal assis-
tance. After the issue of the Edict of Nantes in 1598 which guaranteed the free practice
of religion for the Huguenots , the year 1615 was the provisional triumph of the ultra-
montane Catholicism. Its preparation was aided by the papal legates of Paris. In 1611, for
instance, by the command of Paul V, Nuncio Ubaldini took measures to improve the
French bench of bishops selection.
After the civil wars, the time for stabilization came. In exchange for Henry IVs
absolution, Clement VIII obtained guarantees to the Catholic upbringing of the heir to
the throne, to the restoration of the Catholic cult in more places (around 1600, it was
attained in 300 towns and in some thousand parishes) and to the return of the Church
benefices. Finally, in 1603, the authorization of the Jesuits return was also achieved, how-
ever, only in return for a loyalty oath sworn to the monarch that Clement VIII agreed,
despite the resistance of the Jesuits. (In 1595, the followers of Saint Ignatius were expelled
on the pretext of the assassination of Henry IV.122) In addition, the diocesan councils and
the episcopal visitations became more frequent, though, the standard of the local clergy
gradually improved due to the slowness of the seminar establishments.123
Ecclesiae 8 (Colloque de Strasbourg Septembre 1983) (Bibliothque de la Revue dHistoire Ecclsiastique 72,
ed. Bernard Vogler), BruxellesLouvainLouvain-la-Neuve 1987, 356363.
120
Louis Cogner, Das kirchliche Leben in Frankreich, Die Kirche im Zeitalter des Absolutismus, 3119, 67.
121
Bergin, Cardinal de la Rochefoucauld, 8182; Blet, Correspondance du Ranuccio Scotti, 2040.
122
Borromeo, Clemente VIII, 254255.
123
Baumgartner, Change and Continuity in the French Episcopate, 182195; Bergin, The Making of the French
Episcopate, 431435 and 457459.

The mental establishment of Gallicanism, which hindered the launch of the Catholic
modernisation, was created by Pierre Pithous work, Les liberts de lglise gallicane from
1594. The volume concluded the Gallican fundamental liberties in 84 points. Relying
upon this, the canonists and theologians of the so-called Parisian school of the beginning
of seventeenth century emphatically expressed the canonical independence of the diocesan
authority. Apart from the episcopalist interpretation of Trent, not only did they endeavour
to limit the papal primacy, but they also wanted to extend the royal rights. They share
the view that the monarch did not have spiritual authority over the Church, yet, he is
responsible for the benefit of the Church. By divine rights, his crown bears the prestige
to be independent from the pope in every respect.124
Richelieu so unscrupulously used Gallicanism as pressure against the Papacy that the
moderation and backing of Gallicanism inseparably followed the political relations towards
the Holy See. Until 1626, he set no restrictions upon the anti-Rome meetings. However, in the
course of the conflicts of Mantua, where the pope supported almost openly the French,
he did so. After 1632, then especially after 1635 the relation worsened. It was marked by
Urban VIIIs deeds: he refused the red hat of father Joseph, the Grey Eminence; he had
Mazarin wait until 1641;125 in 1634 he prevented Richelieus bishoprics of Speyer, with
which he would have had the chance to win a German ecclesiastical electorate.126
Richelieus actions were influenced by his conflict with Cardinal Berulle, which ended
by the end of the 1620s. Berulle solely wanted the triumph of Catholicism over Protestant-
ism, while Richelieu desired to establish the French monarchy on sound foundations and
to gain the European hegemony. Berulle died in 1629, therefore Richelieu who in his
Protestant inner and foreign politics practically followed those principles that were later
put down in the Peace of Westphalia could freely and fully realise his ideas.127
The regulation on the basis of the Concordat of Bologna, according to which for the
canonical institution of the benefices the French clergy had to obtain a bull from Rome,
was always extremely unpopular, though in close connection to the political events it es-
pecially led to numerous protests at the end of the 1630s. At that time Richelieu con-
templated renouncing the rules of the concordat as an inconsistent regulation with former
Church disciplines, and restoring the chapters right of electing a bishop. Shortly afterwards,
the idea of summoning a national council arose, on which the monarch would have re-
signed his iura regalia practiced over the dioceses. In return, he would have obtained the
right to fill the Church benefices without the contribution of the Holy See. Later, it was
124
Marc Venard, Ultramontaine or Gallican? The French Episcopate at the End of the Sixteenth Century,
The Jurist 52 (1992) 142161; Pierre Blet, Jsuites et liberts gallicanes en 1611, AHSI 24 (1955) 226 [an abstract
in Latin]; furthermore [Idem], Jsuites Gallicans au XVIIe sicle?, AHSI 39 (1960) 5584.
125
Cf. Blet, Correspondance du Ranuccio Scotti, 4052.
126
Cogner, Das kirchliche Leben in Frankreich, 1415 and 6973; Bireley, The Refashioning of Catholicism,
9195.
127
Ibid. and Fritz Dickmann, Rechtsgedanke und Machtpolitik bei Richelieu. Studien an neuentdecken Quellen,
HZ 184 (1963) 265319; Erich Hassinger, Das politische Testament Richelieus, HZ 173 (1952) 485503.

also brought up that Richelieu would have been the patriarch of Gallia or the West, with
similar rights as the Eastern patriarchs. Apart from the theological questions, this would
have meant that the French Church system would have been completely independent
from Rome, of which primate would have regarded only as honorary.128
With the support of the cardinal, the Gallican publication activity was resumed again
at the end of the 1630s. In 1639, the Dupuy brothers questioned the papal privileges, more-
over the privileges of the clergy, in their bulky volumes provided by rich documentation.129
In the company of eighteen bishops, Cardinal La Rochefoucauld and Nuncio Bolognetti
enforced strict censorship against the book, which was allowed by Richelieu, however,
he let the authors escape. In parallel, in connection with the canonical processes, the par-
liament of Paris raised objections to the papal activities on the territory of the country
and found the practice of the papal authority realized in the examinations conducted by
the nuncio unacceptable. As Richelieu did not want to get involved into this question, the
Holy See could defend its statement, namely, the examination was not a matter of jurisdic-
tion, but a simple information gathering to enable the pope to decide upon the royal nom-
inees canonical institution in the possession of this knowledge. True, the nuncios not
like in Spain hardly ever took a part in the appointments. Mostly, they supported the
suitable nominees only with recommendations; therefore the procedure could be conducted
in Rome faster and with moderated expenses. On the basis of other informal information,
the selection of the nominees sympathising with the Gallican and Jansenist views, along
with the refusal of the confirmation, was the task of the Curia. The practice of turning
to the State courts instead of the local Church tribunals (appel come dabus) on account of
abuses was also a problem in connection with the jurisdiction of the nuncio.130
The crisis did not involve graver consequences owing to the activity of the congrega-
tion, which was entrusted in 1640 with the aversion of the attack against the nunciature
of Paris and with the management of the royal declarations related to the questions of
Church life, such as the matrimonial rights and the observance of the regulations of
Trent. The schism was avoided, and a series of breves had Louis XIII keep the regula-
tions of canon law.131
128
Cogner, Das kirchliche Leben in Frankreich, 6973.
129
Trait des droits et liberts de lglise gallicane and Preuves des liberts de lglise gallicane
130
Cogner, Das kirchliche Leben in Frankreich, 6973 and Blet, Correspondance du Ranuccio Scotti, 1120;
Bergin, The Making of the French Episcopate, 62; cf. also Pierre Blet, Le nonce en France au XVIIe sicle.
Ambassadeur et dlgu apostolique, Rvue dHistorie diplomatique 88 (1974) 223258. The monographic analy-
sis of the appeals to the secular tribunals: P.G. Caron, Lappello per abuso (Raccolta di Studi della Rivista
Il Diritto Ecclesiastico 3), Milano 1954. The earlier long wrangling concerning the accreditation of the
nuncio of Brussels cannot be connected with the question of jurisdiction. The cardinal infant who ruled
the Low Countries gave the following answer to Urban VIII, who forbade by referring to the bull of
residence the Habsburg cardinals Roman agents being a bishop. Brulez, La crise dans les relations entre le
Saint-Sige et les Pays-Bas, 63104.
131
The French proposals to avoid openly breaking the relations often occurred in the meetings of the
congregation (Optati Galli de cavendo schismate). Pierre Blet, La Congregation des Affaires de France 1640,
Mlanges Tisserant IV, 59105.

Although, the manifestations of the French hegemony over the Papacy lacked all the
theoretical background in the second half of the century, after some two-decade long si-
lence, the Gallican publication activity revived in the 1660s. The movement of Sorbonne
elicited Romes prohibitive and negative reaction (the bull Cum ad aures, 1665), similarly
to the one towards Jansenism. The practical measures of the French crown did not wait
long. In 1673, then in 1675, Louis XIV extended the force of the regales, besides the ones
in Northern-France, over a further sixty bishoprics. In practice this meant the treasury
use of the vacant dioceses incomes and, except the parishes, the right of conferring smaller
benefices which belonged to the bishoprics. Moreover, the Sun King required the right
to appoint all the bishops of his country.
His efforts generated heated legal and theological debates, which divided the French
clergy, as well. While the two Clements, by learning from Alexander VIIs humiliation,
tried to avoid the clash with the kings strong personality, besides, the Altieri Pope did not
bestow attention on the problem of the regales, Innocent XI proved to be obstinate also in
these matters. When two French bishops who actually leant to Jansenism , Nicolas Pa-
villon and Franois Caulet resisted the royal decrees and asked the help of the newly elected
pope, the Odescalchi Pope immediately wanted to abolish the French monarchs regula-
tions. However, the part-congregation, which was set up to examine the case (Agostino
Favoriti was the secretary, its members were Cardinal Ottoboni, Carpegna and Albizzi),
warned the pope against too determined a demeanour.132 Yet, their worry just delayed the
reaction of Innocent XI. In January 1679, then in March 1680 the pope protested against
the French monarchs motions against the canon law in harsh breves. Louis XIV, though
after the compliance of Clement X he took the popes steadfastness as a personal offence,
was satisfied only with a polite evasive answer. However, on 13 January 1681, when the
pope again castigated the French Church abuses on a consistory, Louis XIV summoned
the French clergys assembly in Paris for the purpose of preparing a national council,
which was followed by another meeting in greater strength in October 1681.133
In the next February-March, the Gallican theses, codified by Jacques-Benigne Bossuet,
were recognised here. The Declaratio Cleri Gallicani stated: 1. The pope had only spiritual
jurisdiction over the secular monarchs and monarchs whose power was derived directly
from God and did not have either direct, or indirect potestas. 2. His rights practiced
over the Church of the French monarchs country should be interpreted as expansible;
however, in spiritual matters the pope had full authority, yet he was subject to the ecu-
menical council. 3. Furthermore, the popes authority was also limited by the canons, laws
accepted by the Church, moreover, in France by the ancient Gallican customs, as well.
132
The term of congregatio particularis has already appeared with reference to De Lucas role. The events:
M. Dubruel, Innocent XI et lextension de la rgale daprs la correspondance confidentielle du cardinal Pio avec
Lopold I, Revue des Questions Historiques, n. s. 37 (1907) 101137; [Idem], Les congrgations des affaires de
France sous le papa Inncoent XI, RHE 22 (1926) 273310 and 23 (1927) 4464 and 502522; Rosa, La scarsella
di Nostro Signore, 842844; Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 711717.
133
On the basis of Nuncio Varese and uditore Lauris correspondence, the crisis of 16811682 is discussed in
detail by: Pierre Blet, La nonciature de France et la crise gallicane, Kurie und Politik, 98115.

4. The papal decisions related to the faith were infallible only if they had been recognised
and approved by the whole Church.
The printed versions of the resolutions, which were made unconditionally obligatory
on everybody in France, were widely circulated already in April.
Innocent XI indignantly learnt the events and regarded the resolutions as invalid.
After all, for the sake of his successful anti-Ottoman plans, he found the publication of
the bull Cum primum, which was prepared by the experts of the Holy Office, advisable
to be postponed.134 Moreover, after a longer pause, he sent a nuncio (Angelo Ranuzzi)
to the French capital in April 1683, which was kept putting off due to his righteous in-
dignation about the unworthy burial of Pompero Varese, the former legate of Paris.135
The total restoration of the diplomatic relations, however, could not moderate the tense
in the Church politics, which was increased by the cold Roman reception of the Edict
of Nantess revocation of 1685, since Rome saw in this action the further strengthening
of the State Churchs tendencies.136 The direct answer of the pope to the Gallican clauses
was only that he refused the newly appointed bishop, who participated in the meeting,
in the canonical institution. In return, Louis XIV did not let the others turn to Rome
for their bulls. By 1688, there were some thirty-five bishoprics vacant.137
Alexander VII, who as the secretary of the Inquisition dealt severely not only with
the quietists, but at the beginning also with the regalists, who saved the royal rights of the
French monarch, in spite of the gestures made to the Sun King, followed the behaviour
of his predecessor at the beginning of his pontificate. As a result of his political isolation
and in consideration of the fact that due to the lack of consecrated bishops, the social po-
sitions of the Gallicans further strengthened, the pope finally, after long hesitation, gave
the canonical confirmation to several nominees of Louis XIV. In return, the monarch
withdrew his support for the articles of 1682, which enabled their papal annulment (Inter
multiplices, 31 January 1691).138 The other sign of the French-papal relations consolidation
was that Innocent XII, immediately at the beginning of his pontificate, in 16921693,
confirmed all the bishops even those who signed the four Gallican articles , moreover,
he handled the archbishop of Cambrias right of appointment over the Sun King, with
which he legitimated the conquest during the wars in the Low Countries. They could
134
In contradiction to the Gallican theses the Hungarian clergy, more precisely Primate Gyrgy Szelep-
chny personally stood up for the pope in his pastoral letter. Gbor Adrinyi, Die angebliche ungarische
Nationalsynode von 1682, Annuarium Historiae Conciliorum 2728 (19951996) 841851.
135
The published documents of his nunciature: Bruno Neven (d.), Correspondance du nonce en France
Angelo Ranuzzi (16831689). I: 16831686. II: 16871689 (Acta Nuntiaturae Gallicae 1011), Rome 1973,
the analysis of the Gallican peak crisis under his service: 47171.
136
137
Pierre Blet, Innocent XI et lasssemble du clerg de France de 1682. La rdaction du bref Paternae Chari-
tati, AHP 7 (1969) 329377 [abstract in Latin]; [Idem], Louis XIV et le Saint Sige la lumire de deux publi-
cations rcentes, AHP 12 (1974) 309338 [abstract in Latin]; Cogner, Das kirchliche Leben in Frankreich, 7480.
138
Petrucci, Alessandro VIII, 391392.

not come to an agreement only in connection to the regales. Until the French Revolu-
tion, in this respect, a modus vivendi developed, which favoured the French monarchs.139
In the German States, there did not evolve a national Church, like in France or
Spain, but numerous territorial Churches developed. They were headed by bishops
and archbishops, who had ecclesiastical and often sovereign secular authority. On Ger-
man soil, the opposition to the Roman centralism was deeply rooted already since
the Council of Constance. This also became one of the sources of the Protestant
confessionalisation, and it did not disappear completely from the Catholic territories,
either. The antipathy against the papal centralisation revived at the beginning of the
seventeenth century. However, such a strong mental background that the Gallicanism
offered to France never occurred. The episcopalist interpretation of the program of
Trent found a breeding ground owing to the individual bishop-landlord territories,
true, this evolved into a somewhat consistent movement, the so-called Febronianism,
only in the eighteenth century. On the other hand, the Papacy could avoid the main
danger, the election of a Protestant emperor and was able to keep the vital Catholic
State structures in the Imperium, even if these were shaken by the Peace of West-
phalia in many places.140
The basis of the German Catholicism in the early modern period was laid down
by the Concordat of Vienna (1448) by Frederick III (14401493). The election of the
bishops, including the imperial ecclesiastical electors, remained mostly the right of the
cathedral chapters. Yet, the pope could interpose his veto here as well, if the nominee
did not meet the necessary requirements. The chapters right to fill the episcopal sees
became firmly established for centuries in the German States. In contrast to the ap-
pointed bishops of the monarchs (episcopi nominati) according canon law, they were
only nominees , the elected bishops of the chapters (episcopi electi) had certain rights
even before the canonical institution: their election could be annulled only by the pope
and they could use their non-liturgical insignia even before their consecration. Above
all, they could practice all those spheres of authority, with which the chapter owned
at the time of vacancy: namely, except for the spiritual and liturgical functions that
required the episcopal consecration, the ecclesiastical (in spiritualibus) and the secular
(in temporalibus) jurisdiction.141
139
Ago, Innocenzo XII, 403.
140
Cf. Fritz Viegner, Gallikanismus und episkopalistische Strmungen im deutschen Katholizismus zwischen
Tridentinum und Vaticanum. Studien zur Geschichte der Lehre von dem Universalepiskopat und der Unfehlbarkeit
des Papstes, HZ 111 (1913) 495581, 503435; Hansgeorg Molitor, Die untridentinische Reform. Anfnge
katholischer Erneuerung in der Reichskirche, Ecclesia Militans I, 499512; Heinrich Lutz, Die Konfessions-
problematik auerhalb des Reiches und in der Politik des Papsttums, ARG 56 (1965) 209227.
141
All in detail: Konrad Repgen, Der Bischof Zwischen Reformation, Katholischer Reform und Konfessi-
onsbildung (15151650); and Heribert Raab, Bischof und Frst der Germania Sacra zwischen westflischen
Frieden und Skularisation (16501803), Der Bischof in seiner Zeit, Bischofstypus und Bischofsideal im
Spiegel der Klner Kirche. Festgabe fr Joseph Kardinal Hffner, Erzbischof von Kln (hrsg. v. Peter

The concordat of 1448 let the Holy See keep the direct right to appoint the owners
of several German benefices. Rome could reserve the filling of those benefices with
full powers, of which bearer died in the Curia; of which owner was displaced, deprived
or replaced by the pope; or whose election was invalidated. The same held for the
cardinals, legates, internuncios, papal officials German benefices, for those Germans
who were in curial service or who died on the way to Rome and those who got into
possession with papal permission since any incompatibility. In return, the Apostolic
See renounced the granting of the capitular senior dignitaries right of conferring
benefices.142
The contract with Frederick III did not limit the influx of the Church taxes and
annates into Rome. In the course of the Protestant reformation, much more money
went to Rome from the German States than from Spain or France, which the Ger-
mans were well aware of. In parallel, the German secular princes gained significant
influence over certain local Churches already before Luther. In 1446, Frederick III, for
instance, obtained the right of appointment of six bishoprics and some hundred smaller
benefices in the hereditary provinces. This circle increased further on. The possibility
of numerous cloisters visitation and reformation was also the result of the compromise.
The concordat of 1447 with the Elector of Brandenburg relinquished three bish-
oprics privilege of filling along with numerous canonicates. The Elector of Saxony
also acquired similar privileges.143
Luthers aim was to radicalise and elaborate an already existing practice; to realise
the reform of the Church by the emperor and the secular princes. The principle cuius
regio eius religio of the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 fully entrusted the princes with their
territories religious regulation. The pope neither confirmed this, nor did he reject it,
however, he urged the princes to make use of their rights to regulate the religion and
to consolidate Catholicism in their principality. It should be noted that in the Protestant
Berglar Odilo Engels), Kln 1986, 245314 and 315347; finally comprehensively Bireley, The Refash-
ioning of Catholicism, 75.
142
August Franzen, Eine Krise der deutschen Kirche im 17. Jahrhundert?, RQ 49 (1954) 56111, 67; Kinder-
mann, Das landesfrstliche Ernennungsrecht, 8689.
143
On certain concordats and the practice in the early modern period ibid., furthermore (with the data
of numerous sub-studies) Johann Rainer, Die Politik der Bischofsernennung in sterreich 16481803, RQ 85
(1990) 225235, 225232; Peter Gradauer, Fragen um das Patronatsrecht in sterreich unter besonderer Be-
rcksichtigung der Dizese Linz, sterreichisches Archiv fr Kirchenrecht 18 (1967) 164177. The elaboration
of the Austrian relations with positivist profoundness: Ludwig Wahrmund, Das Kirchenpatronatsrecht und
seine Entwicklung in Oesterreich. I: Die kirchliche Rechtsentwicklung. II: Die staatliche Rechtsentwicklung, Wien
18941896. A case study among many on the problems of the filling of the bishoprics from the seventeenth
century: Johann Rainer, Die ppstlichen Provisionen fr Bremen und Magdeburg im Jahre 1628, Rmische
Kurie. Kirchliche Finanzen. Vatikanisches Archiv II, 727740. On the problems of the imperial Catholic
confessionalisation a still exemplary elaboration: August Franzen, Der Wiederaufbau des kirchlichen Lebens
im Erzbistum Kln unter Ferdinand von Bayern Erzbischof von Kln 16121650 (Reformationsgeschichtliche
Studien und Texte 6971), Mnster 1941. On the difficulties of the dioceses foundation, also Johann
Rainer, Die Entwicklung der Dizesaneinteilung Innersterreichs, Die Gegenreformation in Innersterreich,
267278; and Projekte zur Errichtung, 113136.

parts the Church had even more State control than in the Catholic territories, as it is
shown by the limited but legal results of the agreement signed by the duke of Bava-
ria for that matter, it was the last in the series of the early concordats in 1583.144
The supposedly solved questions of 1448 constituted the source of the general
problems of the German-papal relations, still in the seventeenth century. In the case
of smaller benefices if it was supported by law Rome always endeavoured to enforce
the reservations. Yet, the imperial bishops spared no money and energy to obtain the
right of conferring benefices of their diocese-dioceses (indulta conferendi beneficia per
Dioeceses curae meae commissas said the related phrase of the petitions) in the form
of personal papal indultum. Besides, the papal intervention to the election of bishops
was regular. The gravest incident was the filling of the bishoprics of Paderborn in
16591661. Alexander VII, against the canons, managed the election of a locally resid-
ing bishop.145 Above all, the Holy See firmly forbade the accumulation of benefices:
neither the bishoprics, nor the canonries and abbeys. These happened already in the
spirit of Trent, yet, since the curial practice was also characterised by many abuses,
the strenuous protests of the German clergy, who had counter interests, were under-
standable to a certain degree.146
The other field of the conflicts was constituted by the dispensations. It was nev-
er accepted in the German Church that in external forum dispensation could be
given exclusively by the Apostolic See. On the basis of the early medieval tradition,
the German bishops continuously employed this privilege. (Until the twelfth century
the metropolitans and bishops could indeed give dispensation to disobey Church rules;
from Innocent III [11981216] the Curia maintained this right.) In the first half of
the seventeenth century, Rome tried to solve the problem by automatically bestowing
the faculties on the German bishops for the usual five-year-long term. Despite the
resilience of the Curia they normally failed to apply for prolongation. Mainly due to
this unique practice of dispensations, the sharpest fight of jurisdiction with the papal
nuncios who also lived with these faculties developed in the German territories.
In addition, there were also heated debates on the appeal to higher tribunal con-
cerning the trials of the ecclesiastical courts. The bishop of Lttich, for instance, did
not know, or did not want to know whether the appeals had to be forwarded to the
metropolitan court, to the nuncio or directly to Rome. His case was hardly anomalous.
The justification of the nunciatures jurisdiction was roughly accepted in ecclesiastical
cases, though, the civil affairs (enforcement of last wills, the administration of a will)
were followed by strives. The nuncios efforts to extend their jurisdiction were based
on the tradition of the Tridentine reform nunciatures and on several exempt insti-
144
145
Franzen, Eine Krise der deutschen Kirche, 6769; on the crises of the middle of the seventeenth century,
more: Jrgensmeier, Johann Philipp von Schnborn (16051673) und die Rmische Kurie, 209288.
146
On the various types and techniques of the German benefice-accumulation: Rudolf Reinhardt, Die Ku-
mulation von Kirchenmtern in der deutschen Kirche der Frhen Neuzeit, Papsttum und Kirchenreform, 589512.

tutions, namely those which were free from the jurisdiction of the diocesan bishop.
The other reasons for the conflict between the hierarchy and the papal legates can
be found in the lack of a central authority, which threw hindrances upon State in-
terests. In the case of Luzern, for instance, the urban magistracy, belligerent towards
the bishop, proved to be the effectual ally of their accredited nuncio.147
In concert with each other the three ecclesiastical electors raised objections to the
jurisdiction of the nuncios at Urban VIII, already in 1643. Their protest was renewed
in 1653. The episcopalist tendency started to spread after Westphalia. In 1660, the
archbishop of Cologne entertained the thought of summoning a German national
council. The bishop of Strasbourg, Franz Egon von Frstenberg, who was regarded
as the follower of the French orientation, thought about to establish an all-German,
independent (from Rome) system of conferring benefices.
The opposition of Church politics, however, was not to the Papacy and the Church,
there were only sub-problems. After Tridentinum the unity of the Church and the Pa-
pacy proved to be rather strong. This community could not be assaulted by the move-
ments of the seventeenth century against the papal centralism, even in the German
principalities, they were practically episodic. The idea of the united imperial Church
(Reichskirche) headed by the emperor, in the frame of the Germania Sacras idea, oc-
curred seriously only in the eighteenth century.148
The relations of the Papacy and the particular Churches were even more eventful
and richer than the above detailed ones; not to mention the fact that Ireland, the
Spanish-Low Countries, Portugal and Poland for instance were not mentioned and
in the previous chapters they were just sporadically cited. Yet, it might be unneces-
sary to list the data like in an encyclopaedia: hopefully the main courses, processes
and characteristics are well demonstrated in all the chosen fields of the history of the
Baroque Papacy.
147
Gallikanismus und episkopalistische Strmungen, 520523; Franzen, Eine Krise der deutschen Kirche, 6167;
Maier, Die Luzerner Nuntiatur und die Konstanzer Bischfe, 513536; Braun, Der Lausanner Bischof, 5984.
On the monographic positivist elaboration of the faculties problems: Leo Mergentheim, Die Quinquennal-
fakultten pro foro externo. Beitrag zur Techniche der Gegenreformation (Kirchenrechtliche Abhandlungen 5253),
Amsterdam 19652. The fights with the nuncios and the exempt monastic congregations were abundantly re-
corded by the ad limina reports sent to Rome: August Franzen, Die Romberichte der Klner Erzbischfe im
17. Jahrhundert, RQ 53 (1958) 185220, 194196. An early example for the debate with the nuncios of Vienna
over jurisdiction: Hermann Tchle, Die Wiener Karfreitagskommunion von 1630. Zugleich ein Beitrag zum
Frh-Episkopalismus, Festschrift Franz Loidl, I, 396413. In parallel to the spread of the Church adminis-
trational legal claims, the elaboration of any Catholicising programs of comprehensive nature regarded as
a rare bird among the imperial nuncios. An outstanding exception true, in the Hungarian relation was
Gaspare Matteis, the nuncio of Vienna. Pter Tusor, A ppai diplomcia javaslatai 1639-ben a Szentszk
rszvtelre a magyarorszgi katolikus restaurciban [The Proposals of the Papal Diplomacy in 1639 for the Holy
Sees Participation in the Catholic Restoration of Hungary], A Rday Gyjtemny vknyve IX, ed. by Lajos
Fr, Budapest 1999, 1938.
148
Franzen, Eine Krise der deutschen Kirche, 72 and 108111.

Hungary was not discussed either, which can be explained from another angle.
Since, by not underestimating the results of the positivist historiography, the relations
of Hungary to the Apostolic See of the early modern period are awaiting to be ex-
plored in their real profundity.149
149
Apart from the already noted sub-studies, two preliminary outlines: Pter Tusor: A magyar Egyhz s
Rma a 17. szzadban [The Hungarian Church and Rome in the Seventeenth Century], Vigilia 64 (1999) 503513;
[Idem], A magyar hierarchia s a ppasg a 17. szzadban (Problmk s fordulpontok) [The Hungarian Hier-
archy and the Papacy in the Seventeenth Century (Problems and Turning Points) ], Szzadok 136 (2002) 527545.

VII
Other Perspectives
Our analysis is more or less complete, as it was stated by the last sentences of the
previous chapter. Naturally, the accent did not fall on completeness, since as we saw
such important circumstances, like Clement VIIIs deep piety and lifestyle; Clement Xs
humble, sympathetic and willing personality; Urban VIII, Alexander VII and Clement
IXs poetic vein, lyrical poetry did not occur.1 However, these are the complement of
a holistic picture just as well as the ability to see the historical events in their entirety:
in all respects, the Borghese pontificate, which formed the actual overture for our time
travel, was at the same time as the period of transition and counterbalancing. There
was no such reform spirit like under Pius V and Sixtus V, though, the Barberinis loss
of power and their dynastic policy were still embryonic.2
The final evaluation of the Barberini era is much more complicated than the elabora-
tion of Paul V or Gregory XVs short pontificate. It is mainly due to the impossibility of
such dissimilar categories comparison, like the measure of the aid spent on the wars of
Castro, the nepotism, or on the futile attempt of an Irish revolt (this cost 120 thousand
scudi), and like the successes of Catholicisation in Bohemia and Moravia; or like on the
one hand the suppression of the female Jesuits, on the other hand the espousal of other
orders, like the French Vincentians and the Pauline Fathers. The simultaneous handling
of the repression of the Spanish influence in Italy and the defence of the sovereignty of the
Ecclesiastical State, in the meantime the realistic administration of the divided in con-
fessionalisation and in bloody battles Europes problems meant an unsolvable dilemma
not only in the discussed period, but also for the present day historians. However, there is
no doubt that Urban VIIIs traditional and strictly juridical attitude and his secret game
with Richelieu in 16281632, which did not remain hidden from the Habsburgs, caused
the most detrimental consequences; moreover they delivered the Holy See over to the
French. Their effects were already felt by the Barberini Pope in the early 1640s, when
that Jules Mazarin became the head of the French politics who, as Giulio, used to be
the active participant of the papal foreign affairs manoeuvres. What is more, after hav-
1
Borromeo, Clemente VIII, 253; Osbat, Clemente X, 367; Aemilius Springhetti, Urbanus VIII P.M.
poeta Latinus et hymnorum breviarii emendator, AHP 6 (1968) 163190; [Idem], Alexander VII P.M. poeta
Latinus, AHP 1 (1963) 265294.
2

ing failed to approach the Spanish or German world, Urban VIIIs isolation became
extended by the end of his pontificate.3
Neither could his four successors break this overwhelming isolation. The Curia
could make progress only in its alteration adjusting to confessional and political condi-
tions. The role of the youthful squadron volante is undeniable similarly to the other
scenes of curial life in this; despite the fact that the restructuring of the papal admin-
istration established under Sixtus V was independent from the factions of the College
of Cardinals, from certain popes and cardinals; it went along the inner logic which was
asserted in the long run.4
In addition to all, the possibility of the all-European contribution, realised under the
shadow of the Ottoman threat, was more and more given shape by the beginning of
the 1670s. The most outstanding pope of the seventeenth century was unambiguously
Innocent XI. He set the execution of three equally urgent programs as the focus of his
pontificate: 1. the rehabilitation of the budget as an answer to the unfavourable economical
and financial tendencies; 2. the reorganisation of the Curia in harmony with the changed
social environment, and the dissolution of useless offices and mechanisms; 3. finally the
solving of international problems: namely the stopping of the Ottoman expansion and
the handling of Louis XIVs aggressive politics.5 His strong personality could change the
old-established customs, though it opened too many fronts. At home, he was against
nepotism, in foreign policy against the French who prepared for the final showdown
with the Spanish, and the Ottomans. The reconstruction of finances was successful;
however, he could not completely abolish nepotism yet. The expulsion of the Turkish
forces from Europe succeeded ambiguously, the launch of an overall crusade failed to
happen. Finally, the liberation from the French tutelage was brought about only by his
pontificate, and he had to pay a huge price for every result. However, he could not last-
ingly restore the leading position of the Holy See in the scene of European politics; he
established the central role that temporarily stopped the marginalisation of power. In-
nocent XI endeavoured to reconsider the place and role of the Holy See in Europe on
moral grounds. His efforts fell through due to the French oppositions.6 Similarly to the
restoration of the State budget, he succeeded in choosing his colleagues, it was emphatic
when he ensured his succession in the person of Antonio Pignatelli by creating him a
cardinal. After the standstill caused by the Ottobonis, Pignatelli not only strengthened
the inner reforms from 1692, but continued them, as well.7
This successful consolidation, however, of which professionalism determined the
aspect of the papal court until the twentieth century, partly until these days, was in-
3
4
This latter aspect is emphasised by: Antonio Menniti Ippolito, La Curia romana al tempo di Gre-
gorio Barbarigo, Gregorio Barbarigo patrizio veneto vescovo e cardinale nella tarda controriforma, 129146,
129134, 132.
5
6
7

Other Perspectives 277
commensurable with the pioneering development of the Catholic reform at the end of
the sixteenth century. At the end of a complex political, mental, economical and so-
cial course, Rome as well as all the confessions could not act the role of the radical
modernisations main force. As the careful rationalisation of religion swung into an
all-embracing secularisation, the economical and social let us say determinations,
despite its superb position, deprived the Papal State also of its Italian leading role. But
for this process, the unification of Italy would have been realised before the nineteenth
century with the guidance of the popes.8 Yet, the century of the triumph of reason
and sense, the evolution of the modern great powers and the despotism and revolu-
tion, did not yield the crown of Italy for the successors of Saint Peter, but the extreme
intensification of the problems.
On the field of politics, these were represented by the War of the Spanish Succession
and its heavy consequences. In the autumn of 1708 and at the beginning of 1709, the
Habsburgs forced Clement XI (17001721) to acknowledge the greediest Habsburg, or
rather Austrian, demands ever.9 The French problems of diplomacy and protocol in the
late seventeenth century were replaced by the clashes with the Habsburgs.10 Although,
this was not the period of Enlightened absolutism yet, despite the grave political tensions,
there was a certain spiritual unity with the deeply religious Charles VI (III) (17111740);11
Clement XIs dream of liberating Jerusalem created no stir at all. Eugene of Savoys glo-
rious victory at Belgrade and the Treaty of Passarowitz of 1718 put an end to the Ottoman
expansion.12 The French revolutionary occupation temporarily perpetrated the same on
the Papal State, which did not play a single role in the great conflicts of the eighteenth
century. Bonaparte wanted to lay hands also on the history of Papacy by removing the
archives of the Holy See.13
In the economic field impoverishment, in the social field the total lack of mobiliza-
tion became determining, in the papal court neo-nepotism reoccurred, however without
grave consequences. Clement XI did not support his relatives; his secretary was the loyal
Fabrizio Paolucci; though, by the request of the cardinals he appointed Annibale Al-
8
Cf. Delumeau, Political and Administrative Centralization, 303304.
9
F. Pometti, Studii sul pontificato di Clemente XI 17001721. I, ASRSP 22 (1899) 278457. II: Lultima
lotta della Cristianit contro lOsmanesimo, 22 (1899) 109179. III, 23 (1900) 239276 and 449515, I, 293457;
Norbert Huber, sterreich und der Hl. Stuhl,, Wien 1967, 2735; Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allas-
solutismo, 722725.
10
Huber, sterreich und der Hl. Stuhl vom Ende des spanischen Erbfolgekrieges, 88107 and 108147.
11
Ibid., 206212; see also Rudolf Reinhard, Der Kampf der rmischen Kurie gegen die nicht-kniglichen Ersten
Bitten in der deutschen Reichskirche (I. Hlfte des 18. Jahrhunderts), Zeitschrift fr Rechtsgeschichte 86 (Ka-
nonistische Abteilung), 282321; Leo Just, Die Rmische Kurie und das Reich unter Kaiser Karl VII (17401745),
HZ 153 (1932) 389400.
12
Petrocchi, La politica della Santa Sede, 99100.
13
Remigius Ritzler, Die Verschleppung der ppstlichen Archive nach Paris unter Napoleon I. und deren
Rckfhrung nach Rom in den Jahren 1815 bis 1817, RHM 67 (19621964) 144190.

bani cardinal in 1713. Innocent XIIIs (Michelangelo dei Conti, 17211724) secretary of
State became the experienced Giorgio Spinola, however he made his brother, Bernardo
Maria cardinal at the first chance. This was the first after long decades. The threats of
the rebirth of nepotism were unfounded. After his death in 1724, he was not even given
a tomb in the Saint Peters Basilica, which was a contemporary norm among the cardi-
nals and papal family as a posthumous gratitude.
The pontificate of the ascetic pope, Benedict XIII (Vincenzo Maria Orsini, 17241730)
is perfectly described by the phrase of Ludwig von Pastor, namely it is not enough to be
a good regular for becoming a good pope. The Orsini Pope entrusted his surroundings
of Benevento with the substance of governing. (Before his election, he used to be the
archbishop of this place.) Niccol Maria Lercari became his secretary of State in 1726,
however the Curia was effectively led by Niccol Coscia, the head of the Secretariat
of Memorials. The continuous abuses of the Beneventan party harmed the prestige
of the Apostolic See a lot. According to certain exaggerated estimations, they collected
two million scudi after just a year. The judgement of their activities cannot be counter-
balanced by the fact that the relatives of the pope gained no ground that time. There
can hardly be drawn a line between them and nepotism. Also the public opinion of
the time would have tolerated the support of the papal relatives more, which could not
have appeared in such an extreme form due to the historical preliminaries. Just like the
Barberinis, Coscia and his surroundings had to flee from the lynching spirits, spread-
ing in the Eternal City. The trial against him, his excommunication and his ten-year
imprisonment in the Castel Sant Angelo recalled the examples of the Carafas from the
middle of the sixteenth century.
Presumably in close connection with the events of the 1730s, the next decade was all
about nepotism. Clement XII (Lorenzo Corsini, 17301740) could not resist the temp-
tation of granting his nephews. He bestowed the commandership of the papal cavalry
on Bartolomeo, the leadership of the Secretariat of Memorials, then the red hat on Neri
Corsini. Some fifty years after the publication of the Decet Romanum Pontificem there
were papal relatives in secular as well as ecclesiastical positions. Not only did the nep-
otism of Clement XII represent a gentle version it was impossible that the control
of the Secretariat of State would fall into the hands of the nephews instead of Antonio
Banchieri, then after 1733 instead of Giacomo Firrao , but it was also only an interme-
diate occurrence. The spirit of Innocent XI and XII returned with Benedict XIV (Pros-
pero Lambertini, 17401758). The vital pope controlled every case instead of his cardinal
Secretaries of State: Valenti Gonzaga and from 1756, Alberico Archinto. Exceptionally,
Archinto was kept in his position by the new pope, Clement XIII (Carlo Rezzonico
17581769), though, shortly after he died and was succeeded by Cardinal Luigi Torri-
giani in 1758.
The reign of Clement XIII proves that the cyclic character of the earlier nepotism
appeared also in its more moderated type, in the neo-nepotism of the eighteenth cen-
tury. After the twenty puritan years of the Lambertini Pope, as one of his first ac-
tions, he appointed Carlo Rezzonico (who had similar name) a cardinal and the head

of the Secretariat of Memorials, which could be considered the entail of neo-nepotism.

The personage of the late cardinal nephew was not the only one to haunt. In 1765, Ab-
bondio Rezzonico received the toga of Romes senator, which formed a parallel to Tad-
deo Barberinis prefecture.
The successor, Clement XIV (Giovanni Antonio Ganganelli, 17691774) entrusted
the management of the cases to a more ambitious Franciscan, to Innocenzo Buontempi
instead of cardinal secretary of State Pallavicini. Pallavicini could not gain significant
influence under Pius VI (Giovanni Angelo Braschi), either, just like his successor, Igna-
zio Boncompagni, who ceded his position to the seventy-two-year old Cardinal Zelada
after four years. Pius VI, who immediately removed Buontempi from the Curia with
his motu proprio, was the last representative of neo-nepotism. Not only did he create
Romualdo Onesti-Braschi cardinal in 1786 then the head of the Secretariat of Briefs, but,
according to an old custom, he also arranged the marriage of Luigi, his other nephew,
with an ancient Roman family, the Falconieri. Likewise, he tried to provide the new
aristocratic family. Luigi Braschi obtained the estates of the dissolved Jesuits in Tivoli
and by the mediation of Pius VI he became the heir of Amanzio Lepri, the knight of
Malta, who possessed a legendary fortune. This case led to an open scandal, since every-
body was concerned that the sum of 1.5 million scudi was acquired dishonestly by Lepris
father when he was an official of the papal duties. The will was attacked by the relatives
in court in 1785. The trial finally ended with the sharing of the considerable heritance
between Marianna Lepri and the papal nephew in the year of evil omen, in 1789. The
Palazzo Braschi raises a monument to the memory of the last burst of neo-nepotism in
the eighteenth century.
In retrospect the bull of Innocent XII with dissolving the profusion of unnecessary
offices and with sealing the tap of the incomes outflow can be regarded as very effec-
tive, however, it could not supply a proper frame for the future development. Yet, it
produced serious success in the sense that: the peak of neo-nepotism of the eighteenth
century, Clement XII and Pius VIs pontificate was far from even the moderated ma-
nifestations of the institutionalised nepotism of the sixteenth seventeenth centuries.
Neo-nepotism, however, was absolutely dysfunctional; it restricted only to the support
of the relatives, while in the earlier times, as we have seen, the cardinal nephews, for
example, played important roles which could not be filled by anybody else in the
maintenance and representation of the sovereign papal power.
On the other hand, the cardinal secretaries of State, who often replaced the nephews,
could not sufficiently control the inner curial dynamics in the eighteenth century, despite
their administrational experience gained through their career. The vacuum created by
this lack was filled by various concerns, yet never by the relatives of the pope, however,
sometimes they for instance instead of Coscia an Orsini would have meant a more
calming guarantee for directing a less practical or contemplative popes administration.
Consequently, the proposals related to the maintenance of the very moderated and limit-
ed (especially in the field of allowances) form of the institutionalised nepotism in the
light of the post-experience oddly were not that groundless. A role, like that of Alde-

rano Cybo, could not be filled by the cardinal secretaries of State in the eighteenth cen-
tury yet. In spite of the obvious continuity, the system established by Innocent XI and
XII started to function without serious troubles after a century-long gap and it was
hallmarked by such names, like Consalvi, Merry del Val, Gasparri, or Eugenio Pacel-
li, who became later Pius XII (19391958) from the position of the secretary of State.14
In the field of Church life, the intended effect in the question of Jansenism, which
already passed the borders of France, was not reached even by the bull Unigenitus Dei
Filius (1713), which meant to be the final measure. Many Catholics disagreed with its
content and they expected its withdrawal, especially under Benedict XIV, the most sig-
nificant pope of the eighteenth century. In joint forces, Clement XI and Louis XIV had
the Port-Royal abbey ruined in vain in 1710, Jansenism influenced the life of the Church
more than ever in the following decades. It reached Italy, as well, where complete semi-
nars, like the one in Padua, as well as many cardinals, like Giuseppe Sinelli who directed
the conclave of 1758 openly sympathised with its theses. Its elements can be found both
in Josephinism and in the German Febronianism, which concluded the episcopalist ideas.
Namely, the Jansenists strikingly bore understanding to the tremendously rationalised
administration. They hoped to achieve not only theological reforms with the support
of the State, but the purification of the Church. The more and more autarchic State
expected the spiritual movement to accomplished those tasks that it wanted to impose
on the Church in the organisation of the civil society and to press back the property
of the Church, which in certain countries reached the 60% of the estates. The close
connection between the Jansenist bench of bishops and the State power threatened the
total setting the Papacys leading role aside, especially in France, Portugal, Naples and
to a certain extent Hungary.
The absolutism of the eighteenth century, which relied on the ideology of Enlight-
enment that imagined any modernisation out of the framework of confessionalisa-
tion could not justify entertaining the Jansenist hopes to make any theology-related
changes. The hampering of the intransigent anti-Jansenist and loyal to Rome Jesuits
missions in Asia and South America (for instance the ban of the Chinese rite and the
elimination of the so-called reductions), then their liquidation can hardly be listed here.
The names of the secular ministers, the Portuguese Pombal and the Neapolitan Ta-
nucci, who fought for their dissolution, were explicitly entwined with anti-Catholicism.
Pius VIs bull of 1794, Auctorem fidei delivered the fatal blow for the Jansenists, who
had still triumphed on the council of Pistoia in 1786. It had close connection with the
old-new perception that any reform of Catholicism without Rome was not only mean-
ingless but impossible, as well.15
14
With further literature on the history of the Papacy in the eighteenth century: Menniti Ippolito,
Il tramonto della Curia nepotista, 154158.
15
Karl Otmar von Aretin, The Papacy and the Modern World, London 1970, 1527, especially 1520;
Matteucci, Il papato di fronte allassolutismo, 726727 and 728766.

In contrast to the ancien rgimes absolutism, the French Revolutions civil State not
only wanted to use the clergy for accomplishing certain tasks, but it wanted to completely
integrate it into the system of State bureaucracy.16 Josephinism was also developed in this
sense, therefore the reform of the former system under Leopold II (17901792) was im-
possible, since the Church structures had already infiltrated into the State machinery.17
However, in spite of the administrative obstacles of the local hierarchies connection
to Rome, the nuncios limited scope for action and the graver and graver conflicts, the
monarchies of the ancien rgime did not fund independent State Churches. They had
some sort of relations to the Apostolic See, by giving chance to a spectacular turn at
the beginning of the nineteenth century, which was hallmarked by the Holy Alliance.18
Mauro Cappellari, Camaldolese monk, published his work, Il trionfo della Santa Sede
e della Chiesa in 1799. The treatise of the later Gregory XVI (18311846) already fore-
shadowed the picture of the Church and Papacy in the age of restoration. Not only did
it revive the Papal State which was suspended by the troops of the French Revolution,
but it also brought the transitory renaissance of Catholicism, and then led directly to the
dogmatisation of the papal infallibility at the First Vatican Council (18691870). However,
as the political system after the fall of Napoleon became temporary, in the 18601870s
the State of the Church could neither survive the fatal smiting of liberalism and nation-
alism. Nevertheless, these blows proved to be ephemeral again due to the consolidation
of the Papacy standing on only spiritual grounds in the twentieth century.19
16
Aretin, The Papacy and the Modern World, 2021.
17
Kovcs, Die sterreichische Kirche, 335349.
18
Umberto DellOrto, Die Wiener Nuntiatur im 18. Jahrhundert unter besonderer Bercksichtigung der
Nuntiatur von Giuseppe Garampi (17761778), Kurie und Politik, 175207.
19
In detail: Aretin, The Papacy and the Modern World, 21243; and an outstanding conclusion: Frank J.
Coppa, The Modern Papacy since 1789 (Longman History of the Papacy [1]), New York 1998, 1732. 3349.
5066. 67258.

Appendix
I
The Archontology of the Popes
and Important Curial Officials (cca 16001700)
Popes1
Clement VIII
(Ippolito Aldobrandini, 30 January 15923 March 1605)
Coronation: 9 February 1592
Leo XI
(Alessandro deMedici, 1 April 160527 April 1605)
Coronation: 10 April 1605
Paul V
(Camillo Borghese, 16 May 160528 January 1621)
Coronation: 29 May 1605
Gregory XV
(Alessandro Ludovisi, 9 February 16218 July 1623)
Coronation: 14 February 1621
Urban VIII
(Maffeo Barberini, 6 August 162329 July 1644)
Coronation: 29 September 1626
Innocent X
(Giovanni Battista Pamphili, 15 September 16447 January 1655)
Coronation: 4 October 1644
Alexander VII
(Fabio Chigi, 7 April 165522 May 1667)
Coronation: 18 April 1655
1
Their accurate list of names and their data can be found in numerous clergy registers, archontologies and
in the volumes of the annually published Annuario Pontificio.

284 Appendix
Clement IX
(Giulio Rospigliosi, 20 June 16679 December 1669)
Coronation: 27 June 1667
Clement X
(Emilio Altieri, 29 April 167022 July 1676)
Coronation: 11 May 1670
Innocent XI
(Benedetto Odescalchi, 21 September 167612 August 1689)
Alexander VIII
(Pietro Ottoboni, 6 October 16891 February 1691)
Innocent XII
(Antonio Pignatelli, 12 July 169127 September 1700)
Coronation: 15 July 1691
Cardinal nephews2
Cardinali nipoti
Scipione (Caffarelli)-Borghese (16051621)

Ludovico Ludovisi (16211623)
Francesco Barberini (16231644)
Camillo Pamphili (16441647)
[Francesco Maidalchini (1647)]
Camillo (Astalli)-Pamphili (16501653)
Flavio Chigi (16571667)
Giacomo Rospigliosi (16671669)
Paluzzo (Albertoni)-Altieri (16701676)
Pietro Ottoboni (16891691)
I could not find their names in similar list in any archontologies. Their compilation was in accordance
2
with the information and literature of this volume.

Appendix 285
Secretariat of State
Segreteria di Stato
Secretaries of State
Erminio Valenti (1605)3
Lanfranco Margotti (16051611)4
Martio Malacrida 16051609)
Porfirio Feliciani (16111621)
Giovanni Battista Perugino (16111613)
Giovanni Battista Agucchia (16211623)
Lorenzo Magalotti (16231628)5
Lorenzo Azzolini (16281632)
Pietro Benessa (16321634)6
Francesco Adriano Ceva (16341643)
Giovanni Battista Spada (16431644)
Cardinal secretaries of State

Giovanni Giacomo Panziroli (16441651)
Fabio Chigi (16511655)
Giulio Rospigliosi (16551667)
Decio Azzolini (16671669)
Federico Borromeo (16701673)
Francesco Nerli (16731676)
Alderano Cybo (16761689)
Giovanni Battista Rubini (16891691)
Fabrizio Spada (16911700)
Fabrizio Paolucci (17001721)7
Secretariat of Briefs
Segreteria dei Brevi
Secretaries
Marcello Vestri Barbiani (15901606)
3
Cardinal from 1604.
4
Cardinal from 1610.
5
Cardinal from 1624.
6
As the confidant of the cardinal nephew without actual appointment, as an administrator.
7
Semmler, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 109123; Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 70100; Re, La
Curia Romana, 7475; Serafini, Le origini della pontificia segreteria di Stato, 201205; Wagner, Die Bestnde
des Archivio della Nunziatura Vienna, 8384.

286 Appendix
Scipione Cobeluzzi (16061623)8

Volpiano Volpio (16231627)
Marco Aurelio Maraldi (16271651)9
Francesco Gaetani (16511652)
Gualtiero Gualtieri (16521659)
Stefano Ugolini (16591666)
Giovanni Gualtiero Slusio (16661686)10
Giovanni Francesco Albani (16871700)
Fabio Olivieri (17001738)11
Secretariat of Briefs to Princes

Segreteria dei Brevi ai Principi
Marcello Vestri Barbiani (15901603)

Marzio Malacrida (16031605)
Pietro Strozzi (16051618)
Scipione Cobeluzzi (16181621?)12
Giovanni Ciampoli (16211632)13
Francesco Herrera (16321635)
Felice Contelori (1644)
Gaspare Simeoni (16441648)
Francesco Nerli (16481653)
Decio Azzolini (16531654)
Natale Rondanini (??)
Mario Spinola (1670?1697)
Ulisse Gozzadini (16971711)14
8
At Kraus from 1605.
9
At Kraus until 1649.
10
Between Slusio, the first cardinal secretary of the Briefs and Giovanni Francesco Albani (the later
Clement XI) Giovanni Battista Arrighi was a prosegretario.
11
Serafini, Le origini della pontificia segreteria di Stato, 211212; Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 276.
12
There is also Volpiano Volpio at Serafini, which was the result of the division of labour becoming a
habit after the occasional personal union between the two secretariats of briefs under Cobeluzzi.
13
At Kraus only from 1622; the data is from Jaitner, where the predecessor of Ciampoli was Gaspare
Paloni.
14
Serafini, Le origini della pontificia segreteria di Stato, 215216; Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat,
171176; Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Gregors XV., 189.

Appendix 287
Secretariat of Memorials
Segreteria dei Memoriali
Secretaries
Pietro Pavoni (the beginning of the seventeenth century)
Francesco Adriano Ceva (16051632)15
Angelo Geosio (Giori) (16321643)
Giovanni Maria Roscioli (16431644)16
Giuseppe Frenfanelli (16441655)
Celio Piccolomini (16551656)
Giacomo Filippo Nini (16561664)17
Nicola Piccolomini (16641676)
Giovanni Battista de Luca (16761683)
Francesco Liberati (16831689)
Raffaele Fabretti (16891691)
Carlo Augusto (Agostino) Fabbroni (16911695)
Giuseppe Gozzadini (16951700)
Curzio Origo (17001708)18
Apostolic Chancery
Cancellaria Apostolica
Vice-chancellors
Alessandro Peretti (15891623)
Francesco Barberini (16321679)19
Pietro Ottoboni (16891740)20
15
At Kraus only from 1623; at Jaitner the secretary under Gregory XV was the maestro di Camera Pi-
etro Pavoni.
16
Only at Kraus.
17
In the meantime, Volumnio Bandinelli had also this office.
18
Serafini, Le origini della pontificia segreteria di Stato, 207208; Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat,
277; Jaitner, Die Hauptinstruktionen Gregors XV., 190.
19
Innocent XI did not have a cardinal nephew; between 1680 and 1689 Cesare Facchinetti undertook the
tasks of the vice-chancellor, without bearing the title.
20
Re, La Curia Romana, 290291; HC IV, 58; HC V, 58; Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbch-
er, 174175.

288 Appendix
Apostolic Camera
Camera Apostolica
Camerlengos
Pietro Aldobrandini (15991621)
Ippolito Aldobrandini (16231638)
Antonio Barberini (16381671)21
Paluzzo Altieri (16711698)
Giovanni Battista Spinola (16981719)22
Apostolic Dataria
Dataria Apostolica
Dataries
Lucio Sasso (15901604)
Bernardino Paoloni (16041605)
Pompeo Arrigoni (16051607)
Michelangelo Tonti (16071609)
Aurelio Maraldi (16091621)
Francesco Sacrati (1621)
Volpiano Volpi (16211623)
Clemente Merlini (1623)23
Giacomo Cavalieri (16231626)24
Fabio di Lagonissa (16261627)
Egidio Orsini de Vivariis (16271644)25
Giovanni Battista Pamphili26
Domenico Cecchini (16441652)
Giovanni Bertucci (16521655)
Giacomo Corradi (16551666)
Pietro Ottoboni (16671670)
Gaspare Carpegna (16701676)
Sterano Agostini (16761683)
Francesco Liberati (16831689)
21
The procamerlengos under the exile in Paris: Federico Sforza (16451646) and Lorenzo Raggi (16501653).
22
Re, La Curia Romana, 308; HC IV, 58; HC V, 58; Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshandbcher, 167.
23
In the last days of Gregory XVs pontificate.
24
At Kraus: 16231625.
25
At Kraus: 16261644.
26
According to De Luca, the later pope was also the head of the Dataria for a short period of time under
Urban VIII.

Appendix 289
Bandino Panciatichi (16891700)

Giuseppe Sagripanti (17001721)27
Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary

Sacra Poenitentiaria Apostolica
Major Penitentiaries
Giulio Antonio Santoro (15921602)
Pietro Aldobrandini (16021605)
Cinzio Aldobrandini (16051610)
Scipione Borghese (16101633)
Antonio Barberini sen. (16331646)
Orazio Giustiniani (16471649)
Niccol Albergati-Ludovisi (16501687)
Leandro Colloredo (16881709)28
Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition

Suprema Sacra Congregazione della Romana e Universale Inquisizione
Cardinal secretaries
Camillo Borghese (16021605)
Pompeo Arrigoni (16051616)
Giovanni Garzia Mellini (16161629)29
Antonio Barberini sen. (16291633)30
Francesco Barberini (16331679)31
Cesare Facchinetti (16791683)
Galeazzo Marescotti (17001716)32
27
Storti, La storia e il diritto della Dataria Apostolica, 169172; Weber, Die ltesten ppstlichen Staatshand-
bcher, 168; Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 276277.
28
Re, La Curia Romana, 273.
29
At Kraus: Dionys Simon de Marquemont (1626).
30
At Kraus: 1629.
31
At Kraus: 16321640; then Giovanni Battista Pamphili and Giulio Roma (1643).
32
Re, La Curia Romana, 100101; Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 278279.

290 Appendix
Sacred Congregation of the Council

Sacra Congregazione del Concilio di Trento
Prefects
Girolamo Mattei (15911603)
Paolo Emilio Zacchia (16041605)
Francesco Maria Bourbon del Monte (16051616)
Orazio Lancellotti (16161620.)
Roberto Ubaldini (16211623)33
Cosimo de Torres (16231626)
Bonifacio Bevilacqua (16261627)
Fabrizio Verospi (16271639)
Giovanni Battista Pamphili (16391644)
Francesco Cennini (16441645)
Pietro Luigi Carafa (16451655)
Francesco Paolucci (16571661)
Giulio Sacchetti (16611663)
Angelo Celsi (16641671)
Vincenzo Maria Orsini (16731675)
Federico Baldeschi (Ubaldi) Colonna (16751691)
Galeazzo Marescotti (16921695)
Giuseppe Sagripanti (16961700)
Bandino Panciatichi (17001718)
Secretaries
Giulio Poggiani (15641568)
Achille Stazio (15651566)34
Giovanni Paolo Marincola (15681575)
Lorenzo Frizoglio (15841590)
Bruno Guarino (15901592)
Giovanni Francesco Fagnani (15921613)
Prospero Fagnani (16131626)35
Francesco Paolucci de Calboli (16261657)
Carlo de Vecchi (16571668)
Stefano Brancaccio (16681681)
Antonio Attovito (16811689)
Ranuccio Pallavicino (16901696)
33
At Kraus: Roberto Ubaldini (16271632), Giovanni Battista Pamphili (1633) ,Verospi (16361639), Giovanni
Battista Pamphili (1639), Carafa (1643).
34
He was the deputy of Poggiani during his journey to Milan.
35
At Kraus: G.B. Marini, G. Sacchetti (1626), F. Paolucci (16281644).

Appendix 291
Ferdinando Nuzzi (16961700)

Giovanni Domenico Thomato (17001704)36
The Sacred Congregation of Rites

Sacra Congregazione dei Riti
Prefects
Alfonso Gesualdo (15881603)
Tolomeo Galli (16031607)
Domenico Pinelli (16071611)
Francesco De Joyeuse (16111615)
Antonio Maria Galli (16151620)
Francesco Maria Borbon del Monte (16201626)
Giovanni Maria Deti (16261630)
Carlo Emmanuele Pio di Savoia (16301641)
Pietro Paolo Crescenzi (16411645)
Luigi Capponi (16451652)
Federico Cornaro (16521653)
Carlo de Medici (16531655)
Giulio Sacchetti (16551663)
Marzio Ginetti (16631671)
Antonio Barberini (16711671)
Francesco Maria Brancaccio (16711675)
Ulderico Carpegna (16751679)
Niccol Albergati-Ludovisi (16831687)
Gaspare Carpegna (17001714)
Secretaries
Giovanni Battista Stella (1588 [?] 1602)
Giovanni Paolo Mucanzio (16021617)
Pietro Giamaricono (16171622)
Giovanni Battista Rinuccini (16221625)
Giulio Benigni (16251627)
Fulvio Benigni (16271629)
Tegrino Tegrini (16291632)
Re, I cardinali prefetti della Sacra Congregazione del Concilio, 111124; Palazzini, Prospero Fagnani, Se-
36
gretario, 362363 and 377378; Re, La Curia Romana, 161162; Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 279.

292 Appendix
Giulio Cenci (16381642)

Carlo Pauluzzi di Calbulensi (16421644)
Marco Galli (16441648)
Girolamo Boncompagni (16481652)
Bernardino Rocci (16521654)
Francesco Maria Febei (16541662)
Bernardino Casali (16621689)
Lorenzo Fieschi (16891690)
Giuseppe Vallemani (16901692)
Bernardino Ingherami (16921713)
Promotori generali della Fede

Antonio Cerri (16311642) 37
Pietro Francesco De Rossi (16421673)
Prospero Bottini (16731712)38
Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith

Sacra Congregazione de Propaganda Fide
Prefects
Antonio Maria Sauli (16221622)
Ludovico Ludovisi (16221632)39
Antonio Barberini (16321671)40
Carlo Barberini (16981704)
Secretaries
Francesco Ingoli (16221649)
[Francesco Albizzi (1649)]41
Dionisio Massari (16491657)
Marco Alberici (Albrizzi) (16571664)
[Antonio Manfroni (16641666)]42
Girolamo Casanate (16661668)
37
Promotori fiscali: Giovanni Giacomo Nerotti: 15951597; Pompeo Molella: 16001601 and 1608 (?); Gio-
vanni Battista Stella: 16081621 and 1623 (?)
38
Giovanni Papa, Cardinali Prefetti, Segretari, Promotori Generali della Fede e Relatori Generali della Congre-
gazione, Congregazione per le Cause dei Santi, 423428, 423427.
39
At Kraus: Antonio Barberini Sen. (SantOnofrio) (16231632).
40
At Kraus: 16321644. With the title of a vice-prefect, though with authority of a prefect during the
exile in Paris: Luigi Capponi (16451653).
41
Prosegretario.
42
Prosegretario.

Appendix 293
Frederico Ubaldini (16681673)

[Urbano Cerri (16731675)]43
Francesco Ravizza (16731675)
Urbano Cerri (16751679)
[Domenico Corsi (1679)]44
Edoardo Cybo (16801695)45
II.
Currencies and Values
1. Coppers (change):
a) Quattrino
1 quattrino
16001709 = 3, 390 gram of copper
b) Baiocco (calculation moneys)
1 baiocco (also bolognino) = 5 quattrini
10 baiocco = 1 giulio (namely 50 quattrini = 1 giulio)
2. Silver:
a) Giulio (also paolo)
1 giulio
15541566 = 2,943 gram of silver
15661684 = 2,932 gram of silver
16841734 = 2,800 gram of silver
b) Scudo (di moneta) [it is used as scudo in this volume, sometimes as silverscudo]
1 scudo
15881684 = average 29,4 gram of silver
c) Scudo (di conto) (the so-called calculation money of the former) [as scudo, sometimes
as silverscudo due to the concordance of value]
In summary:
1 scudo, be it a coin or calculation money namely rudimentary paper-note , was
equivalent to 10 giulio (or paolo) or 100 baioccho (bolognino), and 500 quatrino.
43
Prosegretario.
44
Prosegretario.
45
Kraus, Das ppstliche Staatssekretariat, 277; Kowalsky, Serie dei cardinali prefetti, 161197; Re, La Cu-
ria Romana, 202.

294 Appendix
3. Gold:
a) Scudo doro in oro (always mentioned as goldenscudo)
1 scudo
15961719 = average 3,077 gram of gold
(Prior to that, the scudo doro del peso vecchio contained 3,043 gram of gold.)
b) Scudo doro delle stampe (the formers calculation money)
c) Ducato di Camera = 3,353 gram of gold (16th century)

1 cameralistic ducat = 10 grosso
4. Silver-gold-copper rates
Around 1530 for 1 goldenscudo 10 giulio, or 100 baioccho were given, at the end of the
sixteenth century the rates were already 1313,5 giulio (130135 baioccho), which re-
mained until the middle of the seventeenth century (the stabilisation is just seem-
ing, the gold content of the coins reduced to a certain degree). In 1673 it should be
multiplied already by 1,5, in 16891690 by 1,53.
5. The rates of the scudoforeign currencies

1 goldenscudo = cca 2,6 gulden
1 goldenscudo = cca 0,91 ducat
1 goldenscudo = cca 0,817 (Rhine) golden forint (namely 1 forint = cca 1,22 golden scudi)
1 (silver) scudo = cca 0,770,83 thaler (namely 1 thaler = 1,21,3 silver scudi)46
46
Reinhardt, berleben in der frhneuzeitlichen Stadt, xviii; Lutz, Zur Papstfinanz von Klemens IX, 4647,
notes 46. and 49; Reinhardt, Kardinal Scipione Borghese, xiv and 267303. 279293. 304340 [the annually
detailed rates of the silver-gold and other Italian currencies between 1605 and 1646]; Lutz, Rom und Eu-
ropa, 113; Albrecht, Zur Finanzierung des Dreigjhrigen Krieges, 539; Clergeac, La Curie et les bnfices,
278279, n. 25.

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Abbreviations
AHP Archivum Historiae Pontificiae

AHSI Archivum Historicum Societatis Iesu
AKK Archiv fr Katholisches Kirchenrecht
AG Archiv fr sterreichische Geschichte
ARG Archiv fr Reformationsgeschichte
ASI Archivio Storico Italiano
ASRSP Archivio della (Reale) Societ Romana di Storia Patria
BDHIR Bibliothek des Deutschen Historischen Instituts in Rom
CAV Collectanea Archivi Vaticani
HC Hierarchia Catholica
HJ Historisches Jahrbuch
HZ Historische Zeitschrift
MIG Mitteilungen des Instituts fr sterreichische Geschichtsforschung
MStA Mitteilungen des sterreichischen Staatsarchiv
QFIAB Quellen und Forschungen aus Italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken
RHE Revue dHistorie Ecclsiastique
RHM Rmische Historische Mitteilungen
RMC Roma Moderna e Contermporanea
RQ Rmische Quartalschrift fr Christliche Altertumskunde und Kirchen-
geschichte
SR Studi Romani
ST Studi e Testi
ZSSRG Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung fr Rechtsgeschichte (Kanonistische
Abteilung)

Register
Abbas I (Safavid) 38. Alexander VIII 29. 84. 87. 88. 98. 103. 114. 139. 159.
Acquaviva, Giovanni Girolamo, Count of Conver- 238. 242. 284.
sano 67. Allbornoz, Egidio Carillo 66.
Acquaviva, Ottavio 72. Altemps, family 93. 159.
Agostini, Stefano 288. Altieri, Camillo
Agucchia, Giovanni Battista 187. 196. 197. 201. 202. Altieri, Emilio 67. 77. 80. 284. (see also Clement X)
285. Altieri, family 30. 144. 152. 156.
Albani, Annibale 277. 278. Altieri, Giacomo 156.
Albani, family Altieri, Giovanni Battista 77. 149. 155.
Albani, Giovanni Francesco 160. 188. 286. (see also Altieri, Pa[u]luzzo, cardinal nepos see Albertoni-Al-
Clement XI) tieri, Paluzzo
Albergati, Antonio 43. 230. Altieri, Tommaso 156.
Albergati-Ludovisi, Niccol 289. 291. Altieri, Vincenzo 156.
Alberici (Albrizzi), Marco 292. Ameyden, Teodoro 93.
Alberoni, Giulio 246. Angers, bishop of see Arnauld, Henri
Albertoni, family 156. Ansaldi, Ansaldo 188.
Albertoni-Altieri, Paluzzo 156. 158. 187. 200. 284. Aquino, (Saint) Thomas of 31. 154. 229.
288. 290. 292. Archinto, Alberico 278.
Albizzi, Francesco 72. 104. 158. 235. 236. 239. 241. 267. Arcos, Duke of, see Len, Rodrigo Ponce de
292. Argenti, family 203.
Alcantara, Peter of, Saint 237. Aristoteles 31.
Aldobrandini, Cinzio 194. 195. 289. Arnauld, Antoine 235. 236. 239.
Aldobrandini, family 30. 40. 48. 94. 140. 145. 146. Arnauld, Henri 235. 237.
150. 195. Arrighi, Giovanni Battista 286.
Aldobrandini, Giovanni 146. Arrigoni, Pompeo 288. 289.
Aldobrandini, Giovanni Francesco 146. Astalli-Pamphili, Camillo 140. 150. 151. 199. 284.
Aldobrandini, Hippolito (jr) 147. 288. 250.
Aldobrandini, Ippolito 217. 283. (see also Clement VII) Attovito, Antonio 290.
Aldobrandini, Margherita 144. Austria, Alberto d (Albert of Austria) 44.
Aldobrandini, Pietro (cardinal) 37. 46. 145. 194. 195. Avila, (Saint) Teresa of 46.
288. 289. Azzolini, Decio 72. 77. 80. 154. 158. 187. 189. 199.
Aldobrandini, Pietro (general) 46. 200. 207. 212. 231. 238. 241. 285. 286.
Alet, bishop of see Pavillon, Nicolas Azzolini, Lorenzo 196. 197. 285.
Alexander III 68.
Alexander VI 29. 31. Baden, Louis William of 85.
Alexander VII 29. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 79. 80. 85. 102. Baldeschi-Colonna, Federico 156. 290.
113. 114. 119. 129. 131. 132. 133. 152. 153. 154. 155. Baldigiani, Antonio 243.
165. 187. 190. 236. 237. 240. 242. 243. 267. 268. Banchieri, Antonio 278.
271. 275. 283. Bandinelli, Volumnio 287.

330 Register
Bandini, Giovanni Battista 187. Borbon del Monte, Francesco Maria 290. 291.
Baez, Domenigo 229. Borghese, Camillo (jr) 289.
Barbarigo, Gregorio 88. 158. 187. 240. 241. 276. Borghese, Camillo (sr) 289.
Barbarossa see Frederick I Borghese, Camillo 40. 42. 44. 45. 140. 230. 283. (see
Barberini, Antonio (cardinale di SantOnofrio) 147. also Paul V)
187. 196. 233. 289. 292. Borghese, family 29. 30. 48. 94. 127. 132. 140. 143.
Barberini, Antonio (jr) 54. 56. 65. 66. 73. 76. 147. 150. 144. 145. 146. 147. 153. 155. 161. 195. 203.
187. 288. 291. 292. Borghese, Francesco 143.
Barberini, Carlo (jr), cardinal 53. 65. 83. 150. Borghese, Giovanni Battista 143. 144.
Barberini, Carlo 147. 292. Borghese, Marcantonio 144.
Barberini, family 30. 64. 67. 94. 104. 115. 127. 132. Borghese, Scipione 114. 138. 139. 140. 143. 145. 146.
140. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 152. 155. 161. 186. 190. 155. 195. 197. 284. 289.
195. 203. 208. 227. 256. 275. 278. Borgia, family 135. 227.
Barberini, Francesco 53. 54. 66. 73. 77. 80. 138. 139. Borgia, Francesco see Borgia, Francis, Saint
147. 150. 187. 196. 197. 198. 284. 287. 289. Borgia, Francis, Saint 183. 237.
Barberini, Maffeo 43. 48. 142. 217. 227. 230. (see also Borgia, Gaspare 59. 146.
Urban VIII) Borromeo, Carlo, see Borromeo, Charles, Saint
Barberini, Taddeo (jr) 150. Borromeo, Charles, Saint 21. 176. 230.
Barberini, Taddeo, prefect of Rome 55. 64. 147. 148. Borromeo, Federico (jr) 99. 187. 200. 241. 285.
149. 150. 279. Borromeo, Federico (sr) 187. 231.
Barbiani, Marcello Vestri 285. 286. Borromeo, Gilberto 72.
Baronio, Cesare 25. 230. Borromini, Francesco 132. 148. 183.
Beauvais, bishop of see Choart de Buzenval, Nicolas Bossuet, Jacques-Benigne 267.
Bellarmino, Roberto, Saint 26. 31. 98. 143. 226. 230. Bottini, family 190.
231. Bottini, Giovanni Battista 189.
Benedict XIII 29. 278. Bottini, Lorenzo Prospero 189.
Benedict XIV 29. 170. 278. 280. Bottini, Prospero 189. 292.
Benedict XV 97. Bourbon del Monte, Francesco Maria see Borbon
Benessa, Pietro 197. 198. 201. 212. 285. del Monte, Francesco Maria
Benigni, Fulvio 291. Braganza dinasty 67. 68.
Benigni, Giulio 291. Brancaccio, Francesco Maria 77. 291.
Benois, Ren 263. Brancaccio, Stefano 290.
Bentivoglio, Guido 104. 187. Braschi, Giovanni Angelo 279. (see also Pius VI)
Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo 66. 131. 132. 148. 183. 233. Braschi, Luigi 279.
Bernini, Pietro 144. Bruno, Giordano 25. 171.
Bertucci, Giovanni 288. Buckingham, Duke of see Villiers, Georges
Berulle [Brulle], Pierre de 265. Buontempi, Innocenzo 279.
Bethlen Gbor 46. Buonvisi, Francesco 82. 85.
Bthune de Maillezais, Henri de 258.
Bevilacqua, Aloysio 82. Caetani, Antonio 48.
Bevilacqua, Bonifacio 290. Caetani, family 93. 94.
Bichi, Alessandro 60. Caetano, Cristoforo 206. 207. 210.
Bichi, family 145. Caffarelli(-Borghese), Scipione see Borghese,
Bolognetti, Giorgio 266. Scipione
Bonaparte, Napoleon 277. 281. Campanella, Tommaso 227.
Boncompagni, family 30. 94. 146. Campori [Campora], Pietro 44. 145.
Boncompagni, Girolamo 292. Campori, family 145.
Boncompagni, Ignazio 279. Canisius, (Saint) Peter 20.
Boniface VIII 31. 120. 149. 244. Cappellari, Mauro 281. (see also Gregory XVI)
Boonen, Jacques 235. Capponi, Aloysio [Luigi] 187. 291. 292.

Register 331
Carafa, Carlo 45. 50. Chigi, Mario 153. 155. 157. 158.
Carafa, Fabrizio 67. Chigi, Sigismondo 153. 155.
Carafa, family 278. Choart de Buzenval, Nicolas 238.
Carafa, Pietro Luigi 290. Christina (Vasa) 75. 76. 127. 159. 238.
Carlo Pio see Di Savoya Chumacero (y Carillo), Juan de 261.
Carpegna, Gaspare 156. 187. 267. 288. 291. Ciacala, Scipione 38. (see also Sinan pasha)
Carpegna, Ulderico 291. Ciampoli, Giovanni 206. 286.
Carvalho e Mello, Sebastia Jos de, marquis of Cigoli, Ludovico 144.
Pombal 280. Clement VII 114. 137. 139. 247.
Casali, Bernardino 292. Clement VIII 23. 24. 25. 29. 36. 37. 38. 39. 44. 59. 64.
Casanate, Girolamo 243. 292. 98. 102. 127. 128. 137. 181. 186. 194. 195. 208. 229.
Casoni, Lorenzo 82. 86. 187. 239. 230. 264. 275. 283.
Castagna, family 29. Clement IX 29. 68. 76. 77. 79. 80. 131. 155. 156. 187.
Caulet, Franois (tienne) de 237. 267. 236. 237. 238. 240. 275. 284.
Cavalieri, Giacomo 288. Clement X 29. 67. 76. 77. 78. 80. 114. 124. 128. 133.
Cecchini, Domenico 104. 140. 235. 288. 156. 200. 237. 238. 251. 261. 267. 275. 284.
Celestine V, Saint 244. Clement XI 29. 160. 161. 277. 280. 286.
Celsi, Angelo 290. Clement XII 29. 278. 279.
Cenci, Baldassare 188. Clement XIII 29. 98. 189. 278.
Cenci, family 189. Clement XIV 29. 80. 279.
Cenci, Giulio 292. Cobeluzzi, Scipione (cardinale di Santa Susanna) 187.
Cennini, family 145. 207. 286.
Cennini, Francesco 66. 145. 290. Coeuvres, marquis of see dEstres, Franois Han-
Centini, Giacinto 139. nibal
Cerri, Antonio 292. Colloredo, Leandro 289.
Cerri, Urbano 240. 293. Colonna, Anna 148.
Cesarini, Alessandro 148. Colonna, family 93. 100. 145. 147. 148. 155.
Cesarini, family 93. Colonna, Federico Baldeschi (Ubaldi) see Baldeschi-
Cesi, family 93. Colonna, Federico
Cesi, Pietro Donato 187. Colonna, Girolamo 148. 187.
Ceva, Francesco Adriano 197. 198. 199. 212. 285. Confalonieri, Giovanni Battista 195.
287. Consalvi, Ercole 280.
Charles Honor, Chaulnes, Duke of Luynes and Contelori, Felice 68. 69. 286.
Chevereuse 242. Conti, Bernardo Maria dei 278.
Charles I (Stuart) 47. Conti, family 93. 100.
Charles II (Anjou) 244. Conti, Michelangelo dei 278. (see also Innocent XIII)
Charles of Nevers 55. Copernicus, Nicolaus 227.
Charles V (I) (Habsburg) 166. 203. 206. 247. 259. Cornaro, Federico 291.
Charles V (Lorraine) 84. 85. Corradi, Giacomo 187. 288.
Charles VI (III) (Habsburg) 277. Corsi, Domenico 293.
Charles VII (Valois) 166. 262. Corsini, Bartolomeo 278.
Charles, Prince of Wales see Charles I (Stuart) Corsini, family 93. 100.
Chaulnes, Duke of see Charles Honor Corsini, Lorenzo 278. (see also Clement XII)
Chigi, Agostino (I) 105. Corsini, Neri 278.
Chigi, Agostino (II) 105. Coscia, Niccol 278. 279.
Chigi, Agostino (III) 153. 155. Crcy (Crqui), Charles de 75.
Chigi, Fabio 61. 70. 73. 78. 104. 105. 199. 201. 203. Crescenzi, Alessandro 187.
207. 212. 283. 285. (see also Alexander VII) Crescenzi, Pietro Paolo 291.
Chigi, family 30. 152. 155. Cromwell, Oliver 47. 74.
Chigi, Flavio 75. 77. 152. 153. 155. 200. 284. Cueva, Juan Velasco de la, Count of Sirvela 68.

332 Register
Cybo, Alderano 99. 138. 187. 200. 238. 279. 280. 285. Falda, Giovanni Battista 133.
289. 291. Fanfanelli, Giuseppe see Frenfanelli, Giuseppe
Cybo, Camillo 104. Farnese, Alessandro 139. (see also Paul III)
Cybo, Edoardo 293. Farnese, family 30. 64. 135. 144.
Farnese, Giulia 29.
DAles, Alessandro 198. Farnese, Odoardo, cardinal 48.
DAmboise, George 246. Farnese, Odoardo, duke of Parma 64. 65. 132.
DAubeville, Louis 75. Farnese, Ranuccio (II) 69.
DAviano, Marco 84. Favoriti, Agostino 174. 187. 239. 267.
DEste, Rinaldo 73. Febei, Francesco Maria 292.
DEstres, Csar 86. Feliciani, Porfirio 195. 196. 197. 201. 202. 285.
Da Casale, Giacinto 45. 198. Feragalli, Antonio 198. 199.
De Joyeuse, Francesco 291. Feragalli, family 203.
De Luca, Giovanni Battista 86. 96. 116. 142. 158. 167. Ferdinand I (Habsburg) 203. 206. 250.
187. 241. 242. 267. 287. 288. Ferdinand II (Habsburg) 42. 44. 45. 55. 56. 57.
De Santa Teresa, Carlo Felice 187. 188. Ferdinand III (Habsburg) 57. 62. 69. 72. 212. 234. 236.
De Torres, Cosimo 290. Ferdinand V (II), the Catholic (Aragon) 259.
De Torres, Ludovico 145. Ferdinand, archduke of Graz (Habsburg) 37.
De Vecchi, Carlo 290. (see also Ferdinand II (Habsburg)
DellAscensione, Arsenio 198. Ferdinand, cardinal infant (Habsburg) 266.
Della Rovere family 55. Fiamma, Sante 188.
Della Rovere, Francesco Maria 54. Fieschi, Lorenzo 292.
DEstres, Franois Hannibal, marquis of Coeuv- Firrao, Giacomo 278.
res 53. Fleury, Andr de 246.
Deti, Giovanni Maria 291. Forbin-Janson, Tussaint du 88.
Di Savoya, Carlo Emmanuele Pio 291. Francis I (Valois) 262. 263. 264.
Di Savoya, Carlo Pio 72. 82. 83. Frederick I, Barbarossa (Hohenstaufen) 68.
Di Savoya, Maurizio 48. Frederick III (Habsburg) 55. 269. 270.
Dmitry, False 44. Frederick V (Pfalz-Simmern) 45.
Dongo, Giovanni Stefano 72. French king see Charles VII (Valois); Francis I
Dupuy, testvrek (Pierre s Jacques) 266. (Valois); Henry IV (Bourbon)
Durazzo, Giovani Stefano 212. Frenfanelli, Giuseppe 174. 287.
Frescobaldi, Girolamo 148.
Eggenberg, Johann Anton von 55. Frizoglio, Lorenzo 290.
Elci [DElci] see Pannocchieschi Frstenberg, Franz Egon von 272.
Emperor see Frederick III (Habsburg); Charles V
(I) (Habsburg); Ferdinand I (Habsburg); Rudolf Gabrielli, Giulio 156.
II (I) (Habsburg); Matthias I (II) (Habsburg); Gaeta, Antonio 241.
Ferdinand II (Habsburg); Ferdinand III Gaetani, Francesco 286.
(Habsburg); Leopold I (Habsburg) Galilei, Galileo 172. 188. 226. 227.
Este (D), family 151. Galli [Gallio], Tolomeo 195. 291.
Eugen IV 139. 244. Galli, Antonio Maria 291.
Galli, Marco 292.
Fabbroni [Fabroni], Carlo Augusto [Agostino] 188. Gand (Gent), bishop of see Triest, Antoine
287. Ganganelli, Giovanni Antonio 279. (see also
Fabretti, Raffaele 287. Clement XIV)
Facchinetti, Cesare 61. 287. 289. 291. Gasparri, Pietro 280.
Fagnani, Giovanni Francesco 142. 290. Geosio [Giori], Angelo 287.
Fagnani, Prospero 188. 235. 290. Gessi, Berlingerio 187. 212.
Falconieri, family 279. Gesualdo, Alfonso 291.

Register 333
Gesualdo, Isabella 146. Innocent XI, Blessed 29. 72. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84.
Gesualdo, Niccol 146. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 99. 111. 124. 125. 127. 129. 130.
Gherardi, family 145. 133. 138. 139. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 167. 181. 187.
Giamaricono, Pietro 291. 206. 209. 221. 238. 239. 240. 241. 242. 251. 261.
Giarda, Cristoforo 69. 267. 268. 276. 278. 280. 281. 287.
Ginetti, Marzio 61. 187. 212. 291. Innocent XII 29. 87. 88. 89. 103. 133. 158. 159. 167.
Ginnasi, Domenico 187. 188. 242. 243. 278. 279. 280. 281.
Giustiniani, Olimpia 150. Innocent XIII 29. 278.
Giustiniani, Orazio 289. Isabella I (Castile) 259.
Gonzaga family 55. Ivan IV, the Terrible (Rurik) 44.
Gonzalez, Tyrso 243. Ivan V (Romanov) 83.
Gozzadini, Giuseppe 287.
Gozzadini, Ulisse 286. James I (VI) (Stuart) 37.
Gregory XIII 22. 28. 29. 45. 55. 66. 142. 169. 170. James II (Stuart) 87.
195. 215. 255. Jansen, Cornelius 232.
Gregory XIV 24. 29. 66. 101. 139. 222. 260. Jedin, Hubert 17. 253.
Gregory XV 29. 44. 45. 47. 48. 54. 98. 129. 131. 139. John III (Sobieski) 78. 81. 82. 83. 130.
140. 145. 146. 146. 181. 187. 188. 194. 206. 215. John IV (Bragna) 68.
224. 231. 251. 275. 287. 288. John of Cross, Saint 237.
Gregory XVI 281. John Paul II, Saint 231.
Grisar, Joseph 135. Joseph Clemens of Bavaria see Wittelsbach,
Gualtieri, Carlo 72. Klemens von
Gualtieri, Gualtiero 241. 286. Joseph, father see Tremblay, Franois Leclerc du
Guarino, Bruno 290. Julius II 64. 101. 116. 247. 259.
Guidi di Bagno, Giovanni Francesco 57. 148. Julius III 29.
Guidi di Bagno, Niccol 212.
Gustav II Adolf (Vasa) 58. 75. Kara Mustafa 83.
Krolyi rpd 39.
Habsburg, dynasty 39. 40. 43. 46. 47. 57. 58. 60. 62. Klesl, Melchior 44. 246.
63. 64. 72. 75. 78. 79. 81. 82. 83. 85. 88. 89. 130. 131.
141. 184. 249. 275. 277. La Rochefoucauld, Franois de 266.
Harrach, Ernst Adalbert von 66. Lagonissa, Fabio di 288.
Henry III (Valois) 223. Lambertini Pope see Benedict XIV
Henry IV (Bourbon) 36. 39. 41. 44. 223. 263. 264. Lambertini, Prospero Lorenzo 278. (see also
Henry VIII (Tudor) 247. Benedict XIV)
Herrera, Francesco 206. 286. Lancellotti, Orazio 290.
Holstenius, Lucas 148. Lancelotti, family 145.
Lancisi, Giovanni Maria 187.
Ignatius of Loyola, Saint 46. 238. 264. Lante, family 145.
Imperiale [Imperiali], Lorenzo 72. Lanti [Lante] (della Rovere), Marcello 187.
Inchoffer, Melchior 148. Lauri, Giovanni Battista 267.
Ingherami, Bernardino 292. Lavardin, Henri de Beaumanoir de 264.
Ingoli, Francesco 188. 212. 226. 292. Lavardin, Jean-Baptinte de Beaumanoir de 86. 87.
Innocent III 271. Lavardin, Philibert Emmanuel de Beaumanoir de
Innocent IV 97. Leni, family 145.
Innocent VIII 259. Leni, Giovanni Battista 145.
Innocent IX 24. 29. Leo X 116. 137. 191. 213. 262.
Innocent X 29. 66. 67. 68. 70. 71. 72. 80. 81. 98. 105. Leo XI 29. 37. 39. 101. 137. 195. 283.
106. 107. 124. 129. 132. 150. 151. 152. 168. 194. 199. Len, Rodrigo Ponce de, Duke of Arcos 67.
209. 234. 235. 237. 242. 255. 283. Leonini, Angelo 213.

334 Register
Leopold I (Habsburg) 76. 82. 83. 84. 85. 88. 261. 272. Marini, Giovanni Battista 290.
Leopold II (Habsburg-Lorraine) 281. Marquemont, Dionys Simon de 289.
Leopold William (Habsburg) 235. Marracci, Ludovico 188.
Lepri, Amanzio 279. Marta, Giacomo Antonio 230.
Lepri, Marianna 279. Martin V 26. 121. 166.
Lercari, Niccol Maria 278. Martinitz, Georg Adam von 89.
Lerma (Duke of) see Sandoval y Rojas Masaniello [Aniello] (dAmalfi), Tommaso 67.
Liberati, Francesco 287. 288. Mascambruno (da Benvento), Giovanni Camillo 151.
Liechtenstein, Anton von 89. Massari, Dionisio 292.
Lomellino [Lomellini], Giovanni Girolamo 72. Massimo, Camillo 187.
Louis XII (Valois) 262. Mattei, Gaspare 61. 218. 272.
Louis XIII (Bourbon) 42. 60. 266. Mattei, Girolamo 290.
Louis XIV, the Sun King (Bourbon) 68. 74. 75. 76. Matthias I (II) (Habsburg) 43. 44.
77. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 237. 239. 267. Maximilian Henry of Bavaria see Wittelsbach,
268. 276. 280. Maxmimilan Heinrich von
Ludovisi, Alessandro 44. 283. (see also Gregory XV) Maximilian I (Wittelsbach) 37. 45. 57.
Ludovisi, family 48. 140. 145. 146. Maximilian II Emmanuel (Wittelsbach) 85.
Ludovisi, Ippolita 146. Maximilian III (Habsburg), archduke of Further
Ludovisi, Ludovico 59. 138. 139. 145. 146. 147. 196. Austria 42.
202. 284. 288. 292. Mazarin, Jules 57. 66. 67. 73. 74. 136. 150. 198. 246.
Ludovisi, Niccol 145. 146. 150. 151. 265. 275.
Ludovisi, Orazio 47. 145. 146. Mazarino, Giulio see Mazarin, Jules
Ludovisi Pope see Gregory XV Mazarino, Michele 67.
Lugo, Juan de 149. 154. 235. Medici (De), family 151.
Luther, Martin 270. Medici, Alessandro de 37. 39. 283. (see also Leo XI)
Medici, Carlo de 73. 291.
Macchiavelli, Francesco Maria 148. Medici, Giovanni Carlo de 73.
Maculano, Francesco Vincenzo 235. Medici Pope see Clement VIII; Leo X; Leo XI
Maderna, Carlo 131. 132. 148. Mehmed IV (Osmanli) 78.
Madruzzo, Ludovico 21. 39. Mellini (Millino), family 145.
Maffei, family 145. Mellini (Millino), Giovanni Garzia 43. 187. 289.
Maffei, Orazio 145. Merlini, Clemente 105. 288.
Magalotti, Lorenzo 148. 196. 197. 199. 202. 203. 206. Merry del Val y Zulueta, Raffaele 280.
212. 285. Michael I (Korybut Winiowiecki) 78.
Maidalchini, Francesco 86. 150. 284. Michelangelo, Buonarroti 131.
Maidalchini, Olimpia 150. 151. Millino see Mellini
Maigrot, Charles 243. Molella, Pompeo 292.
Malacrida, Martio [Marzio] 195. 196. 285. 286. Molina, Luis 229.
Malatesta, family 69. Molinos, Miguel 238. 239.
Malines, archbishop of see Boonen, Jacques; Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de 146.
Prcipiano, Humbert Guillaume de Montero, Niccol 68.
Manfroni, Antonio 292. Morandi, Orazio 227.
Maraldi, Marco Aurelio 149. 150. 207. 211. 286. 288. Morone, Giovanni 98.
Marcellus II 29. Motmann, Cornelio Arrigo [Cornelius Heinrich] 212.
Marchesi, Francesco 243. Mucanzio, Giovanni Paolo 291.
Marescotti, Galeazzo 289. 290. Muggiaschi, Camillo 188.
Margotti, Lanfranco 195. 196. 197. 199. 201. 203. 285. Muti, family 145.
Maria (Habsburg) 47. Muti, Tiberio 145.
Maria Theresa (Habsburg) 250. Nari, Gregorio 148.
Marincola, Giovanni Paolo 290. Neri, Philip, Saint 25.

Register 335
Nerli, Francesco 187. 199. 200. 285. 286. Paolucci [Pauluzzi] de Calboli, Francesco 154. 188.
Nerotti, Giovanni Giacomo 292. 212. 290.
Nevers, Duke of see Charles of Nevers Paolucci [Pauluzzi], Fabrizio 277. 285.
Nicholas V. 23. 31. Pastor, Ludwig von 278.
Nidhard, Juan Everardo 80. Psztor Lajos 256.
Nini, Giacomo Filippo 287. Paul III 29. 136. 139. 169. 213.
Nuzzi, Ferdinando 291. Paul IV 25. 29. 30.
Paul V 29. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 48. 54. 79. 98.
Odescalchi, Benedetto 72. 77. 79. 80. 98. 154. 238. 108. 113. 114. 115. 122. 124. 126. 127. 129. 131. 139.
284. (see also Innocent XI) 141. 143. 152. 167. 190. 194. 196. 201. 202. 203.
Odescalchi, family 152. 156. 206. 207. 226. 230. 231. 236. 254. 264. 275. 283.
Odescalchi, Livio 157. Pauluzzi [Paolucci] di Calbulensi, Carlo 292.
Oliva, Giovanni Paolo 187. Pavillon, Nicolas 237. 267.
Olivieri, Fabio 286. Pavoni, Pietro 287.
Omodei, Luigi 72. 80. 241. Pzmny Pter 59. 60. 121. 258.
Onesti-Braschi, Romualdo 279. Peretti(-Montalto), family 40. 94.
Orefice, Giovanni, Duke of Sanza 67. Peretti, Alessandro 145. 287.
Origo, Curzio 287. Perugino, Giovanni Battista 195. 196. 285.
Orsini, Camilla 144. Petre, Edward 87.
Orsini, family 93. 100. 144. 148. Petrucci, Pietro Matteo 158. 238. 239. 242.
Orsini Pope see Benedict XIII Philip II (Habsburg) 21. 36. 37. 260.
Orsini, Vincenzo Maria 156. 290. Philip III (Habsburg) 42. 44.
Orsini, Vincenzo Maria 278. 279. (see also Benedict XIII) Philip IV (Habsburg) 68. 235.
Ottoboni, Agostino 159. Piccolomini, Celio 287.
Ottoboni, Antonio 159. Piccolomini, Nicola 287.
Ottoboni, family 30. 103. 152. 156. 159. 276. Pignatelli, Antonio 88. 159. 276. 284. (see also In-
Ottoboni, Pietro (jr) 103. 159. 284. 288. nocent XII)
Ottoboni, Pietro 72. 77. 80. 84. 87. 158. 159. 187. 239. Pignatelli, family 145.
241. 267. 284. 287. (see also Alexander VIII) Pignatelli, Stefano 145.
Pimentel, Domenico 261.
Pacelli, Eugenio 280. (see also Pius XII) Pinelli, Domenico 291.
Paleotti, Gabriele 21. 27. Pini, Matteo 46.
Pallavicini, Camilla 155. Pithou, Pierre 263. 265.
Pallavicini, family 155. Pius II 191.
Pallavicini, Lazzaro 155. 279. Pius IV 19. 29. 69. 137. 217. 248.
Pallavicini, Sforza 152. 154. 187. 236. Pius V, Saint 20. 22. 24. 29. 30. 38. 165. 183. 207. 237.
Pallavicino, Ranuccio 290. 260. 275.
Pallotto, Giovanni Battista 57. 150. 186. 187. 212. Pius VI 101. 279. 280.
Paloni, Gaspare 286. Pius VII 101.
Pamiers, bishop of see Caulet, Franois (tienne) de Pius IX, Blessed 121.
Pamphili, Benedetto 157. Pius X, Saint 168. 231.
Pamphili, Camillo 140. 150. 199. 284. Pius XII 280.
Pamphili, Constanza 146. 150. Poggiani, Giulio 290.
Pamphili, family 30. 146. 151. 161. 189. Polish king see John III (Sobieski)
Pamphili, Giovanni Battista 66. 187. 212. 283. 288. Pombal, marquis of see Carvalho e Mello, Sebastia
289. 290. (see also Innocent X) Jos de
Panciatichi, Bandino [Bernardino] 160. 188. 289. 290. Pope Aldobrandini see Clement VIII
Pannocchieschi dElci, Scipione 77. Pope Altieri (Altieri Pope) see Clement X
Panziroli, Giovanni Giacomo 199. 201. 203. 285. Pope Barberini (Barberini Pope) see Urban VIII
Paoloni, Bernardino 288. Pope Boncompagni see Gregory XIII

336 Register
Pope Borghese (Borghese Pope) see Paul V Sagripanti, Giuseppe 160. 188. 289. 290.
Pope Chigi (Chigi Pope) see Alexander VII Sales (Saint) Francis de 21.
Pope Odescalchi (Odgescalchi Pope) see Innocent XI, Sandoval y Rojas, Francisco Gmez de, Duke of
Blessed Lerma 136.
Pope Ottoboni (Ottoboni Pope) see Alexander VIII Santacroce, Antonio 148.
Pope Pamphili (Pamphili Pope) see Innocent X Santoro, Giulio Antonio 183. 230. 289.
Pope Pignatelli see Innocent XII Sarpi, Paolo 40.
Pope see Clement VIII; Leo XI; Paul V; Gregory Sasso, Lucio 288.
XV; Urban VIII; Innocent X; Alexander VII; Sauli, Antonio Maria 292.
Clement IX; Clement X; Innocent XI, Blessed; Savelli, Fabrizio 154.
Alexander VIII; Innocent XII Savelli, family 93. 100.
Prcipiano, Humbert Guillaume de 243. Savoy, Eugene of 89. 277.
Prosperi, Carlo Antonio 188. Savoya (Di), family 151.
Scotti, Ranuccio 61.
Quadri, Tiberio 188. Segneri, Paolo 238. 243.
Sfondrati, family 30. 40.
Raggi, Lorenzo 288. Sfondrati, Paulo Camillo 139.
Rkczi, George I 69. Sforza, Federico 288.
Rangoni, Claudio 44. Shah of Persia see Abbas I. (Safavid)
Ranuzzi, Angelo 87. 268. Sigismund (Luxembourg) 248.
Ravizza, Francesco 293. Sigismund III (Vasa) 37.
Retz, Jean Franois Paul Gondi de 73. Simeoni, Gaspare 199. 206. 286.
Rezzonico, Abbondio 279. Sinan, pasha 38.
Rezzonico, Carlo (jr) 278. Sinelli, Giuseppe 280.
Rezzonico, Carlo 278. (see also Clement XIII) Sirvela, Count of see Cueva, Juan Velasco de la
Ricci, Vincenzo 188. Sixtus IV 115. 124. 259.
Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis 41. 60. 61. 136. Sixtus V 21. 23. 24. 29. 30. 36. 42. 95. 97. 112. 116. 118.
146. 229. 246. 265. 266. 275. 124. 128. 137. 145. 166. 168. 170. 176. 177. 179. 190.
Rinuccini, Giovanni Battista 291. 206. 275. 276.
Rocci, Bernardino 292. Slusius [Slusio], Johann Walter [Giovanni Gualtiero]
Rocci, Ciriaco 57. 187. 286.
Roma, Giulio 187. 289. Sozzini, Mariano 187.
Rondanini, Natale 286. Spada, Bernardino 187. 212.
Roscioli, Giovanni Maria 287. Spada, Fabrizio 104. 153. 188. 285.
Rose of Lima, Saint 237. Spada, Giovanni Battista 199. 285.
Rospigliosi, Camillo 155. Spada, Virgilio 187.
Rospigliosi, family 152. 155. 156. Spanish king see Charles V (I) (Habsburg)
Rospigliosi, Giacomo 77. 156. 200. 284. Spinola, Giorgio 278.
Rospigliosi, Giovanni Battista 155. 156. Spinola, Giovanni Battista 288.
Rospigliosi, Giulio 68. 76. 140. 153. 187. 200. 284. Spinola, Mario 188. 206. 286.
285. 286. 291. (see also Clement IX) Stazio, Achille 290.
Rospigliosi, Tommaso 156. Stella, Giovanni Battista 291. 292.
Rospigliosi, Vincenzo 76. 156. Strozzi, Pietro 206. 286.
Rossi, (Pietro) Francesco [Franciscus de Rubeis] 154. Surez, Francisco 31. 229.
188. 292. Sulejman, Grand Visier 84.
Rubini, Giovanni Battista 159. 200. 285. Szelepchny Gyrgy 268.
Rudolf II (I) (Habsburg) 37. 39. 43. 55.
Tanucci, Bernardo 280.
Sacchetti, Giulio 66. 73. 104. 149. 154. 187. 212. 290. 291. Tegrini, Tegrino 291.
Sacrati, Francesco 187. 288. Thomato, Giovanni Domenico 291.

Register 337
Tilly, Johann Tserclaes 45. 58. Vallemani, Giuseppe 292.

Tonti, family 145. Varese, (Antonio) Pompeo 267. 268.
Tonti, Michelangelo 288. Vzques, Miguel 229.
Torres see De Torres Verallo [Veralli], Fabrizio 145.
Torres, family 145. Verallo, family 145.
Torrigiani, Luigi 278. Verospi, Fabrizio 45. 187. 212. 290.
Toschi, Domenico 230. Vidman, Cristoforo 72.
Tremblay, Franois Leclerc du 265. Vidoni, Pietro 77.
Triest, Antoine 235. Villiers, Georges, Duke of Buckingham 136.
Tsar see Ivan V (Romanov) Visconti, Ercole 188.
Vitoria, Francisco de 31.
Ubaldini, Frederico 293. Vivariis, Egidio Orsini de 288.
Ubaldini, Roberto 187. 264.290. Volpi (Volpio), Volpiano 207. 286. 288.
Ugolini, Stefano 220. 286.
Urban II, Blessed 48. Wallenstein, Albrecht von 56.
Urban V 245. Ward, Mary, Saint 225.
Urban VII 24. 29. William III (de Orange) 87.
Urban VIII 26. 29. 35. 48. 53. 54. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. William V (Wittelsbach) 37.
61. 62. 63. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 72. 73. 76. 77. 79. Wittelsbach, Klemens von 86.
80. 89. 94. 95. 96. 98. 113. 115. 117. 118. 123. 124. Wittelsbach, Maxmimilan Heinrich von 86.
126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 137. 139. 140. 142. Wojtya, Karol Jzef 28. (see also John Paul II, Saint)
146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 155. 175. 176. 179. 186. 187. Wolfgang Wilhelm, Duke of Neuburg 45.
190. 194. 196. 197. 199. 200. 201. 202. 203. 206. Wolsey, Thomas 246.
207. 209. 212. 222. 225. 227. 229. 232. 233. 234. 251.
256. 261. 265. 266. 272. 275. 276. 288. Xavier, Francis, Saint 46. 234.
Valenti Gonzaga, Silvio 278. Zacchia, Laudivio 187.

Valenti, Erminio 195. 285. Zacchia, Paolo Emilio 290.
Valeriano Magno 149. Zelada, Francesco Saverio de 279.
Compiled by Gyrgy Sgi

This work leads the reader into one of the most exciting chapters of
the history of the papacy. It delineates the behaviour and dilemmas of

Rome in the fights against the Turks, in the Thirty Years War, and in
Pter Tusor
THE BAROQUE PAPACY (16001700)

the struggles with the Protestants and the numerous conflicts with the
Catholic States. In addition, the book describes in detail the first real
example of globalisation, namely the worldwide spread of missions, in
addition to providing accounts of the formation of new religious move-
THE BAROQUE PAPACY

ments, Galileos trial and the ordeals of the Institute of the Blessed Virgin
Mary. Furthermore, the chapters offer insights into the nature of papal
nepotism, how the Roman inquisition worked, and how the contempor-
ary papal court, the Roman Curia and the Papal State were constructed.
(16001700)
Pter Tusor, PhD, DSc, was born in 1967. He is currently an Associate
Professor at the Institute of History at the Pter Pzmny Catholic Uni-
versity and a Research Group Leader at the Hungarian Academy of Sci-
ences.
Pter Tusor
ISBN 978-88-7853-715-6
9 788878 537156
10,00
Sette Citt
2016

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This work leads the reader into one of the most exciting chapters of

the history of the papacy. It delineates the behaviour and dilemmas of

THE BAROQUE PAPACY (16001700)

THE BAROQUE PAPACY

THE BAROQUE PAPACY

Barokk ppasg.indb 3 2016.05.24. 9:52:59

2016 edition of Sette Citt

Translated by gnes Gtas-Palotai

Finished printing in May 2016

Barokk ppasg.indb 4 2016.05.24. 9:52:59

II. The Holy See and the European politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

III. The Society, Economy and Finances of the Papal State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Barokk ppasg.indb 5 2016.05.24. 9:52:59

The Expenditures of the Papal Budget. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

IV. The Papal Nepotism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

VI. The Roman Church Administration, Church Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

VII. Other Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275

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Barokk ppasg.indb 9 2016.05.24. 9:53:00

moderna, Roma 2011.

Barokk ppasg.indb 10 2016.05.24. 9:53:00

Barokk ppasg.indb 11 2016.05.24. 9:53:00

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Apart from this, my work is not devoid of a certain textbook-character, as it contains

Barokk ppasg.indb 15 2016.05.24. 9:53:01

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See the bibliography at the end of the volume.

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The Tridentine Papacy

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Considering the personality of Clement VIII, he absolutely met the requirements of

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The Baroque Papacy

Barokk ppasg.indb 26 2016.05.24. 9:53:03

Historical Review 96 (1980) 509539.

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Barokk ppasg.indb 29 2016.05.24. 9:53:04

National States, Churches

Reinhard, Herkunft und Karriere der Ppste, 87108.

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Bireley, The Refashioning of Catholicism, loc. cit.

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From Vervins to Westphalia

The Pope of the Long Turkish War: Clement VIII

Barokk ppasg.indb 36 2016.05.24. 9:53:05

Barokk ppasg.indb 37 2016.05.24. 9:53:05

Barokk ppasg.indb 38 2016.05.24. 9:53:06